129:
394:, the formation of ice lattices is frequently observed. In a state of saturation, the water particles will not form ice under tropospheric conditions. It is not enough for molecules of water to form an ice lattice at saturation pressures; they require a surface to condense on to or conglomerations of liquid water molecules of water to freeze. For these reasons, relative humidities over ice in the atmosphere can be found above 100%, meaning supersaturation has occurred. Supersaturation of water is actually very common in the upper troposphere, occurring between 20% and 40% of the time. This can be determined using satellite data from the
334:. By creating a supersaturated solution of a certain drug, it can be ingested in liquid form. The drug can be made driven into a supersaturated state through any normal mechanism and then prevented from precipitating out by adding precipitation inhibitors. Drugs in this state are referred to as "supersaturating drug delivery services," or "SDDS." Oral consumption of a drug in this form is simple and allows for the measurement of very precise dosages. Primarily, it provides a means for drugs with very low solubility to be made into
375:, as this results in an actual mass flow of steam through the nozzle being about 1 to 3% greater than the theoretically calculated value that would be expected if the expanding steam underwent a reversible adiabatic process through equilibrium states. In these cases supersaturation occurs due to the fact that the expansion process develops so rapidly and in such a short time, that the expanding vapor cannot reach its equilibrium state in the process, behaving as if it were
87:
106:, also known as Glauber's Salt because, unusually, the solubility of this salt in water may decrease with increasing temperature. Early studies have been summarised by Tomlinson. It was shown that the crystallization of a supersaturated solution does not simply come from its agitation, (the previous belief) but from solid matter entering and acting as a "starting" site for crystals to form, now called "seeds". Expanding upon this,
115:
container have a catalyzing effect on the solution that cause crystallization. Explaining and providing a model for this phenomenon has been a task taken on by more recent research. Désiré Gernez contributed to this research by discovering that nuclei must be of the same salt that is being crystallized in order to promote crystallization.
114:
of salt ions and the characteristics of the container having an impact on the supersaturation state. He was also able to expand upon the number of salts with which a supersaturated solution can be obtained. Later Henri Löwel came to the conclusion that both nuclei of the solution and the walls of the
175:
liquid. In some cases crystals do not form quickly and the solution remains supersaturated after cooling. This is because there is a thermodynamic barrier to the formation of a crystal in a liquid medium. Commonly this is overcome by adding a tiny crystal of the solute compound to the supersaturated
140:
to a supersaturated solution of table sugar and water. The multiple crystals on the right were grown from a sugar cube, while the left was grown from a single seed taken from the right. A red dye was added to the solution for the left crystal, but was insoluble with the solid sugar, and only traces
868:
Hsieh, Yi-Ling; Ilevbare, Grace A.; Van
Eerdenbrugh, Bernard; Box, Karl J.; Sanchez-Felix, Manuel Vincente; Taylor, Lynne S. (2012-05-12). "pH-Induced Precipitation Behavior of Weakly Basic Compounds: Determination of Extent and Duration of Supersaturation Using Potentiometric Titration and
544:
Kareiva, Aivaras; Yang, Jen-Chang; Yang, Thomas Chung-Kuang; Yang, Sung-Wei; Gross, Karlis-Agris; Garskaite, Edita (2014-04-15). "Effect of processing conditions on the crystallinity and structure of carbonated calcium hydroxyapatite (CHAp)".
176:
solution, a process known as "seeding". Another process in common use is to rub a rod on the side of a glass vessel containing the solution to release microscopic glass particles which can act as nucleation centres. In industry,
171:. When the temperature of the solution is subsequently lowered it briefly becomes supersaturated and then the compound crystallizes out until chemical equilibrium at the lower temperature is achieved. Impurities remain in the
259:
when a strike is made. This occurs because the oil in oil-bearing rock is under considerable pressure from the over-lying rock, allowing the oil to be supersaturated with respect to dissolved gases.
306:. All thermodynamic properties for the metastable-vapor region of water can be derived from this equation by means of the appropriate relations of thermodynamic properties to the Gibbs free energy.
167:
is a process used to purify chemical compounds. A mixture of the impure compound and solvent is heated until the compound has dissolved. If there is some solid impurity remaining it is removed by
360:
will naturally be found in the ocean due to simple physical chemical properties, upwards of 70% of all oxygen gas found in supersaturated regions can be attributed to photosynthetic activity.
383:
of approximately 1.3, like that of the superheated steam, instead of 1.135, which is the value that should have to be used for a quasi-static adiabatic expansion in the saturated region.
742:
Bevernage, Jan; Brouwers, Joachim; Brewster, Marcus E.; Augustijns, Patrick (2013). "Evaluation of gastrointestinal drug supersaturation and precipitation: Strategies and issues".
345:
The identification of supersaturated solutions can be used as a tool for marine ecologists to study the activity of organisms and populations. Photosynthetic organisms release
777:
Brouwers, Joachim; Brewster, Marcus E.; Augustijns, Patrick (Aug 2009). "Supersaturating drug delivery systems: the answer to solubility-limited oral bioavailability?".
632:
252:(a.k.a. the bends) when returning to the surface. This can be fatal if the released gas obstructs critical blood supplies causing ischaemia in vital tissues.
371:
at the inlet, which transitions to saturated state at the outlet. Supersaturation thus becomes an important factor to be taken into account in the design of
149:
is changed. In most cases solubility decreases with decreasing temperature; in such cases the excess of solute will rapidly separate from the solution as
222:
The solubility of a gas in a liquid increases with increasing gas pressure. When the external pressure is reduced, the excess gas comes out of solution.
78:
of the excess of solute from the solution, by dilution of the solution by adding solvent, or by increasing the solubility of the solute in the solvent.
338:. In addition, some drugs can undergo supersaturation inside the body despite being ingested in a crystalline form. This phenomenon is known as
501:
Coquerel, GĂ©rard (2014-03-10). "Crystallization of molecular systems from solution: phase diagrams, supersaturation and other basic concepts".
661:
Conkin, Johnny; Norcross, Jason R.; Wessel, James H. III; Abercromby, Andrew F. J.; Klein, Jill S.; Dervay, Joseph P.; Gernhardt, Michael L.
379:. Hence the determination of the expansion ratio, relevant to the calculation of the mass flow through the nozzle, must be done using an
458:
Linnikov, O. D. (2014). "Mechanism of precipitate formation during spontaneous crystallization from supersaturated aqueous solutions".
314:
When measuring the concentration of a solute in a supersaturated gaseous or liquid mixture it is obvious that the pressure inside the
605:
Takiyama, Hiroshi (May 2012). "Supersaturation operation for quality control of crystalline particles in solution crystallization".
187:
are a class of such compounds; The thermodynamic barrier to formation of crystals is rather high because of extensive and irregular
386:
The study of supersaturation is also relevant to atmospheric studies. Since the 1940s, the presence of supersaturation in the
276:
589:
128:
1088:
1093:
920:
Craig, H.; Hayward, T. (Jan 9, 1987). "Oxygen supersaturation in the ocean: biological versus physical contributions".
17:
640:
288:
271:
is an extreme form of production of liquid water from a supersaturated mixture of air and water vapour in the
318:
may be greater than the ambient pressure. When this is so a specialized cuvette must be used. The choice of
164:
693:
Revised
Release on the IAPWS Industrial Formulation 1997 for the Thermodynamic Properties of Water and Steam
304:
Revised
Release on the IAPWS Industrial Formulation 1997 for the Thermodynamic Properties of Water and Steam
1038:"The Global Distribution of Supersaturation in the Upper Troposphere from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder"
395:
993:
145:
A solution of a chemical compound in a liquid will become supersaturated when the temperature of the
284:
1083:
820:
Augustijns (2011). "Supersaturating drug delivery systems: Fast is not necessarily good enough".
339:
107:
249:
55:
662:
1049:
1008:
982:- Pitman, New York, Chicago. Chapter V, "The flow of steam through nozzles", pages 90 to 99
929:
716:
467:
319:
196:
39:
8:
380:
363:
Supersaturation in vapor phase is usually present in the expansion process through steam
272:
1053:
1012:
933:
720:
471:
183:
Some compounds and mixtures of compounds can form long-living supersaturated solutions.
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902:
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31:
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335:
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245:
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906:
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in water is well-known and this was why it was used in early studies of solubility.
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1036:
Gettelman, Andrew; Fetzer, Eric J.; Eldering, Annmarie; Irion, Fredrick W. (2006).
1016:
937:
878:
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510:
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683:- John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, London, Sydney. Chapter 28, pages 303-309
27:
State of a solution that contains more solute than can be dissolved at equilibrium
941:
331:
280:
256:
707:
Löffelmann, M.; Mersmann, A. (October 2002). "How to measure supersaturation?".
356:
gas can likely determined to be rich with photosynthetic activity. Though some O
241:. When the bottle or can is opened some gas is released in the form of bubbles.
330:
The characteristics of supersaturation have practical applications in terms of
226:
177:
158:
103:
882:
618:
581:
1077:
949:
890:
858:- Fitzpatrick, Nicholas; John Kuzniarski (3 August 1993) Retrieved 2009-11-15
798:
436:
372:
214:
Supersaturation may be encountered when attempting to crystallize a protein.
47:
1021:
994:"The global impact of supersaturation in a coupled chemistry-climate model"
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898:
841:
806:
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522:
428:
238:
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669:(Report). Houston, Texas: National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
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980:
Steam
Turbine Theory and Practice – A Textbook for Engineering Students
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514:
415:
Tomlinson, Charles (1868-01-01). "On
Supersaturated Saline Solutions".
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268:
168:
133:
111:
71:
51:
833:
790:
294:
The
International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam (
230:
211:
contains carbohydrates which may crystallize over a period of weeks.
154:
1037:
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gas into the water. Thus, an area of the ocean supersaturated with O
86:
741:
204:
157:
powder. In a few cases the opposite effect occurs. The example of
150:
315:
200:
192:
195:
can be recrystallised easily, its hydrolysis product, known as "
867:
364:
346:
63:
43:
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is used to separate the crystals from the supernatant liquid.
295:
208:
59:
1035:
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Human
Research Program Human Health Countermeasures Element
262:
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660:
322:
to use will depend on the characteristics of the analyte.
417:
70:
dissolved in a liquid. A supersaturated solution is in a
67:
275:. Supersaturation in the vapour phase is related to the
244:
Release of gas from supersaturated tissues can cause an
207:
that exists as a viscous, supersaturated, liquid. Clear
58:. Most commonly the term is applied to a solution of a
679:
George N. Hatsopoulos & Joseph H. Keenan (1965),
663:
390:
has been known. When water is supersaturated in the
123:
102:
Early studies of the phenomenon were conducted with
543:
706:
225:Fizzy drinks are made by subjecting the liquid to
991:
217:
1075:
302:in the metastable-vapor region of water in its
191:with the solvent, water. For example, although
919:
237:is produced naturally in the final stage of
66:, but it can also be applied to liquids and
633:"1 Introduction to protein crystallisation"
819:
118:
1061:
1020:
414:
869:Correlation to Solid State Properties".
604:
500:
457:
263:Liquid formation from a mixture of gases
127:
85:
992:Gettelman, A.; Kinnison, D. E. (2007).
572:Mullin, J. (1976). Mullin, J. W (ed.).
255:Dissolved gases can be released during
141:remain while the rest precipitated out.
74:state; it may return to equilibrium by
14:
1076:
744:International Journal of Pharmaceutics
571:
298:) provides a special equation for the
98:in water as a function of temperature.
681:Principles of General Thermodynamics
199:" or "golden syrup" is a mixture of
24:
822:Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
779:Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
25:
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1001:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
124:Solid precipitate, liquid solvent
978:William Johnston Kearton (1931),
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218:Gaseous solute, liquid solvent
13:
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756:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2012.11.026
729:10.1016/S0009-2509(02)00347-0
401:
942:10.1126/science.235.4785.199
709:Chemical Engineering Science
396:Atmospheric Infrared Sounder
42:when the concentration of a
7:
10:
1110:
1089:Atmospheric thermodynamics
607:Advanced Powder Technology
574:Industrial Crystallization
81:
50:specified by the value of
1094:Underwater diving physics
883:10.1007/s11095-012-0759-8
619:10.1016/j.apt.2012.04.009
582:10.1007/978-1-4615-7258-9
110:brought attention to the
854:"Gas Dissolving Method"
503:Chemical Society Reviews
460:Russian Chemical Reviews
1022:10.5194/acp-7-1629-2007
871:Pharmaceutical Research
637:www.xray.bioc.cam.ac.uk
340:in vivo supersaturation
279:of liquids through the
119:Occurrence and examples
429:10.1098/rstl.1868.0028
250:decompression sickness
142:
136:) is made by adding a
99:
229:, under pressure. In
131:
89:
695:, IAPWS R7-97(2012)
320:analytical technique
285:Gibbs–Thomson effect
132:Crystallized sugar (
1054:2006JCli...19.6089G
1013:2007ACP.....7.1629G
934:1987Sci...235..199C
721:2002ChEnS..57.4301L
472:2014RuCRv..83..343L
1063:10.1175/JCLI3955.1
1042:Journal of Climate
559:10.1039/c4ce00119b
515:10.1039/c3cs60359h
367:that operate with
147:saturated solution
143:
100:
32:physical chemistry
18:Supersaturated gas
928:(4785): 199–202.
877:(10): 2738–2753.
856:CA Patent 1320934
834:10.1002/jps.22750
791:10.1002/jps.21650
715:(20): 4301–4310.
591:978-1-4615-7260-2
553:(19): 3950–3959.
369:superheated steam
336:aqueous solutions
300:Gibbs free energy
165:Recrystallization
16:(Redirected from
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639:. Archived from
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509:(7): 2286–2300.
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189:hydrogen bonding
90:Solubility of Na
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281:Kelvin equation
277:surface tension
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257:oil exploration
248:to suffer from
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613:(3): 273–278.
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38:occurs with a
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645:. Retrieved
641:the original
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197:invert sugar
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138:seed crystal
101:
46:exceeds the
35:
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423:: 659–673.
392:troposphere
377:superheated
310:Measurement
173:supernatant
56:equilibrium
1078:Categories
828:(1): 7–9.
647:2015-04-21
402:References
388:atmosphere
273:atmosphere
269:cloudburst
169:filtration
134:rock candy
112:kinematics
108:Gay-Lussac
76:separation
72:metastable
52:solubility
950:0036-8075
891:0724-8741
799:1520-6017
531:205855877
445:110079029
437:0261-0523
231:champagne
155:amorphous
966:40425548
958:17778634
907:15502736
899:22580905
842:21953470
807:19373886
764:23194883
523:24457270
488:95096197
287:and the
205:fructose
151:crystals
40:solution
1050:Bibcode
1009:Bibcode
930:Bibcode
922:Science
717:Bibcode
468:Bibcode
365:nozzles
316:cuvette
201:glucose
193:sucrose
82:History
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233:the CO
153:or an
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997:(PDF)
962:S2CID
903:S2CID
527:S2CID
484:S2CID
441:S2CID
296:IAPWS
209:honey
68:gases
62:in a
60:solid
954:PMID
946:ISSN
895:PMID
887:ISSN
838:PMID
803:PMID
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760:PMID
586:ISBN
519:PMID
433:ISSN
203:and
1058:doi
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