History of tariffs in the United States

3395:, a left-leaning think tank, has claimed that free trade created a large trade deficit in the United States for decades which lead to the closure of many factories and cost the United States millions of jobs in the manufacturing sector. Trade deficits lead to significant wage losses, not only for workers in the manufacturing sector, but also for all workers throughout the economy who do not have a university degree. For example, in 2011, 100 million full-time, full-year workers without a university degree suffered an average loss of $ 1,800 (~$ 2,438 in 2023) on their annual salary. According to the Economic Policy Institute, the workers who lost their jobs in the manufacturing sector and who have to accept a reduction in their wages to find work in other sectors, are creating competition, that reduces the wages of workers already employed in these other sectors. The threat of relocation of production facilities leads workers to accept wage cuts to keep their jobs. 3192:

passage, trade volume accounted for only about 9 percent of world economic output. Had all international trade been eliminated, and had no domestic use for the previously exported goods been found, world GDP would have fallen by the same amount – 9 percent. Between 1930 and 1933, worldwide trade volume fell off by one-third to one-half. Depending on how the falloff is measured, this computes to 3 to 5 percent of world GDP, and these losses were partially made up by more expensive domestic goods. Thus, the damage done could not possibly have exceeded 1 or 2 percent of world GDP—nowhere near the 17 percent falloff seen during the Great Depression... The inescapable conclusion: contrary to public perception, Smoot–Hawley did not cause, or even significantly deepen, the Great Depression.

2167: 3357:" trading status, i.e., the same low tariffs promised to any other WTO member. NAFTA and WTO advocates promoted an optimistic vision of the future, with prosperity to be based on intellectuals skills and managerial know-how more than on routine hand labor. They promised that free trade meant lower prices for consumers. Opposition to liberalized trade came increasingly from labor unions, who argued that this system also meant lower wages and fewer jobs for American workers who could not compete against wages of less than a dollar an hour. The shrinking size and diminished political clout of these unions repeatedly left them on the losing side. 112: 2865:

most of their cotton, tobacco and wheat. In the late 1860s the wool manufacturers (based near Boston and Philadelphia) formed the first national lobby, and cut deals with wool-growing farmers in several states. Their challenge was that fastidious wool producers in Britain and Australia marketed a higher quality fleece than the Americans, and that British manufacturers had costs as low as the American mills. The result was a wool tariff that helped the farmers by a high tariff rate on imported wool—a tariff the American manufacturers had to pay—together with a high tariff on finished woolens and worsted goods.

2175: 2183: 2151: 2770: 2159: 2796:(CSA) passed its own tariff of about 15% on most items, including many items that previously were duty-free from the North. Previously tariffs between states were prohibited. The Confederates believed that they could finance their government by tariffs. The anticipated tariff revenue never appeared as the Union Navy blockaded their ports and the Union army restricted their trade with the Northern states. The Confederacy collected a mere $ 3.5 million in tariff revenue from the Civil War start to end and had to resort to inflation and confiscation instead for revenue. 2367:, the protectionist period thus corresponded to the golden age of American industry, when US economic performance outstripped that of the rest of the world. They pursued an interventionist, protectionist policy to promote and protect their industries through tariffs. This would have enabled the United States to enjoy the fastest economic growth in the world throughout the 19th century, right up to the 1920s. It was only after the Second World War that the U.S. liberalized its trade (although not as unequivocally as Britain did in the mid-nineteenth century). 3416:

replaced by higher-paying, higher-skilled manufacturing jobs in other sectors where the U.S. has a competitive advantage. While trade may have exacerbated some aspects of the deindustrialization seen in America since the 1980s, increased productivity and factory automation played a much more significant role. Moreover, some aspects of deindustrialization are illusionary, as many factories moved out of high-visibility and concentrated urban areas to rural areas, thus giving an impression of jobs being lost when there simply moved elsewhere in the U.S.

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duties or, in rare cases, prohibition of imports. He called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs. He also believed that duties on raw materials should be generally low. Hamilton argued that despite an initial "increase of price" caused by regulations that control foreign competition, once a "domestic manufacture has attained to perfection... it invariably becomes cheaper".

2143: 659: 7598: 2293:. Hamilton was the first to use the term "infant industries" and to introduce it to the forefront of economic thinking. He believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence. Increasing the domestic supply of manufactured goods, particularly war materials, was seen as an issue of national security. And he feared that Britain's policy towards the colonies would condemn the United States to be only producers of agricultural products and raw materials. 3197:

whole world, the negative effect of a decrease in exports will be compensated by the expansionary effect of a decrease in imports. A trade war therefore does not cause a recession. Furthermore, he notes that the Smoot–Hawley tariff did not cause the Great Depression. The decline in trade between 1929 and 1933 "was almost entirely a consequence of the Depression, not a cause. Trade barriers were a response to the Depression, in part a consequence of deflation."

8525: 7613: 2589:", with import custom duties averaging over 25 percent. Intense political opposition to higher tariffs came from Southern Democrats and plantation owners in South Carolina who had little manufacturing industry and imported some products with high tariffs. They would have to pay more for imports. They claimed their economic interest was being unfairly injured. They attempted to "nullify" the federal tariff and spoke of secession from the Union (see the 3054:. Taft negotiated a reciprocity agreement with Canada, that had the effect of sharply lowering tariffs. Democrats supported the plan but Midwestern Republicans bitterly opposed it. Barnstorming the country for his agreement, Taft undiplomatically pointed to the inevitable integration of the North American economy, and suggested that Canada should come to a "parting of the ways" with Britain. Canada's Conservative Party, under the leadership of 2654:, envisioning a rapid modernization based on highly productive factories, sought a high tariff. Their key argument was that startup factories, or "infant industries", would at first be less efficient than European (British) producers. American factory workers were paid higher wages than their European competitors. The arguments proved highly persuasive in industrial districts. Clay's position was adopted in the 1828 and 1832 Tariff Acts. The 8535: 2613:

one tenth from each impost in excess of that level at 2-year intervals. The Tariff of 1842 returned the tariff to the level of 1832, with duties averaging between 23% and 35%. The Walker Tariff of 1846 essentially focused on revenue and reversed the trend of substituting specific for ad valorem duties. The Tariff of 1857 reduced the tariff to a general level of 20%, the lowest rate since 1830, and expanded the free list.

35: 3177:, explains a tariff is an expansionary policy, like a devaluation as it diverts demand from foreign to home producers. He notes that exports were 7 percent of GNP in 1929, they fell by 1.5 percent of 1929 GNP in the next two years and the fall was offset by the increase in domestic demand from tariff. He concludes that contrary the popular argument, contractionary effect of the tariff was small. (Temin, P. 1989. 7334: 2306:

the tariffs lobbied to retain them. New legislation was introduced to keep tariffs at the same levels —especially protected were cotton, woolen, and iron goods. The average rate rose to 35% in 1816. The public agreed, and by 1820, the average rate in the U.S. had risen to 40%. Between 1816 and the end of World War II, the U.S. had one of the highest average import tariffs on manufactured goods in the world.

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tariffs increased from 20 percent to 60 percent before declining again to 20 percent. From 1861 to 1933, which Irwin characterizes as the "restriction period", the average tariffs increased to 50 percent and remained at that level for several decades. From 1934 onwards, which Irwin characterizes as the "reciprocity period", the average tariff declined substantially until it leveled off at 5 percent.

3684:, Canada, and Mexico. Separately, on May 10, the Trump administration set a tariff of 25% on 818 categories of goods imported from China worth $ 50 billion (~$ 59.8 billion in 2023). The only country which remained exempt from the steel and aluminum tariffs was Australia. Argentinian and Brazilian aluminium tariffs were started on December 2, 2019, in reaction to currency manipulation. 2297:

to some extent, a war against this policy, in which the commercial elite of the colonies rebelled against being forced to play a lesser role in the emerging Atlantic economy. This explains why, after independence, the Tariff Act of 1789 was the second bill of the Republic signed by President Washington allowing Congress to impose a fixed tariff of 5% on all imports, with a few exceptions.

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very important stimulus to overall economic growth. Manufacturing is also associated with well-paid service jobs such as accounting, business management, research and development and legal services. Deindustrialisation is therefore also leading to a significant loss of these service jobs. Deindustrialization thus means the disappearance of a very important driver of economic growth.

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in March 1861 could have made little effect upon any delegation which met prior to its signing. It is indicative of the Northern industrial supported and anti-agrarian position of the 1861 Republican-controlled congress. Some secessionist documents do mention a tariff issue, though not nearly as often as the preservation of the institution of slavery. However, a few

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Exports and Imports, by Groups of Customs Districts: 1860 to 1954, pp. 542–43; Value of Merchandise Exports and Imports, by Economic Classes: 1820 to 1957, pp. 544–545; Exports of Selected U. S. Merchandise: 1790 to 1957, pp. 546–547; Imports of Selected Products: 1790 to 1957, pp. 548–549; Value of General Imports, by Country of Origin: 1790 to 1957, pp. 552–553

3527:, Henry Clay said about his disdain for "free traders" that "it is not free trade that they are recommending to our acceptance. It is in effect, the British colonial system that we are invited to adopt; and, if their policy prevail, it will lead substantially to the re-colonization of these States, under the commercial dominion of Great Britain." Clay said: 2907:

Austria-Hungary combined, totaling 99,700,000 tons during WW I. The Republicans became masters of negotiating exceedingly complex arrangements so that inside each of their congressional districts there were more satisfied "winners" than disgruntled "losers". The tariff after 1880 was an ideological relic with no longer any economic rationale.

2877:. No other country had the industrial capacity, large market, high efficiency and low costs, or the complex distribution system needed to compete in most markets in the vast American market. Most imports were a few "luxury" goods. Indeed, it was the British who watched cheaper American products flooded their home islands. The 2679:

increased trade with Britain and others and brought in more revenue to the federal treasury than the higher tariff. The average tariff on the Walker Tariff was about 25%. While protectionists in Pennsylvania and neighboring states were angered, the South achieved its goal of setting low tariff rates before the Civil War.

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according to the amount the consumer consumed. By the tariff system, the whole revenue is paid by the consumers of foreign goods... the burthen of revenue falls almost entirely on the wealthy and luxurious few, while the substantial and laboring many who live at home, and upon home products, go entirely free.

2899:. Between 1867 and 1900 U.S. steel production increased more than 500 times from 22,000 tons to 11,400,000 tons and Bessemer steel rails, first made in the U.S. that would last 18 years under heavy traffic, would come to replace the old wrought iron rail that could only endure two years under light service. 2699:

million in 1840 ($ 0.6 billion in 2023 dollars), to more than $ 80 million by 1856 ($ 2.1 billion). The South had almost no complaints but the low rates angered many Northern industrialists and factory workers, especially in Pennsylvania, who demanded protection for their growing iron industry. The

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In 1896, the GOP platform pledged to "renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It puts the burden

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However, other groups such as the CATO Institute, a libertarian or right-leaning think tank, write the opposite. They have said that free trade is not a significant contributor to deindustrialization trends. Trade can lead to loss of low-skilled or superfluous manufacturing jobs, but these tend to be

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Aldrich was a New England businessman and a master of the complexities of the tariff, the Midwestern Republican insurgents were rhetoricians and lawyers who distrusted the special interests and assumed the tariff was "sheer robbery" at the expense of the ordinary consumer. Rural America believed that

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Some American manufacturers and union workers demanded the high tariff be maintained. The tariff represented a complex balance of forces. Railroads, for example, consumed vast quantities of steel. To the extent tariffs raised steel prices, they paid much more making possible the U.S. steel industry's

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From 1832 to 1860, the Democrats tried to lower the tariff. The Tariff of 1832 eliminated certain features of the Tariff of 1828 that were disliked by manufacturers and the commercial East, but increased the duty on woolens. The Compromise Tariff of 1833 gradually reduced duties above 20% by removing

2536:. Contacting the owners he promised to see if he could fix their mills—they offered him a full partnership if he succeeded. Declaring their early attempts unworkable he proceeded from January 1790 to December 1790 to build the first operational textile manufacturing facility in the United States. The 3610:

They say, if you had not the Protective Tariff things would be a little cheaper. Well, whether a thing is cheap or whether it is dear depends on what we can earn by our daily labor. Free trade cheapens the product by cheapening the producer. Protection cheapens the product by elevating the producer.

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Lincoln argued that a tariff system was less intrusive than domestic taxation: The tariff is the cheaper system, because the duties, being collected in large parcels at a few commercial points, will require comparatively few officers in their collection; while by the direct tax system, the land must

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growth, which promotes high wages and good benefits for its workers. Indeed, this sector accounts for more than two thirds of private sector research and development and employs more than twice as many scientists and engineers as the rest of the economy. The manufacturing sector therefore provides a

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administration, the US accused Europe of unfairly restricting imports of American poultry at the request of West German chicken farmers. Diplomacy failed, and in January 1964, two months after taking office, President Johnson retaliated by imposing a 25 percent tax on all imported light trucks. This

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The Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act was signed by Hoover on June 17, 1930, while the Wall Street crash took place in the fall of 1929. Most of the trade contraction occurred between January 1930 and July 1932, before most protectionist measures were introduced, except for the limited measures applied by the

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The Democrats promised an end to protection on a reciprocal country-by-country basis (which they did), hoping this would expand foreign trade (which it did not). By 1936 the tariff issue had faded from politics, and the revenue it raised was small. In World War II, both tariffs and reciprocity were

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Ottawa rejected reciprocity, reasserted the National Policy and went to London first for new financial and trade deals. The Payne Aldrich Tariff of 1909 actually changed little and had slight economic impact one way or the other, but the political impact was enormous. The insurgents felt tricked and

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The Republican high-tariff advocates appealed to farmers with the theme that high-wage factory workers would pay premium prices for foodstuffs. This was the "home market" idea, and it won over most farmers in the Northeast, but it had little relevance to the southern and western farmers who exported

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After the Civil War, high tariffs remained as the Republican Party remained in office and the Southern Democrats were restricted from office. Advocates insisted that tariffs brought prosperity to the nation as a whole and no one was really injured. As industrialization proceeded apace throughout the

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Some historians in recent decades have minimized the tariff issue as a cause of the war, noting that few people in 1860–61 said it was of central importance to them. Compromises were proposed in 1860–61 to save the Union, but they did not involve the tariff. Arguably, the effects of a tariff enacted

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Once industrialization and mass production started, the demand for higher and higher tariffs came from manufacturers and factory workers. They believed that their businesses should be protected from the lower wages and more efficient factories of Britain and the rest of Europe. Nearly every northern

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Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton proposed a far-reaching plan to use protective tariffs as a lever for rapid industrialization. In the late 18th century the industrial age was just starting and the United States had little or no textile industry—the heart of the early Industrial Revolution. The

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Britain initially did not want to industrialize the American colonies, and implemented policies to that effect (for example, banning high value-added manufacturing activities). Under British rule, America was denied the use of tariffs to protect its new industries. Thus, the American Revolution was,

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In this report, Hamilton also proposed export bans on major raw materials, tariff reductions on industrial inputs, pricing and patenting of inventions, regulation of product standards and development of financial and transportation infrastructure. The U.S. Congress adopted the tariffs but refused to

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Clay explained that "equal and reciprocal" free trade "never has existed; it never will exist." He warned against practicing "romantic trade philanthropy... which invokes us to continue to purchase the produce of foreign industry, without regard to the state or prosperity of our own." Clay that he

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border crossing or port, customs officers inspect the contents and charge a tax according to the tariff formula for that product. Usually the goods cannot continue on their way until the custom duty is paid. Custom duties are one of the easiest taxes to collect, and the cost of collection is small.

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The years 1920 to 1929 are generally misdescribed as years in which protectionism increased in Europe. In fact, from a general point of view, the crisis was preceded in Europe by trade liberalisation. The weighted average of tariffs remained tendentially the same as in the years preceding the First

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redefined the issue in 1887, with his stunning attack on the tariff as inherently corrupt, opposed to true republicanism, and inefficient to boot: "When we consider that the theory of our institutions guarantees to every citizen the full enjoyment of all the fruits of his industry and enterprise...

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lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States." and also "To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes." Tariffs between states is prohibited by the

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The United States pursued a protectionist policy from the beginning of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century. Between 1861 and 1933, they had one of the highest average tariff rates on manufactured imports in the world. However American agricultural and industrial goods were cheaper

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The protective tariff policy of the Republicans... has made the lives of the masses of our countrymen sweeter and brighter, and has entered the homes of America carrying comfort and cheer and courage. It gives a premium to human energy, and awakens the noblest aspiration in the breasts of men. Our

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observed that "whatever may be the abstract doctrine in favor of unrestricted commerce," the conditions necessary for its success—reciprocity and international peace—"has never occurred and can not be expected." Monroe said, "strong reasons... impose on us the obligation to cherish and sustain our

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When gentlemen have succeeded in their design of an immediate or gradual destruction of the American System, what is their substitute? Free trade! Free trade! The call for free trade is as unavailing as the cry of a spoiled child, in its nurse's arms, for the moon, or the stars that glitter in the

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charged with regulating and facilitating international trade, collecting customs (import duties or tariffs approved by the U.S. Congress), and enforcing U.S. regulations, including trade, customs and immigration. They man most border crossing stations and ports. When shipments of goods arrive at a

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American industry and labor prospered after World War II, but hard times set in after 1970. For the first time there was stiff competition from low-cost producers around the globe. Many rust belt industries faded or collapsed, especially the manufacture of steel, TV sets, shoes, toys, textiles and

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Between 1934 and 1945, the executive branch negotiated over 32 bilateral trade liberalization agreements with other countries. The belief that low tariffs led to a more prosperous country are now the predominant belief with some exceptions. Multilateralism is embodied in the seven tariff reduction

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and benefits and more efficient production. By 1897 the American steel rail price had dropped to $ 19.60 per ton compared to the British price at $ 21.00—not including the $ 7.84 duty charge—demonstrating that the tariff had performed its purpose of giving the industry time to become competitive.

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In 1881, British steel rails sold for $ 31 a ton, and if Americans imported them they paid a $ 28/ton tariff, giving $ 59/ton for an imported ton of rails. American mills charged $ 61/ton and made a good profit, which was then reinvested into increased capacity, higher quality steels, higher wages

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From 1790 onwards there were constant alterations in the tariff between 1792 and 1816 there were some twenty-five Tariff Acts passed, all modifying the customs duties in one way or another. But Hamilton's Report, and the ideas it embodied, do not seem to have exercised any special influence on the

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in 1789 to tax foreign imports and set up low excise taxes on whiskey and a few other products to provide the Federal Government with enough money to pay its operating expenses and to redeem at full value U.S. Federal debts and the debts the states had accumulated during the Revolutionary War. The

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In the colonial era, before 1775, nearly every colony levied its own tariffs, usually with lower rates for British products. There were taxes on ships (on a tonnage basis), import taxes on slaves, export taxes on tobacco, and import taxes on alcoholic beverages. The London government insisted on a

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In 1896, the GOP pledged platform pledged to "renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It puts

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broke out, all rates doubled to an average of 25% to account for increased government spending. The war paved the way for new industries by disrupting manufacturing imports from the UK and the rest of Europe. A major policy shift occurred in 1816, when American manufacturers who had benefited from

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According to Dartmouth economist Douglas Irwin, tariffs have served three primary purposes: "to raise revenue for the government, to restrict imports and protect domestic producers from foreign competition, and to reach reciprocity agreements that reduce trade barriers." From 1790 to 1860, average

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They say, 'Buy where you can buy the cheapest.' That is one of their maxims... Of course, that applies to labor as to everything else. Let me give you a maxim that is a thousand times better than that, and it is the protection maxim: 'Buy where you can pay the easiest.' And that spot of earth is

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Paul Krugman writes that protectionism does not lead to recessions. According to him, the decrease in imports (which can be obtained by the introduction of tariffs) has an expansionary effect, i.e. favourable to growth. Thus in a trade war, since exports and imports will decrease equally, for the

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Between 1929 and 1932, real GDP fell 17 percent worldwide, and by 26 percent in the United States, but most economic historians now believe that only a minuscule part of that huge loss of both world GDP and the United States' GDP can be ascribed to the tariff wars... At the time of Smoot–Hawley's

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High tariffs were used to promise higher sales to business, higher wages to industrial workers, and higher demand for their crops to farmers. Democrats said it was a tax on the little man. After 1900 Progressive insurgents said it promoted monopoly. It had greatest support in the Northeast, and

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The iron and steel industry, and the wool industry, were the well-organized interests groups that demanded (and usually obtained) high tariffs through support of the Republican Party. Industrial workers had much higher wages than their European counterparts, and they credited it to the tariff and

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argued that high tariffs were needed during the Civil War, but were retained after the war for the benefit of Northern industrialists, who would otherwise lose markets and profits. To keep political control of Congress, Beale argued, Northern Industrialists worked through the Republican Party and

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The lack of imported goods relatively quickly gave very strong incentives to start building several U.S. industries in the Northeast. Textiles and machinery manufacturing plants especially grew. Many new industries were set up and run profitably during the wars and about half of them failed after

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From 1871 to 1913, "the average U.S. tariff on dutiable imports never fell below 38 percent gross national product (GNP) grew 4.3 percent annually, twice the pace in free trade Britain and well above the U.S. average in the 20th century," notes Alfred Eckes Jr, chairman of the U.S. International

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Quotas were two-country diplomatic agreements that had the same protective effect as high tariffs, but did not invite retaliation from third countries. By limiting the number of Japanese automobiles that could be imported, quotas inadvertently helped Japanese companies push into larger, and more

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of 1846 by uniting the rural and agricultural factions of the entire country for lower tariffs. They sought a level of a "tariff for revenue only" that would pay the cost of government but not show favoritism to one section or economic sector at the expense of another. The Walker Tariff actually

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saw the need for more federal income and more industry. In wartime, they declared, having a home industry was a necessity to avoid shortages. Likewise owners of the small new factories that were springing up in the northeast to mass-produce boots, hats, nails and other common items wanted higher

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Clothing in the early United States was nearly all hand made by a very time-consuming and expensive process—just like it had been made for centuries before. The new textile manufacturing techniques in Britain were often over thirty times cheaper as well as being easier to use, more efficient and

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Historical Statistics of the United States (Colonial Times to 1957); Value of Exports and Imports: 1790 to 1957, pp. 537–538; Value of Merchandise Imports and Duties: 1821 to 1957, p. 539; Indexes of Quantity and Unit Value of Exports and Imports: 1879 to 1957, pp. 540–541; Value of Merchandise

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experience has taught me that manufactures are now as necessary to our independence as to our comfort: and if those who quote me as of a different opinion will keep pace with me in purchasing nothing foreign where an equivalent of domestic fabric can be obtained, without regard to difference of

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Officially, it was explained that the light trucks tax would offset the dollar amount of imports of Volkswagen vans from West Germany with the lost American sales of chickens to Europe. But audio tapes from the Johnson White House reveal that in January 1964, President Johnson was attempting to

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in 1897, boosting rates back to the 50 percent level. Democrats responded that the high rates created government sponsored "trusts" (monopolies) and led to higher consumer prices. McKinley won reelection by an even bigger landslide and started talking about a post-tariff era of reciprocal trade

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ratified in 1789, allowed only the federal government to levy uniform tariffs. Only the federal government could set tariff rates (customs), so the old system of separate state rates disappeared. The new law taxed all imports at rates from 5 to 15 percent. These rates were primarily designed to

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In 1913, following the electoral victory of the Democrats in 1912, there was a significant reduction in the average tariff on manufactured goods from 44% to 25%. However, the First World War rendered this bill ineffective, and new "emergency" tariff legislation was introduced in 1922, after the

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which is considered the first text to express modern protectionist theory, Alexander Hamilton argued that if a country wished to develop a new activity on its soil, it would have to temporarily protect it. According to him, this protection against foreign producers could take the form of import

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The U.S. steel industry became an exporter of steel rail to England selling below the British price and during WW I would become the largest supplier of steel to the allies. From 1915 to 1918, the largest American steel company, U.S. Steel, alone delivered more steel each year than Germany and

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During the war far more revenue was needed, so the rates were raised again and again, along with many other taxes such as excise taxes on luxuries and income taxes on the rich. By far most of the wartime government revenue came from bonds and loans ($ 2.6 billion), not taxes ($ 357 million) or

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The Democrats in Congress, dominated by Southern Democrats, wrote and passed the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates, so that the 1857 rates were down to about 15%, a move that boosted trade so overwhelmingly that revenues actually increased, from just over $ 20

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With tariffs providing the basic federal revenue, an embargo on trade, or an enemy blockade, would threaten havoc. This happened in connection with the American economic warfare against Britain in the 1807–15 period. In 1807 imports dropped by more than half and some products became much more

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duties as set by tariff rates up to 1860 were usually about 80–95% of all federal revenue. Having just fought a war over taxation, among other things, the U.S. Congress wanted a reliable source of income that was relatively unobtrusive and easy to collect. It also sought to protect the infant

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Many American intellectuals and politicians during the country's catching-up period felt that the free trade theory advocated by British classical economists was not suited to their country. They argued that the country should develop manufacturing industries and use government protection and

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The country has acquiesced in the wisdom of the protective-tariff principle. It is exceedingly undesirable that this system should be destroyed or that there should be violent and radical changes therein. Our past experience shows that great prosperity in this country has always come under a

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Under free trade the trader is the master and the producer the slave. Protection is but the law of nature, the law of self-preservation, of self-development, of securing the highest and best destiny of the race of man. that protection is immoral.... Why, if protection builds up and elevates

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Additionally, Lincoln argued that based on economies of scale, any temporary increase in costs resulting from a tariff would eventually decrease as the domestic manufacturer produced more. Lincoln did not see a tariff as a tax on low-income Americans because it would only burden the consumer

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Historical Statistics of the United States (Colonial Times to 1970) {Part 2 Zip file: CT1970p2-12;} Series Y 343–51 (1940–1970) Customs, Tot. Receipts, Income taxes; Payroll taxes, Excise; Y342 339 (1940 1970) Receipts; Y-352 357 (1789–1939) Government Receipts: Total (1789–1970), Customs

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expensive market segments. The Japanese producers, limited by the number of cars they could export to America, opted to increase the value of their exports to maintain revenue growth. This action threatened the American producers' historical hold on the mid- and large-size car markets.

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barriers that give it a very important advantage in international trade. In addition, industrial jobs lost by imports from China are significantly better paid than jobs created by exports to China. So even if imports were equal to exports, workers would still lose out on their wages.

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The Federal Reserve Act, with the Sixteenth Amendment of the Constitution, would create a trend of new forms of government funding. The Democrats lowered the tariff in 1913 but the economic dislocations of the First World War made it irrelevant. When the Republicans returned to power

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A free people ought not only to be armed, but disciplined; to which end a uniform and well-digested plan is requisite; and their safety and interest require that they should promote such manufactories as tend to render them independent of others for essential, particularly military,

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of 1934, which authorized the executive branch to negotiate bilateral tariff reduction agreements with other countries. The prevailing view then was that trade liberalization may help stimulate economic growth. However, no one country was willing to liberalize unilaterally.

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Democrats campaigned energetically against the high McKinley tariff of 1890, and scored sweeping gains that year; they restored Cleveland to the White House in 1892. The severe depression that started in 1893 ripped apart the Democratic party. Cleveland and the pro-business

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in 1865 about 63% of Federal income was generated by the excise taxes, which exceeded the 25.4% generated by tariffs. In 1915 during World War I, tariffs generated 30.1% of revenues. Since 1935, tariff income has continued to be a declining percentage of Federal tax income.

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All tariffs were on a long list of goods (dutiable goods) with different customs rates and some goods on a "free" list. Books and publications were nearly always on the free list. Congress spent enormous amounts of time figuring out these tariff import tax schedules.

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made low tariffs the centerpiece of Democratic Party policies in the late 1880s. His argument is that high tariffs were an unnecessary and unfair tax on consumers. The South and West generally supported low tariffs, and the industrial East high tariffs. Republican

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tariffs that would significantly protect them when the more efficient British producers returned after the war ended. A 10% discount on the customs tax was offered on items imported in American ships, so that the American merchant marine would be supported.

3139:. But that made the depression worse. This time it backfired, as Canada, Britain, Germany, France and other industrial countries retaliated with their own tariffs and special, bilateral trade deals. American imports and exports both went into a tailspin. 3170:

also held the opinion that the Smoot–Hawley tariff of 1930 did not cause the Great Depression. Douglas A. Irwin writes : "most economists, both liberal and conservative, doubt that Smoot Hawley played much of a role in the subsequent contraction."

3566:

Lincoln similarly said that, "if a duty amount to full protection be levied upon an article" that could be produced domestically, "at no distant day, in consequence of such duty," the domestic article "will be sold to our people cheaper than before."

2842:

Democrats were divided on the issue, in large part because of pro-tariff elements in the Pennsylvania party who wanted to protect the growing iron industry, as well as pockets of high tariff support in nearby industrializing states. However President

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destroys the dignity and independence of American labor... It will take away from the people of this country who work for a living—and the majority of them live by the sweat of their faces—it will take from them heart and home and hope. It will be

3229:

Currently only about 30% of all import goods are subject to tariffs in the United States, the rest are on the free list. The "average" tariffs now charged by the United States are at a historic low. The list of negotiated tariffs are listed on the

3497:

wrote in explaining why his views had evolved to favor more protectionist policies: "In so complicated a science as political economy, no one axiom can be laid down as wise and expedient for all times and circumstances, and for their contraries."

3337:

and George H. W. Bush administrations Republicans abandoned protectionist policies, and came out against quotas and in favor of the GATT/WTO policy of minimal economic barriers to global trade. Free trade with Canada came about as a result of the

2597:

let it be known he would use the U.S. Army to enforce the law, and no state supported the South Carolina call for nullification. A compromise ended the crisis included a lowering of the average tariff rate over ten years to a rate of 15% to 20%.

2235:

The UK was the first country to employ a strategy of promoting emerging industry on a large scale. However, its most fervent supporter was the United States; Paul Bairoch called the U.S., “the mother country and bastion of modern protectionism.”

2387:, each state set up its own trade rules, often imposing tariffs or restrictions on neighboring states. The new Constitution, which went into effect in 1789, banned interstate tariffs or trade restrictions, as well as state taxes on exports. 5541: 2920:

it is plain that the exaction of more than is indefensible extortion and a culpable betrayal of American fairness and justice." The election of 1888 was fought primarily over the tariff issue, and Cleveland lost. Republican Congressman

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wrote, boasting that these domestic products are "of an excellent quality." One of the first acts of Congress Washington signed was a tariff among whose stated purpose was "the encouragement and protection of manufactures." In his 1790

3398:

According to the Economic Policy Institute, trade agreements have not reduced trade deficits but rather increased them. The growing trade deficit with China comes from China's manipulation of its currency, dumping policies, subsidies,

3092:

wanted high tariffs on manufactured goods (especially woolens), while Midwesterners called for low tariffs. Aldrich outmaneuvered them by lowering the tariff on farm products, which outraged the farmers. The great battle over the high

2928:

Free foreign trade gives our money, our manufactures, and our markets to other nations to the injury of our labor, our tradespeople, and our farmers. Protection keeps money, markets, and manufactures at home for the benefit of our own

3266:

threatened the giant domestic auto industry. In the late 1970s Detroit and the auto workers union combined to fight for protection. They obtained not high tariffs, but a voluntary restriction of imports from the Japanese government.

2492:

hostilities ceased and normal import competition resumed. Industry in the U.S. was advancing up the skill set, innovation knowledge and organization curve as they adapted to the Industrial Revolution's new machines and techniques.

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and set low tariffs designed to pay for the government but not protect industry. Their opponents the Whigs wanted high protective tariffs but usually were outvoted in Congress. Tariffs soon became a major political issue as the

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declared, "Give us a protective tariff and we will have the greatest nation on earth." Lincoln warned that "the abandonment of the protective policy by the American Government... must produce want and ruin among our people."

3122:

of 1913. Working with the bullish Senator Aldrich and former presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan, he perfected a way to centralize the banking system to allow Congress to closely allocate paper money production.

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We have lost to the American manufacturer electrical machinery, locomotives, steel rails, sugar-producing and agricultural machinery, and latterly even stationary engines, the pride and backbone of the British engineering

6482: 2324:

The American Civil War (1861–1865) was partly triggered by the tariff question. Southern agricultural states opposed any form of protection, while northern industrial states wanted to maintain protection. The fledgling

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productive. Hamilton believed that a stiff tariff on imports would not only raise income but "protect" and help subsidize early efforts at setting up manufacturing facilities that could compete with British products.

2300:

Between 1792 and the war with Britain in 1812, the average tariff level remained around 12.5%, which was too low to encourage consumers to buy domestic products and thus support emerging American industries. When the

2938:

insisted on a much lower tariff. His problem was that Democratic electoral successes had brought in Democratic congressmen from industrial districts who were willing to raise rates to benefit their constituents. The

2662:. In examining these debates Moore finds that they were not precursors to Civil War. Instead they looked backward and continued the old debate whether foreign trade policy should embrace free trade or protectionism. 2333:, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig", strongly opposed free trade. Early in his political career, Lincoln was a member of the protectionist Whig Party and a supporter of Henry Clay. In 1847, he declared: 7289: 3303:, not to initiate a strike just prior the 1964 election and to support the president's civil rights platform. Reuther in turn wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen's increased shipments to the United States. 2721:

significantly raising tariff rates became possible only after the Southern Senators walked out of Congress when their states left the Union, leaving a Republican majority. It was signed by Democratic President

6291: 3786: 3755: 3034:

in 1879 after it returned to power. It had been an official policy, however, since 1876. It was based on high tariffs to protect Canada's manufacturing industry. Macdonald campaigned on the policy in the

2240:

subsidies for this purpose, as Britain had done before them. Many of the great American economists of the time, until the last quarter of the 19th century, were strong advocates of industrial protection:

2520:

tried to maintain their near monopoly on cheap and efficient textile manufacturing by prohibiting the export of textile machines, machine models or the emigration of people familiar with these machines.

2540:

was off and running in the United States. Initially the cost of their textiles was slightly higher than the cost of equivalent British goods but the tariff helped protect their early start-up industry.

6352: 5780: 5537: 3002:. The outbreak of war in 1914 made the impact of tariffs of much less importance compared to war contracts. When the Republicans returned to power they returned the rates to a high level in the 2279:

grant subsidies to manufactures. Hamilton shaped the pattern of American economic policy until the end of World War II, and his program created the conditions for rapid industrial development.

2830:

In the late 1950s historians rejected the Beale–Beard thesis by showing that Northern businessmen were evenly divided on the tariff, and were not using Reconstruction policies to support it.

2873:

Apart from wool and woolens, American industry and agriculture—and industrial workers—had become the most efficient in the world in most industries by the 1880s as they took the lead in the

7309: 7254: 5841: 173: 2216:

after it came into effect in 1789. The new government needed a way to collect taxes from all the states that were easy to enforce and had only a nominal cost to the average citizen. The

6318: 3592:

63,000,000 of people, the influence of those 63,000,000 of people elevates the rest of the world. We cannot take a step in the pathway of progress without benefiting mankind everywhere

3441:

was established by Secretary Hamilton in 1790 as an armed maritime law and custom enforcement service. Today it remains the primary maritime law enforcement force in the United States.

6408: 4795: 2658:

forced a partial abandonment of the Whig position. When the Whigs won victories in the 1840 and 1842 elections, taking control of Congress, they re-instituted higher tariffs with the

2963:

on the high tariff as a positive solution to depression. Promising protection and prosperity to every economic sector, he won a smashing victory. The Republicans rushed through the

356: 6375: 5871: 2983:. He campaigned for president in 1908 for tariff "reform", which everyone assumed meant lower rates. The House lowered rates with the Payne Bill, then sent it to the Senate where 3062:

defeated and swore vengeance against Wall Street and its minions Taft and Aldrich. The insurgency led to a fatal split down the middle in 1912 as the GOP lost its balance wheel.

7314: 6479: 3423:, a think tank promoting free trade, evidence shows that trade agreements do not have significant impacts on trade deficits, and can even close the trade gap between countries. 2407:

Responding to an urgent need for revenue and a trade imbalance with England that was fast destroying the infant American industries and draining the nation of its currency, the

2267:

and protected its industry. The country pursued a protectionist policy from the beginning of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century, after the Second World War.

3704:

imported from China. It also raised tariffs on imports of Chinese steel, aluminum, and medical equipment. The tariff increases will be phased in over a period of three years.

690: 5176:

Woodrow Wilson: "Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Banking System," June 23, 1913. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project.

7214: 3628:

believed that America's economic growth was due to the protective tariffs, which helped her industrialize. He acknowledged this in his State of the Union address from 1902:

3147:. Low rates dominated the debate for the rest of the 20th century. In 2017 Donald Trump promised to use protective tariffs as a weapon to restore greatness to the economy. 2991:

its superior morality deserved special protection, while the dastardly immorality of the trusts—and cities generally—merited financial punishment. Aldrich baited them. His

2943:

of 1894 did lower overall rates from 50 percent to 42 percent, but contained so many concessions to protectionism that Cleveland refused to sign it (it became law anyway).

6896: 2730:

took office. Pennsylvania iron mills and New England woolen mills mobilized businessmen and workers to call for high tariffs, but Republican merchants wanted low tariffs.

2356:

the burden of revenue on foreign goods; it secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman".

3111:

made tariffs much less important in terms of economic impact and political rhetoric. The Wilson administration desired a 'revamping' of the current banking system, "...

2460:

of 1794, which was suppressed by General Washington at the head of an army. The whiskey excise tax collected so little and was so despised it was abolished by President

5676:"The China toll deepens: Growth in the bilateral trade deficit between 2001 and 2017 cost 3.4 million U.S. jobs, with losses in every state and congressional district" 2532:

emigrated illegally, since he was familiar with textile manufacturing in Britain. Looking for opportunities he heard of the failing attempts at making cotton mills in

394: 5742:"Trading away the manufacturing advantage: China trade drives down U.S. wages and benefits and eliminates good jobs for U.S. workers | Economic Policy Institute" 3867: 2208:, the U.S. federal government, could not collect taxes directly but had to "request" money from each state. The power to levy taxes and tariffs, when proposed by the 8458: 8022: 7675: 7219: 5901: 5619: 5580: 3360:

Despite overall decreases in international tariffs, some tariffs have been more resistant to change. For example, due partially to tariff pressure from the European

348: 237: 5349: 4558:

Reported from the Platform Committee by Judge Jessup of Pennsylvania and adopted unanimously by the Republican National Convention held at Chicago on May 17, 1860.

8308: 6697: 418: 3931:

U.S. imports for consumption, duties collected, and ratio of duties to value, 1891–2016; U.S. imports for consumption under tariff preference programs, 1976–2016

3904: 2636:

Each party as it came into power voted to raise or lower tariffs under the constraints that the Federal Government always needed a certain level of revenues. The

2574:, formerly a spokesperson for Boston's merchants who imported goods and wanted low tariffs, switched dramatically to represent the manufacturing interests in the 6287: 3778: 3747: 8564: 7982: 7586: 7239: 7169: 3883:(1789–1970), Y 358 373 Excise tax (1863–1970) Income Tax (1916–1970); Series U 1–25 Balance of International Payments Imports (1790–1970) Accessed 5 Aug 2011 3462:

of revenue on foreign goods; it secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman."

2484:

brought a similar set of problems as U.S. trade was again restricted by British naval blockades. The fiscal crisis was made much worse by the abolition of the

138: 5402: 7774: 7229: 4525: 6344: 5768: 5716: 3505:, Jefferson's position began to resemble that of Washington, some level of protection was necessary to secure the nation's political independence. He said: 2352:'s argument was no longer to protect “infant industries”, but to maintain workers' wages, support agricultural protection and the principle of reciprocity. 8002: 7855: 7304: 6006: 4477:

John A. Moore, "The Grossest and Most Unjust Species of Favoritism: Competing Views of Republican Political Economy: The Tariff Debates of 1841 and 1842",

3842: 2979:(1901–1909) saw the tariff issue was ripping his party apart, so he postponed any consideration of it. The delicate balance flew apart on under Republican 2129:

began after 1913. For well over a century the federal government was largely financed by tariffs averaging about 20% on foreign imports. At the end of the

6635: 5745: 3222:(GATT) members came together to negotiate mutually agreeable trade liberalization packages and reciprocal tariff rates. In the Uruguay round in 1994, the 5811: 3532:

firmament of heaven. It never has existed; it never will exist. Trade implies, at least two parties. To be free, it should be fair, equal and reciprocal.

3209:

of 1930, were set by Congress after many months of testimony and negotiations. In 1934, the U.S. Congress, in a rare delegation of authority, passed the

158: 6090: 4065: 3250:(GATT) established in 1947, to minimize tariffs and other restrictions, and to liberalize trade among all capitalist countries. In 1995 GATT became the 2511:

Hamilton believed that all Revolutionary War debt should be paid in full to establish and keep U.S. financial credibility. In addition to income in his

8346: 8265: 7294: 6150: 6120: 3575:

be literally covered with assessors and collectors, going forth like swarms of Egyptian locusts, devouring every blade of grass and other green thing.

683: 4190: 8569: 7878: 2644:, a strong Southern Democrat, oversaw the cutting of the tariff rates roughly in half and eliminating nearly all federal excise taxes in about 1835. 3107:

cut rates, but the coming of World War I in 1914 radically revised trade patterns. Reduced trade and, especially, the new revenues generated by the

8195: 8012: 7154: 7144: 5459: 730:

than rival products and the tariff had an impact primarily on wool products. After 1942, the U.S. began to promote worldwide free trade. After the

17: 3952: 3919:

Whitehouse Historical Tables 1940–2016; Table 1.1 Tot. Receipts (1901–2010); Table 2-1, 2–4 Excise Tax (1934–2010); Table 2-5 Customs (1940–2010)

3615:

own experience shows that it is the best for our citizenship and our civilization and that it opens up a higher and better destiny for our people.

8453: 8255: 7189: 5833: 2783: 2757:

economists place more importance on the tariff issue. The arguments that tariffs were a major cause of the Civil War have become a staple of the

2700: 2630: 2626: 4018: 2504:

generate revenue to pay the annual expenses of the federal government and the national debt and the debts the states had accumulated during the

8579: 8397: 7835: 7747: 7624: 7274: 7224: 6779: 6436: 6314: 3680:

of 30 to 50 percent. He soon imposed tariffs on steel (25%) and aluminum (10%) from most countries. On June 1, 2018, this was extended on the

2733:

The high tariff advocates lost in 1857, but stepped up their campaign by blaming the economic recession of 1857 on the lower rates. Economist

7538: 6404: 5964: 4792: 3934: 3077: 676: 340: 2717:

After the Second Party System ended in 1854 the Democrats lost control and the new Republican Party had its opportunity to raise rates. The

8468: 8250: 7964: 7259: 7124: 6061: 5281:

Jean-Christophe Boucher, and Cameron G. Thies. "'I Am a Tariff Man': The Power of Populist Foreign Policy Rhetoric under President Trump."

4551: 4503:

Scott C. James and David E. Lake, "The second face of hegemony: Britain's repeal of the Corn Laws and the American Walker Tariff of 1846",

3235: 3031: 263: 258: 8507: 8361: 8303: 8273: 7960: 7702: 7099: 641: 581: 128: 5863: 3537:

was "utterly and irreconcilably opposed" to trade which would "throw wide open our ports to foreign productions" without reciprocation.

3058:, now had an issue to regain power from the low-tariff Liberals. After a surge of pro-imperial anti-Americanism, the Conservatives won. 8278: 8215: 7647: 7579: 2321:" which consisted of protecting industries and developing infrastructure in explicit opposition to the "British system" of free trade. 335: 148: 5289: 2703:

replaced the Whigs in 1854 and also favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth; it was part of the 1860 Republican platform.

111: 8497: 8225: 7798: 7727: 7564: 7199: 7194: 7184: 7134: 3346:(NAFTA). It was based on Reagan's plan to enlarge the scope of the market for American firms to include Canada and Mexico. President 5659: 3084:

The tariff issue was pulling the GOP apart. Roosevelt tried to postpone the issue, but Taft had to meet it head on in 1909 with the

8415: 8180: 8162: 7793: 7783: 7687: 7159: 5931: 5180: 3432: 3019: 2960: 731: 253: 2819:

policies that kept low-tariff Southern whites out of power. The Beale thesis was widely disseminated by the influential survey of

8574: 8320: 8235: 8105: 8085: 7997: 7916: 7911: 7823: 7813: 7722: 7692: 7616: 7344: 2480:

to punish British and French governments for their actions; unfortunately their main effect was to reduce imports even more. The

2428: 317: 217: 133: 7992: 7717: 7662: 7508: 7369: 7249: 6264: 3420: 3247: 3219: 3156:

World War: 24.6% in 1913, as against 24.9% in 1927. In 1928 and 1929, tariffs were lowered in almost all developed countries.

2805: 2209: 186: 6659: 722:. They also aimed to reduce the trade deficit and the pressure of foreign competition. Tariffs were one of the pillars of the 8528: 8480: 8240: 8172: 8077: 8073: 8048: 7948: 7933: 7803: 7737: 7632: 7572: 7533: 7354: 7319: 6887: 4812:

Patriotism, Protection, and Prosperity: James Moore Swank, the American Iron and Steel Association, and the Tariff, 1873–1913

3136: 711: 610: 227: 143: 121: 95: 6761: 6731: 6537: 6506: 6039: 8245: 8230: 8185: 8017: 7893: 7707: 7299: 6531:

The Tariff Controversy in the United States 1789–1833: With a Summary of the Period Before the Adoption of the Constitution

3902: 3865: 3438: 3339: 2792:

The Morrill Tariff took effect a few weeks before the war began on April 12, 1861, and was not collected in the South. The

2225: 2191: 413: 279: 5893: 5197:

Broz, J.L. (1999). "Origins of the Federal Reserve System: International Incentives and the Domestic Free-rider Problem".

8283: 7977: 7972: 7808: 7543: 5336: 3343: 153: 3368:

have seen little decrease over the past few decades, even in the face of recent pressure from the WTO during the latest

2424:

industries that had developed during the war but which were now threatened by cheaper imports, especially from England.

8405: 8220: 8115: 7928: 7901: 7670: 7234: 6944: 6725: 5613: 5574: 5412: 5385: 5319: 4975:

Tariff reform, the paramount issue: Speeches and writings on the questions involved in the presidential contest of 1892

4930: 4835: 4749: 4699: 3987: 3730: 3445: 3282:

to tariffs placed by Germany (then West Germany) on importation of US chicken. Beginning in 1962, during the President

3115:

so that the banks may be the instruments, not the masters, of business and of individual enterprise and initiative.".

2199: 2195: 441: 245: 207: 3164:, it was therefore the collapse of international liquidity that caused the contraction of trade, not customs tariffs. 8475: 8425: 8330: 8325: 8298: 8190: 8058: 7139: 7044: 4238:

Smuggling in the American colonies at the outbreak of the Revolution: with special reference to the West Indies trade

3886: 3350:, with strong Republican support in 1993, pushed NAFTA through Congress over the vehement objection of labor unions. 707: 637: 620: 615: 476: 78: 60: 8443: 8293: 8095: 8063: 7943: 7840: 7767: 7682: 7379: 7364: 7074: 3254:(WTO); with the collapse of Communism its open markets/low tariff ideology became dominant worldwide in the 1990s. 2380:

whereby only British ships could trade in the colonies. In defiance, some American merchants engaged in smuggling.

2326: 594: 571: 202: 5161: 5084: 5048: 4772: 4722: 4517: 3046:

Efforts to restore free trade with Canada collapsed when Canada rejected a proposed reciprocity treaty in fear of

2629:

wanted to protect their mostly northern industries and constituents by voting for higher tariffs and the Southern

8448: 8315: 7938: 7818: 7778: 7642: 7284: 7039: 5708: 5137: 4259: 4219: 3669: 3647: 3449: 3380: 2998:

By 1913 with the new income tax generating revenue, the Democrats in Congress were able to reduce rates with the

2318: 2264: 747: 723: 511: 471: 423: 304: 284: 163: 52: 6003: 5239: 3814: 2745:. In February 1861, increases were enacted after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress on the eve of the 8410: 8210: 7244: 6632: 6033: 5741: 5653: 4163: 3051: 3036: 561: 501: 309: 294: 212: 45: 5803: 8420: 8200: 8038: 7921: 7883: 7752: 7742: 7329: 7324: 7264: 7179: 7164: 7079: 7009: 6552:

Goodman, Matthew P and Ratner, Ely "A Better Way to Challenge China on Trade" Foreign Affairs, March 22, 2018

5709:"Using standard models to benchmark the costs of globalization for American workers without a college degree" 4057: 2793: 2758: 516: 481: 325: 299: 232: 6142: 6112: 6082: 2995:

of 1909 lowered the protection on Midwestern farm products, while raising rates favorable to his Northeast.

2578:. Rates were especially high for bolts of cloth and for bar iron, of which Britain was a low-cost producer. 2404:

U.S. Constitution, and all domestically made products can be imported or shipped to another state tax-free.

2252:

and his son Henry, who was one of Lincoln's economic advisers. The intellectual leader of this movement was

2166: 8538: 8502: 8288: 8100: 7987: 7830: 7602: 7528: 7523: 7478: 7468: 6934: 6929: 4182: 3094: 3085: 2992: 2940: 2517: 2505: 2408: 526: 461: 451: 330: 289: 103: 2383:

During the Revolution, the British blockade from 1775 to 1783 largely ended foreign trade. In the 1783–89

2174: 7762: 7732: 7712: 7637: 7498: 7493: 7209: 7149: 4019:"Infant Industry Promotion in Historical Perspective – A Rope to Hang Oneself or a Ladder to Climb With?" 3206: 3132: 3071: 3007: 3003: 2687:

The Walker Tariff remained in place until 1857, when a nonpartisan coalition lowered them again with the

576: 384: 222: 2955:

A editorial cartoon of President Teddy Roosevelt, watching the GOP team pull apart on tariff issue, 1901

2427:

Tariffs and excise taxes were authorized by the United States Constitution and recommended by the first

8007: 7788: 7757: 7094: 7019: 5455: 3950: 3661: 3361: 3231: 2651: 2622: 2477: 2396: 2314: 2302: 2213: 531: 408: 7594: 2508:

and to also promote manufactures and independence from foreign nations, especially for defense needs.

8157: 7906: 7845: 7697: 7204: 7114: 6880: 6620:

Irwin, Douglas A. "Antebellum Tariff Politics: Regional Coalitions and Shifting Economic Interests",

4029: 3392: 2637: 2456:. The tax on whiskey was highly controversial and set off massive protests by Western Farmers in the 2229: 2205: 551: 466: 6627:

Lake, David A. "International economic structures and American foreign economic policy, 1887–1934."

6555:

Hawke, Gary R. "The United States tariff and industrial protection in the late nineteenth century."

4546: 2852:

was the outstanding spokesman for high tariffs, promising it would bring prosperity for all groups.

8543: 8205: 7873: 7548: 7488: 6859: 5483: 3251: 3223: 3128: 2972: 2533: 2290: 2228:

was established to primarily enforce and collect the import tariffs. This service later became the

719: 521: 168: 5956: 5063:

David W. Detzer, "Businessmen, Reformers, and Tariff Revision: The Payne–Aldrich Tariff of 1909",

5027:

David W. Detzer, "Businessmen, Reformers, and Tariff Revision: The Payne–Aldrich Tariff of 1909",

3932: 3470:"I use no porter or cheese in my family, but such as is made in America," the inaugural President 3022:

increased trade between 1855 and its ending in 1866. When it ended, Canada turned to tariffs. The

8387: 8356: 8152: 8127: 8043: 6954: 4367:

Industrializing Antebellum America: The Rise of Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in the Early Republic

3040: 2984: 602: 536: 491: 56: 6065: 3407:

According to the Economic Policy Institute, the manufacturing sector is a sector with very high

2182: 8435: 8147: 7417: 7174: 7119: 7104: 6853: 3369: 2586: 2512: 2485: 2271: 506: 496: 5603: 5564: 5375: 4973: 4920: 4825: 4739: 4689: 3920: 7503: 6904: 6865: 6242:

Speeches and Addresses of William McKinley: From His Election to Congress to the Present Time

6205:

Speeches and Addresses of William McKinley: From His Election to Congress to the Present Time

3210: 2874: 2537: 2050:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 714:(industrialization of a nation by replacing imports with domestic production) by acting as a 546: 374: 6691: 3830: 8090: 6873: 5286: 4559: 3520: 3326: 3184: 3097:

in 1910 ripped the Republicans apart and set up the realignment in favor of the Democrats.

3047: 2769: 2655: 2590: 2384: 663: 566: 556: 2158: 8: 7513: 7483: 7279: 7129: 7109: 7089: 7084: 7069: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7034: 7029: 7024: 7014: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6949: 6939: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6189: 5657: 5517: 5500: 5344: 3701: 3354: 3317: 3296: 3119: 2980: 2896: 2734: 2617: 2607: 2499:

imposed the first national source of revenue for the newly formed United States. The new

2473: 2399:

gave the federal government authority to tax, stating that Congress has the power to "...

2224:

imposing a tariff of about 5% on nearly all imports, with a few exceptions. In 1790 the

2125:

Tariffs were the greatest (approaching 95% at times) source of federal revenue until the

6467:

Bils, Mark. "Tariff protection and production in the early US cotton textile industry."

6437:"Biden hikes tariffs on Chinese EVs, solar cells, steel, aluminum — and snipes at Trump" 6240: 6203: 5923: 5834:"Manufacturing is Relatively More Important to the Rural Economy than the Urban Economy" 5177: 4236: 3901:

Bicentennial Edition Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970

2150: 2111:

U.S. imports for consumption, duties collected, and ratio of duties to value, 1891–2016;

7339: 7269: 7064: 6806: 6670:

The Evolution of the Trade Regime: Politics, Law, and Economics of the GATT and the WTO

6609: 6580: 5642:

The Evolution of the Trade Regime: Politics, Law, and Economics of the GATT and the WTO

5522:

The Evolution of the Trade Regime: Politics, Law, and Economics of the GATT and the WTO

5505:

The Evolution of the Trade Regime: Politics, Law, and Economics of the GATT and the WTO

5214: 4827:'Agrarians' and 'Aristocrats': Party Political Ideology in the United States, 1837–1846 3625: 3476: 3108: 2976: 2968:

agreements. Reciprocity went nowhere; McKinley's vision was a half century too early.

2951: 2816: 2746: 2712: 2496: 2432: 2338: 2282: 2253: 2130: 2126: 2105:

Bicentennial Edition Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970

541: 486: 456: 446: 389: 4518:"Government Tax and Revenue Chart: United States 1840–1861 – Federal State Local Data" 3103:

made a drastic lowering of tariff rates a major priority for his presidency. The 1913

2570:

Congressman was eager to logroll a higher tariff rate for his local industry. Senator

8053: 7518: 6721: 6223: 6173: 6029: 5609: 5570: 5408: 5381: 5315: 5308: 5218: 4926: 4831: 4764:

Stanley Coben, "Northeastern Business and Radical Reconstruction: A Re-Examination."

4745: 4695: 4159: 4152: 3983: 3976: 3834: 3726: 3471: 3288: 3279: 3089: 3027: 2935: 2500: 2457: 2412: 2221: 625: 6256: 2856:

Northeast, some Democrats, especially Pennsylvanians, became high tariff advocates.

710:. Their purpose was to generate revenue for the federal government and to allow for 8377: 8351: 8141: 7868: 7863: 6798: 6668:

Narton, John H. Judith L. Goldstein, Timothy E. Josling, and Richard H. Steinberg,

6656: 6601: 6572: 5206: 5126: 3826: 3584: 3494: 3104: 2999: 2921: 2916: 2892: 2849: 2844: 2820: 2742: 2633:, which had very little industry but imported many goods voted for lower tariffs. 2461: 379: 6840:

Most Favored Nation: The Republican Revisionists and U.S. Tariff Policy, 1897–1912

4253:

Smugglers and Patriots: Boston Merchants and the Advent of the American Revolution

8110: 7463: 6783: 6776: 6765: 6758: 6715: 6663: 6639: 6541: 6534: 6510: 6503: 6486: 6023: 6010: 5769:"Manufactured Crisis: "Deindustrialization," Free Markets, and National Security" 5663: 5487: 5293: 5243: 5184: 5165: 5141: 5088: 5052: 4799: 4776: 4726: 4563: 4555: 4263: 4241:. Department of Political Science of Williams College. pp. full text online. 4223: 3956: 3938: 3908: 3890: 3871: 3677: 3657: 3559: 3283: 3167: 3081:

greatest opposition in the South and West. The Midwest was the battle ground.

3023: 2811: 2727: 2562: 2449: 2349: 2330: 271: 6563:

Solomon, Miriam (1997). "Reviewed work: Cognition in the Wild, Edwin Hutchins".

8131: 7458: 7447: 7442: 7432: 7427: 7422: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7387: 6860:

Campaign Songs as Propaganda: Free Trade vs. Protectionism – In Whose Interest?

6768:, the standard scholarly history; it collects articles he wrote in the journals 6546: 5986:

Jefferson, Thomas (January 9, 1816). "Letter to Benjamin Austin, Jan 9, 1816".

5924:"George Washington: First Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union" 5776: 3681: 3376: 3365: 3300: 3161: 3100: 2754: 2738: 2723: 2718: 2688: 2659: 2641: 2594: 2582: 2575: 2571: 2416: 2286: 2245: 2241: 2217: 726:

that allowed the rapid development and industrialization of the United States.

194: 6025:

The Papers of Henry Clay: The Whig Leader, January 1, 1837 – December 31, 1843

3949:

U.S. Trade in Goods and Services – Balance of Payments (BOP) Basis, 1960–2010

8558: 7553: 7437: 6188:

William McKinley speech, Oct. 4, 1892 in Boston, MA William McKinley Papers (

6004:

https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/AmericanSystem.pdf

3838: 3643: 3334: 3312: 3076:

Starting in the Civil War, protection was the ideological cement holding the

3055: 2675: 2671: 2529: 2364: 2348:

After the United States caught up with European industries in the 1890s, the

2335:"Give us a protective tariff, and we shall have the greatest nation on earth" 2260: 715: 6592:

Hofstadter, Richard (1938). "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War".

5540:. The New York Times, Keith Bradsher, November 30, 1997. November 30, 1997. 5210: 3665: 3546: 3408: 3347: 3218:

rounds that occurred between 1948 and 1994. In each of these "rounds", all

2691:

to 18%. This was in response to the British repeal of their protectionist "

2377: 2249: 2117:

U.S. Trade in Goods and Services-Balance of Payments (BOP) Basis, 1960–2010

6405:"Trump reinstates tariffs on steel and aluminum from Brazil and Argentina" 4352:

Douglas A. Irwin, "The Aftermath of Hamilton's 'Report on Manufactures'",

4339:

Douglas A. Irwin, "The Aftermath of Hamilton's 'Report on Manufactures'",

4326:

Douglas A. Irwin, "The Aftermath of Hamilton's 'Report on Manufactures'",

4183:"Republican Party Platform of 1896 | The American Presidency Project" 3884: 3353:

In 2000 Clinton worked with Republicans to give China entry into WTO and "

8491: 8463: 8122: 7473: 6549:. "Trump's America: The Truth about Our Nation's Great Comeback" (2018) 6376:"Trump sets tariffs on $ 50 billion in Chinese goods; Beijing strikes..." 6225:

Life and distinguished services of William McKinley: Our martyr President

6175:

Life and distinguished services of William McKinley: our martyr President

3673: 3502: 3275: 3174: 2964: 2554: 2488:, which was the national bank. It was reestablished right after the war. 2481: 2074:

Other taxes collected are: Income Tax, Corporate Income Tax, Inheritance,

5153:

Stanley D. Solvick, "William Howard Taft and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff."

5076:

Stanley D. Solvick, "William Howard Taft and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff,"

5040:

Stanley D. Solvick, "William Howard Taft and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff,"

3779:"Biden Struggles to Push Trade Deals with Allies as Election Approaches" 3748:"Biden Struggles to Push Trade Deals with Allies as Election Approaches" 3723:

The Brief American Pageant: A History of the Republic, Volume I: To 1877

3479:, Washington justified his tariff policy for national security reasons: 2256:, the first Secretary of the Treasury of the United States (1789–1795). 2142: 2114:

U.S. imports for consumption under tariff preference programs, 1976–2016

7652: 6810: 6613: 6435:

Boak, Josh; Hussein, Fatima; Wiseman, Paul; Tang, Didi (May 14, 2024).

5158: 5081: 5045: 4769: 4719: 4256: 4216: 4107:

Kicking Away the Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective

3697: 3144: 2647: 2558: 2310: 6584: 5957:"Founders Online: Thomas Jefferson to Benjamin Austin, 9 January 1816" 5134: 3725:(9th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. p. 143. 2072:

Average Tariff Rate % = Customs Revenue/ cost of Imports (goods).

8382: 7349: 5236: 4451:

Robert V. Remini, "Martin Van Buren and the Tariff of Abominations."

4425:

Robert V. Remini, "Martin Van Buren and the Tariff of Abominations."

2692: 6802: 6605: 6345:"Trump has officially put more tariffs on U.S. allies than on China" 4624: 4619:

Richard Hofstadter, "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War",

4595: 4590:

Richard Hofstadter, "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War",

4052: 4050: 3437:

Historically, high tariffs have led to high rates of smuggling. The

63:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 8485: 6713: 6576: 6288:"Trump Slaps Tariffs On Imported Solar Panels and Washing Machines" 6077: 6075: 4637:

Old Gentlemen's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861

3524: 2102:

Historical Statistics of the United States (Colonial Times to 1970)

2099:

Historical Statistics of the United States (Colonial Times to 1957)

4687: 2061:

Federal expenditures often exceed Revenue by temporary borrowings.

6441: 5605:

Encyclopedia of U.S. Campaigns, Elections, and Electoral Behavior

4650:

Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War

4119: 4047: 3602:

He also categorically rejected the "cheaper is better" argument:

2806:

Reconstruction era § Revisionists and Beardians, 1930s–1940s

2445: 2437: 2420: 2204:

After the United States achieved independence in 1783, under the

2077: 2068: 2064: 756: 6257:"Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt – Speeches of Theodore Roosevelt" 6072: 4787:

Thomas J. Pressly, "Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (review)"

3587:

stated the United States' stance under the Republican Party as:

8137: 4852:

The Tariff Question in the Gilded Age: The Great Debate of 1888

3693: 3448:(CBP) is a federal law enforcement agency of the United States 3263: 3259: 2419:, which authorized the collection of duties on imported goods. 2089: 703: 6895: 6524:

Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776

6517:

The NAFTA Puzzle: Political Parties and Trade in North America

4154:

Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy Since 1776

3456: 3226:(WTO) was established to help establish uniform tariff rates. 2549:

legislation of this period; the motives were always financial.

2082:

Income Taxes began in 1913 with the passage of 16th Amendment.

751: 5377:

Peddling Protectionism: Smoot–Hawley and the Great Depression

4122:

The Age of Enterprise: A Social History of Industrial America

3400: 3321:

US trade with China, 1989 to 2006. China gained entry to the

2453: 2094:

and are collected for and "dedicated" to a particular Trust.

2063:

Initially the U.S. Federal Government was financed mainly by

5703: 5701: 2737:

of Philadelphia was the most outspoken advocate, along with

2436:

Congress set low excise taxes on only a few goods, such as,

6826:

The Tariff, Politics, and American Foreign Policy 1874–1901

6493:

Contraband: Smuggling and the Birth of the American Century

5538:"Light Trucks Increase Profits But Foul Air More than Cars" 4894:

The Tariff, Politics, and American Foreign Policy 1874–1901

4058:"Kicking Away the Ladder: The "Real" History of Free Trade" 6315:"Trump Formally Orders Tariffs on Steel, Aluminum Imports" 5804:"Do Not Blame Trade for the Decline in Manufacturing Jobs" 4990:

From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896

2773:

The average international levels of tariffs, 1875 and 1913

2178:

The average tariff rates for selected countries, 1913–2007

754: 5951: 5949: 5698: 5337:"Lettre aux français : contre les tabous indiscutés" 3322: 2441: 6646:

Prelude to Trade Wars: American Tariff Policy, 1890–1922

6172:

Halstead, Murat; Munson, Augustus J. (January 1, 1901).

5481: 2891:

massive investment to expand capacity and switch to the

6693:

American tariff controversies in the nineteenth century

6062:"Sixth Annual Message (December 3, 1822)—Miller Center" 4384:

American tariff controversies in the nineteenth century

4234: 3721:

Kennedy, David M.; Cohen, Lizabeth; Piehl, Mel (2017).

6831:

Turney, Elaine C. Prange, and Cynthia Clark Northrup.

6434: 5946: 4888: 4886: 4177: 4175: 5178:

http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65369

4918: 4086: 3700:

imported from China and more than tripled tariffs on

8003:

Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States

5270:

Clashing over commerce: A history of US trade policy

3160:

United States in the summer of 1930. In the view of

2084:

Payroll taxes are Social Security and Medicare taxes

767:(All dollar amounts are in millions of U.S. dollars) 6821:(1953), excerpts from primary and secondary sources 6714:Studenski, Paul & Herman Edward Krooss (2003). 4883: 4172: 3150: 2390: 2059:

Income taxes include Individual and Corporate taxes

8347:U.S. International Development Finance Corporation 6833:Tariffs and Trade in U.S. History: An Encyclopedia 6476:Tariff Wars and the Politics of Jacksonian America 5307: 4151: 3975: 3143:insignificant compared to trade channeled through 2057:All dollar amounts are in millions of U.S. dollars 6217: 6215: 5864:"Free Trade Agreements and Trade Deficits | PIIE" 5601: 4925:. Ludwig von Mises Institute. pp. 192, 293. 4714:Howard K. Beale "The Tariff and Reconstruction," 4013: 4011: 4009: 4007: 4005: 4003: 4001: 3999: 3720: 2601: 2553:Higher tariffs were adopted during and after the 2186:The average tariff rates on manufactured products 8556: 8196:Office of the United States Trade Representative 6789:Taussig, F. W. (1888). "The Tariff, 1830–1860". 6748:William L. Wilson and Tariff Reform, a Biography 6689: 6285: 5520:, Timothy E. Josling, and Richard H. Steinberg, 5503:, Timothy E. Josling, and Richard H. Steinberg, 5310:Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes 5003:William L. Wilson and Tariff Reform, a Biography 3978:Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes 2337:. He implemented a 44-percent tariff during the 5442:A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World 3129:in 1921 they again imposed a protective tariff. 2784:Economic history of the United States Civil War 2472:expensive or unobtainable. Congress passed the 2309:In the 19th century, statesmen such as Senator 2212:, was granted to the federal government by the 6710:detailed political narrative; full text online 6306: 6221: 6212: 6171: 6143:"Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 1" 6113:"Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 1" 6083:"Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 1" 5999: 5997: 5334: 3996: 3692:In May 2024, the Biden administration doubled 3026:was a Canadian economic program introduced by 3010:of 1930 at the start of the Great Depression. 2289:were among the first theorists to present the 2170:U.S. trade balance and trade policy, 1895–2015 761:and Tax Collections by the Federal Government 8565:History of foreign trade of the United States 7580: 6881: 6515:Doran, Charles F. and Gregory P. Marchildon. 6222:Halstead, Murat; Munson, Augustus J. (1901). 6028:. University Press of Kentucky. p. 843. 5439: 4823: 4688:Paul Studenski; Herman Edward Krooss (2003). 2726:in early March 1861 shortly before President 684: 8251:United States International Trade Commission 6773:The history of the present tariff, 1860–1883 5562: 4737: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3672:. In January 2018, Trump imposed tariffs on 3426: 3236:United States International Trade Commission 2674:as president. Polk succeeded in passing the 5994: 5736: 5734: 4830:. Cambridge University Press. p. 252. 3815:"Trade Policy in American Economic History" 3457:Tariffs and historical American politicians 706:have historically served a key role in the 8534: 8216:United States Trade and Development Agency 7587: 7573: 6897:United States federal taxation legislation 6888: 6874: 6591: 5016:Politics, Reform, and Expansion, 1890–1900 4876:F. W. Taussig, "The McKinley Tariff Act." 4648:Mark Thornton and Robert B. Ekelund, Jr., 4365:Barbara M. Tucker, and Kenneth H. Tucker, 4120:Thomas C. Cochran, William Miller (1942). 3969: 3967: 3965: 2910: 691: 677: 149:Industrial Revolution in the United States 8226:Office of the Comptroller of the Currency 5985: 5766: 4479:Essays in Economic & Business History 4134: 4104: 3801: 2946: 2868: 2833: 2345:Trade Commission under President Reagan. 79:Learn how and when to remove this message 8570:History of taxation in the United States 6338: 6336: 6238: 6201: 5731: 5231:Anthony O'Brien, "Smoot–Hawley Tariff." 4971: 4741:The Debate On the American Civil War Era 4548:Republican Party National Platform, 1860 4540: 4356:Sept 2004, Vol. 64, Issue 3, pp. 800–821 4343:Sept 2004, Vol. 64, Issue 3, pp. 800–821 4330:Sept 2004, Vol. 64, Issue 3, pp. 800–821 4100: 4098: 3433:History of the United States Coast Guard 3316: 2950: 2768: 2516:British government having just lost the 2220:was the second bill signed by President 2181: 2173: 2165: 2157: 2149: 2141: 734:, the US increased trade protectionism. 8362:Export–Import Bank of the United States 6788: 6755:The Tariff History of the United States 6562: 6312: 5532: 5530: 5305: 4947:The Tariff History Of The United States 4922:The Tariff History of the United States 4663:The Tariff History of the United States 4608:The Tariff History of the United States 4579:The Tariff History of the United States 4507:Winter 1989, Vol. 43, Issue 1, pp. 1–28 4440:The Tariff History of the United States 4414:The Tariff History of the United States 4401:The Tariff History of the United States 4382:(1920) p, 138, citing Edward Stanwood. 3973: 3962: 3831:10.1146/annurev-economics-070119-024409 3776: 3745: 3200: 2429:United States Secretary of the Treasury 2370: 2360:Republicans returned to power in 1921. 2313:continued Hamilton's themes within the 14: 8557: 6835:(3 vol 2003); primary sources in vol 3 6734:from the original on February 14, 2024 6717:Financial History of the United States 6700:from the original on February 14, 2024 6679:(1935). Passage of Hawley-Smoot tariff 6500:Financial History of the United States 6430: 6428: 6426: 6321:from the original on December 31, 2019 6267:from the original on December 31, 2016 6093:from the original on November 19, 2017 6042:from the original on February 14, 2024 5874:from the original on December 16, 2022 5844:from the original on December 16, 2022 5814:from the original on December 16, 2022 5622:from the original on December 15, 2023 5583:from the original on December 15, 2023 5421:from the original on February 14, 2024 5335:Maurice Allais (December 5–11, 2009). 4691:Financial History of the United States 4315:Financial History of the United States 4302:Financial History of the United States 4289:Financial History of the United States 4276:Financial History of the United States 4193:from the original on December 28, 2022 3789:from the original on December 28, 2023 3758:from the original on December 28, 2023 3702:lithium-ion electric vehicle batteries 3607:where labor wins its highest rewards. 3386: 3248:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 3220:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 3118:President Wilson achieved this in the 3006:of 1922. The next raise came with the 2971:The Republicans split bitterly on the 2210:United States House of Representatives 2162:The average US tariff rates, 1821–2016 2154:Average tariff rates in France, UK, US 8580:History of the United States by topic 8241:Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation 7568: 6869: 6411:from the original on December 3, 2019 6385:from the original on October 19, 2019 6355:from the original on December 6, 2019 6333: 6294:from the original on October 21, 2019 6286:Richard Gonzales (January 22, 2018). 6202:McKinley, William (January 1, 1893). 6153:from the original on February 5, 2021 6123:from the original on February 5, 2021 5967:from the original on November 1, 2020 5904:from the original on January 16, 2021 5783:from the original on January 27, 2021 5767:Lincicome, Scott (January 27, 2021). 5686:from the original on January 15, 2020 5400: 5373: 5114:The Presidency of William Howard Taft 5101:The Presidency of William Howard Taft 4528:from the original on October 24, 2021 4149: 4095: 3812: 3619: 3137:Great Depression in the United States 3013: 2799: 2706: 2682: 712:import substitution industrialization 8416:2008–2010 automotive industry crisis 8246:National Credit Union Administration 8231:Consumer Financial Protection Bureau 6854:Lesson plan on tariffs in US history 6342: 5934:from the original on August 29, 2018 5802:Rose, Stephen J. (October 4, 2021). 5801: 5527: 5462:from the original on October 3, 2017 5355:from the original on August 25, 2017 5196: 5155:Mississippi Valley Historical Review 5078:Mississippi Valley Historical Review 5042:Mississippi Valley Historical Review 4766:Mississippi Valley Historical Review 3813:Irwin, Douglas A. (August 2, 2020). 3660:(not by act of Congress) during the 3465: 3439:United States Revenue Cutter Service 3246:After the war the U.S. promoted the 3241: 3020:Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty 2670:The Democrats won in 1845, electing 2585:, ridiculed by free traders as the " 2226:United States Revenue Cutter Service 2192:List of tariffs in the United States 2137: 28: 6423: 5748:from the original on April 18, 2020 4068:from the original on April 15, 2019 3845:from the original on April 15, 2021 3777:Hayashi, Yuka (December 28, 2023). 3746:Hayashi, Yuka (December 28, 2023). 3578: 3488: 3344:North American Free Trade Agreement 3306: 3287:directly affected the German built 2859: 2741:and his influential newspaper, the 2640:was paid off in 1834 and President 154:History of the United States dollar 24: 8236:Securities and Exchange Commission 6819:The Great Tariff Debate, 1820–1830 6791:The Quarterly Journal of Economics 6677:Politics, Pressures and the Tariff 6460: 6373: 5608:. Sage Publications. p. 358. 5544:from the original on July 28, 2011 4972:Springer, William M., ed. (1892). 4211:William Hill, "Colonial Tariffs," 3553: 3446:U.S. Customs and Border Protection 3342:of 1987, which led in 1994 to the 3065: 2200:Foreign trade of the United States 2196:Protectionism in the United States 2146:Federal revenue by type, 1792–2016 2092:taxes are assigned to Trust Funds 741: 25: 8591: 6862:from Northern Illinois University 6856:from Northern Illinois University 6847: 5404:Lessons from the Great Depression 3278:was a 1964 response by President 3179:Lessons from the Great Depression 2825:The Rise of American Civilization 708:trade policy of the United States 8533: 8524: 8523: 8096:Bureau of Engraving and Printing 7612: 7611: 7596: 7370:2021 (Infrastructure, PL 117–58) 6653:American Trade Policy: 1923–1995 6495:. WW Norton & Company, 2015. 6397: 6367: 6313:Horsley, Scott (March 8, 2018). 6279: 6249: 6232: 6195: 6182: 6165: 6135: 6105: 6054: 6021: 6015: 5979: 5916: 5894:"Letter to Marquis de LaFayette" 5886: 5856: 5826: 5795: 5760: 5719:from the original on May 8, 2020 5257:American Trade Policy: 1923–1995 4880:(1891) 1#2 pp. 326–350. in JSTOR 4865:William McKinley and His America 4235:William Smith McClellan (1912). 4158:. Univ of North Carolina Press. 3340:Canada–U.S. Free Trade Agreement 3151:Tariffs and the Great Depression 2665: 2625:(1832–1852) and after 1854, the 2391:Early National period, 1789–1828 657: 110: 33: 18:Tariffs in United States history 6471:(1984) 44#4 pp. 1033–1045. 6117:U-M Library Digital Collections 6087:U-M Library Digital Collections 5668: 5647: 5634: 5595: 5556: 5510: 5493: 5474: 5448: 5433: 5394: 5367: 5328: 5314:. University of Chicago Press. 5299: 5275: 5262: 5249: 5225: 5190: 5170: 5147: 5119: 5106: 5093: 5070: 5067:(1973) 35#2 pp. 196–204, online 5057: 5034: 5031:(1973) 35#2 pp. 196–204, online 5021: 5008: 4995: 4982: 4965: 4952: 4939: 4912: 4899: 4870: 4857: 4844: 4817: 4804: 4781: 4758: 4731: 4708: 4681: 4668: 4655: 4642: 4629: 4613: 4600: 4584: 4571: 4565:The Chicago Press & Tribune 4510: 4497: 4484: 4471: 4458: 4445: 4432: 4419: 4406: 4393: 4372: 4359: 4346: 4333: 4320: 4307: 4294: 4281: 4268: 4245: 4228: 4205: 4143: 4128: 4113: 4080: 3982:. University of Chicago Press. 3943: 3687: 3648:Economic policy of Donald Trump 3637: 3540: 3450:Department of Homeland Security 3088:. Eastern conservatives led by 2265:theory of comparative advantage 748:Excise tax in the United States 8575:History of international trade 8498:List of Americans by net worth 8211:National Labor Relations Board 7617:Companies of the United States 6631:(1983) 35#4 pp. 517–543. 6594:The American Historical Review 6343:Long, Heather (May 31, 2018). 5654:Congressional Research Service 5380:. Princeton University Press. 4919:Frank William Taussig (1931). 4744:. Manchester UP. p. 226. 4621:The American Historical Review 4592:The American Historical Review 4213:Quarterly Journal of Economics 4137:Abraham Lincoln and the Tariff 4087:Dorfman & Tugwell (1960). 3925: 3913: 3895: 3876: 3857: 3770: 3739: 3714: 3181:, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass) 3131:They raised it again with the 3078:Republican coalition together. 3043:, which supported free trade. 2987:mobilized high-rate Senators. 2975:of 1909. Republican President 2602:Second Party System, 1829–1859 169:United States dollar § History 13: 1: 8426:China–United States trade war 8221:Customs and Border Protection 8201:Small Business Administration 7884:Metropolitan Statistical Area 6622:Journal of Law and Economics, 5129:, "The American tariff map." 3707: 3514: 2794:Confederate States of America 2759:Lost Cause of the Confederacy 8539:Outline of the United States 7603:Economy of the United States 7360:2021 (Defense Authorization) 6478:(2017) covers 1816 to 1861. 5988:Boston Independent Chronicle 4694:. Beard Books. p. 157. 4354:Journal of Economic History, 4341:Journal of Economic History, 4328:Journal of Economic History, 4062:Institute for Policy Studies 3375:On March 5, 2002, President 2777: 2764: 2616:The Democrats dominated the 2581:The culmination came in the 2557:, when nationalists such as 2506:American War of Independence 2409:First United States Congress 2086:Payroll Taxes began in 1940. 357:Companies listed on the NYSE 104:Economy of the United States 7: 8421:2008 economic stimulus plan 8013:Water supply and sanitation 7365:2021 (American Rescue Plan) 6817:Taylor, George Rogers, ed. 6559:(1975) 28#1 pp. 84–99. 6469:Journal of Economic History 5480:Harmonized Tariff Schedule 4623:(1938) 44#1 pp. 50–55 4594:(1938) 44#1 pp. 50–55 4522:www.usgovernmentrevenue.com 4505:International Organization, 4386:(1904) 1:111 and Taussig, 2259:The United States rejected 2026: 2003: 1980: 1957: 1934: 1911: 1888: 1865: 1842: 1819: 1796: 1773: 1750: 1727: 1704: 1681: 1658: 1635: 1612: 1589: 1566: 1543: 1520: 1497: 1474: 1451: 1428: 1405: 1382: 1359: 1336: 1313: 1290: 1267: 1244: 1221: 1198: 1175: 1152: 1129: 1106: 1083: 1060: 1037: 1014: 991: 968: 945: 922: 899: 876: 853: 830: 807: 772: 59:the claims made and adding 10: 8596: 8411:2007–2008 financial crisis 8181:Department of the Treasury 6782:February 14, 2024, at the 6764:February 14, 2024, at the 6759:5th edition 1910 is online 6662:February 15, 2005, at the 6540:February 14, 2024, at the 6509:February 14, 2024, at the 6485:December 27, 2018, at the 6261:www.theodore-roosevelt.com 6239:McKinley, William (1893). 6009:December 22, 2019, at the 5602:Kenneth F. Warren (2008). 5374:Irwin, Douglas A. (2017). 5199:International Organization 4716:American Historical Review 4453:American Historical Review 4442:(8th edition (1931), ch. 2 4427:American Historical Review 4416:(8th edition (1931), ch. 2 4403:(8th edition (1931), ch. 1 3819:Annual Review of Economics 3641: 3477:State of the Union Address 3430: 3362:Common Agricultural Policy 3310: 3232:Harmonized Tariff Schedule 3069: 2961:campaigned heavily in 1896 2803: 2781: 2710: 2605: 2478:Non-Intercourse Act (1809) 2397:United States Constitution 2303:Anglo-American War of 1812 2214:United States Constitution 2189: 2080:or duties on imports, etc. 745: 732:2016 presidential election 8516: 8434: 8396: 8370: 8340:International development 8339: 8264: 8171: 8158:Intercontinental Exchange 8072: 8031: 7959: 7892: 7854: 7661: 7623: 7609: 7378: 6903: 6690:Stanwood, Edward (1903). 6638:October 15, 2006, at the 5898:Teaching American History 5713:Economic Policy Institute 5680:Economic Policy Institute 5662:January 31, 2017, at the 5456:"The Mitt-Hawley Fallacy" 5348:(in French). p. 38. 5183:October 12, 2018, at the 4962:, U.S. Steel, 1951, p. 48 4909:, U.S. Steel, 1951, p. 15 4150:Eckes, Alfred E. (1995). 3955:February 7, 2021, at the 3427:Smuggling and Coast Guard 3393:Economic Policy Institute 3381:tariffs on imported steel 3366:US agricultural subsidies 2789:tariffs ($ 305 million). 2638:United States public debt 2230:United States Coast Guard 2206:Articles of Confederation 2054: 2049: 765: 755:U.S. Historical Tariffs ( 436:Economy by city or county 8544:Economy of North America 8406:2006–2012 housing bubble 8206:Internal Revenue Service 7874:Targeted Employment Area 6771:Taussig, Frank William. 6624:51 (Nov. 2008), 715–742. 6480:PhD dissertation version 5242:August 16, 2023, at the 5140:August 19, 2020, at the 5080:(1963) 50#3 pp. 424–442 5044:(1963) 50#3 pp. 424–442 4854:(Penn State Press, 1994) 4725:August 23, 2018, at the 4718:(1930) 35#2 pp. 276–294 4554:August 13, 2023, at the 3889:August 11, 2016, at the 3252:World Trade Organization 3224:World Trade Organization 3095:Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act 3086:Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act 2993:Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act 2941:Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act 2291:infant industry argument 2088:Many Federal government 664:United States portal 94:This article is part of 8388:Pathways out of Poverty 8357:Build Back Better World 8309:State unemployment rate 8173:Government institutions 8153:New York Board of Trade 8128:New York Stock Exchange 6557:Economic History Review 6529:Elliott, Orrin Leslie. 6228:. Memorial Association. 6178:. Memorial Association. 5928:www.presidency.ucsb.edu 5211:10.1162/002081899550805 4960:Steel Serves the Nation 4907:Steel Serves the Nation 4635:Robert Gray Gunderson, 4262:March 27, 2017, at the 4222:March 27, 2017, at the 4187:www.presidency.ucsb.edu 3937:April 28, 2017, at the 3783:The Wall Street Journal 3752:The Wall Street Journal 3207:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 3133:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 3072:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 3039:, and handily beat the 3008:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 3004:Fordney–McCumber Tariff 2985:Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich 2911:Cleveland tariff policy 2534:Pawtucket, Rhode Island 2363:According to economist 419:State unemployment rate 8508:Science and technology 8274:International rankings 8186:Department of Commerce 8148:Chicago Board of Trade 7856:Special Economic Zones 7494:1922: Fordney–McCumber 6757:. 8th edition (1931); 6491:Cohen, Andrew Wender. 5486:July 21, 2011, at the 5292:March 1, 2021, at the 5164:March 7, 2021, at the 5112:Paolo Enrico Coletta, 5099:Paolo Enrico Coletta, 5087:March 7, 2021, at the 5051:March 7, 2021, at the 4949:, 1909 edition, p. 259 4824:John Ashworth (1987). 4775:July 28, 2018, at the 4317:(5th ed. 1915) ch. 6–7 4304:(5th ed. 1915) ch. 4–5 4291:(5th ed. 1915) ch. 4–5 4278:(5th ed. 1915) ch. 1–3 4215:(1892) 7#1 pp. 78–100 4028:. 2001. 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December 30, 2003. 3907:May 27, 2017, at the 3870:May 28, 2017, at the 3630: 3604: 3595: 3589: 3529: 3521:United States Senator 3507: 3481: 3320: 3211:Reciprocal Tariff Act 3189: 3052:1911 federal election 2954: 2926: 2915:Democratic President 2883: 2875:Industrial Revolution 2804:Further information: 2782:Further information: 2772: 2538:Industrial Revolution 2415:signed, the Hamilton 2185: 2177: 2169: 2161: 2153: 2145: 2076:Tariffs—often called 8371:Economic initiatives 7418:1828: "Abominations" 6648:Greenwood Press 1994 6068:on October 25, 2014. 5490:Accessed 12 Jul 2011 5233:EH. Net Encyclopedia 5014:Harold U. Faulkner, 4878:The Economic Journal 3327:Most favoured nation 3201:Trade liberalization 3185:William J. Bernstein 3135:of 1930 to meet the 3048:American imperialism 2973:Payne–Aldrich Tariff 2881:in 1900 complained: 2656:Nullification Crisis 2591:Nullification Crisis 2385:Confederation Period 2371:Colonial Era to 1789 414:State credit ratings 238:Water and sanitation 129:Agricultural history 8503:American economists 8191:Department of Labor 8032:Law and regulations 7879:Foreign Trade Zones 7479:1909: Payne–Aldrich 7469:1894: Wilson–Gorman 6746:Summers; Festus P. 6644:Kaplan, Edward S.; 6498:Dewey, Davis Rich. 6349:The Washington Post 6190:Library of Congress 5518:Judith L. Goldstein 5501:Judith L. Goldstein 5440:William Bernstein. 5283:Journal of Politics 5131:Geographical Review 5001:Festus P. Summers, 4958:Douglas A. Fisher, 4905:Douglas A. Fisher, 4850:Joanne R. Reitano, 4665:(1931), pp. 155–170 4610:(1931), pp. 123–161 4581:(1931), pp. 123–161 3959:Accessed 5 Aug 2011 3922:Accessed 5 Aug 2011 3545:In 1822, President 3387:Deindustrialization 3355:most favored nation 3297:United Auto Workers 3120:Federal Reserve Act 2981:William Howard Taft 2897:open hearth furnace 2735:Henry Charles Carey 2618:Second Party System 2608:Second Party System 2544:Ashley notes that: 2474:Embargo Act of 1807 2395:The framers of the 8481:National Standards 8321:Standard of living 8086:Financial services 7998:Illegal drug trade 7814:Telecommunications 7499:1930: Smoot–Hawley 7398:1791: Hamilton III 6684:The Tariff on Wool 6651:Kaplan, Edward S. 6147:quod.lib.umich.edu 5268:Douglas A. Irwin, 5255:Edward S. Kaplan, 4625:full text in JSTOR 4596:full text in JSTOR 4135:R. Luthin (1944). 3633:protective tariff. 3626:Theodore Roosevelt 3620:Theodore Roosevelt 3519:In 1832, then the 3331: 3234:as put out by the 3205:Tariffs up to the 3109:federal income tax 3032:Conservative Party 3014:Tariff with Canada 2977:Theodore Roosevelt 2957: 2839:voted Republican. 2800:Reconstruction era 2775: 2713:Third Party System 2707:Third Party System 2683:Low tariff of 1857 2497:Tariff Act of 1789 2433:Alexander Hamilton 2283:Alexander Hamilton 2254:Alexander Hamilton 2188: 2180: 2172: 2164: 2156: 2148: 2131:American Civil War 2127:federal income tax 716:protective barrier 318:Financial services 44:possibly contains 8552: 8551: 8054:Right-to-work law 7562: 7561: 7403:1792: Hamilton IV 7393:1790: Hamilton II 7290:2010 (PL 111-312) 7285:2010 (PL 111–240) 6474:Bolt, William K. 5870:. April 4, 2016. 5566:Unions in America 5458:. March 4, 2016. 4988:H. Wayne Morgan, 4863:H. Wayne Morgan, 4810:Paul H. Tedesco, 4789:Civil War History 4676:Financial History 4481:(2011) 29: 59–73. 3598:self-destruction. 3472:George Washington 3466:George Washington 3419:According to the 3280:Lyndon B. Johnson 3242:Post World War II 3090:Nelson W. Aldrich 3028:John A. Macdonald 2936:Bourbon Democrats 2895:and later to the 2879:London Daily Mail 2518:Revolutionary War 2501:U.S. Constitution 2458:Whiskey Rebellion 2413:George Washington 2222:George Washington 2138:Historical trends 2123: 2122: 2108:Historical Tables 720:infant industries 701: 700: 626:Right-to-work law 349:Largest companies 139:Petroleum history 89: 88: 81: 46:original research 16:(Redirected from 8587: 8537: 8536: 8527: 8526: 8378:AmeriCorps VISTA 8352:Blue Dot Network 8142:NASDAQ Composite 8049:Child labor laws 8023:Trading partners 7869:Opportunity Zone 7864:Empowerment Zone 7804:Renewable energy 7615: 7614: 7601: 7600: 7599: 7589: 7582: 7575: 7566: 7565: 7554:2018/2019: Trump 7504:1934: Reciprocal 7428:1833: Compromise 7388:1789: Hamilton I 6890: 6883: 6876: 6867: 6866: 6824:Terrill, Tom E. 6814: 6743: 6741: 6739: 6709: 6707: 6705: 6617: 6588: 6504:online full text 6454: 6453: 6451: 6449: 6432: 6421: 6420: 6418: 6416: 6401: 6395: 6394: 6392: 6390: 6371: 6365: 6364: 6362: 6360: 6340: 6331: 6330: 6328: 6326: 6310: 6304: 6303: 6301: 6299: 6283: 6277: 6276: 6274: 6272: 6253: 6247: 6246: 6236: 6230: 6229: 6219: 6210: 6209: 6199: 6193: 6186: 6180: 6179: 6169: 6163: 6162: 6160: 6158: 6139: 6133: 6132: 6130: 6128: 6109: 6103: 6102: 6100: 6098: 6079: 6070: 6069: 6064:. 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Terrill, 4890: 4881: 4874: 4868: 4861: 4855: 4848: 4842: 4841: 4821: 4815: 4814:(Garland, 1985.) 4808: 4802: 4785: 4779: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4735: 4729: 4712: 4706: 4705: 4685: 4679: 4672: 4666: 4659: 4653: 4646: 4640: 4633: 4627: 4617: 4611: 4604: 4598: 4588: 4582: 4575: 4569: 4544: 4538: 4537: 4535: 4533: 4514: 4508: 4501: 4495: 4488: 4482: 4475: 4469: 4462: 4456: 4449: 4443: 4436: 4430: 4423: 4417: 4410: 4404: 4397: 4391: 4376: 4370: 4363: 4357: 4350: 4344: 4337: 4331: 4324: 4318: 4311: 4305: 4298: 4292: 4285: 4279: 4272: 4266: 4249: 4243: 4242: 4232: 4226: 4209: 4203: 4202: 4200: 4198: 4179: 4170: 4169: 4157: 4147: 4141: 4140: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4117: 4111: 4110: 4102: 4093: 4092: 4084: 4078: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4054: 4045: 4044: 4042: 4040: 4035:on March 8, 2021 4034: 4023: 4015: 3994: 3993: 3981: 3974:Bairoch (1993). 3971: 3960: 3947: 3941: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3899: 3893: 3880: 3874: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3852: 3850: 3810: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3774: 3768: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3743: 3737: 3736: 3718: 3678:washing machines 3656:were imposed by 3585:William McKinley 3579:William McKinley 3495:Thomas Jefferson 3489:Thomas Jefferson 3307:1980s to present 3114: 3105:Underwood Tariff 3000:Underwood Tariff 2922:William McKinley 2917:Grover Cleveland 2893:Bessemer process 2860:Farmers and wool 2850:William McKinley 2845:Grover Cleveland 2821:Charles A. 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Calhoun 2400: 2393: 2373: 2350:Mckinley Tariff 2331:Abraham Lincoln 2319:American System 2244:who influenced 2202: 2140: 2095: 2093: 2087: 2085: 2083: 2081: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2062: 2060: 2058: 2056: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 768: 760: 750: 744: 742:Tariff revenues 724:American System 697: 658: 656: 655: 648: 647: 597: 587: 586: 437: 429: 428: 370: 362: 361: 341:Stock exchanges 280:Social programs 272:Tertiary sector 189: 179: 178: 134:Banking history 124: 85: 74: 68: 65: 50: 38: 34: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8593: 8583: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8567: 8550: 8549: 8547: 8546: 8541: 8531: 8521: 8517: 8514: 8513: 8511: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8488: 8483: 8478: 8473: 8472: 8471: 8466: 8461: 8451: 8446: 8440: 8438: 8436:Related topics 8432: 8431: 8429: 8428: 8423: 8418: 8413: 8408: 8402: 8400: 8394: 8393: 8391: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8374: 8372: 8368: 8367: 8365: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8349: 8343: 8341: 8337: 8336: 8334: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8313: 8312: 8311: 8306: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8284:Social welfare 8281: 8276: 8270: 8268: 8262: 8261: 8259: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8177: 8175: 8169: 8168: 8166: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8150: 8145: 8135: 8132:NYSE Composite 8125: 8120: 8119: 8118: 8113: 8108: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8082: 8080: 8070: 8069: 8067: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8035: 8033: 8029: 8028: 8026: 8025: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7983:Postal history 7980: 7978:Communications 7975: 7973:Transportation 7969: 7967: 7965:infrastructure 7957: 7956: 7954: 7953: 7952: 7951: 7946: 7941: 7931: 7926: 7925: 7924: 7922:Oil refineries 7919: 7909: 7904: 7898: 7896: 7890: 7889: 7887: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7860: 7858: 7852: 7851: 7849: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7827: 7826: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7772: 7771: 7770: 7760: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7723:Electric power 7720: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7679: 7678: 7667: 7665: 7659: 7658: 7656: 7655: 7650: 7645: 7640: 7635: 7629: 7627: 7621: 7620: 7610: 7607: 7606: 7592: 7591: 7584: 7577: 7569: 7560: 7559: 7557: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7464:1890: McKinley 7461: 7456: 7453: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7405: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7384: 7382: 7376: 7375: 7373: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7272: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7132: 7127: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7082: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6911: 6909: 6901: 6900: 6893: 6892: 6885: 6878: 6870: 6864: 6863: 6857: 6849: 6848:External links 6846: 6844: 6843: 6838:Wolman, Paul. 6836: 6829: 6822: 6815: 6797:(3): 314–346. 6786: 6769: 6751: 6744: 6727:978-1587981753 6726: 6711: 6687: 6680: 6673: 6666: 6649: 6642: 6629:World Politics 6625: 6618: 6589: 6577:10.1086/392542 6571:(1): 181–182. 6560: 6553: 6550: 6547:Gingrich, Newt 6544: 6527: 6520: 6513: 6496: 6489: 6472: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6456: 6455: 6422: 6396: 6366: 6332: 6305: 6278: 6248: 6245:. D. Appleton. 6231: 6211: 6208:. D. Appleton. 6194: 6181: 6164: 6134: 6104: 6071: 6053: 6034: 6014: 5993: 5978: 5945: 5915: 5885: 5855: 5825: 5794: 5777:Cato Institute 5759: 5730: 5697: 5667: 5646: 5633: 5615:978-1412954891 5614: 5594: 5576:978-1452239477 5575: 5555: 5526: 5509: 5492: 5473: 5447: 5444:. p. 116. 5432: 5414:978-0262261197 5413: 5393: 5387:978-1400888429 5386: 5366: 5327: 5321:978-0226034621 5320: 5298: 5274: 5261: 5248: 5224: 5189: 5169: 5146: 5118: 5105: 5092: 5069: 5056: 5033: 5020: 5007: 4994: 4981: 4978:. p. 391. 4964: 4951: 4938: 4932:978-1610163309 4931: 4911: 4898: 4882: 4869: 4856: 4843: 4837:978-0521335676 4836: 4816: 4803: 4780: 4757: 4751:978-0719049385 4750: 4730: 4707: 4701:978-1587981753 4700: 4680: 4667: 4654: 4641: 4628: 4612: 4599: 4583: 4570: 4539: 4509: 4496: 4492:Tariff History 4483: 4470: 4466:Tariff History 4457: 4444: 4431: 4418: 4405: 4392: 4388:Tariff History 4378:Percy Ashley, 4371: 4358: 4345: 4332: 4319: 4306: 4293: 4280: 4267: 4244: 4227: 4204: 4171: 4164: 4142: 4127: 4112: 4094: 4079: 4046: 3995: 3989:978-0226034621 3988: 3961: 3942: 3924: 3912: 3894: 3875: 3856: 3800: 3769: 3738: 3732:978-1285193304 3731: 3712: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3689: 3686: 3682:European Union 3639: 3636: 3621: 3618: 3580: 3577: 3555: 3552: 3542: 3539: 3516: 3513: 3490: 3487: 3467: 3464: 3458: 3455: 3431:Main article: 3428: 3425: 3388: 3385: 3377:George W. Bush 3308: 3305: 3301:Walter Reuther 3243: 3240: 3202: 3199: 3162:Maurice Allais 3152: 3149: 3101:Woodrow Wilson 3070:Main article: 3067: 3064: 3015: 3012: 2965:Dingley tariff 2948: 2945: 2912: 2909: 2870: 2867: 2861: 2858: 2835: 2832: 2817:Reconstruction 2801: 2798: 2779: 2776: 2766: 2763: 2739:Horace Greeley 2724:James Buchanan 2719:Morrill Tariff 2711:Main article: 2708: 2705: 2689:Tariff of 1857 2684: 2681: 2667: 2664: 2660:Tariff of 1842 2642:Andrew Jackson 2606:Main article: 2603: 2600: 2595:Andrew Jackson 2583:Tariff of 1828 2576:Tariff of 1824 2572:Daniel Webster 2551: 2550: 2417:Tariff of 1789 2392: 2389: 2372: 2369: 2287:Daniel Raymond 2246:Friedrich List 2242:Daniel Raymond 2218:Tariff of 1789 2139: 2136: 2121: 2120: 2119: 2118: 2115: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2052: 2051: 2047: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2031: 2028: 2024: 2023: 2020: 2017: 2014: 2011: 2008: 2005: 2001: 2000: 1997: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1978: 1977: 1974: 1971: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1955: 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996: 993: 989: 988: 985: 982: 979: 976: 973: 970: 966: 965: 962: 959: 956: 953: 950: 947: 943: 942: 939: 936: 933: 930: 927: 924: 920: 919: 916: 913: 910: 907: 904: 901: 897: 896: 893: 890: 887: 884: 881: 878: 874: 873: 870: 867: 864: 861: 858: 855: 851: 850: 847: 844: 841: 838: 835: 832: 828: 827: 824: 821: 818: 815: 812: 809: 805: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 770: 769: 766: 763: 762: 743: 740: 699: 698: 696: 695: 688: 681: 673: 670: 669: 668: 667: 650: 649: 646: 645: 629: 628: 623: 618: 613: 607: 606: 598: 593: 592: 589: 588: 585: 584: 579: 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 552:Salt Lake City 549: 544: 539: 534: 529: 524: 519: 514: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 438: 435: 434: 431: 430: 427: 426: 421: 416: 411: 405: 404: 400: 399: 392: 387: 382: 377: 371: 368: 367: 364: 363: 360: 359: 353: 352: 344: 343: 338: 333: 328: 322: 321: 313: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 285:Transportation 282: 276: 275: 267: 266: 264:Pulp and paper 261: 259:Iron and steel 256: 250: 249: 241: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 199: 198: 195:Primary sector 190: 185: 184: 181: 180: 177: 176: 171: 166: 164:Tariff History 161: 159:Lumber history 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 131: 125: 120: 119: 116: 115: 107: 106: 100: 99: 87: 86: 41: 39: 32: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8592: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8563: 8562: 8560: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8532: 8530: 8522: 8519: 8518: 8515: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8494: 8493: 8489: 8487: 8484: 8482: 8479: 8477: 8474: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8460: 8457: 8456: 8455: 8452: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8442: 8441: 8439: 8437: 8433: 8427: 8424: 8422: 8419: 8417: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8403: 8401: 8399: 8395: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8376: 8375: 8373: 8369: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8344: 8342: 8338: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8301: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8279:States by GDP 8277: 8275: 8272: 8271: 8269: 8267: 8263: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8178: 8176: 8174: 8170: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8143: 8139: 8136: 8133: 8129: 8126: 8124: 8121: 8117: 8114: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8103: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8083: 8081: 8079: 8075: 8071: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8036: 8034: 8030: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7970: 7968: 7966: 7962: 7958: 7950: 7947: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7936: 7935: 7932: 7930: 7927: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7914: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7902:Energy policy 7900: 7899: 7897: 7895: 7891: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7861: 7859: 7857: 7853: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7825: 7822: 7821: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7776: 7773: 7769: 7766: 7765: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7703:Biotechnology 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7677: 7674: 7673: 7672: 7669: 7668: 7666: 7664: 7660: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7634: 7631: 7630: 7628: 7626: 7622: 7618: 7608: 7604: 7590: 7585: 7583: 7578: 7576: 7571: 7570: 7567: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7474:1897: Dingley 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7459:1883: Mongrel 7457: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7448:1861: Morrill 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7385: 7383: 7381: 7377: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7340:2019 (SECURE) 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7220:2001 (EGTRRA) 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 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6384: 6380: 6377: 6370: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6339: 6337: 6320: 6316: 6309: 6293: 6289: 6282: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6252: 6244: 6243: 6235: 6227: 6226: 6218: 6216: 6207: 6206: 6198: 6191: 6185: 6177: 6176: 6168: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6138: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6108: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6078: 6076: 6067: 6063: 6057: 6046:September 15, 6041: 6037: 6031: 6027: 6026: 6022:Clay, Henry. 6018: 6012: 6008: 6005: 6000: 5998: 5989: 5982: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5952: 5950: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5919: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5889: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5859: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5829: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5798: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5763: 5747: 5743: 5737: 5735: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5704: 5702: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5671: 5665: 5661: 5658: 5655: 5650: 5643: 5637: 5621: 5617: 5611: 5607: 5606: 5598: 5582: 5578: 5572: 5568: 5567: 5559: 5543: 5539: 5533: 5531: 5523: 5519: 5513: 5506: 5502: 5496: 5489: 5485: 5482: 5477: 5461: 5457: 5451: 5443: 5436: 5420: 5416: 5410: 5407:. MIT Press. 5406: 5405: 5397: 5389: 5383: 5379: 5378: 5370: 5351: 5347: 5346: 5338: 5331: 5323: 5317: 5312: 5311: 5302: 5295: 5291: 5288: 5284: 5278: 5271: 5265: 5258: 5252: 5245: 5241: 5238: 5234: 5228: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5193: 5186: 5182: 5179: 5173: 5167: 5163: 5160: 5156: 5150: 5143: 5139: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5122: 5115: 5109: 5102: 5096: 5090: 5086: 5083: 5079: 5073: 5066: 5060: 5054: 5050: 5047: 5043: 5037: 5030: 5024: 5017: 5011: 5004: 4998: 4991: 4985: 4977: 4976: 4968: 4961: 4955: 4948: 4942: 4934: 4928: 4924: 4923: 4915: 4908: 4902: 4895: 4889: 4887: 4879: 4873: 4866: 4860: 4853: 4847: 4839: 4833: 4829: 4828: 4820: 4813: 4807: 4801: 4797: 4794: 4790: 4784: 4778: 4774: 4771: 4767: 4761: 4753: 4747: 4743: 4742: 4734: 4728: 4724: 4721: 4717: 4711: 4703: 4697: 4693: 4692: 4684: 4678:(1915) p. 299 4677: 4671: 4664: 4658: 4651: 4645: 4638: 4632: 4626: 4622: 4616: 4609: 4603: 4597: 4593: 4587: 4580: 4574: 4567: 4566: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4550: 4549: 4543: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4513: 4506: 4500: 4493: 4487: 4480: 4474: 4467: 4461: 4454: 4448: 4441: 4435: 4428: 4422: 4415: 4409: 4402: 4396: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4375: 4368: 4362: 4355: 4349: 4342: 4336: 4329: 4323: 4316: 4310: 4303: 4297: 4290: 4284: 4277: 4271: 4265: 4261: 4258: 4257:online review 4254: 4248: 4240: 4239: 4231: 4225: 4221: 4218: 4214: 4208: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4178: 4176: 4167: 4161: 4156: 4155: 4146: 4138: 4131: 4123: 4116: 4108: 4101: 4099: 4090: 4083: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4053: 4051: 4031: 4027: 4026:www.cepal.org 4020: 4014: 4012: 4010: 4008: 4006: 4004: 4002: 4000: 3991: 3985: 3980: 3979: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3958: 3954: 3951: 3946: 3940: 3936: 3933: 3928: 3921: 3916: 3910: 3906: 3903: 3898: 3892: 3888: 3885: 3879: 3873: 3869: 3866: 3860: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3809: 3807: 3805: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3773: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3734: 3728: 3724: 3717: 3713: 3705: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3685: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3654:Trump tariffs 3649: 3645: 3644:Trump tariffs 3634: 3629: 3627: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3603: 3599: 3593: 3588: 3586: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3561: 3551: 3548: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3526: 3522: 3511: 3506: 3504: 3499: 3496: 3493:As President 3485: 3480: 3478: 3473: 3463: 3454: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3440: 3434: 3424: 3422: 3417: 3413: 3410: 3405: 3402: 3396: 3394: 3384: 3382: 3378: 3373: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3356: 3351: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3336: 3328: 3324: 3319: 3314: 3313:Trump tariffs 3304: 3302: 3299:'s president 3298: 3292: 3290: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3272: 3268: 3265: 3261: 3255: 3253: 3249: 3239: 3237: 3233: 3227: 3225: 3221: 3215: 3212: 3208: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3186: 3182: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3169: 3165: 3163: 3157: 3148: 3146: 3140: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3124: 3121: 3116: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3096: 3091: 3087: 3082: 3079: 3073: 3063: 3059: 3057: 3056:Robert Borden 3053: 3049: 3044: 3042: 3041:Liberal Party 3038: 3037:1878 election 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3011: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2994: 2988: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2969: 2966: 2962: 2953: 2944: 2942: 2937: 2930: 2925: 2923: 2918: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2898: 2894: 2887: 2882: 2880: 2876: 2866: 2857: 2853: 2851: 2846: 2840: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2807: 2797: 2795: 2790: 2785: 2771: 2762: 2760: 2756: 2750: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2720: 2714: 2704: 2702: 2696: 2694: 2690: 2680: 2677: 2676:Walker tariff 2673: 2672:James K. Polk 2666:Walker Tariff 2663: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2609: 2599: 2596: 2593:). President 2592: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2577: 2573: 2567: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2547: 2546: 2545: 2542: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2530:Samuel Slater 2526: 2522: 2519: 2514: 2509: 2507: 2502: 2498: 2493: 2489: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2469: 2465: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2434: 2430: 2425: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2405: 2398: 2388: 2386: 2381: 2379: 2368: 2366: 2365:Ha-Joon Chang 2361: 2357: 2353: 2351: 2346: 2342: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2322: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2307: 2304: 2298: 2294: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2273: 2268: 2266: 2262: 2261:David Ricardo 2257: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2237: 2233: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2184: 2176: 2168: 2160: 2152: 2144: 2135: 2132: 2128: 2116: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2097: 2091: 2079: 2070: 2066: 2053: 2048: 2044: 2041: 2039:$ 1,090,000.0 2038: 2036:$ 2,162,700.0 2035: 2032: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2018: 2016:$ 1,205,500.0 2015: 2013:$ 2,153,600.0 2012: 2009: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1995: 1993:$ 1,211,700.0 1992: 1990:$ 2,025,200.0 1989: 1986: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1967:$ 1,361,000.0 1966: 1963: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1944:$ 1,032,000.0 1943: 1940: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1903: 1900: 1897: 1894: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1874: 1871: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1848: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1834: 1831: 1828: 1825: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1811: 1808: 1805: 1802: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1788: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1742: 1739: 1736: 1733: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1719: 1716: 1713: 1710: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1696: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1621: 1618: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1420: 1417: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1388: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1374: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1351: 1348: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1328: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1305: 1302: 1299: 1296: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1158: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1046: 1043: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1006: 1003: 1000: 997: 994: 990: 986: 983: 980: 977: 974: 971: 967: 963: 960: 957: 954: 951: 948: 944: 940: 937: 934: 931: 928: 925: 921: 917: 914: 911: 908: 905: 902: 898: 894: 891: 888: 885: 882: 879: 875: 871: 868: 865: 862: 859: 856: 852: 848: 845: 842: 839: 836: 833: 829: 825: 822: 819: 816: 813: 810: 806: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 771: 764: 758: 753: 749: 739: 735: 733: 727: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 694: 689: 687: 682: 680: 675: 674: 672: 671: 665: 654: 653: 652: 651: 643: 639: 636: 635: 634: 633: 627: 624: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 608: 605: 604: 600: 599: 596: 591: 590: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 540: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 522:New York City 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 439: 433: 432: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 409:State budgets 407: 406: 402: 401: 398: 397: 393: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 378: 376: 373: 372: 366: 365: 358: 355: 354: 351: 350: 346: 345: 342: 339: 337: 336:Largest banks 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 323: 320: 319: 315: 314: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 278: 277: 274: 273: 269: 268: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 251: 248: 247: 243: 242: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 200: 197: 196: 192: 191: 188: 183: 182: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 126: 123: 118: 117: 113: 109: 108: 105: 102: 101: 97: 93: 92: 83: 80: 72: 69:December 2020 62: 58: 54: 48: 47: 42:This article 40: 31: 30: 27: 19: 8490: 8476:Demographics 8326:Urbanization 8299:Unemployment 8111:Central bank 8059:Minimum wage 7841:Video gaming 7438:1846: Walker 7408:1816: Dallas 7350:2020 (CARES) 6839: 6832: 6825: 6818: 6794: 6790: 6772: 6754: 6747: 6736:. 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Epi.org. 5425:October 29, 5359:January 15, 4568:, May, 1860 4494:pp. 124–154 4468:pp. 109–124 3698:solar cells 3503:War of 1812 3333:During the 3276:Chicken tax 3175:Peter Temin 2755:libertarian 2627:Republicans 2555:War of 1812 2482:War of 1812 2042:$ 864,800.0 2019:$ 794,100.0 1996:$ 652,900.0 1973:$ 484,500.0 1970:$ 747,200.0 1950:$ 380,000.0 1947:$ 560,400.0 1927:$ 255,200.0 1924:$ 395,900.0 1921:$ 734,000.0 1904:$ 157,800.0 1901:$ 308,700.0 1898:$ 517,100.0 1878:$ 163,000.0 1875:$ 279,100.0 1855:$ 123,200.0 1852:$ 192,800.0 1829:$ 116,800.0 611:Child labor 507:Long Island 497:Kansas City 477:Door County 218:Electricity 203:Agriculture 8559:Categories 8449:Bankruptcy 8331:Emigration 8316:Corruption 8256:Statistics 8163:Accounting 8039:Tax system 7949:Geothermal 7819:Television 7784:Publishing 7748:Hedge fund 7688:Automotive 7663:Industries 7653:Gilded Age 7509:1948: GATT 7330:2018 (BBA) 7315:2015 (BBA) 7280:2010 (ACA) 7020:1940 (2nd) 6738:October 6, 6704:October 6, 6271:January 4, 6157:January 4, 6035:0813130514 5938:January 4, 5752:October 7, 5626:October 6, 5587:October 6, 5065:Historian, 5029:Historian, 4165:0807848115 3793:January 6, 3762:January 6, 3708:References 3662:presidency 3624:President 3583:President 3558:President 3515:Henry Clay 3501:After the 3370:Doha talks 3311:See also: 3258:clothing. 3145:Lend-Lease 2815:supported 2810:Historian 2652:Whig Party 2648:Henry Clay 2559:Henry Clay 2376:policy of 2315:Whig Party 2311:Henry Clay 2190:See also: 2030:$ 25,298.0 2007:$ 23,379.0 1984:$ 19,914.0 1961:$ 19,301.0 1938:$ 11,500.0 1915:$ 12,079.0 1881:$ 84,500.0 1858:$ 44,400.0 1835:$ 22,200.0 1832:$ 74,300.0 1812:$ 12,200.0 1809:$ 62,200.0 1806:$ 99,800.0 1786:$ 46,400.0 1783:$ 71,900.0 1763:$ 35,700.0 1760:$ 56,700.0 1740:$ 26,200.0 1737:$ 43,800.0 1717:$ 29,000.0 1714:$ 47,300.0 1694:$ 28,000.0 1691:$ 46,400.0 1671:$ 34,400.0 1668:$ 44,148.9 1645:$ 12,799.1 746:See also: 632:Employment 577:Youngstown 547:Pittsburgh 512:Louisville 375:California 305:Healthcare 254:Automotive 53:improve it 8454:Companies 8383:Job Corps 8044:Labor law 7934:Renewable 7917:Oil shale 7549:1994: WTO 7180:1986 Code 7080:1954 Code 7010:1939 Code 5787:April 20, 5723:April 26, 5690:April 26, 5466:April 23, 5219:155001158 4661:Taussig, 4606:Taussig, 4577:Taussig, 4560:Broadside 4490:Taussig, 4464:Taussig, 4438:Taussig, 4412:Taussig, 4399:Taussig, 3849:August 7, 3839:1941-1383 3295:convince 2959:McKinley 2886:industry. 2778:Civil War 2765:1860–1912 2747:Civil War 2693:Corn Laws 2631:Democrats 2528:In 1789, 2464:in 1802. 2339:Civil War 2096:Sources: 1892:$ 7,174.0 1869:$ 3,676.0 1846:$ 2,430.0 1823:$ 1,442.0 1800:$ 1,105.0 1789:$ 6,100.0 1766:$ 4,100.0 1743:$ 3,000.0 1720:$ 2,500.0 1697:$ 1,900.0 1674:$ 1,900.0 1651:$ 1,200.0 1648:$ 7,900.0 1625:$ 2,100.0 1622:$ 5,387.1 1602:$ 1,100.0 1599:$ 3,800.5 1579:$ 2,300.0 1576:$ 4,177.9 1556:$ 2,088.0 1553:$ 4,042.3 1533:$ 1,697.0 1530:$ 3,780.1 1510:$ 4,032.0 1507:$ 6,694.6 1487:$ 2,720.0 1484:$ 3,664.6 1461:$ 1,124.3 603:Labor Law 567:St. Louis 557:San Diego 502:Lexington 462:Cleveland 442:Allentown 310:Insurance 295:Education 213:Petroleum 57:verifying 8529:Category 8520:See also 8486:FCC mark 7993:Shipping 7836:Textiles 7779:Pharmacy 7753:Internet 7743:Gambling 7693:Aviation 7671:Industry 6905:Internal 6780:Archived 6762:Archived 6732:Archived 6698:Archived 6660:Archived 6655:(1996), 6636:Archived 6538:Archived 6507:Archived 6483:Archived 6409:Archived 6383:Archived 6353:Archived 6319:Archived 6292:Archived 6265:Archived 6151:Archived 6121:Archived 6091:Archived 6040:Archived 6007:Archived 5965:Archived 5932:Archived 5902:Archived 5872:Archived 5842:Archived 5812:Archived 5781:Archived 5746:Archived 5717:Archived 5684:Archived 5660:Archived 5620:Archived 5581:Archived 5542:Archived 5484:Archived 5460:Archived 5419:Archived 5350:Archived 5345:Marianne 5290:Archived 5240:Archived 5181:Archived 5162:Archived 5138:Archived 5085:Archived 5082:in JSTOR 5049:Archived 5046:in JSTOR 4796:Archived 4773:Archived 4770:in JSTOR 4723:Archived 4720:in JSTOR 4552:Archived 4526:Archived 4260:Archived 4220:Archived 4217:in JSTOR 4191:Archived 4066:Archived 3953:Archived 3935:Archived 3905:Archived 3887:Archived 3868:Archived 3843:Archived 3787:Archived 3756:Archived 3525:Kentucky 3484:supplies 2924:argued, 2827:(1927). 2650:and his 2476:and the 788:Receipts 783:% Tariff 572:Stamford 467:Columbus 385:New York 300:Gambling 233:Forestry 96:a series 8464:Top 500 8459:Largest 8289:Poverty 8106:History 8101:Banking 8078:banking 8074:Finance 8018:Exports 7988:Tourism 7929:Nuclear 7831:Tourism 7824:Digital 7794:Railway 7738:Fishing 7676:History 7633:History 7625:History 7519:1974/75 7380:Tariffs 7150:Gas Tax 6907:Revenue 6828:(1973). 6811:1879417 6775:(1885) 6614:1840850 6533:(1892) 6448:May 16, 6442:AP News 6317:. 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