246:. The PIR neurons cluster together creating "densely terminating afferent fibers…forming a core imposed on a diffuse background matrix of PIR cells" (Jones 2001). PIR cells tend to project upon the cerebral cortex and terminate in an organized topographic manner in specifically localized zones (in deep layer III and in the middle layer IV). In contrast, CIR cells have dispersed projections wherein various adjacent cells connect to non-specific different cortical areas. CIR axons seem to terminate primarily in the superficial layers of the cortex: layers I, II, and upper III.
205:) receives incoming signals via corticothalamic pathways and regulates activity within the thalamus accordingly. Corticothalamic feedback neurons are mostly found in layer VI of the cortex. Reciprocal CT projections to the thalamus are of a higher order than, and synapse with, the TRN in much greater number than do thalamocortical projections to cortex. This suggests that the cortex has a much bigger role in top down processing and regulation of thalamic activity than do the processes originating in thalamic interneurons. Large-scale frequency
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the primary auditory area, with most axons terminating in layer IIIB. The magnocellular nucleus projected a small amount of PIR cells with axons mainly terminating in layer 1, though large regions of the middle cortical layers were innervated through collaterally connected CIR neurons. Past research suggests that the thalamocortical-auditory pathway may be the only neural correlate that can explain a direct translation of frequency information to the cortex via specific pathways.
29:
275:(Arcelli et al. 1996) offers partial support to this claim by suggesting that thalamic GABAergic local circuit neurons in mammalian brains relate more to processing ability compared to sensorimotor ability, as they reflect an increasing complexity of local information processing in the thalamus. It is proposed that core relay cells and matrix cells projecting from the dorsal thalamus allow for synchronization of cortical and thalamic cells during "
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planning, in relation to the processing of incoming visual stimuli. Models of the pulvinar projections to the visual cortex have been proposed by several imaging studies, though their mapping has been difficult due to the fact that pulvinar subdivisions are not conventionally organized and have been difficult to visualize using structural MRI. Evidence from several studies supports the idea that the pulvinar nuclei and
41:
320:. S1 receives parallel thalamocortical radiations from the posterior medial nucleus and the VPN. Projections from the VPN to the postcentral gyrus account for the transfer of sensory information concerning touch and pain. Several studies indicate that parallel innervations to S1 and also S2 via thalamocortical pathways result in the processing of
331:, suggesting thalamocortical rhythms are involved in regulating sensori-motor pathways in a highly specialized manner. TC-CT rhythms evident during sleep act to inhibit these thalamocortical fibers so as to maintain the tonic cycling of low frequency waves and the subsequent suppression of motor activity.
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Research done by staining the brains of macaque monkeys reveals projections from the ventral nucleus, mainly terminating in layers IV and IIIB, with some nonspecific clusters of PIR cells terminating in layers I, II, IIIA, and VI. Fibers from the dorsal nuclei were found to project more directly to
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Thalamic interneurons process sensory information and signal different regions of the thalamic nuclei. These nuclei extend to relay cells, which in turn innervate distinct areas of the cortex via thalamocortical fibers. Either specifically or nonspecifically, TC relay cells project specifically to
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The majority of thalamocortical fibers project to layer IV of the cortex, wherein sensory information is directed to other layers where they either terminate or connect with axons collaterally, depending on the type of projection and type of initial activation. Activation of the thalamocortical
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are particularly interested in thalamocortical circuits because they represent a structure that is disproportionally larger and more complex in humans than other mammals (when body size is taken into account), which may contribute to humans' special cognitive abilities. Evidence from one study
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project to and terminate in V1, and carry motor information from the brain stem as well as other sensory input from the optic tract. The visual cortex connects with other sensory areas which allows for the integration of cognitive tasks such as selective and directed attention, and pre-motor
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and project to the visual cortex, somatosensory (and associated sensori-motor) cortex, and the auditory cortex in the brain. Thalamocortical radiations also innervate gustatory and olfactory pathways, as well as pre-frontal motor areas. Visual input from the optic tract is processed by the
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The primary motor cortex receives terminating thalamocortical fibers from the VL nucleus of the thalamus. This is the primary pathway involved in the transference of cerebellar input to the primary motor cortex. The VA projects widely across the inferior parietal and premotor cortex. Other
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Theories of consciousness have been linked to thalamocortical rhythm oscillations in TC-CT pathway activity. One such theory, the dynamic core theory of conscious experience, proposes four main pillars in support of conscious awareness as a consequence of dorsal thalamic activity:
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has been traditionally associated with reward-learning, and though has also been noted by some researchers to have a modulatory effect on thalamocortical network functioning, this is due to inherent activation of the premotor areas connecting the VA nucleus with the cortex.
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neurons that synapse in the TRN. In a study done by Gibbs, Zhang, Shumate, and
Coulter (1998) it was found that endogenously released zinc blocked GABA responses within the TC system specifically by interrupting communication between the thalamus and the connected TRN.
447:, and other forms of chronic psychosis. Other evidence has shown how reductions in the distribution of connections of nonspecific thalamocortical systems is heavily associated with loss of consciousness, as can be seen with individuals in a
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non-specific thalamocortical projections, those that originate in the dorsal-medial nuclei of the thalamus, terminate in the prefrontal cortex and have subsequent projections to associative premotor areas via collateral connections. The
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Another study done on rats suggests that during spike-and-wave seizures, thalamic rhythms are mediated by local thalamic connections, while the cortex controls the synchronization of these rhythms over extended periods of time.
1090:"Parallel processing of nociceptive and non-nociceptive somatosensory information in the human primary and secondary somatosensory cortices: Evidence from dynamic causal modeling of functional magnetic resonance imaging data"
254:
Thalamocortical signaling is primarily excitatory, causing the activation of corresponding areas of the cortex, but is mainly regulated by inhibitory mechanisms. The specific excitatory signaling is based upon
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Palmer S.L.; Noctor S.C.; Jablonska B.; Juliano S.L. (2001). "Laminar specific alterations of thalamocortical projections in organotypic cultures following layer 4 disruption in ferret somatosensory cortex".
225:
According to Jones (2001) there are two primary types of relay neurons in the thalamus of primates–core cells and matrix cells–each creating distinct pathways to various parts and layers throughout the
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and non-nociceptive information. Non-specific projections to sensori-motor areas of the cortex may in part have to do with the relationship between non-noci-receptive processing and motor functions.
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of the thalamus. Thalamic nuclei project to cortical areas of distinct architectural organization and relay the processed information back to the area of original activity in the thalamus via
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is a term associated with spontaneously reoccurring low frequency spike-and-wave activity in the thalamus, which causes symptoms normally associated with impulse control disorders such as
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Past research shows a link between S1 and M1, creating a thalamocortical sensori-motor circuit. When this circuit becomes disrupted symptoms are produced similar to those that accompany
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Thalamocortical radiations have been researched extensively in the past due to their relationship with attention, wakefulness, and arousal. Past research has shown how an increase in
854:
Gibbs J.W.; Zhang Y.; Shumate M.D.; Coulter D.A. (1999). "Regionally selective blockade of GABAergic inhibition by zinc in the thalamocortical system: functional significance".
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receive descending projections from CT fibers while TC fibers extending from the LGN carry visual information to the various areas of the visual cortex near the
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The bilateral interruption or severing of the connection between thalamocortical radiations and the medial and anterior thalamic nuclei results in a prefrontal
222:
organized areas of the cortex directly and nonspecifically project to large areas of cortex through the innervation of many interconnected collateral axons.
808:
Arcelli P.; Frassoni C.; Regondi M.C.; Biasi S.D.; Spreafico R. (1997). "GABAergic neurons in mammalian thalamus: a marker of thalamic complexity?".
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260:
234:), are widely distributed and diffusely dispersed in each of the nuclei of the dorsal thalamus. In comparison, parvalbumin immuno-reactive neurons (
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213:. Other evidence suggests CT modulation of TC rhythms can occur over different time scales, adding even more complexity to their function.
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889:
Rodriguez A.W.; Whitson J.; Granger R. (2004). "Derivation and analysis of basic computational operations of thalamocortical circuits".
1995:
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within the thalamus, causing moments of increased inhibition, leading to frequency spikes, which offset oscillation patterns.
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561:
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1141:"Thalamocortical sensorimotor circuit in multiple sclerosis: an integrated structural and electrophysiological assessment"
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activity within the TC network can disrupt normal rhythms involved with the sleep-wakefulness cycle, ultimately causing
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Xiuping; et al. (2011). "contributions of the thalamocortical system towards sound specific auditory plasticity".
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and electrical rhythms have also been shown to regulate TC activity for long periods of time, as is evident during the
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2995:
2529:
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2160:
2155:
2126:
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293:
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Jones; et al. (1995). "Patchy and laminar terminations of medial geniculate axons in monkey auditory cortex".
945:
160:, the other being microneurons. Thalamocortical fibers have a bush or tree-like appearance as they extend into the
107:
1932:
243:
1263:"specific and nonspecific thalamocortical connectivity in the auditory and somatosensory thalamocortical slices"
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signaling, and is dependent on the nature of the sensory information being processed. Recurrent oscillations in
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nuclei extends to the primary and secondary somatosensory areas, terminating in cortical layers of the lateral
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and project to the layers of the cortex. The main thalamocortical fibers extend from different nuclei of the
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Van Essen D.C. (2005). "corticocortical and thalamocortical information flow in the primate visual system".
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1041:"synaptic properties of thalamic input to layers 2/3 and 4 of primary somatosensory and auditory cortices"
467:, which causes a drastic personality change and a subdued behavioral disposition without cortical injury.
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This area of research is still developing, and most current theories are either partial or incomplete.
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Llinas; et al. (2003). "Neuropsychiatric thalamocortical dysrhythmia: surgical implications".
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1535:"specific and nonspecific thalamocortical functional connectivity in normal and vegetative states"
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terminate in nonspecific clusters of cells and form collateral connections to neighboring cells.
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vegetative states and general anesthetics work primarily to disrupt normal thalamic functioning
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and other forms of epileptic behavior. Burst firing within a part of the TC network stimulates
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Thalamocortical fibers (TC fibers) have been referred to as one of the two constituents of the
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that underlie discrete conscious events", though this is a heavily debated area of research.
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Deep dissection of brain-stem. Lateral view. (Thalamocortical fibers labeled at center top.)
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2006:
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Hill S.; Tononi G. (2005). "modeling sleep and wakefulness in the thalamocortical system".
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2013:
1987:
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Jones E.G. (1975). "Some aspects of the organization of the thalamic reticular complex".
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radiations terminate in specific locations while thalamocortical fibers from the
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990:"Glutamate in thalamic fibers terminating in layer IV of primary sensory cortex"
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148:. They form fiber bundles that emerge from the lateral surface of the thalamus.
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1416:"Involvement of the thalamocortical system in epileptic loss of consciousness"
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238:) can be found only in principal sensory and motor relay nuclei, and in the
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125:
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853:
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28:
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also provide large-scale regulatory feedback inputs to the thalamus via
113:
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95:
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230:. Matrix cells of the thalamus, or calbindin-immuno-reactive neurons (
2818:
2495:
289:
264:
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1626:(2011). "the thalamic dynamic core theory of conscious experience".
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the anatomy and physiology of the thalamus implies consciousness
1195:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 149. pp. 173–185.
570:
296:(EPSPs) at terminal branches in the primary sensory cortices.
556:(26th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 119.
288:
neurons relies heavily on the direct and indirect effects of
81:
1463:
Whalley K. (2010). "Inhibition: too much of a good thing?".
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Primarily, thalamocortical somatosensory radiation from the
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485:
the results of cortical computations underlay consciousness
452:
987:
981:
372:, and terminate in an organized topographic manner in the
40:
1584:"Prefrontal lobotomy; the surgical relief of mental pain"
475:
16:
Neural pathways between the thalamus and cerebral cortex
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655:
653:
583:
Scholarpedia the peer-reviewed open-access encyclopedia
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765:
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718:"Thalamic circuitry and thalamocortical synchrony"
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723:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
364:Thalamocortical axons project primarily from the
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1413:
1407:
844:
769:
497:accounts for the neural basis of consciousness.
1190:
1181:
882:
2882:
2369:
1681:
1232:Afifi A.K.; Bergman R.A. (December 1, 1997).
1138:
1588:Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine
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1456:
1346:
711:
709:
707:
705:
662:"emerging views of corticothalamic function"
1491:
1401:neuroanatomical basis of clinical neurology
1193:Cortical Function: A View from the Thalamus
1038:
1032:
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517:
399:cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop
192:
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1622:
1462:
1303:
1081:
715:
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520:"Neuroanatomy, Thalamocortical Radiations"
39:
33:Tractography of thalamocortical radiations
27:
2127:Posterior (sympathetic/heat conservation)
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1526:
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1115:
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598:
3776:Flocculonodular lobe/vestibulocerebellum
1433:10.1046/j.1528-1157.2001.042suppl.3013.x
1355:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
445:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
405:
3735:Intermediate hemisphere/spinocerebellum
1352:
3962:
3905:Ventral/anterior spinocerebellar tract
3834:Dorsal/posterior spinocerebellar tract
1497:
1260:
551:
476:Evolutionary theories of consciousness
458:
299:
2870:
2357:
1669:
1398:
1309:
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988:Kharazia V.N.; Weinberg R.J. (1994).
511:
2122:Anterior (parasympathetic/heat loss)
1532:
368:via the sublenticular region of the
410:
13:
3702:Lateral hemisphere/pontocerebellum
3225:Posterior limb of internal capsule
3041:Posterior limb of internal capsule
1007:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-10-06021.1994
616:Journal of Computational Neurology
579:"Models of thalamocortical system"
518:George, Kevin; M Das, Joe (2023).
294:excitatory postsynaptic potentials
14:
3986:
2996:Posterior external arcuate fibers
2161:Parvocellular neurosecretory cell
2156:Magnocellular neurosecretory cell
1039:Viaene A.N.; et al. (2011).
891:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
577:Granger H.R.; Hearn R.A. (2007).
545:
359:
181:, and somatosensory input in the
2044:Anterior trigeminothalamic tract
1312:Journal of Comparative Neurology
959:10.1046/j.0953-816x.2001.01519.x
946:European Journal of Neuroscience
108:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
1582:Freeman W.; Watts J.K. (1942).
1367:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.02.010
1139:Del'Acqua; et al. (2010).
666:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
334:
2281:Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus
1107:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6207-10.2011
660:Briggs F.; Usrey W.M. (2008).
391:
282:
216:
1:
3931:Rostral spinocerebellar tract
2632:Anterior perforated substance
1201:10.1016/S0079-6123(05)49013-5
822:10.1016/S0361-9230(96)00107-4
585:. Vol. 2. p. 1796.
504:
437:obsessive compulsive disorder
272:Computational neuroscientists
1797:Stria medullaris of thalamus
1640:10.1016/j.concog.2011.01.007
1551:10.1016/j.concog.2010.08.003
1500:Thalamus and Related Systems
1279:10.1097/WNR.0b013e32833d7cec
1261:Theyel; et al. (2010).
1240:. McGraw-Hill Professional.
151:
87:radiatio thalamocorticalis,
7:
3877:Anterior lobe of cerebellum
2199:Suprachiasmatic (melatonin)
1628:Consciousness and Cognition
1539:Consciousness and Cognition
1465:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
1088:Liang; et al. (2011).
552:Waxman, Stephen G. (2009).
470:
433:Thalamocortical dysrhythmia
277:high-frequency oscillations
249:
10:
3991:
3829:Posterior thoracic nucleus
3543:Thalamocortical radiations
3467:Thalamocortical radiations
2627:Anterior olfactory nucleus
1802:Thalamic reticular nucleus
1533:Zhou; et al. (2011).
1045:Journal of Neurophysiology
856:Journal of Neurophysiology
772:Journal of Neurophysiology
678:10.1016/j.conb.2008.09.002
341:lateral geniculate nucleus
199:thalamic reticular nucleus
171:lateral geniculate nucleus
130:thalamocortical radiations
22:Thalamocortical radiations
3886:
3863:Accessory cuneate nucleus
3805:
3794:
3781:Vestibulocerebellar tract
3690:
3615:Vestibulocerebellar tract
3602:
3593:
3558:
3482:
3422:
3413:
3389:
3359:
3329:
3303:
3265:
3256:
3208:
3201:
3150:
3124:Posterior parietal cortex
3091:Anterior white commissure
3071:
3057:
3029:
2977:
2932:
2923:
2916:
2827:
2770:
2751:
2724:
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2415:
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2392:and associated structures
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2135:
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1958:
1815:
1789:
1780:
1748:
1717:
1708:
1512:10.1017/S1472928803000104
1414:Kostopoulos G.K. (2001).
868:10.1152/jn.2000.83.3.1510
600:10.4249/scholarpedia.1796
526:. StatPearls Publishing.
366:medial geniculate nucleus
183:ventral posterior nucleus
179:medial geniculate nucleus
144:to distinct areas of the
106:
94:
89:tractus thalamocorticalis
80:
75:
65:
55:
50:
38:
26:
21:
3660:Inferior olivary nucleus
3547:Supplementary motor area
3471:Supplementary motor area
3281:Genu of internal capsule
3133:Spinomesencephalic tract
2716:Nucleus of diagonal band
2338:Nuclei campi perizonalis
2264:Retinohypothalamic tract
374:transverse temporal gyri
261:thalamocortical circuits
193:Corticothalamic feedback
177:, auditory input in the
3748:Cerebellothalamic tract
3229:Decussation of pyramids
3000:Internal arcuate fibers
2665:Lateral olfactory stria
2259:Medial forebrain bundle
2189:Arcuate (dopamine/GHRH)
1236:Functional neuroanatomy
1094:Journal of Neuroscience
994:Journal of Neuroscience
913:10.1162/089892904970690
810:Brain Research Bulletin
3682:Deep cerebellar nuclei
3649:Deep cerebellar nuclei
3640:Pontocerebellar fibers
3515:Subthalamic fasciculus
3507:Subthalamic fasciculus
3248:Neuromuscular junction
2734:Diagonal band of Broca
2660:Medial olfactory stria
2596:Subthalamic fasciculus
2574:Pallidothalamic tracts
2276:Mammillothalamic tract
2039:Subthalamic fasciculus
1973:Pallidothalamic tracts
1968:Mammillothalamic tract
1950:Interthalamic adhesion
736:10.1098/rstb.2002.1168
495:neural synchronization
187:corticothalamic fibers
140:that project from the
134:thalamocortical fibers
3868:Cuneocerebellar tract
3711:Dentatothalamic tract
3665:Olivocerebellar tract
3562:nigrostriatal pathway
3523:Lenticular fasciculus
3447:Lenticular fasciculus
3350:Vestibulospinal tract
2758:Hippocampal formation
2704:Substantia innominata
2589:Lenticular fasciculus
2303:is diencephalon, but
2024:Dentatothalamic tract
1983:Lenticular fasciculus
1945:Midline nuclear group
1324:10.1002/cne.903620204
1057:10.1152/jn.00747.2010
784:10.1152/jn.00915.2004
628:10.1002/cne.901620302
554:Clinical Neuroanatomy
406:Clinical significance
3380:Reticulospinal tract
3291:Facial motor nucleus
3277:Primary motor cortex
3221:Primary motor cortex
3167:Spinoreticular tract
3008:Trigeminal lemniscus
2947:Meissner's corpuscle
2007:Trigeminal lemniscus
1768:Subcommissural organ
1740:Habenular commissure
3743:Reticular formation
3531:Thalamic fasciculus
3511:Subthalamic nucleus
3455:Thalamic fasciculus
3375:Reticular formation
3371:Vestibulocerebellum
3341:Vestibulocerebellum
3286:Corticobulbar tract
3234:Corticospinal tract
3172:Reticular formation
3162:Group C nerve fiber
3138:Superior colliculus
3103:Spinothalamic tract
2990:sensory decussation
2852:Schaffer collateral
2763:Hippocampus anatomy
2579:Thalamic fasciculus
2328:Subthalamic nucleus
2146:posterior pituitary
2014:Spinothalamic tract
1988:Thalamic fasciculus
1145:Human Brain Mapping
730:(1428): 1659–1673.
716:Jones E.G. (2002).
591:2007SchpJ...2.1796G
459:Prefrontal lobotomy
441:Parkinson's disease
350:superior colliculus
300:Somatosensory areas
244:intralaminar nuclei
3926:Golgi tendon organ
3900:Golgi tendon organ
3731:Interposed nucleus
2961:Cuneate fasciculus
2957:Gracile fasciculus
2943:Pacinian corpuscle
2780:Hippocampus proper
2454:Olfactory tubercle
2029:Acoustic radiation
329:multiple sclerosis
3957:
3956:
3953:
3952:
3949:
3948:
3914:Cerebellar vermis
3843:Cerebellar vermis
3786:Vestibular nuclei
3772:Fastigial nucleus
3610:Vestibular nuclei
3589:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3527:Ansa lenticularis
3451:Ansa lenticularis
3409:
3408:
3402:→ muscles of neck
3399:Tectospinal tract
3345:Vestibular nuclei
3320:Rubrospinal tract
3197:
3196:
3193:
3192:
3120:Postcentral gyrus
3083:Free nerve ending
3053:
3052:
3045:Postcentral gyrus
2864:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2747:
2746:
2680:
2679:
2672:Olfactory trigone
2604:
2603:
2584:Ansa lenticularis
2518:Centrum semiovale
2504:
2503:
2449:Nucleus accumbens
2351:
2350:
2314:
2313:
2235:
2234:
2059:
2058:
2051:Medullary laminae
2019:Lateral lemniscus
1978:Ansa lenticularis
1776:
1775:
1735:Habenular trigone
1361:(10): 2155–2161.
1157:10.1002/hbm.20961
1151:(10): 1588–1600.
1100:(24): 8976–8985.
1000:(10): 6021–6032.
563:978-0-07-160399-7
354:calcarine fissure
318:postcentral gyrus
122:
121:
117:
3982:
3803:
3802:
3600:
3599:
3566:
3489:
3429:
3420:
3419:
3364:
3334:
3308:
3270:
3263:
3262:
3206:
3205:
3184:Cingulate cortex
3108:Spinal lemniscus
3069:
3068:
3004:Medial lemniscus
2952:Posterior column
2930:
2929:
2921:
2920:
2891:
2884:
2877:
2868:
2867:
2768:
2767:
2739:Stria terminalis
2692:
2691:
2615:
2614:
2561:External capsule
2525:Internal capsule
2444:Ventral striatum
2413:
2412:
2404:
2403:
2378:
2371:
2364:
2355:
2354:
2254:Stria terminalis
2109:
2108:
2070:
2069:
2002:Medial lemniscus
1787:
1786:
1763:Habenular nuclei
1715:
1714:
1690:
1683:
1676:
1667:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1620:
1614:
1613:
1603:
1579:
1573:
1572:
1562:
1530:
1524:
1523:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1435:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1396:
1387:
1386:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1307:
1301:
1300:
1290:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1239:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1188:
1179:
1178:
1168:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1119:
1109:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1068:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1019:
1009:
985:
979:
978:
939:
933:
932:
906:
886:
880:
879:
862:(3): 1510–1521.
851:
842:
841:
805:
796:
795:
778:(3): 1671–1698.
767:
758:
757:
747:
713:
700:
699:
689:
657:
648:
647:
611:
605:
604:
602:
574:
568:
567:
549:
543:
542:
540:
538:
515:
449:vegetative state
421:absence seizures
411:Absence seizures
370:internal capsule
162:internal capsule
132:, also known as
114:edit on Wikidata
111:
43:
31:
19:
18:
3990:
3989:
3985:
3984:
3983:
3981:
3980:
3979:
3975:Cerebral cortex
3960:
3959:
3958:
3945:
3882:
3855:muscle spindles
3821:muscle spindles
3808:
3798:Spinocerebellar
3796:
3790:
3698:Dentate nucleus
3686:
3581:
3559:
3554:
3483:
3478:
3423:
3405:
3394:Midbrain tectum
3385:
3360:
3355:
3330:
3325:
3304:
3299:
3266:
3252:
3189:
3146:
3142:Midbrain tectum
3062:
3049:
3025:
2992:/arcuate fibers
2973:
2969:Cuneate nucleus
2965:Gracile nucleus
2912:
2895:
2865:
2856:
2823:
2761:
2756:
2743:
2720:
2709:Nucleus basalis
2687:basal forebrain
2676:
2655:Olfactory tract
2641:
2600:
2566:Extreme capsule
2545:Optic radiation
2500:
2479:
2463:Globus pallidus
2435:Caudate nucleus
2425:Dorsal striatum
2393:
2382:
2352:
2347:
2342:Fields of Forel
2310:
2287:
2231:
2203:
2194:Preoptic (GnRH)
2151:Paraventricular
2131:
2098:
2089:Mammillary body
2080:Median eminence
2055:
2034:Optic radiation
1954:
1882:Pulvinar nuclei
1820:
1811:
1772:
1744:
1704:
1696:Anatomy of the
1694:
1664:
1663:
1621:
1617:
1594:(12): 794–812.
1580:
1576:
1531:
1527:
1506:(02): 103–113.
1496:
1492:
1477:10.1038/nrn2782
1461:
1457:
1412:
1408:
1397:
1390:
1351:
1347:
1308:
1304:
1273:(13): 861–864.
1259:
1255:
1248:
1230:
1226:
1211:
1189:
1182:
1137:
1133:
1086:
1082:
1037:
1033:
986:
982:
940:
936:
904:10.1.1.132.8042
887:
883:
852:
845:
806:
799:
768:
761:
714:
703:
658:
651:
612:
608:
575:
571:
564:
550:
546:
536:
534:
516:
512:
507:
478:
473:
461:
413:
408:
394:
362:
345:pulvinar nuclei
337:
302:
292:, which causes
285:
252:
242:as well as the
240:pulvinar nuclei
228:cerebral cortex
219:
195:
154:
146:cerebral cortex
138:efferent fibers
118:
88:
46:
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3988:
3978:
3977:
3972:
3955:
3954:
3951:
3950:
3947:
3946:
3944:
3943:
3918:
3917:
3892:
3890:
3884:
3883:
3881:
3880:
3847:
3846:
3813:
3811:
3809:proprioception
3800:
3795:Bidirectional:
3792:
3791:
3789:
3788:
3768:
3767:
3727:
3726:
3694:
3692:
3688:
3687:
3685:
3684:
3656:
3655:
3635:Pontine nuclei
3631:
3630:
3606:
3604:
3597:
3591:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3579:
3569:
3567:
3556:
3555:
3492:
3490:
3480:
3479:
3432:
3430:
3417:
3411:
3410:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3384:
3383:
3367:
3365:
3357:
3356:
3354:
3353:
3337:
3335:
3327:
3326:
3324:
3323:
3311:
3309:
3301:
3300:
3298:
3297:
3295:Facial muscles
3273:
3271:
3260:
3258:Extrapyramidal
3254:
3253:
3251:
3250:
3214:
3212:
3203:
3199:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3191:
3190:
3188:
3187:
3157:
3155:
3148:
3147:
3128:
3127:
3078:
3076:
3066:
3055:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3047:
3036:
3034:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3023:
2984:
2982:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2971:
2939:
2937:
2927:
2918:
2914:
2913:
2894:
2893:
2886:
2879:
2871:
2862:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2849:
2847:Perforant path
2844:
2839:
2833:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2821:
2816:
2815:
2814:
2812:Fascia dentata
2804:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2776:
2774:
2765:
2749:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2741:
2736:
2730:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2700:
2698:
2689:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2668:
2667:
2662:
2651:
2649:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2639:
2637:Olfactory bulb
2634:
2629:
2623:
2621:
2612:
2610:Rhinencephalon
2606:
2605:
2602:
2601:
2599:
2598:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2586:
2569:
2568:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2554:Corona radiata
2550:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2540:Posterior limb
2537:
2532:
2521:
2520:
2514:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2499:
2498:
2493:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2470:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2451:
2440:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2432:
2421:
2419:
2410:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2381:
2380:
2373:
2366:
2358:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2335:
2330:
2324:
2322:
2316:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2308:
2297:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2278:
2268:
2267:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2245:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2213:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2182:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2158:
2141:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2129:
2124:
2118:
2116:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2084:Tuber cinereum
2076:
2074:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2004:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1970:
1964:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1941:
1940:
1930:
1921:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1896:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1864:
1863:
1862:
1849:
1835:
1826:
1824:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1807:Taenia thalami
1804:
1799:
1793:
1791:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1758:Pretectal area
1754:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1721:
1719:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1693:
1692:
1685:
1678:
1670:
1662:
1661:
1634:(2): 464–486.
1615:
1574:
1545:(2): 257–268.
1525:
1490:
1455:
1406:
1388:
1345:
1318:(2): 195–208.
1302:
1253:
1247:978-0070015890
1246:
1224:
1209:
1180:
1131:
1080:
1051:(1): 279–292.
1031:
980:
953:(8): 1559–71.
934:
897:(5): 856–877.
881:
843:
797:
759:
701:
672:(4): 403–407.
649:
622:(3): 285–308.
606:
569:
562:
544:
509:
508:
506:
503:
499:
498:
492:
489:
486:
477:
474:
472:
469:
460:
457:
425:GABA receptors
417:spike-and-wave
412:
409:
407:
404:
393:
390:
361:
360:Auditory areas
358:
336:
333:
301:
298:
284:
281:
251:
248:
218:
215:
194:
191:
153:
150:
120:
119:
110:
104:
103:
98:
92:
91:
84:
78:
77:
73:
72:
67:
63:
62:
57:
53:
52:
48:
47:
44:
36:
35:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3987:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3967:
3965:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3932:
3927:
3923:
3920:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3906:
3901:
3897:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3889:
3885:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3869:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3849:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3815:
3814:
3812:
3810:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3793:
3787:
3783:
3782:
3777:
3773:
3770:
3769:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3749:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3729:
3728:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3712:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3689:
3683:
3679:
3678:Purkinje cell
3675:
3671:
3667:
3666:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3616:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3592:
3578:
3574:
3573:Pars compacta
3571:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3557:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3488:
3487:
3481:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3415:Basal ganglia
3412:
3401:
3400:
3395:
3392:
3391:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3376:
3372:
3369:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3358:
3352:
3351:
3346:
3342:
3339:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3328:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3302:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3287:
3282:
3278:
3275:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3255:
3249:
3245:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3211:
3207:
3204:
3200:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3168:
3163:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3134:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3104:
3101:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3087:A delta fiber
3084:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3060:
3059:Anterolateral
3056:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3028:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2991:
2986:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2976:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2906:neural tracts
2903:
2899:
2892:
2887:
2885:
2880:
2878:
2873:
2872:
2869:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2820:
2817:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2807:Dentate gyrus
2805:
2801:
2798:
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2778:
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2530:Anterior limb
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2399:Basal ganglia
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280:
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257:glutamatergic
247:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
223:
214:
212:
208:
204:
200:
190:
189:(CT fibers).
188:
184:
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176:
172:
167:
163:
159:
149:
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143:
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131:
127:
115:
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71:
68:
64:
61:
58:
54:
49:
42:
37:
30:
25:
20:
3929:
3903:
3866:
3832:
3779:
3765:Motor cortex
3746:
3724:Motor cortex
3709:
3663:
3653:Granule cell
3638:
3628:Granule cell
3613:
3560:
3551:Motor cortex
3542:
3495:Motor cortex
3485:
3475:Motor cortex
3466:
3435:Motor cortex
3425:
3397:
3378:
3361:
3348:
3331:
3318:
3305:
3284:
3267:
3232:
3217:
3165:
3131:
3129:
3094:
2988:
2950:
2829:White matter
2726:White matter
2647:White matter
2572:
2510:White matter
2333:Zona incerta
2307:is glandular
2270:
2248:
2241:White matter
2222:Ventromedial
2185:
2144:
2094:Infundibulum
2065:Hypothalamus
1994:
1960:White matter
1938:Centromedian
1933:Intralaminar
1924:
1889:Metathalamus
1829:
1725:Pineal gland
1698:diencephalon
1631:
1627:
1618:
1591:
1587:
1577:
1542:
1538:
1528:
1503:
1499:
1493:
1468:
1464:
1458:
1426:(3): 13–19.
1423:
1419:
1409:
1400:
1358:
1354:
1348:
1315:
1311:
1305:
1270:
1266:
1256:
1235:
1227:
1192:
1148:
1144:
1134:
1097:
1093:
1083:
1048:
1044:
1034:
997:
993:
983:
950:
944:
937:
894:
890:
884:
859:
855:
816:(1): 27–37.
813:
809:
775:
771:
727:
721:
669:
665:
619:
615:
609:
582:
572:
553:
547:
535:. Retrieved
523:
513:
500:
479:
462:
429:
414:
395:
386:
363:
338:
335:Visual areas
326:
303:
286:
270:
253:
235:
231:
224:
220:
207:oscillations
202:
196:
186:
155:
133:
129:
126:neuroanatomy
123:
86:
3807:Unconscious
3753:Red nucleus
3315:Red nucleus
2902:spinal cord
2772:Grey matter
2753:Archicortex
2696:Grey matter
2619:Grey matter
2408:Grey matter
2390:human brain
2320:Subthalamus
2227:Dorsomedial
2177:vasopressin
2104:Grey matter
1817:Grey matter
1750:Grey matter
1710:Epithalamus
1702:human brain
1267:NeuroReport
392:Motor areas
322:nociceptive
283:Projections
236:PIR neurons
232:CIR neurons
217:Relay cells
211:sleep cycle
158:isothalamus
76:Identifiers
3964:Categories
3940:Cerebellum
3922:upper limb
3896:lower limb
3888:Reflex arc
3851:upper limb
3817:lower limb
3674:Hemisphere
3624:Cerebellum
3595:Cerebellar
3473:) → 5° (
3362:extension:
3332:extension:
2168:Supraoptic
1624:Ward L. M.
1471:(1): 6–7.
1399:Arslan O.
524:StatPearls
505:References
136:, are the
96:NeuroNames
3549:) → 7° (
3486:indirect:
3210:Pyramidal
2910:fasciculi
2819:Subiculum
2496:Claustrum
2301:Posterior
2293:Pituitary
2137:Endocrine
2113:Autonomic
1420:Epilepsia
899:CiteSeerX
290:glutamate
265:GABAergic
152:Structure
3970:Thalamus
3928:) → 2° (
3902:) → 2° (
3861:) → 2° (
3827:) → 2° (
3757:Thalamus
3716:Thalamus
3691:Efferent
3603:Afferent
3577:Striatum
3541:) → 6° (
3539:Thalamus
3521:) → 5° (
3513:) → 4° (
3505:) → 3° (
3501:) → 2° (
3499:Striatum
3465:) → 4° (
3463:Thalamus
3445:) → 3° (
3441:) → 2° (
3439:Striatum
3306:flexion:
3268:flexion:
3242:Anterior
3218:flexion:
3182:) → 3° (
3180:Thalamus
3174:) → 2° (
3122:) → 4° (
3118:) → 3° (
3116:Thalamus
3100:Anterior
3089:) → 2° (
3075:/lateral
3012:Thalamus
2491:Amygdala
2417:Striatum
2384:Rostral
2305:anterior
2271:efferent
2249:afferent
2173:oxytocin
1925:midline:
1782:Thalamus
1730:Habenula
1648:21349742
1610:19312295
1569:21078562
1520:12856492
1485:33898199
1450:23495744
1442:11520316
1383:42437671
1375:21349286
1340:34644952
1297:20647961
1219:16226584
1175:20162580
1126:21677181
1075:21047937
975:10933349
967:11328350
921:15200713
876:10712476
838:23211449
792:15537811
754:12626002
696:18805486
644:28724898
532:31536305
471:Research
465:lobotomy
343:and the
250:Function
175:thalamus
166:thalamus
142:thalamus
60:Thalamus
3745:, or →
3426:direct:
3238:Lateral
3154:/medial
3096:Lateral
2917:Sensory
2842:Fimbria
2430:Putamen
2388:of the
2217:Lateral
2209:Emotion
2073:Surface
1867:Lateral
1838:Ventral
1830:paired:
1790:Surface
1718:Surface
1700:of the
1656:6099949
1601:1933933
1560:3056940
1332:8576433
1288:2945241
1166:6871076
1117:6622932
1066:3023380
1026:7931559
1017:6577001
929:5652129
830:8978932
745:1693077
687:2626162
636:1150923
587:Bibcode
537:20 June
173:of the
51:Details
3924:→ 1° (
3898:→ 1° (
3853:→ 1° (
3819:→ 1° (
2837:Alveus
2685:Other
2186:other:
1914:K cell
1909:M cell
1904:P cell
1822:nuclei
1654:
1646:
1608:
1598:
1567:
1557:
1518:
1483:
1448:
1440:
1381:
1373:
1338:
1330:
1295:
1285:
1244:
1217:
1207:
1173:
1163:
1124:
1114:
1073:
1063:
1024:
1014:
973:
965:
927:
919:
901:
874:
836:
828:
790:
752:
742:
694:
684:
642:
634:
560:
530:
70:Cortex
3202:Motor
2898:Brain
2484:Other
2115:zones
1652:S2CID
1481:S2CID
1446:S2CID
1379:S2CID
1336:S2CID
971:S2CID
925:S2CID
834:S2CID
640:S2CID
451:, or
112:[
82:Latin
3763:) →
3722:) →
3493:1° (
3433:1° (
3160:1° (
3152:Slow
3130:2° (
3098:and
3081:1° (
3073:Fast
3064:pain
3002:) →
2963:) →
2925:DCML
2908:and
2900:and
2535:Genu
1996:PCML
1644:PMID
1606:PMID
1565:PMID
1516:PMID
1438:PMID
1371:PMID
1328:PMID
1293:PMID
1242:ISBN
1215:PMID
1205:ISBN
1171:PMID
1122:PMID
1071:PMID
1022:PMID
963:PMID
917:PMID
872:PMID
826:PMID
788:PMID
750:PMID
692:PMID
632:PMID
558:ISBN
539:2023
528:PMID
453:coma
382:VMGN
378:MMGN
339:The
312:and
197:The
101:1337
56:From
3936:ICP
3910:SCP
3873:ICP
3859:DRG
3839:ICP
3825:DRG
3774:in
3739:SCP
3733:in
3706:SCP
3700:in
3670:ICP
3662:→
3645:MCP
3620:ICP
3537:of
3519:GPi
3503:GPe
3461:of
3443:GPi
3343:→
3178:of
3140:of
3114:of
3112:VPL
3020:VPM
3016:VPL
2800:CA4
2795:CA3
2790:CA2
2785:CA1
2473:GPi
2468:GPe
1860:VPL
1856:VPM
1636:doi
1596:PMC
1555:PMC
1547:doi
1508:doi
1473:doi
1428:doi
1363:doi
1320:doi
1316:362
1283:PMC
1275:doi
1197:doi
1161:PMC
1153:doi
1112:PMC
1102:doi
1061:PMC
1053:doi
1049:105
1012:PMC
1002:doi
955:doi
909:doi
864:doi
818:doi
780:doi
740:PMC
732:doi
728:357
682:PMC
674:doi
624:doi
620:162
595:doi
310:VPM
306:VPL
203:TRN
124:In
3966::
3938:→
3934:→
3912:→
3908:→
3875:→
3871:→
3865:→
3857:→
3841:→
3837:→
3831:→
3823:→
3784:→
3778:→
3761:VL
3755:→
3751:→
3741:→
3737:→
3720:VL
3714:→
3708:→
3704:→
3680:→
3676:→
3672:→
3668:→
3651:→
3647:→
3643:→
3637:→
3626:→
3622:→
3618:→
3612:→
3575:→
3545:→
3535:VL
3533:→
3529:→
3517:→
3509:→
3497:→
3469:→
3459:VL
3457:→
3453:→
3437:→
3396:→
3377:→
3373:→
3347:→
3317:→
3293:→
3289:→
3283:→
3279:→
3246:→
3240:,
3231:→
3227:→
3223:→
3176:MD
3170:→
3164:→
3144:)
3136:→
3110:→
3106:→
3093:→
3085:→
3043:→
3039:→
3031:3°
3018:,
3010:→
2998:,
2987:→
2979:2°
2949:→
2934:1°
2904::
1928:MD
1899:LG
1894:MG
1877:LP
1872:LD
1852:VP
1847:VL
1843:VA
1833:AN
1650:.
1642:.
1632:20
1630:.
1604:.
1592:18
1590:.
1586:.
1563:.
1553:.
1543:20
1541:.
1537:.
1514:.
1502:.
1479:.
1469:11
1467:.
1444:.
1436:.
1424:42
1422:.
1418:.
1391:^
1377:.
1369:.
1359:35
1357:.
1334:.
1326:.
1314:.
1291:.
1281:.
1271:21
1269:.
1265:.
1213:.
1203:.
1183:^
1169:.
1159:.
1147:.
1143:.
1120:.
1110:.
1098:31
1096:.
1092:.
1069:.
1059:.
1047:.
1043:.
1020:.
1010:.
998:14
996:.
992:.
969:.
961:.
951:13
949:.
923:.
915:.
907:.
895:16
893:.
870:.
860:83
858:.
846:^
832:.
824:.
814:42
812:.
800:^
786:.
776:93
774:.
762:^
748:.
738:.
726:.
720:.
704:^
690:.
680:.
670:18
668:.
664:.
652:^
638:.
630:.
618:.
593:.
581:.
522:.
455:.
443:,
439:,
376:.
356:.
314:LP
308:,
128:,
66:To
3942:)
3916:)
3879:)
3845:)
3759:(
3718:(
3564::
3553:)
3525:/
3477:)
3449:/
3244:)
3236:(
3186:)
3126:)
3061:/
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