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found in works on this subject by others less plainly labeled". Adéèkó suggests that "James' work is radical, conceived with a
Marxist framework, and favors the search for determinative factors within social dialects". Thomas O. Ott also fixes on James's association with a Marxist framework, suggesting that James's "stumbling attempt to connect the Haitian and French revolutions through some sort of common mass movement is a good example of 'fact trimming' to fit a particular thesis or ideology." Both recent and contemporary reviewers agree that James's view (and critique) of extant historiography make the work extremely valuable in the study of Caribbean history.
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a force capable of breaking the French hold on the colony of San
Domingo. He emerged both as a powerful, unifying symbol of the march of enslaved Africans toward liberty, and as an extraordinary politician: "superbly gifted, he incarnated the determination of his people never, never to be slaves again." James emphasizes the writing and thought of Toussaint, and quotes him at length, in order to demonstrate the man as he existed politically, often in contrast, according to James, to what has been written about him. James believes that Toussaint's own words best convey his personality and genius, which was all the more remarkable given its unlikely origins:
265:, the traditionally famous historians have been more artist than scientist: they wrote so well because they saw so little. To-day by a natural reaction we tend to a personification of the social forces, great men being merely or nearly instruments in the hands of economic destiny. As so often the truth does not lie in between. Great men make history, but only such history as it is possible for them to make. Their freedom of achievement is limited by the necessities of their environment. To portray the limits of those necessities and the realisation, complete or partial, of all possibilities, that is the true business of the historian.
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326:(Saint-Domingue), were still looking upon the slave revolt as a huge riot which would be put down in time, once the division between the slave-owners was closed." The narrative of the Haitian Revolution had been, according to James, largely dominated by distant, foreign, or opportunist narrators, who opted for their own preferred emphases. On this plasticity of historical narrative, James opines of the French Revolution, "Had the monarchists been white, the bourgeoisie brown, and the masses of France black, the French Revolution would have gone down in history as a race war."
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ideals in the minds and spirits of a people rising from slavery. L'Ouverture had defiantly asserted that he intended "to cease to live before gratitude dies in my heart, before I cease to be faithful to France and to my duty, before the god of liberty is profaned and sullied by the liberticides, before they can snatch from my hands that sword, those arms, which France confided to me for the defence of its rights and those of humanity, for the triumph of liberty and equality."
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to do in the appendix: "In an appendix to the second edition, James noted intellectual and social movements in Cuba, Haiti and
Trinidad during the 1920s and 1930s. First in Cuba, Haiti (1927), then in Brazil, Surinam and Trinidad (1931), other small groups faced the challenge of coming to terms with events which disrupted their understanding and connectedness to the wider world by revealing the relations of force."
367:, were men of a liberal education, formed in the traditions of ethics, philosophy and history. Toussaint was a slave, not six years out of slavery, bearing alone the unaccustomed burden of war and government, dictating his thoughts in the crude words of a broken dialect, written and rewritten by his secretaries until their devotion and his will had hammered them into adequate shape.
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Another reviewer, W. G. Seabrook, heralds James's work as "a public service for which he merits the attention due a scholar who blazes the way in an all but neglected field". Seabrook proceeds to predict the importance of the work to
Caribbean history, and the probable extensive circulation of the book. Decades after the first publication of the work,
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Of his text on "the only successful slave revolt in history", James writes: "I made up my mind that I would write a book in which
Africans or people of African descent instead of constantly being the object of other peoples' exploitation and ferocity would themselves be taking action on a grand scale
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is a central figure in James's telling of the
Haitian Revolution. Although born a slave, James writes of Toussaint, "both in body and mind he was far beyond the average slave". Toussaint joined the revolution after its onset and was immediately regarded as a leader, organizing the Haitian people into
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Some critics have accused the book of being partisan, in its glorification of the struggle against slavery and colonialism, or in its ideological bent. According to
Montague, "The author's sympathies and frame of reference are evident, but he tells his story with more restraint than can generally be
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James looks more broadly at the West Indies in his 1963 appendix to the text, "From
Toussaint L’Ouverture to Fidel Castro". In the appendix James considers patterns between later developments in the Caribbean and the Haitian revolution. Literary critic Santiago Valles summarizes what James attempts
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Already perfidious emissaries have stepped in among us to ferment the destructive leaven prepared by the hands of liberticides. But they will not succeed. I swear it by all that liberty holds most sacred. My attachment to France, my knowledge of the blacks, make it my duty not to leave you ignorant
172:
Toussaint L'Ouverture becomes a central and symbolic character in James's narrative of the
Haitian Revolution. His complete embodiment of the revolutionary ideals of the period was, according to James, incomprehensible even to the revolutionary French, who did not seem to grasp the urgency of these
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in depth while studying
Marxism in England. In this foreword, written 42 years after the work's first publication, James discusses his own background, his reasons for chronicling the history, and major people who influenced the work. He stated that he hoped others would elaborate on his research.
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has been characterized as demonstrating that "the French Revolution was not an insurrectionary experience limited to Europe". Given his origins as a slave in a colonized land, and the unmistakable current of French Revolutionary ideology that he imbibed and upheld, Toussaint L'Ouverture becomes,
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since its first publication in 1938. In a 1940 review, Ludwell Lee Montague asserts that James "finds his way with skill through kaleidoscopic sequences of events in both Haiti and France, achieving clarity where complexities of class, color, and section have reduced others to vague confusion".
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James's reflections on the context of his writings echo his concerns on the context of the events, as traditionally narrated. The book represents, according to some commentators, a challenge to the conventional "geography" of history, which usually identifies the national histories of states as
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Historians still continue to comment on the significance of the work and how it has paved the way for more detailed study of social and political movements in the Caribbean region. In a look at the role slaves themselves have played in Caribbean and American rebellions Adélékè Adéèkó points
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221:'s firing squads and the fierce shrill revolutionary movement striving for clarity and influence." In a later passage, James writes of the slaves in the early days of French revolutionary violence, the "slaves only watched their masters destroy one another, as
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James sets out to offer a view of the events that notes European and white perspectives without leaving them unquestioned. For James, the dismissiveness and marginalization that the slaves' revolutionary efforts faced was not only a problem of latter-day
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In one letter that James quotes at length, sent by Toussaint to the Directory at a time when French colonists were conspiring to restore the slave system, Toussaint wrote that liberty was being assailed by the colonists under "the veil of patriotism":
310:, but a problem at every historical moment back to and throughout the revolution. While Toussaint L'Ouverture set out to defend and maintain the dignity of man as he garnered it from French revolutionary literature, and particularly
146:. These ideals, which many French revolutionaries did not maintain consistently with regard to the black humanity of their colonial possessions, were embraced, according to James, with a greater purity by the persecuted blacks of
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that the "cruelties of property and privilege are always more ferocious than the revenges of poverty and oppression. For the one aims at perpetuating resented injustice, the other is merely a momentary passion soon appeased."
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in 1937. The impending world war was recognized and alluded to in the text by James, who had been living in England since 1932; in his Preface, he places the writing of the history in the context of "the booming of
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Aware of some of the attacks on his book, James felt that no one could dispute the accuracy of his history; he "was never worried about what they would find, confident that foundation would remain imperishable".
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229:, and will watch them again before long." Of his text, James suggests that "had it been written under different circumstances it would have been a different but not necessarily a better book." He met
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to govern wrong, can easily be made responsible for the downfall of states and the birth of new societies. Such elementary conceptions lend themselves willingly to narrative treatment and from
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according to one reading of James, not merely the extraordinary leader of an island revolt, but "the apogee of the revolutionary doctrines that underpinned the French Revolution."
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either of the crimes which they meditate or the oath that we renew, to bury ourselves under the ruins of a country revived by liberty rather than suffer the return of slavery.
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in the title role. The play was significant in bringing the Haitian Revolution to the attention of the British public. The play has been published as a graphic novel by
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could not understand this motivation, according to James, and mistook it for rhetoric or bombast. "Rivers of blood were to flow before they understood," James writes.
282:, "events in France and in Haiti criss-cross and answer each other like voices in a fugue." "The blacks were taking their part in the destruction of European
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was in actuality a pragmatic interest, in that it undermined the French by crippling access to slave labour for France's most lucrative colonies.
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In 2018, it was announced that the book was going to be made into a television programme thanks to Bryncoed Productions, with the assistance of
286:", according to James, and, as the workers and peasants of France stiffened in their resistance to local tyranny, they also became passionate
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Dalleo, Raphael (2014). "'The independence so hardly won has been maintained': C.L.R. James and the U.S. Occupation of Haiti".
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and shaping other people to their own needs". James writes sceptically of British efforts to suppress the slave trade by using
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during the era before the Haitian Revolution, and places each revolution in comparative historical and economic perspective.
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as a figurehead. James asserts that the actual concern of the British was strategic, and that their humanitarian interest in
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Smith, Ashley (January 2009). "The Black Jacobins – A review of C. L. R. James's classic account of Haiti's slave revolt".
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Figueroa, Víctor (2006). "The Kingdom of Black Jacobins: C. L. R. James and Alejo Carpentier on the Haitian Revolution".
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James examines the brutal conditions of slavery as well as the social and political status of the slave-owners, poor or
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The writing of history becomes ever more difficult. The power of God or the weakness of man, Christianity or the
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stirs this high level of inspiration for its symbolic reconfiguration of the slaves’ will to freedom."
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394:
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Suttles Jr., William C. (1971). "African Religious Survivals as Factors in American Slave Revolts".
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Toussaint Louverture: The Story of the Only Successful Slave Revolt in History; A Play in Three Acts
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despite their geographical remove from the French slave enterprise in the Western hemisphere.
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In 1967, James revised the play with the help of Dexter Lyndersay and his new play,
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He went to Paris to research this work, where he met Haitian military historian
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Santiago-Valles, W. F. (2003). "C. L. R. James: Asking Questions of the Past".
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Toussaint Louverture: The Story of the Only Successful Slave Revolt in History
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in Paris while researching the book. Nemours, a Haitian diplomat, had written
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The Black Jacobins: Toussaint l'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution
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The Black Jacobins. Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution
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The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution
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Yang, Manuel (3 February 2008). "The Black Jacobins 70 Years Later".
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leading up to the Revolution. The book explores the dynamics of the
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Histoire militaire de la guerre d'independance de Saint-Domingue
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Conscripts of Modernity: The Tragedy of Colonial Enlightenment
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134:. James's text places the revolution in the context of the
995:, TBI Television Business International, 26 November 2018.
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In 1934, James wrote a play about the Haitian Revolution,
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In the 1980 foreword to the British edition published by
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Forsdick, Charles; Høgsbjerg, Christian, eds. (2017).
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The Slave's Rebellion: Literature, History, Orature
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1145:. by Cyril Lionel Robert James". Review.
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1099:Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory
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956:"New Black theatre companies"
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1355:, 126 (2010).
1354:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1342:
1341:
1338:Extract from
1336:
1335:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1293:(2): 97–104.
1292:
1288:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1261:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1139:
1132:
1131:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1100:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1073:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1050:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1005:
994:
988:
981:
976:
969:
964:
957:
954:Susan Croft,
951:
944:
940:
935:
920:
916:
910:
903:
899:
898:
891:
884:
878:
869:
860:
858:
848:
839:
830:
821:
812:
806:Montague 130.
803:
794:
785:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
752:
750:
741:
740:
735:
728:
722:James, p. 91.
719:
712:
707:
698:
691:
685:
683:
681:
673:
672:
665:
663:
653:
647:James, p. 82.
644:
638:James, x–xi.`
635:
633:
631:
629:
613:
609:
602:
596:, pp. 197–98.
595:
590:
588:
586:
584:
582:
580:
575:
568:
566:
561:
559:
555:
554:Norman Beaton
551:
547:
543:
538:
536:
532:
528:
523:
521:
517:
513:
509:
508:
499:
494:
490:
488:
484:
480:
474:
470:
468:
464:
459:
446:
445:Penguin Books
442:
439:
435:
432:
428:
427:Vintage Books
424:
422:
418:
417:
411:
409:
405:
399:
396:
392:
388:
384:
378:
373:
368:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
345:
342:
335:
331:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
298:
295:
291:
289:
288:abolitionists
285:
281:
277:
273:
266:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
242:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
219:Joseph Stalin
216:
211:
210:
205:
204:
199:
189:
186:
181:
179:
174:
170:
168:
164:
160:
156:
151:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
113:
103:
99:
95:
92:
88:
74:
70:
66:
62:
59:
56:
52:
49:
46:
42:
35:
30:
22:
21:Black jacobin
1373:
1370:, 16 (2014).
1365:
1360:
1350:
1339:
1323:
1290:
1286:
1269:
1265:
1259:
1248:
1239:
1214:
1208:
1204:
1182:(1): 61–78.
1179:
1175:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1129:
1103:
1097:
1081:
1071:
1053:
1047:
1022:
1018:
1009:
987:
975:
963:
950:
942:
934:
922:. Retrieved
918:
909:
896:
890:
882:
877:
868:
847:
838:
829:
820:
811:
802:
793:
784:
776:
756:
737:
727:
718:
710:
706:
697:
689:
670:
652:
643:
615:. Retrieved
611:
601:
593:
562:
541:
539:
535:Earl Cameron
526:
524:
516:Paul Robeson
505:
503:
497:
491:
486:
482:
478:
475:
471:
462:
457:
455:
431:Random House
400:
386:
380:
375:
370:
347:
339:
304:
293:
292:
275:
268:
244:
234:
207:
206:in 1936 and
201:
195:
184:
182:
175:
171:
152:
129:
111:
110:
109:
943:Radio Times
617:19 December
531:BBC Radio 4
324:San Domingo
280:Edward Said
259:Thuycidides
203:Minty Alley
178:bourgeoisie
176:The French
117:Trinidadian
1396:1967 plays
1380:Categories
779:, p. xvii.
773:"Foreword"
656:Dalleo 44.
571:References
316:Feuillants
119:historian
1315:149485699
1196:145376669
1120:147908021
1039:140362980
1025:: 38–59.
982:, Talawa.
924:20 August
713:, p. 128.
540:In 1986,
469:history.
357:Jefferson
353:Tom Paine
284:feudalism
227:1914–1918
159:mulattoes
90:Publisher
72:Published
1367:sx salon
1062:23055334
711:Jacobins
594:Jacobins
500:as drama
414:Editions
391:Trinidad
349:Pericles
320:Jacobins
301:The text
255:Macaulay
223:Africans
165:and the
1307:2716232
1262:(1936)"
1231:2714508
1167:2507494
904:, 2012.
514:, with
443:2011 —
257:, from
251:Tacitus
80: (
67:History
54:Subject
1313:
1305:
1229:
1194:
1165:
1118:
1060:
1037:
763:
365:Engels
312:Raynal
215:Franco
44:Author
1311:S2CID
1303:JSTOR
1251:(63).
1227:JSTOR
1192:S2CID
1163:JSTOR
1134:(PDF)
1116:S2CID
1094:(PDF)
1058:JSTOR
1035:S2CID
919:Verso
520:Verso
263:Green
148:Haiti
64:Genre
926:2023
761:ISBN
619:2022
363:and
361:Marx
318:and
96:Ltd.
82:1938
75:1938
1364:in
1295:doi
1274:doi
1219:doi
1184:doi
1155:doi
1108:doi
1027:doi
261:to
253:to
1382::
1349:,
1309:.
1301:.
1291:56
1289:.
1270:14
1268:.
1264:.
1225:.
1215:24
1213:.
1190:.
1180:45
1178:.
1161:.
1151:20
1149:.
1114:.
1104:44
1102:.
1096:.
1054:25
1052:.
1033:.
1023:87
1021:.
917:.
900:.
856:^
771:,
748:^
736:.
679:^
661:^
627:^
610:.
578:^
567:.
560:.
359:,
355:,
351:,
241:.
1317:.
1297::
1280:.
1276::
1233:.
1221::
1198:.
1186::
1169:.
1157::
1122:.
1110::
1064:.
1041:.
1029::
928:.
742:.
621:.
429:/
84:)
23:.
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