Three-phase electric power

639:

common to the three phases). When a group of customers sharing the neutral draw unequal phase currents, the common neutral wire carries the currents resulting from these imbalances. Electrical engineers try to design the three-phase power system for any one location so that the power drawn from each of three phases is the same, as far as possible at that site. Electrical engineers also try to arrange the distribution network so the loads are balanced as much as possible, since the same principles that apply to individual premises also apply to the wide-scale distribution system power. Hence, every effort is made by supply authorities to distribute the power drawn on each of the three phases over a large number of premises so that, on average, as nearly as possible a balanced load is seen at the point of supply.

2119: 3546:. This system was devised to avoid patent infringement. In this system, a generator was wound with a full-voltage single-phase winding intended for lighting loads and with a small fraction (usually 1/4 of the line voltage) winding that produced a voltage in quadrature with the main windings. The intention was to use this "power wire" additional winding to provide starting torque for induction motors, with the main winding providing power for lighting loads. After the expiration of the Westinghouse patents on symmetrical two-phase and three-phase power distribution systems, the monocyclic system fell out of use; it was difficult to analyze and did not last long enough for satisfactory energy metering to be developed. 1458: 496: 505: 2114:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V_{12}&=V_{1}-V_{2}=(V_{\text{LN}}\angle 0^{\circ })-(V_{\text{LN}}\angle {-120}^{\circ })\\&={\sqrt {3}}V_{\text{LN}}\angle 30^{\circ }={\sqrt {3}}V_{1}\angle (\phi _{V_{1}}+30^{\circ }),\\V_{23}&=V_{2}-V_{3}=(V_{\text{LN}}\angle {-120}^{\circ })-(V_{\text{LN}}\angle 120^{\circ })\\&={\sqrt {3}}V_{\text{LN}}\angle {-90}^{\circ }={\sqrt {3}}V_{2}\angle (\phi _{V_{2}}+30^{\circ }),\\V_{31}&=V_{3}-V_{1}=(V_{\text{LN}}\angle 120^{\circ })-(V_{\text{LN}}\angle 0^{\circ })\\&={\sqrt {3}}V_{\text{LN}}\angle 150^{\circ }={\sqrt {3}}V_{3}\angle (\phi _{V_{3}}+30^{\circ }).\end{aligned}}} 213:

alternator is key in the history of electrification, as is the power transformer. These inventions enabled power to be transmitted by wires economically over considerable distances. Polyphase power enabled the use of water-power (via hydroelectric generating plants in large dams) in remote places, thereby allowing the mechanical energy of the falling water to be converted to electricity, which then could be fed to an electric motor at any location where mechanical work needed to be done. This versatility sparked the growth of power-transmission network grids on continents around the globe.

173: 3465:

transformers in parallel. Otherwise, the interconnection will behave like a short circuit, and excess current will flow. The direction of rotation of three-phase motors can be reversed by interchanging any two phases; it may be impractical or harmful to test a machine by momentarily energizing the motor to observe its rotation. Phase sequence of two sources can be verified by measuring voltage between pairs of terminals and observing that terminals with very low voltage between them will have the same phase, whereas pairs that show a higher voltage are on different phases.

307: 1445: 931: 435:), a three-phase supply with no neutral and the same phase-to-ground voltage and current capacity per phase can transmit three times as much power by using just 1.5 times as many wires (i.e., three instead of two). Thus, the ratio of capacity to conductor material is doubled. The ratio of capacity to conductor material increases to 3:1 with an ungrounded three-phase and center-grounded single-phase system (or 2.25:1 if both use grounds with the same gauge as the conductors). That leads to higher efficiency, lower weight, and cleaner waveforms. 619: 1271: 667: 2965: 34: 5357: 315: 643: 283: 5936: 3469:

instrument case. Another pattern uses a pair of lamps and an internal phase-shifting network to display the phase rotation. Another type of instrument can be connected to a de-energized three-phase motor and can detect the small voltages induced by residual magnetism, when the motor shaft is rotated by hand. A lamp or other indicator lights to show the sequence of voltages at the terminals for the given direction of shaft rotation.

3383: 2945: 2419: 1213: 6102: 674:" system used for mixed single-phase and three-phase loads on the same distribution system. Three-phase loads such as motors connect to L1, L2, and L3. Single-phase loads would be connected between L1 or L2 and neutral, or between L1 and L2. The L3 phase is 1.73 times the L1 or L2 voltage to neutral, so this leg is not used for single-phase loads. 2676: 2665: 2145: 949: 3317: 917: 3328:. A three-phase induction motor has a simple design, inherently high starting torque and high efficiency. Such motors are applied in industry for many applications. A three-phase motor is more compact and less costly than a single-phase motor of the same voltage class and rating, and single-phase AC motors above 10 3393:

In many European countries electric stoves are usually designed for a three-phase feed with permanent connection. Individual heating units are often connected between phase and neutral to allow for connection to a single-phase circuit if three-phase is not available. Other usual three-phase loads in

4201:

In Australia and New Zealand, active conductors can be any color except green/yellow, green, yellow, black, or light blue. Yellow is no longer permitted in the 2007 revision of wiring code ASNZS 3000. European color codes are used for all IEC or flex cables such as extension leads, appliance leads

592:

In an "open delta" or "V" system, only two transformers are used. A closed delta made of three single-phase transformers can operate as an open delta if one of the transformers has failed or needs to be removed. In open delta, each transformer must carry current for its respective phases as well as

418:

Wiring for three phases is typically identified by colors that vary by country and voltage. The phases must be connected in the correct order to achieve the intended direction of rotation of three-phase motors. For example, pumps and fans do not work as intended in reverse. Maintaining the identity

326:

of the same frequency and voltage amplitude relative to a common reference, but with a phase difference of one third of a cycle (i.e., 120 degrees out of phase) between each. The common reference is usually connected to ground and often to a current-carrying conductor called the neutral. Due to the

3464:

Verification of the phase sequence in a circuit is of considerable practical importance. Two sources of three-phase power must not be connected in parallel unless they have the same phase sequence, for example, when connecting a generator to an energized distribution network or when connecting two

699:

supply is sometimes used where one winding of a delta-connected transformer feeding the load is center-tapped and that center tap is grounded and connected as a neutral as shown in the second diagram. This setup produces three different voltages: If the voltage between the center tap (neutral) and

634:

A four-wire system with symmetrical voltages between phase and neutral is obtained when the neutral is connected to the "common star point" of all supply windings. In such a system, all three phases will have the same magnitude of voltage relative to the neutral. Other non-symmetrical systems have

442:

The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, summing to zero in the case of a linear balanced load, which allows a reduction of the size of the neutral conductor because it carries little or no current. With a balanced load, all the phase conductors carry the same current and so can have the

3413:

are used when three-phase equipment needs to be operated on a single-phase power source. They are used when three-phase power is not available or cost is not justifiable. Such converters may also allow the frequency to be varied, allowing speed control. Some railway locomotives use a single-phase

3191:

The currents returning from the customers' premises to the supply transformer all share the neutral wire. If the loads are evenly distributed on all three phases, the sum of the returning currents in the neutral wire is approximately zero. Any unbalanced phase loading on the secondary side of the

4276:

V high leg, the high leg (typically B phase) is always marked orange, commonly A phase is black and C phase is either red or blue. Local regulations may amend the N.E.C. The U.S. National Electric Code has color requirements for grounded conductors, ground, and grounded-delta three-phase systems

707:

The reason for providing the delta connected supply is usually to power large motors requiring a rotating field. However, the premises concerned will also require the "normal" North American 120 V supplies, two of which are derived (180 degrees "out of phase") between the "neutral" and

626:

There are two basic three-phase configurations: wye (Y) and delta (Δ). As shown in the diagram, a delta configuration requires only three wires for transmission, but a wye (star) configuration may have a fourth wire. The fourth wire, if present, is provided as a neutral and is normally

638:

The four-wire wye system is used when a mixture of single-phase and three-phase loads are to be served, such as mixed lighting and motor loads. An example of application is local distribution in Europe (and elsewhere), where each customer may be only fed from one phase and the neutral (which is

384:

In a three-phase system feeding a balanced and linear load, the sum of the instantaneous currents of the three conductors is zero. In other words, the current in each conductor is equal in magnitude to the sum of the currents in the other two, but with the opposite sign. The return path for the

212:

These alternators operated by creating systems of alternating currents displaced from one another in phase by definite amounts, and depended on rotating magnetic fields for their operation. The resulting source of polyphase power soon found widespread acceptance. The invention of the polyphase

3468:

Where the absolute phase identity is not required, phase rotation test instruments can be used to identify the rotation sequence with one observation. The phase rotation test instrument may contain a miniature three-phase motor, whose direction of rotation can be directly observed through the

388:

Constant power transfer is possible with any number of phases greater than one. However, two-phase systems do not have neutral-current cancellation and thus use conductors less efficiently, and more than three phases complicates infrastructure unnecessarily. Additionally, in some practical

331:

on any conductor reaches its peak at one third of a cycle after one of the other conductors and one third of a cycle before the remaining conductor. This phase delay gives constant power transfer to a balanced linear load. It also makes it possible to produce a rotating magnetic field in an

3122:

system and a corner-grounded delta system, single-phase loads may be connected across any two phases, or a load can be connected from phase to neutral. Distributing single-phase loads among the phases of a three-phase system balances the load and makes most economical use of conductors and

483: 4535:

We also stated one rationale for this three-phase system; namely, that a three-phase generator experiences a constant torque on its rotor as opposed to the pulsating torque that appears in a single- or two-phase machine, which is obviously preferable from a mechanical engineering

3402:. Homes in Europe have standardized on a nominal 230 V ±10% between any phase and ground. Most groups of houses are fed from a three-phase street transformer so that individual premises with above-average demand can be fed with a second or third phase connection. 3433:

A three-phase generator can be driven by a single-phase motor. This motor-generator combination can provide a frequency changer function as well as phase conversion, but requires two machines with all their expenses and losses. The motor-generator method can also form an

2940:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I_{2}&={\sqrt {3}}I_{23}\angle (\phi _{I_{23}}-30^{\circ })={\sqrt {3}}I_{23}\angle (-120^{\circ }-\theta ),\\I_{3}&={\sqrt {3}}I_{31}\angle (\phi _{I_{31}}-30^{\circ })={\sqrt {3}}I_{31}\angle (120^{\circ }-\theta ),\end{aligned}}} 2465: 2414:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I_{12}&={\frac {V_{12}}{|Z_{\Delta }|}}\angle (30^{\circ }-\theta ),\\I_{23}&={\frac {V_{23}}{|Z_{\Delta }|}}\angle (-90^{\circ }-\theta ),\\I_{31}&={\frac {V_{31}}{|Z_{\Delta }|}}\angle (150^{\circ }-\theta ),\end{aligned}}} 196:, which may be thought of as an alternating-current motor operating in reverse, so as to convert mechanical (rotating) power into electric power (as alternating current). On 11 March 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in 3552:

Have been built and tested for power transmission. Such transmission lines typically would use six or twelve phases. High-phase-order transmission lines allow transfer of slightly less than proportionately higher power through a given volume without the expense of a

1208:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I_{1}&={\frac {V_{1}}{|Z_{\text{total}}|}}\angle (-\theta ),\\I_{2}&={\frac {V_{2}}{|Z_{\text{total}}|}}\angle (-120^{\circ }-\theta ),\\I_{3}&={\frac {V_{3}}{|Z_{\text{total}}|}}\angle (120^{\circ }-\theta ),\end{aligned}}} 3491:

Uses two AC voltages, with a 90-electrical-degree phase shift between them. Two-phase circuits may be wired with two pairs of conductors, or two wires may be combined, requiring only three wires for the circuit. Currents in the common conductor add to 1.4 times

3438:

when used in conjunction with a large flywheel and a battery-powered DC motor; such a combination will deliver nearly constant power compared to the temporary frequency drop experienced with a standby generator set gives until the standby generator kicks in.

3195:

If the supply neutral is broken, phase-to-neutral voltage is no longer maintained. Phases with higher relative loading will experience reduced voltage, and phases with lower relative loading will experience elevated voltage, up to the phase-to-phase voltage.

750: 3357:

may use a three-phase source to produce a six-pulse DC output. The output of such rectifiers is much smoother than rectified single phase and, unlike single-phase, does not drop to zero between pulses. Such rectifiers may be used for battery charging,

3425:

correction that produces balanced three-phase voltages. When properly designed, these rotary converters can allow satisfactory operation of a three-phase motor on a single-phase source. In such a device, the energy storage is performed by the

3301:

that are in-phase on all the supply phases. Consequently, such harmonic currents add in the neutral in a wye system (or in the grounded (zigzag) transformer in a delta system), which can cause the neutral current to exceed the phase current.

380:

because, although it is possible to design and implement asymmetric three-phase power systems (i.e., with unequal voltages or phase shifts), they are not used in practice because they lack the most important advantages of symmetric systems.

3350:

replays. It can be reduced by evenly spreading line frequency operated light sources across the three phases so that the illuminated area is lit from all three phases. This technique was applied successfully at the 2008 Beijing Olympics.

3378:

may make the equivalent of six-phase full-wave rectification, twelve pulses per cycle, and this method is occasionally employed to reduce the cost of the filtering components, while improving the quality of the resulting DC.

610:) may be connected to allow ground fault currents to return from any phase to ground. Another variation is a "corner grounded" delta system, which is a closed delta that is grounded at one of the junctions of transformers. 4508:. [Excerpt taken from YMER 1941, häfte 2.Utgiven av Sällskapet för antropologi och geografi: Meddelande från Upsala univeristets geografiska institution, N:o 29, published by Esselte ab, Stockholm 1941 no. 135205] 716:

In the perfectly balanced case all three lines share equivalent loads. Examining the circuits, we can derive relationships between line voltage and current, and load voltage and current for wye- and delta-connected loads.

513:

Left image: elementary six-wire three-phase alternator with each phase using a separate pair of transmission wires. Right image: elementary three-wire three-phase alternator showing how the phases can share only three

3087:

Inspection of a phasor diagram, or conversion from phasor notation to complex notation, illuminates how the difference between two line-to-neutral voltages yields a line-to-line voltage that is greater by a factor of

4242:. (E.g. phase/neutral & earth, German: black/grey & red; France: green/red & white; Russia: red/grey & black; Switzerland: red/grey & yellow or yellow & red; Denmark: white/black & red. 934:

Three-phase AC generator connected as a wye or star source to a wye- or star-connected load. In the circuit shown, unbalanced currents will flow between the source and load through the ground, creating undesired

4224:

installers. About 7% to 10% of men cannot clearly distinguish between red and green, which is a particular concern in older schemes where red marks a live conductor and green marks protective earth or safety

662:

may supply 3 phases and neutral to each customer, but at a lower fuse rating, typically 40–63 A per phase, and "rotated" to avoid the effect that more load tends to be put on the first phase.

404:, the currents are usually well balanced. Transformers may be wired to have a four-wire secondary and a three-wire primary, while allowing unbalanced loads and the associated secondary-side neutral currents. 3599:), older standards or to no standard at all and may vary even within a single installation. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, different color codes are used for grounded (earthed) and ungrounded systems. 4813: 3563:

AC was historically used because it could be easily transformed to higher voltages for long distance transmission. However modern electronics can raise the voltage of DC with high efficiency, and DC lacks

3277:

When the currents on the three live wires of a three-phase system are not equal or are not at an exact 120° phase angle, the power loss is greater than for a perfectly balanced system. The method of

209:

for a three-phase electric motor design, application filed October 12, 1887. Figure 13 of this patent shows that Tesla envisaged his three-phase motor being powered from the generator via six wires.

3186: 2660:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I_{1}&=I_{12}-I_{31}=I_{12}-I_{12}\angle 120^{\circ }\\&={\sqrt {3}}I_{12}\angle (\phi _{I_{12}}-30^{\circ })={\sqrt {3}}I_{12}\angle (-\theta )\end{aligned}}} 1267:. Inductive and capacitive loads will cause current to either lag or lead the voltage. However, the relative phase angle between each pair of lines (1 to 2, 2 to 3, and 3 to 1) will still be −120°. 4867: 2681: 2470: 2150: 1463: 954: 755: 4251:

Note that while China officially uses phase 1: yellow, phase 2: green, phase 3: red, neutral: blue, ground: green/yellow, this is not strongly enforced and there is significant local variation.

1434: 4704: 586:

A "delta" (Δ) connected transformer winding is connected between phases of a three-phase system. A "wye" (Y) transformer connects each winding from a phase wire to a common neutral point.

912:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V_{1}&=V_{\text{LN}}\angle 0^{\circ },\\V_{2}&=V_{\text{LN}}\angle {-120}^{\circ },\\V_{3}&=V_{\text{LN}}\angle {+120}^{\circ }.\end{aligned}}} 4925: 371: 4999: 678:

Based on wye (Y) and delta (Δ) connection. Generally, there are four different types of three-phase transformer winding connections for transmission and distribution purposes:

465:

from which most branch circuits will carry 120 V. Circuits designed for higher powered devices such as stoves, dryers, or outlets for electric vehicles carry 240 V.

290:

of the instantaneous voltages in a three-phase system in one cycle with time increasing to the right. The phase order is 1–2–3. This sequence repeats each cycle, and thus the

3528:, used a two-phase system, and some remnant two-phase distribution systems still exist, but three-phase systems have displaced the two-phase system for modern installations. 3446:

can be used to approximate a three-phase system in a static phase converter, but the voltage and phase angle of the additional phase may only be useful for certain loads.

3514: 4817: 593:

current for the third phase, therefore capacity is reduced to 87%. With one of three transformers missing and the remaining two at 87% efficiency, the capacity is 58% (

535:, one from each coil (or winding) of the generator. The windings are arranged such that the currents are at the same frequency but with the peaks and troughs of their 571:

After further voltage conversions in the transmission network, the voltage is finally transformed to the standard utilization before power is supplied to customers.

6119: 4721: 4503: 3332:(7.5 kW) are uncommon. Three-phase motors also vibrate less and hence last longer than single-phase motors of the same power used under the same conditions. 3126:

In a symmetrical three-phase four-wire wye system, the three phase conductors have the same voltage to the system neutral. The voltage between line conductors is

457:

However, most loads are single-phase. In North America, single-family houses and individual apartments are supplied one phase from the power grid and use a

4874: 606:

Where a delta-fed system must be grounded for detection of stray current to ground or protection from surge voltages, a grounding transformer (usually a

4234:

In Europe, there still exist many installations with older colors but, since the early 1970s, all new installations use green/yellow earth according to

3587:

Conductors of a three-phase system are usually identified by a color code, to facilitate balanced loading and to assure the correct phase rotation for

4260:

Since 1975, the U.S. National Electric Code has not specified coloring of phase conductors. It is common practice in many regions to identify 120/208

4103: 3311: 252:

a Swedish patent on the same three-phase system. The possibility of transferring electrical power from a waterfall at a distance was explored at the

943:

The voltage seen by the load will depend on the load connection; for the wye case, connecting each load to a phase (line-to-neutral) voltages gives

6140: 2968:

A delta configuration and a corresponding phasor diagram of its currents. Phase voltages are equal to line voltages, and currents are calculated as

704:(100%), the voltage across the phase and anti-phase lines is 240 V (200%), and the neutral to "high leg" voltage is ≈ 208 V (173%). 646:

A delta-wye configuration across a transformer core (note that a practical transformer would usually have a different number of turns on each side)

4697: 4589: 94:

because it uses less conductor material to transmit a given amount of electrical power. Three-phase power is mainly used directly to power large

4848: 5208: 396:

wire. The neutral allows three separate single-phase supplies to be provided at a constant voltage and is commonly used for supplying multiple

3219:, however, LN load is imposed on one phase. A transformer manufacturer's page suggests that LN loading not exceed 5% of transformer capacity. 3516:) the current in the individual phases, so the common conductor must be larger. Two-phase and three-phase systems can be interconnected by a 4932: 302:, current, and power is offset from the others' by 120°, thus having all at equidistance. This symmetry can also be recreated in converters. 5881: 3110:, the impedance in the delta configuration must be 3 times what it would be in a wye configuration for the same power to be transferred. 75:

Three-phase electrical power was developed in the 1880s by several people. In three-phase power, the voltage on each wire is 120 degrees

6309: 6302: 453:

with a specified direction and constant magnitude, which simplifies the design of electric motors, as no starting circuit is required.

4113: 4108: 3095:. As a delta configuration connects a load across phases of a transformer, it delivers the line-to-line voltage difference, which is 1260:

The phase angle difference between voltage and current of each phase is not necessarily 0 and depends on the type of load impedance,

225: 20: 4958: 400:

loads. The connections are arranged so that, as far as possible in each group, equal power is drawn from each phase. Further up the

102:

and other heavy loads. Small loads often use only a two-wire single-phase circuit, which may be derived from a three-phase system.

3483:

Used when three-phase power is not available and allows double the normal utilization voltage to be supplied for high-power loads.

5031: 4220:

The international standard green-yellow marking of protective-earth conductors was introduced to reduce the risk of confusion by

3298: 419:

of phases is required if two sources could be connected at the same time. A direct connection between two different phases is a

6091: 5972: 4123: 6126: 5126: 5102: 4908: 4768: 4629: 4528: 4462: 4327: 3141: 6198: 5939: 5356: 720:

In a balanced system each line will produce equal voltage magnitudes at phase angles equally spaced from each other. With V

446:

Power transfer into a linear balanced load is constant, which, in motor/generator applications, helps to reduce vibrations.

318:

Three-phase transformer (Békéscsaba, Hungary): On the left are the primary wires, and on the right are the secondary wires.

37:

Three-phase transformer with four-wire output for 208Y/120 volt service: one wire for neutral, others for A, B and C phases

228:, where Dolivo-Dobrovolsky used the system to transmit electric power at the distance of 176 km (110 miles) with 75% 6366: 5778: 3102:

times greater than the line-to-neutral voltage delivered to a load in the wye configuration. As the power transferred is

631:

present above many transmission lines, which is solely for fault protection and does not carry current under normal use.

4728: 3430:(flywheel effect) of the rotating components. An external flywheel is sometimes found on one or both ends of the shaft. 1361:(KCL) to the neutral node, the three phase currents sum to the total current in the neutral line. In the balanced case: 936: 263:

fall at Hällsjön, Smedjebackens kommun, where a small iron work had been located, was selected. In 1893, a three-phase

134:. For example, for a 208/120-volt service, the line voltage is 208 volts, and the phase voltage is 120 volts. 5886: 5201: 4784: 1367: 79:

relative to each of the other wires. Because it is an AC system, it allows the voltages to be easily stepped up using

6280: 6232: 6162: 5506: 4684: 4486: 4402: 4380: 4359: 4277:

which result in one ungrounded leg having a higher voltage potential to ground than the other two ungrounded legs.

6356: 6172: 6054: 5669: 5594: 5465: 3818:

UK (before April 2006), Hong Kong (before April 2009), South Africa, Malaysia, Singapore (before February 2011)

68:

employing three wires (or four including an optional neutral return wire) and is the most common method used by

5052: 343: 6371: 6213: 5841: 5773: 5763: 5639: 5539: 5194: 3339:

or space heating may be connected to three-phase systems. Electric lighting may also be similarly connected.

184:

Three phase power evolved out of electric motor development. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris was doing research on

468:

In Europe, three-phase power is normally delivered to the panelboard and further to higher powered devices.

6208: 6193: 6133: 5997: 5694: 5654: 5231: 3435: 477: 5921: 5916: 5634: 5609: 5599: 5575: 5570: 5276: 3569: 3557:(HVDC) converter at each end of the line. However, they require correspondingly more pieces of equipment. 3554: 3521: 3453: 565: 401: 397: 87: 61: 57: 3456:

use power electronic devices to synthesize a balanced three-phase supply from single-phase input power.

6361: 6224: 6049: 6024: 5965: 5836: 5524: 5301: 3478: 3294: 1358: 458: 150: 27: 4868:"Harmonics in Low Voltage Three-Phase Four-Wire Electric Distribution Systems and Filtering Solutions" 4596: 438:

Three-phase supplies have properties that make them desirable in electric power distribution systems:

6044: 5891: 5380: 5341: 4852: 3539: 504: 495: 241: 221: 1452:

In the delta circuit, loads are connected across the lines, and so loads see line-to-line voltages:

180:

developed by Italian physicist Galileo Ferraris. This was a two-phase motor and required four wires.

6218: 5866: 5674: 5614: 5271: 4575: 4561: 3486: 3449: 431:

As compared to a single-phase AC power supply that uses two current-carrying conductors (phase and

336:

and generate other phase arrangements using transformers (for instance, a two-phase system using a

4646: 6351: 6203: 5805: 5795: 5785: 5067: 3582: 3495: 539:

forms offset to provide three complementary currents with a phase separation of one-third cycle (

450: 185: 16:

Common electrical power generation, transmission and distribution method for alternating currents

6295: 5726: 5589: 5372: 5261: 4579:, Theo. Audel and Co., 2nd ed., 1917, vol. 4, Ch. 46: Alternating Currents, p. 1026, fig. 1261. 4565:, Theo. Audel and Co., 2nd ed., 1917, vol. 4, Ch. 46: Alternating Currents, p. 1026, fig. 1260. 4118: 3418: 3395: 3278: 142: 53: 4814:"The 3rd Harmonic Blocking Filter: A Well Established Approach to Harmonic Current Mitigation" 3769:

March 2004), Hong Kong (from July 2007), Singapore (from March 2009), Russia (since 2009; GOST

564:

At the power station, transformers change the voltage from generators to a level suitable for

6264: 6167: 6071: 5958: 5861: 5629: 5624: 5604: 3289:

With linear loads, the neutral only carries the current due to imbalance between the phases.

691:

wye (Y) – Delta (Δ) is used for step-down transformers, i.e., at the end of the transmission.

229: 172: 413: 392:

Three-phase systems may have a fourth wire, common in low-voltage distribution. This is the

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2012 IEEE International Conference on Power Electronics, Drives and Energy Systems (PEDES)

306: 8: 6248: 6240: 6188: 6157: 5826: 5659: 5559: 5534: 5487: 5296: 5286: 5251: 5119:

C22.1-15 – Canadian Electrical Code, Part I: Safety Standard for Electrical Installations

5095:

C22.1-15 – Canadian Electrical Code, Part I: Safety Standard for Electrical Installations

4986: 4873:. Texas A&M University Power Electronics and Power Quality Laboratory. Archived from 3517: 529: 337: 323: 233: 224:. His three-phase three-wire transmission system was displayed in 1891 in Germany at the 162: 83:

to high voltage for transmission and back down for distribution, giving high efficiency.

49: 4974: 1444: 86:

A three-wire three-phase circuit is usually more economical than an equivalent two-wire

6086: 5700: 5311: 5016: 4443:

Woodbank Communications Ltd.'s Electropaedia: "History of Batteries (and other things)"

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Former USSR (Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan; before 2009), People's Republic of China (GB

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generators and motors, two phases can result in a less smooth (pulsating) torque.

6376: 6287: 6256: 5851: 5731: 5336: 5163: 5122: 5098: 5048: 4904: 4764: 4680: 4625: 4524: 4482: 4458: 4398: 4376: 4355: 4323: 3343: 554: 295: 4418: 4337: 245: 154: 6315: 6014: 5800: 5741: 5445: 5440: 5417: 5326: 5266: 5181: 5155: 5076: 4978: 4756: 4315: 3535: 3127: 688:

Delta (Δ) – wye (Y) is used for step-up transformers, i.e., at generating stations,

618: 532: 146: 95: 65: 4147:

Many labelling systems exist for phases, some having additional meaning, such as:

4128: 2128:

is the phase shift for the first voltage, commonly taken to be 0°; in this case, Φ

589:

A single three-phase transformer can be used, or three single-phase transformers.

6272: 6034: 6019: 5831: 5790: 5768: 5649: 5619: 5584: 5544: 5346: 5065:

Brittain, J. E. (2007). "Electrical Engineering Hall of Fame: Charles F. Scott".

4926:"Sports Lighting – Design Considerations For The Beijing 2008 Olympic Games" 4758: 4619: 4308:"The analysis and development of controlled 3φ wavelet modulated AC-DC converter" 4221: 4211:

In Canada the high leg conductor in a high-leg delta system is always marked red.

3443: 3410: 237: 119: 99: 69: 574:

Most automotive alternators generate three-phase AC and rectify it to DC with a

274:

a distance of 15 km (10 miles), becoming the first commercial application.

6325: 5856: 5846: 5644: 5256: 4455:

Michael von Dolivo-Dobrowolsky und der Drehstrom. Geschichte der Elektrotechnik

4319: 4307: 4202:

etc. and are equally permitted for use in building wiring per AS/NZS 3000:2007.

3754: 3588: 3399: 3325: 3200: 3119: 1270: 737: 696: 671: 651: 333: 322:

In a symmetric three-phase power supply system, three conductors each carry an

189: 158: 115: 5080: 3777:

50462), Argentina, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, South Korea (from Jan. 2021)

3316: 253: 6345: 6066: 6061: 5876: 5664: 5549: 5529: 5460: 5450: 5407: 5291: 5246: 5167: 3543: 3525: 666: 521: 420: 205: 5159: 2964: 1448:

Three-phase AC generator connected as a wye source to a delta-connected load

6320: 6007: 5981: 5896: 5871: 5736: 5705: 5519: 5321: 4982: 3422: 3359: 575: 376:

The symmetric three-phase systems described here are simply referred to as

166: 33: 6076: 6002: 5721: 5689: 5482: 5470: 5390: 5316: 5306: 5236: 3565: 3371: 3347: 2459:

by 120°. Calculating line currents by using KCL at each delta node gives

628: 314: 232:. In 1891 he also created a three-phase transformer and short-circuited ( 80: 76: 4505:

Elektrifieringens utveckling i Sverige, en ekonomisk-geografisk översikt

642: 6330: 6039: 5684: 5679: 5492: 5475: 5331: 5186: 5121:(23rd ed.). Canadian Standards Association. 2015. Rule 24–208(c). 3329: 462: 271: 193: 4757:

J. Duncan Glover; Mulukutla S. Sarma; Thomas J. Overbye (April 2011).

4442: 282: 6029: 5400: 5395: 5281: 5241: 4959:"ACSL/Graphic Modeller Component Models for Electric Power Education" 4235: 3810: 3758: 3596: 3592: 3354: 627:

grounded. The three-wire and four-wire designations do not count the

540: 5047:

Steve Sentry, "Motor Control Fundamentals", Cengage Learning, 2012,

3414:

source to drive three-phase motors fed through an electronic drive.

5514: 5097:(23rd ed.). Canadian Standards Association. 2015. Rule 4–038. 700:

each of the top and bottom taps (phase and anti-phase) is 120

654:

may supply one phase and neutral at a high current (up to 100

287: 266: 4790:. Utility Technology Engineers-Consultants (UTEC). August 10, 2015 4268:

V (wye or delta) conductors as brown, orange, yellow. In a 120/240

3568:

which permits transmission wires to be lighter and cheaper and so

3382: 685:

Delta (Δ) – Delta (Δ) is used for large currents and low voltages,

385:

current in any phase conductor is the other two phase conductors.

5435: 5425: 5000:"British and European practices for domestic appliances compared" 3750: 3427: 3386: 659: 340:). The amplitude of the voltage difference between two phases is 328: 299: 192:. The research and his studies resulted in the development of an 123: 91: 4523:. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 160. 922:

These voltages feed into either a wye- or delta-connected load.

5950: 5430: 3336: 3293:

and devices that utilize rectifier-capacitor front-end such as

655: 482: 3421:

is a three-phase motor with special starting arrangements and

130:. The voltage measured between any line and neutral is called 6101: 4647:"Three-Phase Power from Single-Phase Transformer Connections" 3192:

transformer will use the transformer capacity inefficiently.

682:

wye (Y) – wye (Y) is used for small current and high voltage,

558: 373:

times the amplitude of the voltage of the individual phases.

259: 197: 188:. Ferraris experimented with different types of asynchronous 19:

For a greater focus on the mathematics of this subject, see

5385: 4397:. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar, Cengage Learning. p. 411. 701: 536: 249: 4722:"Saving energy through load balancing and load scheduling" 3677:

Green/yellow-striped (installations prior to 1966: green)

3524:. Very early AC machines, notably the first generators at 3320:

Three-phase electric machine with rotating magnetic fields

6120:

The Inventions, Researches, and Writings of Nikola Tesla

3534:

An asymmetrical modified two-phase power system used by

5146:

Neidhofer, Gerhard (2007). "Early Three-Phase Power ".

4457:

VDE-Buchreihe, Volume 9, VDE VERLAG, Berlin Offenbach,

4264:

V (wye) conductors as black, red, and blue, and 277/480

3181:{\displaystyle V_{\text{LL}}={\sqrt {3}}V_{\text{LN}}.} 4957:

Pekarek, Steven; Skvarenina, Timothy (November 1998).

4476: 744:

the voltage between the line and the neutral we have:

4899:

Alexander, Charles K.; Sadiku, Matthew N. O. (2007).

3498: 3144: 2679: 2468: 2148: 1461: 1370: 952: 753: 346: 220:

and a three-phase electric motor in 1888 and studied

1288:

represents a phase voltage. Voltages are balanced as

613: 4838:

The boy electrician by J. W. Sims M.I.E.E. (p. 98).

3591:. Colors used may adhere to International Standard 1274:A phasor diagram for a wye configuration, in which 216:Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed a three-phase 6020:Alternating-current commutatorless induction motor 4752: 4750: 4748: 3508: 3342:Line frequency flicker in light is detrimental to 3180: 2939: 2659: 2413: 2113: 1428: 1207: 911: 365: 4956: 4104:Industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets 3312:Industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets 1429:{\displaystyle I_{1}+I_{2}+I_{3}=I_{\text{N}}=0.} 6343: 6141:My Inventions: The Autobiography of Nikola Tesla 4053:Alternate Practices (Delta with tapped winding) 5058: 5017:"Speeding-up Conventional Lines and Shinkansen" 4898: 4745: 4352:Elements of Power System Analysis Third Edition 4083:Green or Yellow/green-striped or no insulation 3297:, computers, office equipment and such produce 426: 3712:Green, perhaps yellow-striped, or uninsulated 3472: 3389:used in the past on electric stoves in Germany 3324:An important class of three-phase load is the 3135:times the phase conductor to neutral voltage: 528:converts mechanical power into a set of three 471: 5966: 5202: 4551:, 6th ed., Pitman, London, 1950, p. 268. 4306:Saleh, S. A.; Rahman, M. A. (25 March 2013). 3845:Green/yellow-striped (before c. 1970: green) 650:For domestic use, some countries such as the 310:Three-phase electric power transmission lines 240:. He designed the world's first three-phase 4624:(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 3–5. 4305: 298:of the power system. Ideally, each phase's 6310:The Man Who Invented the Twentieth Century 6303:Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla 5973: 5959: 5209: 5195: 4677:Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 3203:provides phase-to-neutral relationship of 708:either of the center-tapped phase points. 581: 5145: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4590:"A New Design for Automotive Alternators" 4518: 4501: 4373:American Electricians' Handbook, 11th ed. 4114:Mathematics of three-phase electric power 4109:International Electrotechnical Exhibition 3335:Resistive heating loads such as electric 423:and leads to flow of unbalanced current. 226:International Electrotechnical Exhibition 21:Mathematics of three-phase electric power 5216: 5064: 4917: 4392: 4197: 4195: 4193: 4191: 3381: 3315: 2963: 1443: 1269: 1225:is the sum of line and load impedances ( 929: 665: 658:) to one property, while others such as 641: 622:Wye (Y) and delta (Δ) circuits 617: 481: 366:{\displaystyle {\sqrt {3}}=1.732\ldots } 313: 305: 281: 171: 32: 4807: 4805: 4286:Must be the high leg, if it is present. 3572:gives lower losses over long distances. 3281:is used to analyze unbalanced systems. 6344: 6092:Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing 4903:. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 504. 4811: 4617: 4606: 4280: 4179: 4170: 4124:Three-phase AC railway electrification 3346:used in sports event broadcasting for 5954: 5190: 4644: 4638: 4477:Bergström och Nordlund, Lars (2002). 4371:Terrell Croft, Wilford Summers (ed), 4254: 4245: 4228: 4214: 4205: 4188: 4141: 3765:60445-2017), United Kingdom (since 31 3615: 3610: 3604: 3113: 1250:is the phase of the total impedance ( 203:Two months later Nikola Tesla gained 6199:Tesla Science Center at Wardenclyffe 5024:Japan Railway & Transport Review 4802: 4763:. Cengage Learning. pp. 60–68. 4185:Also, earth, or grounding conductor. 3583:Electrical wiring § Colour code 3305: 925: 711: 3405: 3284: 3272: 2670:and similarly for each other line: 90:circuit at the same line-to-ground 13: 6100: 5887:Renewable energy commercialization 5139: 4865: 4760:Power System Analysis & Design 3982: 3657: 3374:, and for operation of DC motors. 2905: 2846: 2777: 2718: 2638: 2579: 2539: 2438:Relative angles are preserved, so 2379: 2366: 2291: 2278: 2206: 2193: 2065: 2032: 1989: 1957: 1855: 1817: 1774: 1737: 1635: 1602: 1554: 1522: 1173: 1085: 1010: 884: 832: 785: 449:Three-phase systems can produce a 14: 6388: 6127:Colorado Springs Notes, 1899–1900 5175: 4901:Fundamentals of Electric Circuits 4621:Electrician's Calculations Manual 4595:. August 30, 2017. Archived from 4479:Ellära- Kretsteknik och fältteori 3954:Norway (before CENELEC adoption) 3634:Australia and New Zealand (AS/NZS 3056:The overall power transferred is 2954:is the phase of delta impedance ( 2428:is the phase of delta impedance ( 614:Three-wire and four-wire circuits 407: 5980: 5935: 5934: 5355: 5037:from the original on 2022-10-09. 4710:from the original on 2022-10-09. 4481:. Naturaläromedel. p. 283. 4354:, McGraw-Hill, New York (1975). 503: 494: 486:Animation of three-phase current 414:Electric machine § Sequence 270:system was used to transfer 400 126:between any two lines is called 5111: 5087: 5041: 5009: 4993: 4950: 4923: 4892: 4859: 4841: 4832: 4816:. IAEI Magazine. Archived from 4777: 4714: 4690: 4679:. 15th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2007, 4675:H. W. Beaty, D. G. Fink (ed.), 4669: 4645:Gibbs, J. B. (April 27, 1920). 4582: 4568: 4554: 4541: 4512: 4419:"AC Power History and Timeline" 4048:Bare Conductor (no insulation) 4018:Bare Conductor (no insulation) 1281:represents a line voltage, and 145:were independently invented by 6281:Nikola Tesla's Night of Terror 5148:IEEE Power and Energy Magazine 4963:IEEE Transactions on Education 4495: 4470: 4447: 4436: 4411: 4386: 4365: 4344: 4299: 3909:Green, perhaps yellow-striped 3877:Green, perhaps yellow-striped 3757:and others; since April 2004, 3646:60446 as approved by AS:3000) 3576: 2927: 2908: 2882: 2849: 2802: 2780: 2754: 2721: 2650: 2641: 2615: 2582: 2401: 2382: 2372: 2357: 2316: 2294: 2284: 2269: 2228: 2209: 2199: 2184: 2101: 2068: 2002: 1976: 1970: 1944: 1891: 1858: 1787: 1761: 1755: 1724: 1671: 1638: 1572: 1541: 1535: 1509: 1195: 1176: 1166: 1151: 1110: 1088: 1078: 1063: 1022: 1013: 1003: 988: 105: 1: 6233:Tesla – Lightning in His Hand 6214:Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport 5882:Renewable Energy Certificates 5842:Cost of electricity by source 5764:Arc-fault circuit interrupter 5640:High-voltage shore connection 5182:AC Power History and Timeline 4931:. GE Lighting. Archived from 4519:von Meier, Alexandra (2006). 4292: 3744:Green perhaps yellow-striped 568:in order to minimize losses. 72:worldwide to transfer power. 6194:Nikola Tesla Memorial Center 6134:Fragments of Olympian Gossip 5897:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread 5695:Transmission system operator 5655:Mains electricity by country 5232:Automatic generation control 3436:uninterruptible power supply 1439: 561:, depending on the country. 478:Mains electricity by country 427:Advantages and disadvantages 277: 7: 6055:Resonant inductive coupling 5922:List of electricity sectors 5917:Electric energy consumption 5635:High-voltage direct current 5610:Electric power transmission 5600:Electric power distribution 5277:Energy return on investment 5006:, volume 148, p. 691, 1965. 4096: 3570:high-voltage direct current 3555:high-voltage direct current 3538:around 1897, championed by 3509:{\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}} 3473:Alternatives to three-phase 472:Generation and distribution 294:of the generator sets the 10: 6393: 6367:Inventions by Nikola Tesla 6225:The Secret of Nikola Tesla 6082:Three-phase electric power 6025:Tesla Experimental Station 5837:Carbon offsets and credits 5555:Three-phase electric power 4785:"What is "Stray Voltage"?" 4393:Brumbach, Michael (2014). 4350:William D. Stevenson, Jr. 4320:10.1109/PEDES.2012.6484282 3580: 3479:Split-phase electric power 3459: 3309: 3295:switch-mode power supplies 475: 411: 222:star and delta connections 151:Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky 137: 122:are called lines, and the 42:Three-phase electric power 28:Split-phase electric power 25: 18: 6181: 6150: 6111: 6098: 5988: 5930: 5905: 5892:Renewable Energy Payments 5815: 5752: 5714: 5568: 5505: 5416: 5381:Fossil fuel power station 5371: 5364: 5353: 5224: 5081:10.1109/JPROC.2006.892488 4502:Hjulström, Filip (1940). 4272:V delta system with a 208 4176:Also, grounded conductor. 4082: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4045: 4015: 3989: 3953: 3913: 3881: 3849: 3817: 3809:Older European (prior to 3808: 3748: 3681: 3633: 3628: 3625: 3622: 3607: 3540:Charles Proteus Steinmetz 3450:Variable-frequency drives 242:hydroelectric power plant 5675:Single-wire earth return 5615:Electrical busbar system 5272:Energy demand management 4576:Hawkins Electrical Guide 4562:Hawkins Electrical Guide 4135: 3549:High-phase-order systems 3487:Two-phase electric power 3454:digital phase converters 186:rotating magnetic fields 26:Not to be confused with 6204:IEEE Nikola Tesla Award 5806:Residual-current device 5796:Power system protection 5786:Generator interlock kit 5160:10.1109/MPE.2007.904752 5068:Proceedings of the IEEE 3394:the domestic field are 1359:Kirchhoff's current law 582:Transformer connections 451:rotating magnetic field 143:Polyphase power systems 6357:Electrical engineering 6296:Tesla: Man Out of Time 6105: 5590:Distributed generation 5262:Electric power quality 4983:10.1109/TE.1998.787374 4657:(17). McGraw-Hill: 673 4521:Electric Power Systems 4395:Industrial maintenance 4383:page 3-10 figure 3-23. 4119:Rotary phase converter 3985:yellow or uninsulated 3981:Yellow/green-striped; 3510: 3419:rotary phase converter 3396:tankless water heating 3390: 3321: 3279:symmetrical components 3259:was set as 100%, then 3182: 3084: 2941: 2661: 2415: 2115: 1449: 1430: 1354: 1353:(α = 0 in this case). 1209: 940: 913: 724:as our reference and V 675: 647: 623: 557:is typically 50 or 60 487: 367: 327:phase difference, the 319: 311: 303: 181: 54:electricity generation 48:) is a common type of 38: 6265:The Tesla World Light 6209:Tesla Satellite Award 6168:World Wireless System 6163:Westinghouse Electric 6104: 5862:Fossil fuel phase-out 5630:Electricity retailing 5625:Electrical substation 5605:Electric power system 4812:Lowenstein, Michael. 4618:Fowler, Nick (2011). 4549:Electrical Technology 3949:Green/yellow-striped 3813:, varied by country) 3804:Green/yellow-striped 3511: 3385: 3319: 3299:third-order harmonics 3183: 2967: 2942: 2662: 2416: 2116: 1447: 1431: 1298:= (1∠α − 1∠α + 120°) 1273: 1210: 937:stray ground voltages 933: 914: 670:A transformer for a " 669: 645: 621: 485: 368: 317: 309: 285: 175: 36: 6372:Three-phase AC power 5218:Electricity delivery 4375:, McGraw Hill, 1987 3496: 3368:electric arc furnace 3364:aluminium production 3248:≈ 100% × 1.73 = 173% 3142: 2677: 2466: 2146: 1459: 1368: 950: 751: 695:In North America, a 526:electrical generator 344: 292:rotational frequency 218:electrical generator 6283:" (2020 TV episode) 6249:Tower to the People 6189:Nikola Tesla Museum 6158:War of the currents 5827:Availability factor 5779:Sulfur hexafluoride 5660:Overhead power line 5560:Virtual power plant 5535:Induction generator 5488:Sustainable biofuel 5297:Home energy storage 5287:Grid energy storage 5252:Droop speed control 4975:1998ITEdu..41..348P 4820:on 8 September 2013 4453:Gerhard Neidhöfer: 3993:120, 208, or 240 V 3882:Chile – NCH 4/2003 3665:Dark blue, or grey 3518:Scott-T transformer 3376:Zigzag transformers 3291:Gas-discharge lamps 555:generator frequency 402:distribution system 378:three-phase systems 338:Scott-T transformer 324:alternating current 206:U.S. patent 381,968 169:in the late 1880s. 163:William Stanley Jr. 50:alternating current 6252:(2015 documentary) 6173:In popular culture 6106: 6087:Wardenclyffe Tower 6072:Tesla's oscillator 5701:Transmission tower 5312:Nameplate capacity 4423:Edison Tech Center 3918:50303-2002 Section 3616:Protective earth, 3506: 3391: 3362:processes such as 3344:high-speed cameras 3322: 3178: 3114:Single-phase loads 3085: 2937: 2935: 2657: 2655: 2411: 2409: 2136:= −240° or 120°.) 2111: 2109: 1450: 1426: 1355: 1205: 1203: 941: 909: 907: 676: 648: 624: 608:zigzag transformer 488: 459:split-phase system 363: 320: 312: 304: 244:in 1891. Inventor 182: 64:. It is a type of 39: 6362:Electrical wiring 6339: 6338: 5948: 5947: 5852:Environmental tax 5732:Cascading failure 5501: 5500: 5337:Utility frequency 5128:978-1-77139-718-6 5104:978-1-77139-718-6 4989:on June 26, 2003. 4910:978-0-07-297718-9 4849:"Federal pacific" 4770:978-1-111-42579-1 4687:, pp. 10–11. 4631:978-0-07-177017-0 4530:978-0-471-17859-0 4463:978-3-8007-3115-2 4329:978-1-4673-4508-8 4094: 4093: 3717:Isolated systems 3504: 3306:Three-phase loads 3229:≈ 1.73, defining 3172: 3163: 3152: 2893: 2834: 2765: 2706: 2626: 2567: 2377: 2289: 2204: 2053: 2029: 2020: 1986: 1954: 1843: 1814: 1805: 1771: 1734: 1623: 1599: 1590: 1551: 1519: 1417: 1171: 1162: 1083: 1074: 1008: 999: 926:Wye (or, star; Y) 881: 829: 782: 712:Balanced circuits 533:electric currents 352: 6384: 6219:New Yorker Hotel 6015:Polyphase system 5975: 5968: 5961: 5952: 5951: 5938: 5937: 5847:Energy subsidies 5801:Protective relay 5742:Rolling blackout 5369: 5368: 5359: 5327:Power-flow study 5267:Electrical fault 5211: 5204: 5197: 5188: 5187: 5171: 5133: 5132: 5115: 5109: 5108: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5062: 5056: 5045: 5039: 5038: 5036: 5030:: 58. Oct 2011. 5021: 5013: 5007: 5004:Electrical Times 4997: 4991: 4990: 4985:. Archived from 4954: 4948: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4938:on 28 April 2015 4937: 4930: 4921: 4915: 4914: 4896: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4879: 4872: 4866:Enjeti, Prasad. 4863: 4857: 4856: 4855:on May 30, 2012. 4851:. Archived from 4845: 4839: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4827: 4825: 4809: 4800: 4799: 4797: 4795: 4789: 4781: 4775: 4774: 4754: 4743: 4742: 4740: 4739: 4733: 4727:. Archived from 4726: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4702: 4694: 4688: 4673: 4667: 4666: 4664: 4662: 4642: 4636: 4635: 4615: 4604: 4603: 4601: 4594: 4586: 4580: 4572: 4566: 4558: 4552: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4516: 4510: 4509: 4499: 4493: 4492: 4474: 4468: 4451: 4445: 4440: 4434: 4433: 4431: 4429: 4415: 4409: 4408: 4390: 4384: 4369: 4363: 4348: 4342: 4341: 4314:. pp. 1–6. 4303: 4287: 4284: 4278: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4258: 4252: 4249: 4243: 4239: 4232: 4226: 4218: 4212: 4209: 4203: 4199: 4186: 4183: 4177: 4174: 4168: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4145: 3984: 3921: 3917: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3659: 3645: 3641: 3638:3000:2007 Figure 3637: 3602: 3601: 3536:General Electric 3531:Monocyclic power 3522:Charles F. Scott 3515: 3513: 3512: 3507: 3505: 3500: 3444:autotransformers 3411:Phase converters 3406:Phase converters 3387:Three-phase plug 3285:Non-linear loads 3273:Unbalanced loads 3268: 3258: 3249: 3246: 3237: 3228: 3227: 3218: 3187: 3185: 3184: 3179: 3174: 3173: 3170: 3164: 3159: 3154: 3153: 3150: 3133: 3132: 3101: 3100: 3094: 3093: 2998: 2997: 2946: 2944: 2943: 2938: 2936: 2920: 2919: 2904: 2903: 2894: 2889: 2881: 2880: 2868: 2867: 2866: 2865: 2845: 2844: 2835: 2830: 2821: 2820: 2795: 2794: 2776: 2775: 2766: 2761: 2753: 2752: 2740: 2739: 2738: 2737: 2717: 2716: 2707: 2702: 2693: 2692: 2666: 2664: 2663: 2658: 2656: 2637: 2636: 2627: 2622: 2614: 2613: 2601: 2600: 2599: 2598: 2578: 2577: 2568: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2550: 2538: 2537: 2525: 2524: 2512: 2511: 2499: 2498: 2482: 2481: 2420: 2418: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2394: 2393: 2378: 2376: 2375: 2370: 2369: 2360: 2354: 2353: 2344: 2335: 2334: 2309: 2308: 2290: 2288: 2287: 2282: 2281: 2272: 2266: 2265: 2256: 2247: 2246: 2221: 2220: 2205: 2203: 2202: 2197: 2196: 2187: 2181: 2180: 2171: 2162: 2161: 2120: 2118: 2117: 2112: 2110: 2100: 2099: 2087: 2086: 2085: 2084: 2064: 2063: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2043: 2031: 2030: 2027: 2021: 2016: 2008: 2001: 2000: 1988: 1987: 1984: 1969: 1968: 1956: 1955: 1952: 1940: 1939: 1927: 1926: 1910: 1909: 1890: 1889: 1877: 1876: 1875: 1874: 1854: 1853: 1844: 1839: 1834: 1833: 1828: 1816: 1815: 1812: 1806: 1801: 1793: 1786: 1785: 1773: 1772: 1769: 1754: 1753: 1748: 1736: 1735: 1732: 1720: 1719: 1707: 1706: 1690: 1689: 1670: 1669: 1657: 1656: 1655: 1654: 1634: 1633: 1624: 1619: 1614: 1613: 1601: 1600: 1597: 1591: 1586: 1578: 1571: 1570: 1565: 1553: 1552: 1549: 1534: 1533: 1521: 1520: 1517: 1505: 1504: 1492: 1491: 1475: 1474: 1435: 1433: 1432: 1427: 1419: 1418: 1415: 1406: 1405: 1393: 1392: 1380: 1379: 1344: 1343: 1324: 1323: 1304: 1303: 1214: 1212: 1211: 1206: 1204: 1188: 1187: 1172: 1170: 1169: 1164: 1163: 1160: 1154: 1148: 1147: 1138: 1129: 1128: 1103: 1102: 1084: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1075: 1072: 1066: 1060: 1059: 1050: 1041: 1040: 1009: 1007: 1006: 1001: 1000: 997: 991: 985: 984: 975: 966: 965: 918: 916: 915: 910: 908: 901: 900: 895: 883: 882: 879: 866: 865: 849: 848: 843: 831: 830: 827: 814: 813: 797: 796: 784: 783: 780: 767: 766: 602: 601: 597: 550: 549: 545: 507: 498: 372: 370: 369: 364: 353: 348: 269: 262: 208: 147:Galileo Ferraris 96:induction motors 70:electrical grids 66:polyphase system 6392: 6391: 6387: 6386: 6385: 6383: 6382: 6381: 6342: 6341: 6340: 6335: 6321:SI derived unit 6273:The Current War 6177: 6146: 6107: 6096: 6035:Telegeodynamics 5990: 5984: 5979: 5949: 5944: 5926: 5910: 5908: 5901: 5832:Capacity factor 5820: 5818: 5811: 5791:Numerical relay 5769:Circuit breaker 5757: 5755: 5748: 5710: 5650:Load management 5620:Electrical grid 5585:Demand response 5578: 5573: 5564: 5545:Microgeneration 5497: 5412: 5360: 5351: 5347:Vehicle-to-grid 5220: 5215: 5178: 5142: 5140:Further reading 5137: 5136: 5129: 5117: 5116: 5112: 5105: 5093: 5092: 5088: 5063: 5059: 5046: 5042: 5034: 5019: 5015: 5014: 5010: 4998: 4994: 4955: 4951: 4941: 4939: 4935: 4928: 4922: 4918: 4911: 4897: 4893: 4883: 4881: 4880:on 13 June 2010 4877: 4870: 4864: 4860: 4847: 4846: 4842: 4837: 4833: 4823: 4821: 4810: 4803: 4793: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4782: 4778: 4771: 4755: 4746: 4737: 4735: 4731: 4724: 4720: 4719: 4715: 4707: 4700: 4696: 4695: 4691: 4674: 4670: 4660: 4658: 4643: 4639: 4632: 4616: 4607: 4599: 4592: 4588: 4587: 4583: 4573: 4569: 4559: 4555: 4546: 4542: 4531: 4517: 4513: 4500: 4496: 4489: 4475: 4471: 4452: 4448: 4441: 4437: 4427: 4425: 4417: 4416: 4412: 4405: 4391: 4387: 4370: 4366: 4349: 4345: 4330: 4304: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4281: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4259: 4255: 4250: 4246: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4219: 4215: 4210: 4206: 4200: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4175: 4171: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4099: 3919: 3915: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3737:White, or grey 3705:White, or grey 3670:Black, or blue 3643: 3639: 3635: 3617: 3612: 3585: 3579: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3493: 3475: 3462: 3442:Capacitors and 3408: 3400:storage heaters 3314: 3308: 3287: 3275: 3266: 3260: 3257: 3251: 3247: 3245: 3239: 3236: 3230: 3225: 3223: 3217: 3210: 3204: 3169: 3165: 3158: 3149: 3145: 3143: 3140: 3139: 3130: 3128: 3116: 3098: 3096: 3091: 3089: 3083: 3079: 3072: 3065: 3055: 3051: 3044: 3037: 3028: 3021: 3014: 3005: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2984: 2977: 2960: 2934: 2933: 2915: 2911: 2899: 2895: 2888: 2876: 2872: 2861: 2857: 2856: 2852: 2840: 2836: 2829: 2822: 2816: 2812: 2809: 2808: 2790: 2786: 2771: 2767: 2760: 2748: 2744: 2733: 2729: 2728: 2724: 2712: 2708: 2701: 2694: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2678: 2675: 2674: 2654: 2653: 2632: 2628: 2621: 2609: 2605: 2594: 2590: 2589: 2585: 2573: 2569: 2562: 2553: 2552: 2546: 2542: 2533: 2529: 2520: 2516: 2507: 2503: 2494: 2490: 2483: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2467: 2464: 2463: 2458: 2451: 2444: 2434: 2408: 2407: 2389: 2385: 2371: 2365: 2361: 2356: 2355: 2349: 2345: 2343: 2336: 2330: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2304: 2300: 2283: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2267: 2261: 2257: 2255: 2248: 2242: 2238: 2235: 2234: 2216: 2212: 2198: 2192: 2188: 2183: 2182: 2176: 2172: 2170: 2163: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2147: 2144: 2143: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2108: 2107: 2095: 2091: 2080: 2076: 2075: 2071: 2059: 2055: 2048: 2039: 2035: 2026: 2022: 2015: 2006: 2005: 1996: 1992: 1983: 1979: 1964: 1960: 1951: 1947: 1935: 1931: 1922: 1918: 1911: 1905: 1901: 1898: 1897: 1885: 1881: 1870: 1866: 1865: 1861: 1849: 1845: 1838: 1829: 1821: 1820: 1811: 1807: 1800: 1791: 1790: 1781: 1777: 1768: 1764: 1749: 1741: 1740: 1731: 1727: 1715: 1711: 1702: 1698: 1691: 1685: 1681: 1678: 1677: 1665: 1661: 1650: 1646: 1645: 1641: 1629: 1625: 1618: 1609: 1605: 1596: 1592: 1585: 1576: 1575: 1566: 1558: 1557: 1548: 1544: 1529: 1525: 1516: 1512: 1500: 1496: 1487: 1483: 1476: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1456: 1442: 1414: 1410: 1401: 1397: 1388: 1384: 1375: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1365: 1352: 1349:|∠α + 150° 1341: 1339: 1337: 1329:|∠α − 90°, 1321: 1319: 1317: 1309:|∠α + 30°, 1301: 1299: 1297: 1287: 1280: 1266: 1256: 1245: 1238: 1231: 1224: 1202: 1201: 1183: 1179: 1165: 1159: 1155: 1150: 1149: 1143: 1139: 1137: 1130: 1124: 1120: 1117: 1116: 1098: 1094: 1077: 1071: 1067: 1062: 1061: 1055: 1051: 1049: 1042: 1036: 1032: 1029: 1028: 1002: 996: 992: 987: 986: 980: 976: 974: 967: 961: 957: 953: 951: 948: 947: 928: 906: 905: 896: 888: 887: 878: 874: 867: 861: 857: 854: 853: 844: 836: 835: 826: 822: 815: 809: 805: 802: 801: 792: 788: 779: 775: 768: 762: 758: 754: 752: 749: 748: 743: 735: 731: 727: 723: 714: 616: 599: 595: 594: 584: 547: 543: 542: 518: 517: 516: 515: 510: 509: 508: 500: 499: 480: 474: 429: 416: 410: 347: 345: 342: 341: 280: 264: 257: 238:induction motor 204: 190:electric motors 140: 108: 100:electric motors 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6390: 6380: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6352:Electric power 6337: 6336: 6334: 6333: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6306: 6299: 6292: 6284: 6277: 6269: 6261: 6253: 6245: 6237: 6229: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6185: 6183: 6179: 6178: 6176: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6154: 6152: 6148: 6147: 6145: 6144: 6137: 6130: 6123: 6115: 6113: 6109: 6108: 6099: 6097: 6095: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6058: 6057: 6052: 6050:Wireless power 6047: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6011: 6010: 6000: 5994: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5978: 5977: 5970: 5963: 5955: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5942: 5931: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5924: 5919: 5913: 5911: 5907:Statistics and 5906: 5903: 5902: 5900: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5857:Feed-in tariff 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5823: 5821: 5816: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5809: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5782: 5781: 5776: 5766: 5760: 5758: 5753: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5746: 5745: 5744: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5718: 5716: 5712: 5711: 5709: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5645:Interconnector 5642: 5637: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5595:Dynamic demand 5592: 5587: 5581: 5579: 5569: 5566: 5565: 5563: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5525:Combined cycle 5522: 5517: 5511: 5509: 5503: 5502: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5479: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5422: 5420: 5414: 5413: 5411: 5410: 5405: 5404: 5403: 5398: 5393: 5388: 5377: 5375: 5366: 5362: 5361: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5302:Load-following 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5257:Electric power 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5228: 5226: 5222: 5221: 5214: 5213: 5206: 5199: 5191: 5185: 5184: 5177: 5176:External links 5174: 5173: 5172: 5141: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5127: 5110: 5103: 5086: 5075:(4): 836–839. 5057: 5040: 5008: 4992: 4949: 4916: 4909: 4891: 4858: 4840: 4831: 4801: 4776: 4769: 4744: 4713: 4689: 4668: 4637: 4630: 4605: 4602:on 2017-08-30. 4581: 4567: 4553: 4540: 4529: 4511: 4494: 4487: 4469: 4446: 4435: 4410: 4403: 4385: 4364: 4343: 4328: 4297: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4288: 4279: 4253: 4244: 4227: 4213: 4204: 4187: 4178: 4169: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4092: 4091: 4088: 4085: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4050: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4020: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3994: 3991: 3990:United States 3987: 3986: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3951: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3911: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3879: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3847: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3815: 3814: 3806: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3755:European Union 3746: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3714: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3679: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3654: 3652: 3651:Red, or brown 3649: 3647: 3631: 3630: 3627: 3624: 3620: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3606: 3578: 3575: 3574: 3573: 3561: 3558: 3550: 3547: 3532: 3529: 3520:, invented by 3503: 3489: 3484: 3481: 3474: 3471: 3461: 3458: 3407: 3404: 3326:electric motor 3307: 3304: 3286: 3283: 3274: 3271: 3264: 3255: 3243: 3238:as 100% gives 3234: 3215: 3208: 3201:high-leg delta 3189: 3188: 3177: 3168: 3162: 3157: 3148: 3123:transformers. 3120:high-leg delta 3115: 3112: 3082: 3081: 3077: 3070: 3063: 3057: 3054: 3053: 3049: 3042: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3019: 3012: 3007: 3003: 2989: 2982: 2975: 2969: 2958: 2950:where, again, 2948: 2947: 2932: 2929: 2926: 2923: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2907: 2902: 2898: 2892: 2887: 2884: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2864: 2860: 2855: 2851: 2848: 2843: 2839: 2833: 2828: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2810: 2807: 2804: 2801: 2798: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2774: 2770: 2764: 2759: 2756: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2723: 2720: 2715: 2711: 2705: 2700: 2697: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2682: 2668: 2667: 2652: 2649: 2646: 2643: 2640: 2635: 2631: 2625: 2620: 2617: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2597: 2593: 2588: 2584: 2581: 2576: 2572: 2566: 2561: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2471: 2456: 2449: 2442: 2432: 2422: 2421: 2406: 2403: 2400: 2397: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2381: 2374: 2368: 2364: 2359: 2352: 2348: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2324: 2321: 2318: 2315: 2312: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2296: 2293: 2286: 2280: 2276: 2271: 2264: 2260: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2236: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2208: 2201: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2179: 2175: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2151: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2122: 2121: 2106: 2103: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2083: 2079: 2074: 2070: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2052: 2047: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2025: 2019: 2014: 2011: 2009: 2007: 2004: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1982: 1978: 1975: 1972: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1950: 1946: 1943: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1899: 1896: 1893: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1860: 1857: 1852: 1848: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1827: 1824: 1819: 1810: 1804: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1767: 1763: 1760: 1757: 1752: 1747: 1744: 1739: 1730: 1726: 1723: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1679: 1676: 1673: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1640: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1622: 1617: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1595: 1589: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1577: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1561: 1556: 1547: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1515: 1511: 1508: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1464: 1441: 1438: 1437: 1436: 1425: 1422: 1413: 1409: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1378: 1374: 1351: 1350: 1335: 1330: 1315: 1310: 1295: 1289: 1285: 1278: 1264: 1254: 1243: 1236: 1229: 1222: 1216: 1215: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1191: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1175: 1168: 1158: 1153: 1146: 1142: 1136: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1090: 1087: 1080: 1070: 1065: 1058: 1054: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1018: 1015: 1012: 1005: 995: 990: 983: 979: 973: 970: 968: 964: 960: 956: 955: 927: 924: 920: 919: 904: 899: 894: 891: 886: 877: 873: 870: 868: 864: 860: 856: 855: 852: 847: 842: 839: 834: 825: 821: 818: 816: 812: 808: 804: 803: 800: 795: 791: 787: 778: 774: 771: 769: 765: 761: 757: 756: 741: 738:angle notation 733: 729: 725: 721: 713: 710: 697:high-leg delta 693: 692: 689: 686: 683: 672:high-leg delta 615: 612: 583: 580: 512: 511: 502: 501: 493: 492: 491: 490: 489: 473: 470: 455: 454: 447: 444: 428: 425: 409: 408:Phase sequence 406: 362: 359: 356: 351: 334:electric motor 279: 276: 246:Jonas Wenström 178:first AC motor 159:John Hopkinson 155:Jonas Wenström 139: 136: 116:voltage source 107: 104: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6389: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6347: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6311: 6307: 6305: 6304: 6300: 6298: 6297: 6293: 6290: 6289: 6285: 6282: 6278: 6275: 6274: 6270: 6267: 6266: 6262: 6259: 6258: 6254: 6251: 6250: 6246: 6243: 6242: 6238: 6235: 6234: 6230: 6227: 6226: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6186: 6184: 6180: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6149: 6143: 6142: 6138: 6135: 6131: 6129: 6128: 6124: 6122: 6121: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6110: 6103: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6067:Tesla turbine 6065: 6063: 6062:Radio control 6060: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6042: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6009: 6006: 6005: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5995: 5993: 5987: 5983: 5976: 5971: 5969: 5964: 5962: 5957: 5956: 5953: 5941: 5933: 5932: 5929: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5914: 5912: 5904: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5877:Pigouvian tax 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5824: 5822: 5814: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5774:Earth-leakage 5772: 5771: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5761: 5759: 5751: 5743: 5740: 5739: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5719: 5717: 5715:Failure modes 5713: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5665:Power station 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5550:Rankine cycle 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5530:Cooling tower 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5512: 5510: 5508: 5504: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5453: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5419: 5415: 5409: 5406: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5383: 5382: 5379: 5378: 5376: 5374: 5373:Non-renewable 5370: 5367: 5363: 5358: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5292:Grid strength 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5247:Demand factor 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5212: 5207: 5205: 5200: 5198: 5193: 5192: 5189: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5154:(5): 88–100. 5153: 5149: 5144: 5143: 5130: 5124: 5120: 5114: 5106: 5100: 5096: 5090: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5069: 5061: 5054: 5050: 5044: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5018: 5012: 5005: 5001: 4996: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4953: 4934: 4927: 4920: 4912: 4906: 4902: 4895: 4876: 4869: 4862: 4854: 4850: 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Three-phase electric power

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