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1378:, boiler forced-draft combustion air blowers, and for fuel preparation. It is uneconomical to provide such a large standby capacity at each station, so black-start power must be provided over designated tie lines from another station. Often hydroelectric power plants are designated as the black-start sources to restore network interconnections. A hydroelectric station needs very little initial power to start (just enough to open the intake gates and provide
584:
by receiving power from different sources. For example, one region may be producing cheap hydro power during high water seasons, but in low water seasons, another area may be producing cheaper power through wind, allowing both regions to access cheaper energy sources from one another during different times of the year. Neighboring utilities also help others to maintain the overall system frequency and also help manage tie transfers between utility regions.
1146:
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1725:. The frequency was standardised at 50 Hz, and the 225 kV network replaced 110 kV and 120 kV. Since 1956, service voltage has been standardised at 220/380 V, replacing the previous 127/220 V. During the 1970s, the 400 kV network, the new European standard, was implemented. The end user service voltage will progressively change to 230/400 V +/-10% since may 29, 1986.
864:
This tree-like structure grows outward from the substation, but for reliability reasons, usually contains at least one unused backup connection to a nearby substation. This connection can be enabled in case of an emergency, so that a portion of a substation's service territory can be alternatively fed by another substation.
706:, from which is connected to the distribution system. This networked system of connections is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers. Transmission networks are complex with redundant pathways. Redundancy allows line failures to occur and power is simply rerouted while repairs are done.
1720:
in 1919, and 36,528 in 1938. At the same time, these close networks began to interconnect: Paris in 1907 at 12 kV, the Pyrénées in 1923 at 150 kV, and finally almost all of the country interconnected by 1938 at 220 kV. In 1946, the grid was the world's most dense. That year the state nationalised the
1457:
is a grid management technique where retail or wholesale customers are requested or incentivised either electronically or manually to reduce their load. Currently, transmission grid operators use demand response to request load reduction from major energy users such as industrial plants. Technologies
583:
allow for economies of scale, allowing energy to be purchased from large, efficient sources. Utilities can draw power from generator reserves from a different region to ensure continuing, reliable power and diversify their loads. Interconnection also allows regions to have access to cheap bulk energy
1386:
can be configured for black start, providing another option in places without suitable hydroelectric plants. In 2017 a utility in
Southern California has successfully demonstrated the use of a battery energy storage system to provide a black start, firing up a combined cycle gas turbine from an idle
1110:
Failures are usually associated with generators or power transmission lines tripping circuit breakers due to faults leading to a loss of generation capacity for customers, or excess demand. This will often cause the frequency to reduce, and the remaining generators will react and together attempt to
709:
Because the power is often generated far from where it is consumed, the transmission system can cover great distances. For a given amount of power, transmission efficiency is greater at higher voltages and lower currents. Therefore, voltages are stepped up at the generating station, and stepped down
1354:
Normally, the electric power used within the plant is provided from the station's own generators. If all of the plant's main generators are shut down, station service power is provided by drawing power from the grid through the plant's transmission line. However, during a wide-area outage, off-site
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can be used to connect two alternating current interconnection networks which are not synchronized with each other. This provides the benefit of interconnection without the need to synchronize an even wider area. For example, compare the wide area synchronous grid map of Europe with the map of HVDC
1031:
Although the speed is kept largely constant, small deviations from the nominal system frequency are very important in regulating individual generators and are used as a way of assessing the equilibrium of the grid as a whole. When the grid is lightly loaded the grid frequency runs above the nominal
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from which feeders fan out in all directions across the countryside. These feeders carry three-phase power, and tend to follow the major streets near the substation. As the distance from the substation grows, the fanout continues as smaller laterals spread out to cover areas missed by the feeders.
1487:
is an enhancement of the 20th century electrical grid, using two-way communications and distributed so-called intelligent devices. Two-way flows of electricity and information could improve the delivery network. Research is mainly focused on three systems of a smart grid – the infrastructure
73:
to customers. In that last step, voltage is stepped down again to the required service voltage. Power stations are typically built close to energy sources and far from densely populated areas. Electrical grids vary in size and can cover whole countries or continents. From small to large there are
457:
The benefits of synchronous zones include pooling of generation, resulting in lower generation costs; pooling of load, resulting in significant equalizing effects; common provisioning of reserves, resulting in cheaper primary and secondary reserve power costs; opening of the market, resulting in
1592:
Concerns with smart grid technology mostly focus on smart meters, items enabled by them, and general security issues. Roll-out of smart grid technology also implies a fundamental re-engineering of the electricity services industry, although typical usage of the term is focused on the technical
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The smart grid represents the full suite of current and proposed responses to the challenges of electricity supply. Numerous contributions to the overall improvement of the efficiency of energy infrastructure are anticipated from the deployment of smart grid technology, in particular including
445:
Each of the interconnects in North
America are run at a nominal 60 Hz, while those of Europe run at 50 Hz. Neighbouring interconnections with the same frequency and standards can be synchronized and directly connected to form a larger interconnection, or they may share power without
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required transmission line owners to allow electric generation companies open access to their network and led to a restructuring of how the electric industry operated in an effort to create competition in power generation. No longer were electric utilities built as vertical monopolies, where
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A large failure in one part of the grid — unless quickly compensated for — can cause current to re-route itself to flow from the remaining generators to consumers over transmission lines of insufficient capacity, causing further failures. One downside to a widely connected grid is thus the
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In a synchronous grid all the generators must run at the same frequency, and must stay very nearly in phase with each other and the grid. Generation and consumption must be balanced across the entire grid, because energy is consumed as it is produced. For rotating generators, a local
422:(also called an "interconnection" in North America) is an electrical grid at a regional scale or greater that operates at a synchronized frequency and is electrically tied together during normal system conditions. These are also known as synchronous zones, the largest of which is the
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is the maximum load. Historically, baseload was commonly met by equipment that was relatively cheap to run, that ran continuously for weeks or months at a time, but globally this is becoming less common. The extra peak demand requirements are sometimes produced by expensive
1661:, with long-distance power transmission it became possible to interconnect stations to balance the loads and improve load factors. Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries have
587:
Electricity
Interconnection Level (EIL) of a grid is the ratio of the total interconnector power to the grid divided by the installed production capacity of the grid. Within the EU, it has set a target of national grids reaching 10% by 2020, and 15% by 2030.
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Developments in battery storage have enabled commercially viable projects to store energy during peak production and release during peak demand, and for use when production unexpectedly falls giving time for slower responding resources to be brought online.
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Distribution is the final stage in the delivery of power; it carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between
717:. Three phase, compared to single phase, can deliver much more power for a given amount of wire, since the neutral and ground wires are shared. Further, three-phase generators and motors are more efficient than their single-phase counterparts.
111:
increases, the number of people with access to grid electricity is growing. About 840 million people (mostly in Africa), which is ca. 11% of the World's population, had no access to grid electricity in 2017, down from 1.2 billion in 2010.
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Substations may perform many different functions but usually transform voltage from low to high (step up) and from high to low (step down). Between the generator and the final consumer, the voltage may be transformed several times.
100:(AC) frequencies synchronized (so that voltage swings occur at almost the same time). This allows transmission of AC power throughout the area, connecting the electricity generators with consumers. Grids can enable more efficient
321:
A microgrid is a local grid that is usually part of the regional wide-area synchronous grid but which can disconnect and operate autonomously. It might do this in times when the main grid is affected by outages. This is known as
781:: typically a set of three conductors, one for each phase of current. The substation is organized around the buses, and they are connected to incoming lines, transformers, protection equipment, switches, and the outgoing lines.
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1080:) to deal with failures as well as variation in demand. In addition generators can be off-line for maintenance or other reasons, such as availability of energy inputs (fuel, water, wind, sun etc.) or pollution constraints.
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For timekeeping purposes, the nominal frequency will be allowed to vary in the short term, but is adjusted to prevent line-operated clocks from gaining or losing significant time over the course of a whole 24 hour period.
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in 1901, and by 1912 had developed into the largest integrated power system in Europe. Merz was appointed head of a parliamentary committee and his findings led to the
Williamson Report of 1918, which in turn created the
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In addition, there's often central control, which can change the parameters of the AGC systems over timescales of a minute or longer to further adjust the regional network flows and the operating frequency of the grid.
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However, for conventional conductors one of the main losses are resistive losses which are a square law on current, and depend on distance. High voltage AC transmission lines can lose 1-4% per hundred miles. However,
1874:
if all countries in the world were to make do with their own resources, there would be even more energy poverty in the world than there is now. Currently, 1.4 billion people are not connected to an electricity grid
1036:
systems across the network that generators should reduce their output. Conversely, when the grid is heavily loaded, the frequency naturally slows, and governors adjust their generators so that more power is output
329:
Compared to larger grids, microgrids typically use a lower voltage distribution network and distributed generators. Microgrids may not only be more resilient, but may be cheaper to implement in isolated areas.
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generation, transmission and distribution were handled by a single company. Now, the three stages could be split among various companies, in an effort to provide fair access to high voltage transmission. The
693:
Network diagram of a high voltage transmission system, showing the interconnection between the different voltage levels. This diagram depicts the electrical structure of the network, rather than its physical
119:. Also as electric grids modernize and introduce computer technology, cyber threats start to become a security risk. Particular concerns relate to the more complex computer systems needed to manage grids.
1102:(i.e. cheapest first) and sometimes their environmental impact. Thus cheap electricity providers tend to be run flat out almost all the time, and the more expensive producers are only run when necessary.
1309:), in order to prevent uncontrolled service disruptions such as power outages (widespread blackouts) or equipment damage. Utilities may impose load shedding on service areas via targeted blackouts,
2841:
2124:
Buevich, Maxim; Schnitzer, Dan; Escalada, Tristan; Jacquiau-Chamski, Arthur; Rowe, Anthony (2014). "Fine-grained remote monitoring, control and pre-paid electrical service in rural microgrids".
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required by all utility customers within a given region. In these situations, overall demand must be lowered, either by turning off service to some devices or cutting back the supply voltage (
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system, the management system, and the protection system. Electronic power conditioning and control of the production and distribution of electricity are important aspects of the smart grid.
1028:
regulates the driving torque, maintaining almost constant rotation speed as loading changes. Energy is stored in the immediate short term by the rotational kinetic energy of the generators.
1760:. From 1958 to 1998, China's electrified railway reached 6,200 miles (10,000 kilometres). As of the end of 2017, this number has reached 54,000 miles (87,000 kilometres). In the current
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capacity), which in turn can be used to start the main power station generators. Generating plants using steam turbines require station service power of up to 10% of their capacity for
1913:
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685:; four circuits are shown; two additional circuits are obscured by trees on the right; the entire 7079 MW generation capacity of the dam is accommodated by these six circuits.
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Despite novel institutional arrangements and network designs, power delivery infrastructures is experiencing aging across the developed world. Contributing factors include:
1041:). When generators have identical droop speed control settings it ensures that multiple parallel generators with the same settings share load in proportion to their rating.
549:
is a wide-area transmission network that is intended to make possible the trade of high volumes of electricity across great distances. It is sometimes also referred to as a
1635:. In the industrialized world, cities had networks of piped gas, used for lighting. But gas lamps produced poor light, wasted heat, made rooms hot and smokey, and gave off
1508:. Smart grids could also monitor/control residential devices that are noncritical during periods of peak power consumption, and return their function during nonpeak hours.
454:), or with variable-frequency transformers (VFTs), which permit a controlled flow of energy while also functionally isolating the independent AC frequencies of each side.
2167:
Buevich, Maxim; Zhang, Xiao; Schnitzer, Dan; Escalada, Tristan; Jacquiau-Chamski, Arthur; Thacker, Jon; Rowe, Anthony (1 January 2015). "Short Paper: Microgrid Losses".
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Saleh, M. S.; Althaibani, A.; Esa, Y.; Mhandi, Y.; Mohamed, A. A. (October 2015). "Impact of clustering microgrids on their stability and resilience during blackouts".
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Kirubi, et al. "Community-Based
Electric Micro-Grids Can Contribute to Rural Development: Evidence from Kenya." World Development, vol. 37, no. 7, 2009, pp. 1208–1221.
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Demand response can be achieved at the wholesale level with major energy users such as industrial plants curtailing power use and receiving payment for participating.
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current to the generator field coils), and can put a large block of power on line very quickly to allow start-up of fossil-fuel or nuclear stations. Certain types of
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loads, and even nonlinear loads, with electricity provided by generators and distribution and transmission equipment that are not perfectly reliable. Often grids use
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and other studies foresee widescale grid defection. However grid defection may be less likely in places such as
Germany that have greater power demands in winter.
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gained binding powers in the United States in 2006, and has advisory powers in the applicable parts of Canada and Mexico. The U.S. government has also designated
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can have half the losses of AC. Over very long distances, these efficiencies can offset the additional cost of the required AC/DC converter stations at each end.
754:
Step-down substation: these transformers lower the voltage coming from the transmission lines which can be used in industry or sent to a distribution substation.
1623:
Early electric energy was produced near the device or service requiring that energy. In the 1880s, electricity competed with steam, hydraulics, and especially
2312:
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1776:—is an important power supplier. In 2019, it completed the power supply project of China's important electrified railways in its operating areas, such as
1429:
planning and engineering are ineffective in addressing current problems of aged equipment, obsolete system layouts, and modern deregulated loading levels.
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Resistance to distributed generation among grid operators may encourage providers to leave the grid and instead distribute power to smaller geographies.
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to raise the voltage coming from the generators and power plants so that power can be transmitted long distances more efficiently, with smaller currents.
576:(HVDC) to transmit electricity long distances. The latest generation of HVDC power lines can transmit energy with losses of only 1.6% per 1000 km.
1440:, operating of system using concepts and procedures that worked in vertically integrated industry exacerbate the problem under a deregulated industry.
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1788:, et cetera, providing power supply guarantee for 110 traction stations, and its cumulative power line construction length reached 6,586 kilometres.
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In the United States in the 1920s, utilities formed joint-operations to share peak load coverage and backup power. In 1934, with the passage of the
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An entire synchronous grid runs at the same frequency, neighbouring grids would not be synchronised even if they run at the same nominal frequency.
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One disadvantage of a wide-area synchronous grid is that problems in one part can have repercussions across the whole grid. For example, in 2018
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Grids are designed to supply electricity to their customers at largely constant voltages. This has to be achieved with varying demand, variable
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system. Intentional brownouts are used for load reduction in an emergency. The reduction lasts for minutes or hours, as opposed to short-term
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Borberly, A. and
Kreider, J. F. (2001). Distributed Generation: The Power Paradigm for the New Millennium. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 400 pgs.
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to connect and monitor the above, with wireless as a backup. Sufficient spare if "dark" capacity to ensure failover, often leased for revenue.
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pilot program: sixty-four solar panels with a peak capacity of 23.7 kW on five houses and a battery with a storage capacity of 15 kWh.
2795:"Power Management Analysis of a Photovoltaic and Battery Energy Storage-Based Smart Electrical Car Park Providing Ancillary Grid Services"
1123:. A central authority is usually designated to facilitate communication and develop protocols to maintain a stable grid. For example, the
297:
1403:, leading to customer interruption rates affecting the economy and society; also, older assets and facilities lead to higher inspection
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3206:
Torriti, Jacopo (2012). "Demand Side
Management for the European Supergrid: Occupancy variances of European single-person households".
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However, in practice, they are never run flat out simultaneously. Typically, some generators are kept running at lower output powers (
495:
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General layout of electricity grids. Voltages and depictions of electrical lines are typical for
Germany and other European systems.
391:, also known as an "interconnection" in North America, directly connects many generators delivering AC power with the same relative
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Philippe CARRIVE, Réseaux de distribution - Structure et planification, volume D4210, collection
Techniques de l'ingénieur, page 6.
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Mazer, A. (2007). Electric Power Planning for Regulated and Deregulated Markets. John, Wiley, and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. 313pgs.
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to take advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation, distribution, and system management. After the
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design. A substation receives its power from the transmission network, the power is stepped down with a transformer and sent to a
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Smart grid policy is organized in Europe as Smart Grid European Technology Platform. Policy in the United States is described in
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Although electrical grids are widespread, as of 2016, 1.4 billion people worldwide were not connected to an electricity grid. As
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Cooper, Christopher; Sovacool, Benjamin K. (February 2013). "Miracle or mirage? The promise and peril of desert energy part 1".
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may be an effect of disruption of an electrical grid, or may occasionally be imposed in an effort to reduce load and prevent a
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is the maximum power output on a grid that is immediately available over a given time period, and is a far more useful figure.
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However, if the demand of electricity exceed the capacity of a local power grid, it will cause safety issue like burning out.
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standardized the nation's electricity supply and established the first synchronized AC grid, running at 132 kilovolts and 50
1496:. The improved flexibility of the smart grid permits greater penetration of highly variable renewable energy sources such as
1242:
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such as smart metering can encourage customers to use power when electricity is plentiful by allowing for variable pricing.
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Power failures are particularly critical at sites where the environment and public safety are at risk. Institutions such as
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Fang, Xi; Misra, Satyajayant; Xue, Guoliang; Yang, Dejun (2012). "Smart Grid — the New and Improved Power Grid: A Survey".
3028:"Distributed finite-time consensus control for heterogeneous battery energy storage systems in droop-controlled microgrids"
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allowed incentives and loan guarantees for alternative energy production and advance innovative technologies that avoided
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2445:. (2001). Glover J. D., Sarma M. S., Overbye T. J. (2010) Power System and Analysis 5th Edition. Cengage Learning. Pg 10.
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or by agreements with specific high-use industrial consumers to turn off equipment at times of system-wide peak demand.
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In China, electrification began in the 1950s. In August 1961, the electrification of the Baoji-Fengzhou section of the
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929:) or when demand is low, and later returned to the grid when demand is high, and electricity prices tend to be higher.
845:. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the
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possibility of long-term contracts and short term power exchanges; and mutual assistance in the event of disturbances.
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power from the grid is not available. In the absence of grid power, a so-called black start needs to be performed to
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Stone Edge Farm Winery: micro-turbine, fuel-cell, multiple battery, hydrogen electrolyzer, and PV enabled winery in
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1643:. They also posed a fire hazard. In the 1880s electric lighting soon became advantageous compared to gas lighting.
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37:
Diagram of an electrical grid (generation system in red, transmission system in blue, distribution system in green)
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3296:"free open access Emerging economic viability of grid defection in a northern climate using solar hybrid systems"
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in ways that have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business.
1176:(or dip). The term brownout comes from the dimming experienced by incandescent lighting when the voltage sags. A
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The demand, or load on an electrical grid is the total electrical power being removed by the users of the grid.
533:
One conceptual plan of a super grid linking renewable sources across North Africa, the Middle East and Europe. (
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Proceedings of the 2nd ACM International Conference on Embedded Systems for Energy-Efficient Built Environments
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lagging behind what it should have been. The frequency dropped to 49.996 Hz. This caused certain kinds of
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trading across wide areas. In the ENTSO-E in 2008, over 350,000 megawatt hours were sold per day on the
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The sum of the power outputs of generators on the grid is the production of the grid, typically measured in
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Sayed, K.; Gabbar, H. A. (1 January 2017). "Chapter 18 – SCADA and smart energy grid control automation".
909:. Electrical energy is stored during times when electricity is plentiful and inexpensive (especially from
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Electric utilities between regions are many times interconnected for improved economy and reliability.
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system serving countries of the former Soviet Union. Synchronous grids with ample capacity facilitate
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2965:"California battery's black start capability hailed as 'major accomplishment in the energy industry'"
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of importance and were given outlined restrictions and regulatory oversight of their operations. The
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IPSN-14 Proceedings of the 13th International Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Networks
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are a generic name for any utility side device even if it is more capable e.g. a fiber optic router)
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that cannot be obtained in the current area and are forced to use existing, insufficient facilities.
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Distribution substation: these transform the voltage lower again for the distribution to end users.
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86:. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of electricity delivery, known as the
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Power failures can be caused by faults at power stations, damage to electric transmission lines,
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3625:. Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Joint Publications Research Service. 1984. p. 54.
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Simplified grid energy flow with and without idealized energy storage for the course of one day
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located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the
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1889:"Closing Sub-Saharan Africa's Electricity Access Gap: Why Cities Must Be Part of the Solution"
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and transmission systems may not always meet peak demand requirements— the greatest amount of
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on transformers near to the consumers to adjust the voltage and keep it within specification.
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that are generators optimised to come on-line quickly but these too are becoming less common.
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3470:"A Primer on Electric Utilities, Deregulation, and Restructuring of U.S. Electricity Markets"
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3143:"Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Assessment of Demand Response & Advanced Metering"
3093:"Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Assessment of Demand Response & Advanced Metering"
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Cuffe, Paul; Keane, Andrew (2017). "Visualizing the Electrical Structure of Power Systems".
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to many consumers. For example, there are four major interconnections in North America (the
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for backup and also a socket for connecting a generator during extended periods of outage.
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stabilize above the minimum. If that is not possible then a number of scenarios can occur.
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Electrical grids can be prone to malicious intrusion or attack; thus, there is a need for
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Khalilpour, R.; Vassallo, A. (2015). "Leaving the grid: An ambition or a real choice?".
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1914:"As Cyber Threats To The Electric Grid Rise, Utilities And Regulators Seek Solutions"
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Obsolete system layout – older areas require serious additional substation sites and
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Aside from transformers, other major components or functions of substations include:
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2546:
4707:
4340:
4281:
3985:
3980:
3957:
3866:
3806:
3369:
3342:
3307:
3294:
Kantamneni, Abhilash; Winkler, Richelle; Gauchia, Lucia; Pearce, Joshua M. (2016).
3223:
3170:
3114:
3078:
3074:
3039:
2806:
2524:
2516:
2479:
2460:"Assessment of the EU 10% interconnection target in the context of CO2 mitigation†"
2399:
2194:
2172:
2153:
2131:
1969:
1959:
1859:
1849:
1777:
1753:
1646:
1568:
1564:
1363:
1310:
1261:
1077:
933:
682:
673:
649:
271:
4490:
3166:
2015 International Conference on Smart Grid and Clean Energy Technologies (ICSGCE)
2484:
2459:
4733:
4723:
4641:
4595:
4585:
4544:
4371:
4330:
4308:
4189:
4124:
4084:
3886:
3620:
3604:
3429:
2403:
1773:
1713:
1640:
1552:
1538:
1530:
1475:
1454:
1293:
1250:
952:
846:
765:
611:
223:
108:
93:
Grids are nearly always synchronous, meaning all distribution areas operate with
3400:
3346:
3311:
3227:
3174:
350:
4682:
4396:
4386:
4184:
3796:
3373:
3027:
2992:"Industry Cross-Section Develops Action Plans at PJM Demand Response Symposium"
2520:
2048:"UNDP Yemen wins acclaimed international Ashden Awards for Humanitarian Energy"
1964:
1939:
1854:
1572:
1556:
1505:
1426:
1002:
902:
641:
622:
618:
569:
251:
241:
218:
185:
2923:
Power Systems in Emergencies - From Contingency Planning to Crisis Management
2637:"The basic things about substations you MUST know in the middle of the night!"
2135:
4802:
4782:
4728:
4416:
4204:
4089:
4069:
4000:
3990:
3947:
3831:
3786:
3720:
3641:
3164:
3043:
2820:
2538:
2353:(See "Operation of Power Systems" link for title page and table of contents.)
1983:
1781:
1344:
1238:
1099:
987:
645:
626:
208:
54:
3461:
2176:
1693:. The bill was the first step towards an integrated electricity system. The
1627:. Coal gas was first produced on customer's premises but later evolved into
1479:
Characteristics of a traditional system (left) versus the smart grid (right)
4687:
4436:
4411:
4276:
4245:
4059:
3861:
1673:
1628:
1534:
1400:
1327:
1277:
1197:
1185:
1181:
1169:
1120:
886:
855:
In cities and towns of North America, the grid tends to follow the classic
793:
562:
3662:"After initial questions, government clears 100% Railways electrification"
3423:
Net metering changes could drive people off grid, Michigan researchers say
1094:
Most grid codes specify that the load is shared between the generators in
768:: used to automatically break a circuit and isolate a fault in the system.
4646:
4610:
4261:
4229:
4022:
4010:
3930:
3856:
3846:
3776:
2074:"Harmon'Yeu, première communauté énergétique à l'Île d'Yeu, signée Engie"
1974:
1864:
1519:
1497:
1437:
1322:
1302:
1173:
1150:
1095:
1006:
982:
926:
922:
748:
637:
558:
356:
94:
2123:
1571:) batteries or larger arrays of batteries recycled from these, or other
4661:
4605:
4552:
4224:
4219:
4032:
4015:
3871:
3726:
2811:
2794:
2244:"Stone Edge Farm — A Sandbox For Microgrid Development | CleanTechnica"
1501:
1484:
1468:
1412:
1268:, shelters and the like will usually have backup power sources such as
918:
524:
333:
A design goal is that a local area produces all of the energy it uses.
83:
27:
2529:
2421:
1343:
is the process of restoring an electric power station or a part of an
1145:
878:
3940:
3935:
3821:
3781:
1797:
1585:
852:
Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network.
789:
656:
427:
362:
323:
316:
180:
75:
3295:
2441:
2439:
2026:
1940:"The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths"
1168:
is an intentional or unintentional drop in voltage in an electrical
4738:
4054:
3719:
is a view of the world's hidden power infrastructure mapped in the
1658:
1636:
1624:
1433:
1371:
1257:
978:
607:
534:
430:(GW) of generation, and the widest region served being that of the
266:
261:
2218:"Microgrid at Stone Edge Farm Wins California Environmental Honor"
1756:
was completed and delivered for operation, becoming China's first
1581:
Electric surplus distribution by power lines and auto-smart switch
1511:
A smart grid includes a variety of operation and energy measures:
3975:
3965:
2996:
2436:
2278:
1555:, often financed by efficiency gains on municipal programs (e.g.
1370:(BSDG), which can be used to start larger generators (of several
702:
from a generating site, via a web of interconnected lines, to an
431:
62:
2881:
Electric power system basics: for the nonelectrical professional
2331:: Institute for Electrical Equipment and Power Plants (IAEW) at
837:. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to
3970:
2693:
Infrastructure : a field guide to the industrial landscape
2328:
1265:
860:
778:
771:
501:
The two major and three minor interconnections of North America
466:
462:
451:
340:
256:
3293:
2027:"A Survey of Techniques for Designing and Managing Microgrids"
932:
As of 2020, the largest form of grid energy storage is dammed
529:
16:
Interconnected network for delivering electricity to consumers
2166:
1702:
1158:
1154:
1131:, where it believes transmission bottlenecks have developed.
936:, with both conventional hydroelectric generation as well as
565:. In this context they are considered as a key technology to
474:
344:
3249:
774:: to control the flow of electricity, and isolate equipment.
365:, Kenya: a community-based diesel-powered micro-grid system.
3925:
3716:
3394:
The Economics of Grid Defection - Rocky Mountain Institute
3360:
Kumagai, J (2014). "The rise of the personal power plant".
829:
2977:
Willis, H. L., Welch, G. V., and Schrieber, R. R. (2001).
1765:
3454:
3452:
2311:
Haubrich, Hans-Jürgen; Denzel, Dieter (23 October 2008).
1362:
To provide a black start, some power stations have small
53:
from producers to consumers. Electrical grids consist of
3162:
2420:. Global Energy Interconnection (GEIDCO). Archived from
1226:) is a loss of the electric power to a particular area.
465:
used more power than it generated due to a dispute with
3588:
2458:
Mezősi, András; Pató, Zsuzsanna; Szabó, László (2016).
1335:, which required black-starting of generating stations.
981:
is the minimum load on the grid over any given period,
743:
The three main types of substations, by function, are:
3449:
2365:"Serbia, Kosovo power grid row delays European clocks"
2025:
Khaitan, Siddhartha Kumar; Venkatraman, Ramakrishnan.
326:, and it might run indefinitely on its own resources.
644:
of water or wind. Other energy sources include solar
26:"Power grid" redirects here. For the board game, see
1567:
resources, including the capacity to charge parked (
710:
at local substations for distribution to customers.
698:
Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of
617:
Electricity generation is the process of generating
4520:
2768:Sallam, Abdelhay A. & Malik, Om P. (May 2011).
1705:. This started operating as a national system, the
3659:
3324:
3150:United States Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
413:one large grid connects most of continental Europe
2793:Wang, Yingcheng; Gladwin, Daniel (January 2021).
1276:, are also required to have emergency power. The
1129:National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors
1032:frequency, and this is taken as an indication by
4800:
3064:
1697:led to the setting up of the National Grid. The
971:The graph of the demand over time is called the
947:Two alternatives to grid storage are the use of
446:synchronization via high-voltage direct current
69:to carry power over long distances, and finally
2457:
1880:
1125:North American Electric Reliability Corporation
3637:"Hong Kong Express Rail Link officially opens"
3019:
2492:
2381:
2310:
2024:
1800:: a specification for grid-connected equipment
1721:industry, by uniting the private companies as
1280:of a telephone exchange usually has arrays of
882:Simplified electrical grid with energy storage
806:
802:for power factor correction and grid stability
4506:
3742:
3682:"Beijing–Zhangjiakou intercity railway opens"
3609:. Xinhua Publishing House. 1989. p. 190.
3528:. North Northumberland Online. Archived from
2313:"Characteristics of interconnected operation"
2100:"A L'Île-d'Yeu, soleil pour tous… ou presque"
1732:(USA), electric utilities were recognized as
1425:Outdated engineering – traditional tools for
1399:Aging equipment – older equipment has higher
1351:to recover from a total or partial shutdown.
1347:to operation without relying on the external
1064:
376:
291:
3499:
2285:. 30 October 2008. p. 4. Archived from
1995:
1993:
3108:
3067:IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials
2792:
2772:. IEEE Computer Society Press. p. 21.
2767:
1830:"Energy: The missing link in globalization"
4513:
4499:
3749:
3735:
3687:National Development and Reform Commission
3242:"Smart Grids European Technology Platform"
2498:
2281:: Market Surveillance (HÜSt) group of the
347:, Yemen: community-owned solar microgrids.
298:
284:
122:
3443:"Grid defection and why we don't want it"
3271:"42 U.S. Code Subchapter IX - SMART GRID"
2810:
2528:
2483:
2321:Operation of Interconnected Power Systems
1990:
1973:
1963:
1863:
1853:
359:, Haiti: includes energy theft detection.
3756:
3660:Avishek G Dastidar (13 September 2018).
3025:
2981:. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. 551 pgs.
2915:
2904:, The Book Press Limited, Toronto, 1986
2686:
2684:
1937:
1827:
1474:
1326:
1144:
885:
877:
816:
688:
672:
606:
528:
469:, leading to the phase across the whole
32:
3502:"Kelvin to Weir, and on to GB SYS 2005"
3467:
3359:
3205:
2933:section 7.5 The 'Black Start' Situation
2695:(1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton.
2453:
2451:
2018:
4801:
2865:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2621:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1886:
1872:from the original on 5 February 2018.
1804:North American power transmission grid
1105:
1069:The sum of the maximum power outputs (
901:) is a collection of methods used for
471:synchronous grid of Continental Europe
424:synchronous grid of Continental Europe
4494:
3730:
2902:Electric Power Challenges and Choices
2715:
2709:
2690:
2681:
2097:
2071:
3606:People's Republic of China Year Book
3582:"Journal Officiel n°0146, page 7895"
2979:Aging Power Delivery Infrastructures
2655:
2448:
1944:Energy Research & Social Science
1834:Energy Research & Social Science
1786:Zhengzhou–Wanzhou high-speed railway
4819:Electric power transmission systems
2735:
2641:EEP - Electrical Engineering Portal
2629:
1349:electric power transmission network
557:by smoothing local fluctuations of
553:. Super grids can support a global
49:) is an interconnected network for
13:
4744:Renewable energy commercialization
4427:Renewable energy commercialization
3514:from the original on 4 March 2009.
3500:Mr Alan Shaw (29 September 2005).
3477:United States Department of Energy
3119:10.1016/B978-0-12-805343-0.00018-8
2562:"Why Do We Use Three-Phase Power?"
1911:
1730:Public Utility Holding Company Act
1680:consulting partnership, built the
1597:Title 42 of the United States Code
1449:
958:
14:
4830:
4754:United States energy independence
3710:
3480:Federal Energy Management Program
3397:"The Economics of Grid Defection"
3275:LII / Legal Information Institute
2559:
2098:Wakim, Nabil (16 December 2020).
1603:
336:Example implementations include:
233:Electric power systems components
4475:
4474:
3895:
3690:. 6 January 2020. Archived from
3645:. 3 October 2018. Archived from
3000:. 13 August 2008. Archived from
2171:. BuildSys '15. pp. 95–98.
1938:Overland, Indra (1 March 2019).
1828:Overland, Indra (1 April 2016).
1516:Advanced metering infrastructure
1467:This section is an excerpt from
1287:
506:
494:
482:
4627:Flexible AC transmission system
3674:
3653:
3629:
3613:
3597:
3574:
3565:
3543:
3518:
3493:
3435:
3415:
3388:
3353:
3318:
3287:
3263:
3234:
3199:
3156:
3135:
3102:
3085:
3058:
3032:IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid
2984:
2971:
2957:
2942:Philip P. Walsh, Paul Fletcher
2936:
2894:
2873:
2847:from the original on 8 May 2018
2827:
2786:
2761:
2579:
2553:
2410:
2375:
2357:
2304:
2264:
2236:
2210:
2201:
2160:
2117:
1766:State Grid Corporation of China
1584:Sufficient utility grade fiber
1504:, even without the addition of
1390:
1359:the power grid into operation.
1058:variable-frequency transformers
938:pumped storage hydroelectricity
662:
489:The synchronous grids of Europe
4540:Smartgrids Technology Platform
3622:China Report: Economic affairs
3507:. Royal Society of Edinburgh.
3079:10.1109/SURV.2011.101911.00087
2883:. John Wiley & Sons, 2007
2091:
2065:
2040:
1931:
1905:
1821:
1762:railway electrification system
1316:
955:to shift load to other times.
747:Step-up substation: these use
728:
1:
4693:Renewable Energy Certificates
4422:Renewable Energy Certificates
4382:Cost of electricity by source
4304:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
4180:High-voltage shore connection
3111:Smart Energy Grid Engineering
2770:Electric Distribution Systems
2485:10.1080/14693062.2016.1160864
1814:
1716:began in the 1900s, with 700
1695:Electricity (Supply) Act 1926
1691:Electricity (Supply) Act 1919
1461:
1089:
596:
591:
518:
195:Electric power infrastructure
4601:Nonintrusive load monitoring
4437:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
4235:Transmission system operator
4195:Mains electricity by country
3772:Automatic generation control
2946:, John Wiley and Sons, 2004
2404:10.1016/j.renene.2012.07.027
2272:"EEX Market Monitor Q3/2008"
1545:from a utility perspective)
1368:black start diesel generator
1253:operation, and human error.
1034:Automatic Generation Control
1012:
629:. Usually this is done with
572:. Super grids typically use
513:Major WASGs around the world
477:to become six minutes slow.
310:
7:
4814:Electric power distribution
4620:Other technologies/concepts
4462:List of electricity sectors
4457:Electric energy consumption
4175:High-voltage direct current
4150:Electric power transmission
4140:Electric power distribution
3817:Energy return on investment
3347:10.1016/j.enpol.2015.03.005
3312:10.1016/j.enpol.2016.05.013
3228:10.1016/j.enpol.2012.01.039
3175:10.1109/ICSGCE.2015.7454295
3113:. Academic Press: 481–514.
3026:Hu, J.; Lanzon, A. (2019).
2925:John Wiley & Sons 2001
2335:. p. 3. Archived from
2072:Spaes, Joel (3 July 2020).
1887:Odarno, Lily (2019-08-14).
1791:
1191:
1134:
1054:High-voltage direct current
951:to fill in supply gaps and
905:on a large scale within an
813:Electric power distribution
807:Electric power distribution
723:high-voltage direct current
669:Electric power transmission
574:High-voltage direct current
80:wide area synchronous grids
71:electric power distribution
67:electric power transmission
10:
4835:
4678:Carbon capture and storage
4377:Carbon offsets and credits
4095:Three-phase electric power
3584:(in French). 25 June 1986.
3468:Warwick, W.M. (May 2002).
3374:10.1109/mspec.2014.6821622
2718:"How Do Substations Work?"
2521:10.1109/JSYST.2015.2427994
1965:10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018
1855:10.1016/j.erss.2016.01.009
1682:Neptune Bank Power Station
1618:
1578:Energy efficient resources
1466:
1333:Northeast blackout of 2003
1320:
1291:
1195:
1138:
1065:Capacity and firm capacity
1016:
996:
899:large-scale energy storage
871:
867:
810:
732:
679:Three-phase electric power
666:
600:
581:Electrical interconnectors
522:
420:wide area synchronous grid
389:wide area synchronous grid
383:Wide area synchronous grid
380:
377:Wide area synchronous grid
314:
25:
18:
4762:
4716:
4698:Renewable Energy Payments
4670:
4619:
4571:
4529:
4470:
4445:
4432:Renewable Energy Payments
4355:
4292:
4254:
4108:
4045:
3956:
3921:Fossil fuel power station
3911:
3904:
3893:
3764:
3551:"Lighting by electricity"
2136:10.1109/IPSN.2014.6846736
1893:World Resources Institute
1743:Energy Policy Act of 2005
1738:Energy Policy Act of 1992
1699:Central Electricity Board
1444:
963:
839:distribution transformers
161:Electric power conversion
147:Electric power conversion
4657:Power-line communication
4215:Single-wire earth return
4155:Electrical busbar system
3812:Energy demand management
3526:"Survey of Belford 1995"
3044:10.1109/TSG.2018.2868112
2283:European Energy Exchange
1657:was settled in favor of
1613:Rocky Mountain Institute
448:power transmission lines
440:European Energy Exchange
426:(ENTSO-E) with 667
4703:Renewable energy policy
4652:Phasor measurement unit
4558:Pickens Plan super grid
4346:Residual-current device
4336:Power system protection
4326:Generator interlock kit
3717:Open Infrastructure Map
2944:Gas turbine performance
2669:. University of Calgary
2663:"Electrical substation"
2177:10.1145/2821650.2821676
1672:In the United Kingdom,
401:Eastern Interconnection
397:Western Interconnection
123:Types (grouped by size)
4632:HVDC bulk transmission
4130:Distributed generation
3802:Electric power quality
3248:. 2011. Archived from
2743:"How Power Grids Work"
2333:RWTH Aachen University
1665:the regulation of the
1649:companies established
1494:demand-side management
1480:
1376:boiler feedwater pumps
1366:, normally called the
1336:
1233:or other parts of the
1161:
1141:Brownout (electricity)
891:
883:
822:
800:Synchronous condensers
695:
686:
681:Transmission Lines at
614:
603:Electricity generation
538:
405:Quebec Interconnection
166:HVDC converter station
117:electric grid security
59:electrical substations
38:
4770:Electricity economics
4749:Rural electrification
4402:Fossil fuel phase-out
4170:Electricity retailing
4165:Electrical substation
4145:Electric power system
3432:- MidWest Energy News
2722:Practical Engineering
2691:Hayes, Brian (2005).
2001:"How Microgrids Work"
1723:Électricité de France
1549:Load control switches
1478:
1432:Old cultural value –
1330:
1299:Electrical generation
1148:
915:renewable electricity
907:electrical power grid
889:
881:
820:
735:Electrical substation
713:Most transmission is
704:electrical substation
692:
676:
610:
532:
409:Texas Interconnection
204:Electric power system
36:
21:Grid (disambiguation)
4573:Efficient energy use
3758:Electricity delivery
3428:15 June 2016 at the
3169:. pp. 195–200.
2879:Steven Warren Blume
2566:www.ny-engineers.com
2501:IEEE Systems Journal
1747:greenhouse emissions
1631:plants that enjoyed
949:peaking power plants
51:electricity delivery
19:For other uses, see
4367:Availability factor
4319:Sulfur hexafluoride
4200:Overhead power line
4100:Virtual power plant
4075:Induction generator
4028:Sustainable biofuel
3837:Home energy storage
3827:Grid energy storage
3792:Droop speed control
3649:on 18 October 2018.
3339:2015EnPol..82..207K
3220:2012EnPol..44..199T
3004:on 19 February 2009
2513:2017ISysJ..11.1810C
2476:2016CliPo..16..658M
2396:2013REne...50..628C
2222:Microgrid Knowledge
1956:2019ERSS...49...36O
1912:Douris, Constance.
1846:2016ERSS...14..122O
1758:electrified railway
1686:Newcastle upon Tyne
1678:Merz & McLellan
1655:war of the currents
1527:distribution boards
1331:Toronto during the
1282:lead–acid batteries
1106:Failures and issues
1098:according to their
1039:droop speed control
895:Grid energy storage
874:Grid energy storage
843:utilization voltage
785:Lightning arresters
102:electricity markets
98:alternating current
47:electricity network
4563:Unified Smart Grid
4241:Transmission tower
3852:Nameplate capacity
3667:The Indian Express
3555:The National Trust
2812:10.3390/en14248433
2716:Hillhouse, Grady.
2667:energyeducation.ca
2424:on 1 February 2020
2252:. 24 November 2017
2078:www.pv-magazine.fr
1809:Sustainable energy
1772:2021-12-21 at the
1667:electricity market
1633:economies of scale
1481:
1407:costs and further
1384:combustion turbine
1337:
1270:standby generators
1162:
1071:nameplate capacity
911:intermittent power
892:
884:
823:
696:
687:
615:
539:
436:electricity market
370:Sonoma, California
176:DC-to-DC converter
171:AC-to-AC converter
39:
4796:
4795:
4581:Demand management
4488:
4487:
4392:Environmental tax
4272:Cascading failure
4041:
4040:
3877:Utility frequency
3421:Andy Balaskovitz
3403:on 12 August 2016
3184:978-1-4673-8732-3
2931:978-0-471-49016-6
2249:cleantechnica.com
2224:. 18 January 2018
2145:978-1-4799-3146-0
2130:. pp. 1–11.
1364:diesel generators
1311:rolling blackouts
1274:telecommunication
1243:cascading failure
1178:voltage reduction
1117:cascading failure
1019:Utility frequency
700:electrical energy
631:electromechanical
555:energy transition
308:
307:
247:Grid-tie inverter
156:Voltage converter
140:Power engineering
4826:
4788:Renewable energy
4708:Soft energy path
4521:Modernizing the
4515:
4508:
4501:
4492:
4491:
4478:
4477:
4387:Energy subsidies
4341:Protective relay
4282:Rolling blackout
3909:
3908:
3899:
3867:Power-flow study
3807:Electrical fault
3751:
3744:
3737:
3728:
3727:
3704:
3703:
3701:
3699:
3678:
3672:
3671:
3657:
3651:
3650:
3633:
3627:
3626:
3617:
3611:
3610:
3601:
3595:
3592:
3586:
3585:
3578:
3572:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3561:on 29 June 2011.
3557:. Archived from
3547:
3541:
3540:
3538:
3537:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3506:
3497:
3491:
3490:
3488:
3487:
3474:
3465:
3459:
3456:
3447:
3446:
3439:
3433:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3408:
3399:. Archived from
3392:
3386:
3385:
3357:
3351:
3350:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3267:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3257:
3238:
3232:
3231:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3147:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3106:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3038:(5): 4751–4761.
3023:
3017:
3016:
3011:
3009:
2988:
2982:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2961:
2955:
2940:
2934:
2919:
2913:
2898:
2892:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2864:
2856:
2854:
2852:
2846:
2839:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2814:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2765:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2728:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2688:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2643:. 9 January 2019
2633:
2627:
2626:
2620:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2602:
2596:. Archived from
2591:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2560:Sajip, Jahnavi.
2557:
2551:
2550:
2532:
2507:(3): 1810–1821.
2496:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2455:
2446:
2443:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2384:Renewable Energy
2379:
2373:
2372:
2361:
2355:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2341:
2326:
2317:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2291:
2276:
2268:
2262:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2240:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2214:
2208:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2059:
2050:. Archived from
2044:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2013:
2011:
1997:
1988:
1987:
1977:
1967:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1899:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1867:
1857:
1825:
1778:Jingtong Railway
1754:Baocheng Railway
1651:central stations
1647:Electric utility
1593:infrastructure.
1569:electric vehicle
1565:Renewable energy
1553:smart appliances
1543:behind the meter
1533:integrated with
1531:circuit breakers
1262:sewage treatment
1149:A brownout near
1078:spinning reserve
934:hydroelectricity
913:sources such as
836:
832:
766:Circuit breakers
683:Grand Coulee Dam
650:geothermal power
621:from sources of
510:
498:
486:
300:
293:
286:
272:Protective relay
127:
126:
4834:
4833:
4829:
4828:
4827:
4825:
4824:
4823:
4809:Electrical grid
4799:
4798:
4797:
4792:
4758:
4734:Energy security
4724:Electrification
4712:
4666:
4642:Load management
4615:
4586:Demand response
4567:
4545:SuperSmart Grid
4525:
4523:electrical grid
4519:
4489:
4484:
4466:
4450:
4448:
4441:
4372:Capacity factor
4360:
4358:
4351:
4331:Numerical relay
4309:Circuit breaker
4297:
4295:
4288:
4250:
4190:Load management
4160:Electrical grid
4125:Demand response
4118:
4113:
4104:
4085:Microgeneration
4037:
3952:
3900:
3891:
3887:Vehicle-to-grid
3760:
3755:
3713:
3708:
3707:
3697:
3695:
3694:on 3 March 2021
3680:
3679:
3675:
3658:
3654:
3635:
3634:
3630:
3619:
3618:
3614:
3603:
3602:
3598:
3593:
3589:
3580:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3566:
3549:
3548:
3544:
3535:
3533:
3524:
3523:
3519:
3511:
3504:
3498:
3494:
3485:
3483:
3472:
3466:
3462:
3457:
3450:
3445:. 16 June 2015.
3441:
3440:
3436:
3430:Wayback Machine
3420:
3416:
3406:
3404:
3395:
3393:
3389:
3358:
3354:
3323:
3319:
3292:
3288:
3279:
3277:
3269:
3268:
3264:
3255:
3253:
3240:
3239:
3235:
3204:
3200:
3185:
3161:
3157:
3145:
3141:
3140:
3136:
3129:
3107:
3103:
3095:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3063:
3059:
3024:
3020:
3007:
3005:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2976:
2972:
2963:
2962:
2958:
2941:
2937:
2920:
2916:
2899:
2895:
2878:
2874:
2858:
2857:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2837:
2835:"Archived copy"
2833:
2832:
2828:
2791:
2787:
2780:
2766:
2762:
2752:
2750:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2726:
2724:
2714:
2710:
2703:
2689:
2682:
2672:
2670:
2661:
2660:
2656:
2646:
2644:
2635:
2634:
2630:
2614:
2613:
2606:
2604:
2600:
2589:
2587:"Archived copy"
2585:
2584:
2580:
2570:
2568:
2558:
2554:
2497:
2493:
2456:
2449:
2444:
2437:
2427:
2425:
2416:
2415:
2411:
2380:
2376:
2371:. 7 March 2018.
2363:
2362:
2358:
2345:
2343:
2342:on 19 July 2011
2339:
2324:
2315:
2309:
2305:
2295:
2293:
2292:on 10 July 2011
2289:
2274:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2255:
2253:
2242:
2241:
2237:
2227:
2225:
2216:
2215:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2187:
2165:
2161:
2146:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2106:
2096:
2092:
2082:
2080:
2070:
2066:
2057:
2055:
2046:
2045:
2041:
2031:
2029:
2023:
2019:
2009:
2007:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1936:
1932:
1922:
1920:
1910:
1906:
1897:
1895:
1885:
1881:
1826:
1822:
1817:
1794:
1774:Wayback Machine
1714:electrification
1641:carbon monoxide
1621:
1606:
1601:
1600:
1539:demand response
1472:
1464:
1455:Demand response
1452:
1450:Demand response
1447:
1393:
1325:
1319:
1296:
1294:Demand response
1290:
1251:circuit breaker
1206:(also called a
1200:
1194:
1143:
1137:
1119:and widespread
1115:possibility of
1108:
1092:
1067:
1021:
1015:
999:
966:
961:
959:Functionalities
953:demand response
876:
870:
847:subtransmission
834:
827:
815:
809:
777:The substation
737:
731:
671:
665:
612:Turbo generator
605:
599:
594:
527:
521:
514:
511:
502:
499:
490:
487:
385:
379:
319:
313:
304:
224:Demand response
214:Electrical grid
125:
109:electrification
43:electrical grid
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4832:
4822:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4794:
4793:
4791:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4763:
4760:
4759:
4757:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4720:
4718:
4717:Related issues
4714:
4713:
4711:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4683:Feed-in tariff
4680:
4674:
4672:
4668:
4667:
4665:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4637:Load following
4634:
4629:
4623:
4621:
4617:
4616:
4614:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4591:Dynamic demand
4588:
4583:
4577:
4575:
4569:
4568:
4566:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4533:
4531:
4527:
4526:
4518:
4517:
4510:
4503:
4495:
4486:
4485:
4483:
4482:
4471:
4468:
4467:
4465:
4464:
4459:
4453:
4451:
4447:Statistics and
4446:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4397:Feed-in tariff
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4363:
4361:
4356:
4353:
4352:
4350:
4349:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4322:
4321:
4316:
4306:
4300:
4298:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4287:
4286:
4285:
4284:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4258:
4256:
4252:
4251:
4249:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4187:
4185:Interconnector
4182:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4135:Dynamic demand
4132:
4127:
4121:
4119:
4109:
4106:
4105:
4103:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4065:Combined cycle
4062:
4057:
4051:
4049:
4043:
4042:
4039:
4038:
4036:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4019:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3962:
3960:
3954:
3953:
3951:
3950:
3945:
3944:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3917:
3915:
3906:
3902:
3901:
3894:
3892:
3890:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3842:Load-following
3839:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3797:Electric power
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3761:
3754:
3753:
3746:
3739:
3731:
3725:
3724:
3712:
3711:External links
3709:
3706:
3705:
3673:
3652:
3628:
3612:
3596:
3587:
3573:
3564:
3542:
3517:
3492:
3460:
3448:
3434:
3414:
3387:
3352:
3317:
3286:
3262:
3233:
3198:
3183:
3155:
3134:
3128:978-0128053430
3127:
3101:
3084:
3073:(4): 944–980.
3057:
3018:
2983:
2970:
2967:. 17 May 2017.
2956:
2935:
2921:Knight, U.G.
2914:
2893:
2872:
2826:
2785:
2778:
2760:
2734:
2708:
2701:
2680:
2654:
2628:
2603:on 4 June 2011
2578:
2552:
2491:
2470:(5): 658–672.
2464:Climate Policy
2447:
2435:
2409:
2374:
2356:
2303:
2263:
2235:
2209:
2200:
2185:
2159:
2144:
2116:
2104:www.lemonde.fr
2090:
2064:
2039:
2017:
1989:
1930:
1904:
1879:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1793:
1790:
1620:
1617:
1605:
1604:Grid defection
1602:
1590:
1589:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1573:energy storage
1562:
1561:
1560:
1557:PACE financing
1523:
1506:energy storage
1473:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1441:
1430:
1427:power delivery
1423:
1416:
1392:
1389:
1321:Main article:
1318:
1315:
1292:Main article:
1289:
1286:
1216:power blackout
1196:Main article:
1193:
1190:
1139:Main article:
1136:
1133:
1107:
1104:
1091:
1088:
1066:
1063:
1017:Main article:
1014:
1011:
998:
995:
988:peaking plants
965:
962:
960:
957:
903:energy storage
872:Main article:
869:
866:
811:Main article:
808:
805:
804:
803:
797:
787:
782:
775:
769:
759:
758:
755:
752:
733:Main article:
730:
727:
667:Main article:
664:
661:
642:kinetic energy
627:power stations
623:primary energy
619:electric power
601:Main article:
598:
595:
593:
590:
570:global warming
523:Main article:
520:
517:
516:
515:
512:
505:
503:
500:
493:
491:
488:
481:
381:Main article:
378:
375:
374:
373:
366:
360:
354:
348:
315:Main article:
312:
309:
306:
305:
303:
302:
295:
288:
280:
277:
276:
275:
274:
269:
264:
259:
254:
252:Energy storage
249:
244:
242:Ring main unit
236:
235:
229:
228:
227:
226:
221:
219:Interconnector
216:
211:
206:
198:
197:
191:
190:
189:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
150:
149:
143:
142:
136:
135:
124:
121:
55:power stations
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4831:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4806:
4804:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4775:Energy policy
4773:
4771:
4768:
4765:
4764:
4761:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4729:Energy crisis
4727:
4725:
4722:
4721:
4719:
4715:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4673:
4669:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4624:
4622:
4618:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4578:
4576:
4574:
4570:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4535:
4534:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4516:
4511:
4509:
4504:
4502:
4497:
4496:
4493:
4481:
4473:
4472:
4469:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4454:
4452:
4444:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4417:Pigouvian tax
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4354:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4314:Earth-leakage
4312:
4311:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4301:
4299:
4291:
4283:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4259:
4257:
4255:Failure modes
4253:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4205:Power station
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4090:Rankine cycle
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4070:Cooling tower
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4048:
4044:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3993:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3963:
3961:
3959:
3955:
3949:
3946:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3914:
3913:Non-renewable
3910:
3907:
3903:
3898:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3832:Grid strength
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3787:Demand factor
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3769:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3752:
3747:
3745:
3740:
3738:
3733:
3732:
3729:
3722:
3721:OpenStreetMap
3718:
3715:
3714:
3693:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3677:
3669:
3668:
3663:
3656:
3648:
3644:
3643:
3642:Xinhuanet.com
3638:
3632:
3624:
3623:
3616:
3608:
3607:
3600:
3591:
3583:
3577:
3568:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3546:
3532:on 2016-04-12
3531:
3527:
3521:
3510:
3503:
3496:
3481:
3478:
3471:
3464:
3455:
3453:
3444:
3438:
3431:
3427:
3424:
3418:
3402:
3398:
3391:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3362:IEEE Spectrum
3356:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3327:Energy Policy
3321:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3300:Energy Policy
3297:
3290:
3276:
3272:
3266:
3252:on 2011-10-03
3251:
3247:
3243:
3237:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3208:Energy Policy
3202:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3167:
3159:
3151:
3144:
3138:
3130:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3105:
3094:
3088:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3061:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3022:
3015:
3003:
2999:
2998:
2993:
2987:
2980:
2974:
2966:
2960:
2953:
2952:0-632-06434-X
2949:
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2939:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2918:
2911:
2910:0-920650-00-7
2907:
2903:
2897:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2868:
2862:
2843:
2836:
2830:
2822:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2789:
2781:
2779:9780470276822
2775:
2771:
2764:
2748:
2747:HowStuffWorks
2744:
2738:
2723:
2719:
2712:
2704:
2702:0-393-05997-9
2698:
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2685:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2642:
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2632:
2624:
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2588:
2582:
2567:
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2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2495:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2454:
2452:
2442:
2440:
2423:
2419:
2413:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2370:
2366:
2360:
2354:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2323:
2322:
2314:
2307:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2267:
2251:
2250:
2245:
2239:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2204:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2186:9781450339810
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2163:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2128:
2120:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2079:
2075:
2068:
2054:on 2021-05-04
2053:
2049:
2043:
2028:
2021:
2006:
2002:
1996:
1994:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1975:11250/2579292
1971:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1919:
1915:
1908:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1865:11250/2442076
1861:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1820:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1789:
1787:
1783:
1782:Haoji Railway
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1708:
1707:National Grid
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
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1638:
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1630:
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1489:
1486:
1477:
1470:
1459:
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1439:
1435:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1421:
1420:rights-of-way
1417:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1401:failure rates
1398:
1397:
1396:
1388:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1358:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1345:electric grid
1342:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1314:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1288:Load shedding
1285:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1239:short circuit
1236:
1232:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1220:power failure
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1189:
1187:
1184:, known as a
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1112:
1103:
1101:
1100:marginal cost
1097:
1087:
1085:
1084:Firm capacity
1081:
1079:
1074:
1072:
1062:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1040:
1035:
1029:
1027:
1020:
1010:
1008:
1004:
994:
991:
989:
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980:
976:
974:
969:
956:
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950:
945:
941:
939:
935:
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
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900:
897:(also called
896:
888:
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875:
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858:
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850:
848:
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840:
831:
819:
814:
801:
798:
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791:
788:
786:
783:
780:
776:
773:
770:
767:
764:
763:
762:
756:
753:
750:
746:
745:
744:
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724:
718:
716:
711:
707:
705:
701:
691:
684:
680:
675:
670:
660:
658:
653:
651:
647:
646:photovoltaics
643:
639:
635:
632:
628:
625:typically at
624:
620:
613:
609:
604:
589:
585:
582:
577:
575:
571:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
536:
531:
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504:
497:
492:
485:
480:
479:
478:
476:
472:
468:
464:
459:
455:
453:
449:
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441:
437:
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429:
425:
421:
416:
414:
411:). In Europe
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
384:
371:
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364:
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358:
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352:
349:
346:
342:
339:
338:
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331:
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318:
301:
296:
294:
289:
287:
282:
281:
279:
278:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
239:
238:
237:
234:
231:
230:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
209:Power station
207:
205:
202:
201:
200:
199:
196:
193:
192:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
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4688:Net metering
4522:
4412:Net metering
4359:and policies
4277:Power outage
4246:Utility pole
4210:Pumped hydro
4159:
4116:distribution
4111:Transmission
4060:Cogeneration
3862:Power factor
3696:. Retrieved
3692:the original
3685:
3676:
3665:
3655:
3647:the original
3640:
3631:
3621:
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3559:the original
3545:
3534:. Retrieved
3530:the original
3520:
3495:
3484:. Retrieved
3463:
3437:
3417:
3405:. Retrieved
3401:the original
3390:
3368:(6): 54–59.
3365:
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3355:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3303:
3299:
3289:
3278:. Retrieved
3274:
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3250:the original
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3211:
3207:
3201:
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3006:. Retrieved
3002:the original
2995:
2986:
2978:
2973:
2959:
2943:
2938:
2922:
2917:
2901:
2900:Alan Wyatt,
2896:
2880:
2875:
2849:. Retrieved
2829:
2805:(24): 8433.
2802:
2798:
2788:
2769:
2763:
2751:. Retrieved
2749:. April 2000
2746:
2737:
2725:. Retrieved
2721:
2711:
2692:
2671:. Retrieved
2666:
2657:
2645:. Retrieved
2640:
2631:
2605:. Retrieved
2598:the original
2593:
2581:
2569:. Retrieved
2565:
2555:
2504:
2500:
2494:
2467:
2463:
2426:. Retrieved
2422:the original
2412:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2368:
2359:
2352:
2344:. Retrieved
2337:the original
2320:
2306:
2294:. Retrieved
2287:the original
2266:
2254:. Retrieved
2247:
2238:
2226:. Retrieved
2221:
2212:
2203:
2168:
2162:
2126:
2119:
2107:. Retrieved
2103:
2093:
2081:. Retrieved
2077:
2067:
2056:. Retrieved
2052:the original
2042:
2030:. Retrieved
2020:
2008:. Retrieved
2004:
1947:
1943:
1933:
1923:27 September
1921:. Retrieved
1917:
1907:
1896:. Retrieved
1892:
1882:
1873:
1837:
1833:
1823:
1751:
1734:public goods
1727:
1711:
1674:Charles Merz
1671:
1645:
1629:gasification
1622:
1610:
1607:
1591:
1542:
1535:home control
1520:smart meters
1510:
1490:
1482:
1453:
1394:
1391:Obsolescence
1367:
1361:
1353:
1340:
1338:
1297:
1278:battery room
1255:
1235:distribution
1228:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1204:power outage
1203:
1201:
1198:Power outage
1182:power outage
1170:power supply
1165:
1163:
1121:power outage
1113:
1109:
1093:
1083:
1082:
1075:
1068:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1030:
1022:
1007:tap changers
1000:
992:
977:
973:demand curve
972:
970:
967:
946:
942:
931:
898:
894:
893:
857:radially fed
856:
854:
851:
824:
794:power factor
760:
749:transformers
742:
738:
719:
712:
708:
697:
663:Transmission
654:
638:heat engines
616:
586:
578:
563:solar energy
550:
546:
542:
540:
460:
456:
444:
419:
417:
392:
386:
335:
332:
328:
320:
213:
114:
106:
92:
87:
65:up or down,
46:
42:
40:
4647:Peak demand
4611:Smart meter
4407:Load factor
4262:Black start
4230:Transformer
3931:Natural gas
3882:Variability
3857:Peak demand
3847:Merit order
3777:Backfeeding
3333:: 207–221.
3306:: 378–389.
3214:: 199–206.
3008:22 November
2594:www.aep.com
2390:: 628–636.
1840:: 122–130.
1712:In France,
1709:, in 1938.
1663:liberalized
1498:solar power
1438:engineering
1413:restoration
1405:maintenance
1341:black start
1323:Black start
1317:Black start
1303:electricity
1231:substations
1174:voltage sag
1151:Tokyo Tower
1096:merit order
983:peak demand
927:solar power
923:tidal power
729:Substations
715:three-phase
559:wind energy
357:Les Anglais
95:three phase
84:super grids
4803:Categories
4766:Categories
4662:Power-to-X
4606:Smart grid
4553:Electranet
4449:production
4294:Protective
4225:Super grid
4220:Smart grid
4047:Generation
3981:Geothermal
3872:Repowering
3536:2013-10-06
3486:2023-12-13
3280:2024-08-05
3256:2011-10-11
3246:SmartGrids
2954:, page 486
2889:0470129875
2607:11 January
2530:10197/7108
2428:26 January
2418:"UHV Grid"
2346:6 December
2296:6 December
2109:27 January
2083:27 January
2058:2021-04-19
2005:Energy.gov
1898:2023-12-13
1815:References
1764:of China,
1518:(of which
1502:wind power
1485:smart grid
1469:Smart grid
1462:Smart grid
1380:excitation
1237:system, a
1090:Production
919:wind power
835:35 kV
796:correction
790:Capacitors
694:geography.
636:driven by
634:generators
597:Generation
592:Components
543:super grid
525:Super grid
519:Super grid
88:power grid
76:microgrids
28:Power Grid
4596:Negawatts
4530:Proposals
4357:Economics
4080:Micro CHP
3958:Renewable
3941:Petroleum
3936:Oil shale
3822:Grid code
3782:Base load
3723:database.
3407:13 August
3052:117469364
2851:28 August
2821:1996-1073
2539:1932-8184
1984:2214-6296
1950:: 36–40.
1798:Grid code
1676:, of the
1586:broadband
1372:megawatts
1357:bootstrap
1307:brownouts
1258:hospitals
1212:power out
1208:power cut
1056:lines or
1013:Frequency
657:gigawatts
551:mega grid
547:supergrid
428:gigawatts
393:frequency
363:Mpeketoni
351:Île d'Yeu
324:islanding
317:Microgrid
311:Microgrid
181:Rectifier
4739:Peak oil
4671:Policies
4480:Category
4267:Brownout
4055:AC power
3765:Concepts
3509:Archived
3426:Archived
3382:36554641
3193:25664994
2861:cite web
2842:Archived
2799:Energies
2753:18 March
2727:23 April
2673:23 April
2647:23 April
2617:cite web
2571:22 April
2547:10085130
2032:19 April
2010:19 April
1870:Archived
1792:See also
1770:Archived
1718:communes
1659:AC power
1637:hydrogen
1625:coal gas
1434:planning
1264:plants,
1224:blackout
1192:Blackout
1186:blackout
1166:brownout
1135:Brownout
1026:governor
1003:reactive
979:Baseload
772:Switches
567:mitigate
535:DESERTEC
407:and the
267:Recloser
262:Bus duct
186:Inverter
132:a series
130:Part of
61:to step
4779:Portals
4296:devices
4006:Thermal
4001:Osmotic
3996:Current
3976:Biomass
3966:Biofuel
3948:Nuclear
3905:Sources
3698:24 June
3335:Bibcode
3216:Bibcode
2997:Reuters
2912:page 63
2509:Bibcode
2472:Bibcode
2392:Bibcode
2369:Reuters
2279:Leipzig
2256:28 June
2228:28 June
2195:2742485
2154:8593041
1952:Bibcode
1842:Bibcode
1619:History
1387:state.
1061:lines.
997:Voltage
868:Storage
849:level.
828:2
677:500 kV
640:or the
452:DC ties
442:(EEX).
432:IPS/UPS
63:voltage
4783:Energy
3991:Marine
3971:Biogas
3482:(FEMP)
3380:
3191:
3181:
3125:
3050:
2950:
2929:
2908:
2891:p. 199
2887:
2819:
2776:
2699:
2545:
2537:
2329:Aachen
2193:
2183:
2152:
2142:
1982:
1918:Forbes
1525:Smart
1445:Trends
1415:costs.
1409:repair
964:Demand
779:busbar
659:(GW).
475:clocks
467:Serbia
463:Kosovo
403:, the
399:, the
341:Hajjah
257:Busbar
82:, and
4348:(GFI)
4237:(TSO)
4023:Solar
4011:Tidal
3986:Hydro
3512:(PDF)
3505:(PDF)
3473:(PDF)
3378:S2CID
3189:S2CID
3146:(PDF)
3096:(PDF)
3048:S2CID
2845:(PDF)
2838:(PDF)
2601:(PDF)
2590:(PDF)
2543:S2CID
2340:(PDF)
2325:(PDF)
2316:(PDF)
2290:(PDF)
2275:(PDF)
2191:S2CID
2150:S2CID
1703:hertz
1684:near
1266:mines
1222:or a
1159:Japan
1155:Tokyo
917:from
4114:and
4033:Wind
4016:Wave
3926:Coal
3700:2020
3409:2016
3179:ISBN
3123:ISBN
3010:2008
2948:ISBN
2927:ISBN
2906:ISBN
2885:ISBN
2867:link
2853:2017
2817:ISSN
2774:ISBN
2755:2016
2729:2021
2697:ISBN
2675:2021
2649:2021
2623:link
2609:2022
2573:2021
2535:ISSN
2430:2020
2348:2008
2298:2008
2258:2018
2230:2018
2181:ISBN
2140:ISBN
2111:2021
2085:2021
2034:2021
2012:2021
1980:ISSN
1925:2018
1639:and
1611:The
1551:and
1537:and
1529:and
1500:and
1483:The
1411:and
1247:fuse
1214:, a
1210:, a
925:and
833:and
792:for
648:and
561:and
345:Lahj
343:and
45:(or
4549:USA
3370:doi
3343:doi
3308:doi
3224:doi
3171:doi
3115:doi
3075:doi
3040:doi
2807:doi
2525:hdl
2517:doi
2480:doi
2400:doi
2173:doi
2132:doi
1970:hdl
1960:doi
1860:hdl
1850:doi
1249:or
1153:in
861:bus
545:or
387:A
90:.
41:An
4805::
4536:EU
3684:.
3664:.
3639:.
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