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825:(based primarily in central and south Peru) although found to have built important sites in the north as well (Cerro Papato ruins). Their culture rose and fell around the same time; it was centered 500 miles north in the southern highlands of Peru. The relationship between the two polities is unknown. Definite interaction between the two is proved by their shared iconography in art. Significant elements of both of these styles (the split eye, trophy heads, and staff-bearing profile figures, for example) seem to have been derived from that of the earlier
267:, located at the center of the polity's core area in the southern Lake Titicaca Basin. This area has clear evidence for large-scale agricultural production on raised fields that probably supported the urban population of the capital. Researchers debate whether these fields were administered by a bureaucratic state (top-down) or through a federation of communities with local autonomy (bottom-up; see review of debate in Janusek 2004:57-73). Tiwanaku was once thought to be an expansive military empire, based mostly on comparisons to the later
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noting that local people did not continue using them once experiments and development programs ended in the 1990s. Instead, they were used on a larger scale planting since they could be planted and harvested before other fields. This essentially allowed for two harvests per year: one for hosting feasts and the other for daily consumption. Coordinating this labor schedule was a key activity for leading families at
Tiwanaku because they had to attract volunteers to work the raised fields in addition to their own fields.
533:. These are sunken regions of land also known as minibasins connected by a system of canals. These were used as agricultural fields, grazing areas, and water reservoirs and are often still found as clusters in the landscape today. Their sunken nature, allowed for the pooling of water to occur. This was especially useful during seasons of drought since these minibasins would retain some of their moisture. Sometimes these features were used for multiple purposes at the same time.
41:
271:. However, recent research suggests that labelling Tiwanaku as an empire or even a state may be misleading. Tiwanaku is missing a number of features traditionally used to define archaic states and empires: there is no defensive architecture at any Tiwanaku site or changes in weapon technology, there are no princely burials or other evidence of a ruling dynasty or a formal social hierarchy, no evidence of state-maintained roads or outposts, and no markets.
750:
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409:, who worked in pottery, jewelry and textiles. Like the later Incas, the Tiwanaku had few commercial or market institutions. Instead, the culture relied on elite redistribution. In this view of Tiwanaku as a bureaucratic state, elites controlled the economic output, but were expected to provide each commoner with all the resources needed to perform his or her function. Selected occupations include agriculturists, herders,
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increasing the amount of space for agriculture in a smaller, more limited area, were less vulnerable to frost in higher altitudes, and most importantly, were good at retaining water. Today, these fields have been modified by modern agriculture. The walls of the step-like structure have been removed for plowing and the building of adjusted property lines. This has led to an increase in erosion and a sloping terrain.
437:. Tiwanaku's economy was based on exploiting the resources of Lake Titicaca, herding of llamas and alpacas, and organized farming in raised field systems. The Tiwanaku consumed llama meat, potatoes, quinoa, beans, and maize. Because of the variable climate in the high altitude regions, the storability of food became important, prompting the development of technologies for freeze-dried potatoes and sun-dried meat.
303:
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1510:"Andean Ecology and Civilization: An Interdisciplinary Perspective on Andean Ecological Complementarity. Edited by Shozo Masuda, Isumi Shimada, and Craig Morris El Arbol y el Bosque en la Sociedad Andina. By Juan AnsiĂłn with a prologue by Chris E. Van Dam Arid Land Use Strategies and Risk Management in the Andes: A Regional Anthropological Perspective. Edited by David L. Browman"
651:, it is thought to have been originally part of a series of doorways there. It is recognized for its singular, great frieze. This is thought to represent a main deity figure surrounded by either calendar signs or natural forces for agricultural worship. Along with Viracocha, another statue is in the Gateway of the Sun. This statue is believed to be associated with the weather:
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ceramic production. One proposed explanation is that a severe drought rendered the raised-field systems ineffective, food surplus dropped, and with it, elite power, leading to state collapse. However, this narrative has been challenged, in part because of more refined cultural and climate chronologies, which now suggest that the drought did not start until
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inhabitants. More recent surveys estimate the site's maximum size between 3.8 and 4.2 square kilometers and a population of 10,000 to 20,000. Instead of a large permanent population, the number of people at
Tiwanaku probably fluctuated dramatically depending on the season as people made long visits to participate in work parties and festivals.
357:. Some statues at Tiwanaku were taken from other regions, where the stones were placed in a subordinate position to the Gods of the Tiwanaku. Archaeologists have documented Tiwanaku ceramics at a large number of sites in and beyond the Lake Titicaca Basin, attesting to the expansive influence of Tiwanaku symbols and attached messages of power.
722:-shaped sockets. The blocks have flat faces that do not need to be fitted upon placement because the grooves make it possible for the blocks to be shifted by ropes into place. The main architectural appeal of the site comes from the carved images and designs on some of these blocks, carved doorways, and giant stone monoliths.
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enclaves, there is little evidence that
Tiwanaku leaders controlled the territory or people in between, that is, its territory was not contiguous. With a few important exceptions, Tiwanaku's influence outside the Lake Titicaca Basin was "soft power" that blossomed into a powerful, widespread, and enduring cultural hegemony.
791:. Such small, portable objects of ritual religious meaning were a key to spreading religion and influence from the main site to the satellite centers. They were created in wood, engraved bone, and cloth and included incense burners, carved wooden hallucinogenic snuff tablets, and human portrait vessels. Like those of the
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around 600 AD its population grew rapidly, probably due to a massive immigration from the surrounding countryside, and large parts of the city were built or remodeled. New and larger carved monoliths were erected, temples were built, and a standardized polychrome pottery style was produced on a large scale.
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Tiwanaku sculpture is comprised typically of blocky, column-like figures with huge, flat square eyes, and detailed with shallow relief carving. They are often holding ritual objects, such as the Ponce Stela or the
Bennett Monolith. Some have been found holding severed heads, such as the figure on the
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The
Tiwanaku conducted human sacrifices on top of a building known as the Akapana. People were disemboweled and torn apart shortly after death and laid out for all to see. It is speculated that this ritual was a form of dedication to the gods. The type of human sacrifice included victims being hacked
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Around 1000 AD, Tiwanaku ceramics stopped being produced as the state's largest colony (Moquegua) and the urban core of the capital were abandoned within a few decades. The end date for the
Tiwanaku state is sometimes extended to 1150 AD, but this only considers raised fields, not urban occupation or
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Kolata suggests that, like the later Inca, the inhabitants of
Tiwanaku may have practiced similar rituals and rites in relation to the dead. The Akapana East Building has evidence of ancestor burial. The human remains at Akapana East seem to be less for show and more for proper burial. The skeletons
725:
The quarries that supplied the stone blocks for
Tiwanaku lie at significant distances from this site. The red sandstone used in this site's structures has been determined by petrographic analysis to come from a quarry 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) away—a remarkable distance considering that the largest
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This lends greater support to alternative theories of collapse that suggest internal social dynamics led to
Tiwanaku's demise. Some areas of the capital show signs of intentional destruction, though this could have taken place at any time. Monolithic gates, like Gateway of the Sun, were tipped over
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Artificially raised planting mounds were separated by shallow canals filled with water. The canals supply moisture for growing crops, but they also absorb heat from solar radiation during the day. This heat is gradually emitted during the bitterly cold nights and provided thermal insulation against
397:
Tiwanaku established several colonies as far as 300 km away. One of the better researched is the colony in
Moquegua Valley in Peru, which is 150 km from lake Titicaca and flourished between 400 and 1100. This colony was an agricultural and mining center, producing copper and silver. Small
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in Peru. After 750 AD, there is growing Tiwanaku presence at the Chen Chen site and the Omo site complex, where a ceremonial center was built. Excavations at Omo settlements show signs of similar architecture characteristic of Tiwanaku, such as a temple and terraced mound. Evidence of similar types
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Tiwanaku was a multi-cultural network of powerful lineages that brought people together to build large monuments. These work feasts integrated people in powerful ceremonies, and this was probably the central dynamic that attracted people from hundreds of kilometers away, who may have traveled there
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The Tiwanaku created a powerful ideology, using previous Andean icons that were widespread throughout their sphere of influence. They used extensive trade routes and shamanistic art. Tiwanaku art consisted of legible, outlined figures depicted in curvilinear style with a naturalistic manner, while
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is an area of very dry arid land. The Titicaca Basin also provides a unique landscape with many sources of water ranging from natural springs to large rivers like the Tiwanaku River. The abundance of water resources were crucial to the development of the Tiwanaku since they provided large areas of
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The site of Tiwanaku was founded around 110 AD during the Late Formative Period, when there were a number of growing settlements in the southern Lake Titicaca Basin. Between 450 and 550 AD, other large settlements were abandoned, leaving Tiwanaku as the pre-eminent center in the region. Beginning
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a celestial high god that personified various elements of natural forces intimately associated the productive potential of altiplano ecology: the sun, wind, rain, hail – in brief, a personification of atmospherics that most directly affect agricultural production in either a positive or negative
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states that "Tiahuanaco underwent a dramatic transformation between 600 and 700 that established new monumental standards for civic architecture and greatly increased the resident population." Early estimates suggested the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometers at with 15,000 to 30,000
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Outside of the core area in the southern Lake Titicaca Basin, there were Tiwanaku colonies on the coast of Peru, where highland people imitated Tiwanaku temples and ceramics, and cemeteries in northern Chile with elaborate grave goods in the Tiwanaku style. Despite the clear connections to these
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Other evidence points to a system of ancestor worship at Tiwanaku. The preservation, use, and reconfiguration of mummy bundles and skeletal remains, as with the later Inca, may suggest that this is the case. Later cultures within the area made use of large "above ground burial chambers for the
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While impressive yields are possible in experiments, these fields are vulnerable to potato parasites and if used continuously, are less efficient than traditional rain-fed fields. This led independent researchers like Bandy (2005) to suggest that raised fields were not in fact hyper-productive,
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Another technique used by the Tiwanaku was the usage of terrace structures on hills and mountainsides. These terraces were good at providing water year-round from reservoirs at higher elevations in the mountains. These terraces modified hill slopes into step-like structures that were good at
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in pieces, dismembered, exposed to the elements and carnivores before being deposited in trash. Research showed that one man who was sacrificed was not a native to the Titicaca Basin, leaving room to think that sacrifices were most likely of people originally from other societies.
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Covering approximately 200 km, the Titicaca Basin is the most productive environment in the area, with predictable and abundant rainfall due to the presence of Lake Titicaca. This body of water provides a warmer temperature and more humid environment. To the east, the
812:
Lukurmata, located in the Katari valley was a large settlement with close ties to Tiwanaku. First established nearly two thousand years ago, it grew to be a major ceremonial center. After Tiwanaku collapsed, Lukurmata rapidly declined, becoming once again a small village.
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caravans to trade, make offerings, and honor the gods. Tiwanaku grew into the Andes' most important pilgrimage destination and one of the continent's largest Pre-Columbian cities, reaching a maximum population of 10,000 to 20,000 around AD 800.
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rivers was used to water raised fields, that covered up to 130 km (50 sq mi). In the Titicaca Basin, these fields were large planting platforms ranging from 5–20 metres (16–66 feet) in width, and 200 metres (660 feet) in length.
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produces impressive yields. While traditional agriculture in the region typically yields 2.4 metric tons of potatoes per hectare, and modern agriculture (with artificial fertilizers and pesticides) yields about 14.5 metric tons per hectare,
613:... dispersing populations in search of new suitable environments might have caused long-distance ripple effects of both migration and technological diffusion across the south-central and south Andes between c.AD 1100 and 1300 ...
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region (Amazonian flood plains of the Moxos). Over time, the canals also were used to farm edible fish. The resulting canal sludge from small aquatic plants was dredged for fertilizer, continuously providing nutrient-rich soil for crops.
768:, a drinking cup that was ritually smashed after ceremonies and placed with other goods in burials. Over time, the style of ceramics changed. The earliest ceramics were "coarsely polished, deeply incised brownware and a burnished
372:
In the rest of the southern Lake Titicaca Basin, hundreds of smaller settlements have been found. Some of the largest and most important were Lukurmata, Qeya Kuntu, Kirawi, Waka Kala, Sonaji, Kala Uyuni, and Khonkho Wankane.
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It has twelve faces covered by a solar mask, and at the base thirty running or kneeling figures. Some scientists believe that this statue is a representation of the calendar with twelve months and thirty days in each month.
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revealed that they were interred in the ground between 900 and 1050 AD, so they were probably broken as part of a ritual abandonment of the island's temple by local elites and pilgrims during the collapse of Tiwanaku.
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and broken. By the end of Tiwanaku V period the Putuni complex was burned and food storage jars smashed. This indicates an event of destruction, followed by abandonment of the site. Colonies in Moquegua and on
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What is known of Tiwanaku religious beliefs is based on archaeological interpretation and some myths, which may have been passed down to the Incas and the Spanish. They seem to have worshipped many gods.
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The people of Tiwanaku also made ceramics and textiles, composed of bright colors and stepped patterns. Common textile forms included tapestries and tunics. An important ceramic artifact is the
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Akapana, who possibly represents a puma-shaman. These images suggest the culture practiced ritual human beheading. As additional evidence, headless skeletons have been found under the Akapana.
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The Gateway of the Sun is a monolithic structure of regular, non-monumental size. Its dimensions suggest that other regularly sized buildings existed at the site. It was found at
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718:-shaped architectural cramps of the Akapana were created by cold hammering of ingots. In contrast, the cramps of the Pumapunku were created by pouring molten metal into
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show many cut marks that were most likely made by defleshing or excarnation after death. The remains were then bundled up and buried rather than left out in the open.
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131:
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Bandy, Matthew (2013). "Tiwanaku Origins and Early Development: The Political and Moral Economy of a Hospitality State". In Vranich, Alexei; Stanish, Charles (eds.).
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incised ware". Later the Qeya style became popular during the Tiwanaku III phase, "Typified by vessels of a soft, light brown ceramic paste". These ceramics included
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500:'s Alan Kolata and Oswaldo Rivera suffered only a 10% decrease in production following a 1988 freeze that killed 70-90% of the rest of the region's production.
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795:, Tiwanaku portraits expressed individual characteristics. One of the best collections of Tiwanaku human effigy vessels was found on the island of Pariti, a
417:. The elites gained their status by control of the surplus of food obtained from all regions, which they then redistributed among all the people. Control of
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fertile land that the Tiwanaku culture developed and expanded into farming spaces using large irrigation projects like raised fields, terraces, and qochas.
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Goldstein, Paul (2007). "Settlement patterns and Altiplano colonization: new models and evidence from the Tiwanaku diaspora". In Williams, VerĂłnica (ed.).
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The city of Tiwanaku lies at an altitude of roughly 3,800 meters (12,500 feet) above sea level, making it the highest state capital of the ancient world.
365:
462:), these fields were used widely in regional agriculture, together with irrigated fields, pasture, terraced fields and artificial ponds. Water from the
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center in Lake Titicaca. These vessels bear individualistic human likenesses and reveal much information about Tiwanaku clothing and jewellery styles.
869:"Temporal Inflection Points in Decorated Pottery: A Bayesian Refinement of the Late Formative Chronology in the Southern Lake Titicaca Basin, Bolivia"
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738:. One theory is that these giant andesite stones, which weigh over 40 tons, were transported some 90 kilometers (56 miles) across Lake Titicaca on
1978:, Paul S. Goldstein, and Ann D. Webster, "Artificial Cranial Deformation at the Omo M10 Site: A Tiwanaku Complex from the Moquegua Valley, Peru",
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blocks laid in regular courses. Their monumental structures were frequently fitted with elaborate drainage systems. The drainage systems of the
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structures include conduits composed of red sandstone blocks held together by ternary (copper/arsenic/nickel) bronze architectural cramps. The
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Tiwanaku monumental architecture is characterized by large stones of exceptional workmanship. In contrast to the masonry style of the later
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It has been conjectured that the collapse of the Tiwanaku empire caused a southward migratory wave leading to a series of changes in
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Tiwanaku's location between the lake and dry highlands provided key resources of fish, wild birds, plants, and herding grounds for
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stones that were used to create the most elaborate carvings and monoliths originate from the Copacabana peninsula, located across
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and co-workers suggest that the decline of Tiwanaku would have led to the spread of agricultural techniques into Mapuche lands in
405:
As the population grew, occupational niches developed, and people began to specialize in certain skills. There was an increase in
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Owen, Bruce (2005). "Distant Colonies and Explosive Collapse: The Two Stages of the Tiwanaku Diaspora in the Osmore Drainage".
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agriculture yields an average of 21 tons per hectare. Modern agricultural researchers have re-introduced the technique of
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2068:——— (1992), "Tiwanaku: Ensayo sobre su cosmovisiĂłn" [Tiwanaku: essay on its cosmovision],
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Bandy, Matthew (2005), "Energetic efficiency and political expediency in Titicaca Basin raised field agriculture,"
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herds became very significant to Tiwanaku. The animals were essential for transporting staple and prestige goods.
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Calaway, Michael (2005). "Ice-cores, Sediments and Civilisation Collapse: A Cautionary Tale from Lake Titicaca".
1449:"Pre-Hispanic Agricultural Fields in the Andean Region. Proceedings 45 th International Congress of Americanists"
1993:
Kolata, Alan L (June 1991), "The Technology and Organization of Agricultural Production in the Tiwanaku State",
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Isbell, William H. 'Wari and Tiwanaku: International Identities in the Central Andean Middle Horizon'. 731-751.
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Cultivated wetlands and emerging complexity in south-central Chile and long distance effects of climate change
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The population grew rapidly between 600 and 800, the site became an important regional power in the southern
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Goldstein, Paul, "Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moduegua, Peru",
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Tiwanaku's influence, most clearly documented by the presence of its decorated ceramics, expanded into the
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The effigy objects typically depicted herders, trophy heads, sacrificial victims, and felines, such as
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Artificial Cranial Deformation at the Omo M10 Site: A Tiwanaku Complex from the Moquegua Valley, Peru
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Heggarty, P; Beresford-Jones, D (2013). "Andes: linguistic history". In Ness, I; P, Bellwood (eds.).
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Archaeologists such as Paul Goldstein have showed that the Tiwanaku diaspora expanded outside of the
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Closeup of a carved stone tenon-head embedded in wall of Tiwanaku's Semi-subterranean (Sunken) Temple
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in burials between the Omo site and the main site of Tiwanaku is also being used for this argument.
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2044:——— (1990), "Tiahuanaco, Sacred Center of the Andes", in McFarren, Peter (ed.),
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Kolata, Alan L., "The Agricultural Foundations of the Tiwanaku State: A View from the Heartland",
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1256:"Tiwanaku Settlement System: The Integration of Nested Hierarchies in the Lower Tiwanaku Valley"
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Wari art used the same symbols in a more abstract, rectilinear style with a militaristic style.
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the endemic frost in the region. Traces of similar landscape management have been found in the
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1638:"Tropical rainfall over the last two millennia: evidence for a low-latitude hydrologic seesaw"
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Kent, Jonathan D. (July 1989). Denevan, William M.; Mathewson, Kent; Knapp, Gregory (eds.).
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1371:"Thermal analysis of Tiwanaku raised field systems in the Lake Titicaca Basin of Bolivia"
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Blom, Deborah E. and John W. Janusek. "Making Place: Humans as Dedications in Tiwanaku",
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2033:, Vol. 59, No. 3 (September 2000), pp. 358–71, Society of Architectural Historians.
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Ancient Titicaca: The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia
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Reinhard, Johan, "Chavin and Tiahuanaco: A New Look at Two Andean Ceremonial Centers."
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Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moquegua, Peru
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The Tiwanaku culture developed many distinctive farming techniques. Known as "flooded-
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Protzen, Jean-Pierre and Stella E. Nair, "On Reconstructing Tiwanaku Architecture",
1989:, Vol. 51, No. 4 (October 1986), pp. 748–762, Society for American Archaeology.
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La metalurgia del bronce en los Andes Sur Centrales: Tiwanaku y San Pedro de Atacama
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1316:"The Technology and Organization of Agricultural Production in the Tiwanaku State"
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The Role of Silver Ore Reduction in Tiwanaku State Expansion Into Puno Bay, Peru
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1982:, Vol. 6, No. 2 (June, 1995) pp. 145–64, Society for American Archaeology.
1971:, Vol. 4, No. 1 (March 1993), pp. 22–47, Society for American Archaeology.
669:". Similar, though smaller, structures were found within the site of Tiwanaku.
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The Archaeology and Politics of Food and Feasting in Early States and Empires,
1767:; Bonzani, Renée; Silva, Claudia; Wallner, Johannes; Le Quesne, Carlos (2007)
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496:. Significantly, the experimental suka qullu fields recreated in the 1980s by
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and lasted from around 600 to 1000 AD. Its capital was the monumental city of
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1718:[Akins Quechua words in the Mapuche vocabulary of Luis de Valdivia].
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Acerca De La Procedencia Del Material LĂtico De Los Monumentos De Tiwanaku.
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742:, then laboriously dragged another 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) to the city.
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Ponce stela in the sunken courtyard of the Tiwanaku's Kalasasaya temple
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Pariti: The Ceremonial Tiwanaku Pottery of an Island in Lake Titicaca
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Identity and Power in the Ancient Andes: Tiwanaku Cities through Time
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Valley of the Spirits: A Journey into the Lost Realm of the Aymara,
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54:
2805:
1200:
Smith, Michael E. (2004), "The Archaeology of Ancient Economies,"
995:. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology. pp. 135–150.
3389:
2926:
2810:
2551:
2447:
2422:
2407:
2327:
2322:
2279:
2254:
2224:
558:
430:
406:
346:
290:
244:
202:
2855:
1190:
Experience on the Frontier: A Tiwanaku Colony's Shifts Over Time
3332:
3322:
2705:
2700:
2625:
2561:
2442:
2392:
2382:
2357:
1813:
Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Washington, D.C.
788:
703:
606:
338:
302:
240:
1851:
1716:"Afines quechua en el vocabulario mapuche de Luis de Valdivia"
821:
The Tiwanaku shared domination of the Middle Horizon with the
2972:
2916:
2907:
2795:
2372:
434:
418:
361:
354:
276:
260:
210:
3554:
Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
2121:
685:
764:
699:
342:
256:
206:
702:, Tiwanaku stone architecture usually employs rectangular
413:, etc. Such separation of occupations was accompanied by
1900:
Textiles and Ethnicity: Tiwanaku in San Pedro de Atacama
1786:
Lechtman, Heather N., MacFarlane, and Andrew W., 2005, "
1455:. BAR International Series 359, Oxford, England, 1987.
848:
647:, but due to the similarity of other gateways found at
2031:
The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians
1073:
1071:
3549:
Painting in the Americas before European colonization
1964:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, c. 1994.
1927:
1882:
1709:
1409:
1809:
in S. T. Evans and J. Pillsbury, eds., pp. 191-246.
1150:
1917:. Helsinki: Finnish Academy of Science and Letters.
1912:
1897:
1068:
1807:Palaces and Politics in the Andean Middle Horizon.
1705:
1703:
1185:
1183:
930:
529:One other technique used by the Tiwanaku were the
1870:New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2003
1780:
1253:
3593:
1130:The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization
1009:
251:Basin. Tiwanaku was one of the most significant
3622:12th-century disestablishments in South America
1821:
1819:
1700:
1419:Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, 1996.
1180:
1156:
1054:. University of California Press. p. 166.
3529:Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
3514:Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas
1369:Kolata, Alan L.; Ortloff, Charles (May 1989).
2107:
1913:Korpisaari, Antti; Pärssinen, Martti (2011).
1825:Ponce Sanginés, C. and G. M. Terrazas, 1970,
1691:
1689:
1368:
955:
924:
922:
920:
918:
916:
914:
693:
231:
2081:
1816:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1636:Lechleitner, Franziska; et al. (2017).
1799:
1635:
1553:
1551:
862:
860:
2114:
2100:
2058:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1844:"Experimental Archaeology, Interactive Dig
1686:
1254:Albarracin-Jordan, Juan (September 1996).
1120:
1118:
1116:
976:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
911:
853:. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 401–9.
851:The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration
398:colonies were also established in Chile's
255:. Its influence extended into present-day
39:
3519:Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas
1749:
1733:
1721:Revista de lingĂĽĂstica teĂłrica y aplicada
1669:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
984:
961:
894:
884:
842:
816:
2123:Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures
2067:
2043:
1831:Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia
1548:
1171:
857:
748:
684:
630:
561:society in Chile. This explains how the
511:
376:
328:
301:
289:
1600:
1507:
1459:(3). Bogota, Colombia, 1985.: 668–669.
1049:
1022:. Canada: St. Remy Press. p. 158.
1015:
928:
680:
16:Pre-Columbian polity in Western Bolivia
3594:
1992:
1430:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
1313:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1226:
1220:
1124:
1093:
554:were also abandoned around this time.
341:and influenced many other cultures in
2095:
2084:Art of the Andes: from Chavin to Inca
1930:Art of the Andes: from Chavin to Inca
1885:Art of the Andes: from Chavin to Inca
1878:
1876:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1309:
1307:
1305:
990:
866:
1557:
1446:
780:was a common motif in Tiwanaku art.
776:bowls and bulbous-bottom vases. The
2547:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela
1236:
964:Sociedades Precolombinas Surandinas
13:
3652:Former monarchies of South America
3612:Indigenous culture of the Americas
3539:Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
2518:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia
1949:Princeton University Press (1994)
1873:
1435:
1302:
605:and the canalized fields found in
516:Example of terrace farming in Peru
14:
3668:
3657:Former countries in South America
2530:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador
2501:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia
1850:, "Online Excavations" web page,
1811:Palaces of the Ancient New World.
1375:Journal of Archaeological Science
966:. Buenos Aires. pp. 155–187.
3571:
2523:Archaeological sites in Colombia
2496:Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil
829:in the northern Titicaca Basin.
449:
182:
157:
143:
129:
45:Map of the Tiwanaku Civilization
3642:Former empires in South America
2506:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile
2082:Stone-Miller, Rebecca (2002) ,
1939:
1928:Stone-Miller, Rebecca (2002) .
1921:
1906:
1891:
1883:Stone-Miller, Rebecca (2002) .
1860:
1836:
1735:10.4067/S0718-48832015000200004
1629:
1594:
1501:
1422:
1362:
1217:. New York: Welcome Rain, 1999.
1207:
1194:
1165:
597:. These techniques include the
1084:
1043:
424:
392:artificial cranial deformation
1:
3450:Spanish Conquest of Guatemala
2511:Archaeological sites in Chile
2086:, London: Thames & Hudson
2046:An Insider's Guide to Bolivia
1508:Guillet, David (1989-01-01).
1314:Kolata, Alan L. (June 1991).
836:
757:
565:obtained many loanwords from
3544:Mesoamerican writing systems
3501:
2540:Archaeological sites in Peru
2038:National Geographic Research
1898:Rodman, Amy Oakland (1992).
1395:10.1016/0305-4403(89)90004-6
1231:, Cambridge University Press
1016:Andrews, Anthony P. (1995).
807:
415:hierarchichal stratification
7:
3440:Spanish Conquest of Yucatán
726:of these stones weighs 131
626:
536:
507:
10:
3673:
3466:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
3369:Uaxaclajuun UbĘĽaah KĘĽawiil
1172:Hoshower, Lisa M. (1995).
753:Anthropomorphic receptacle
694:Architecture and sculpture
665:social elite... known as "
483:Though labor-intensive, a
318:
3567:
3509:
3500:
3420:
3343:
3318:
3289:
3264:
3239:
3214:
3189:
3158:
3133:
3108:
3077:
3040:
3015:
2978:
2947:
2922:
2893:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2869:
2864:
2691:Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia)
2476:
2308:
2165:
2129:
2048:, La Paz, pp. 151–81
1615:10.1017/S0003598X00114929
1514:Journal of Forest History
1050:Stanish, Charles (2003).
198:
108:
104:
94:
84:
80:
70:
60:
50:
38:
33:
21:
3578:Civilizations portal
2535:Cultural periods of Peru
1995:Latin American Antiquity
1980:Latin American Antiquity
1969:Latin American Antiquity
1714:; Landeo, Pablo (2015).
1560:Latin American Antiquity
1493:: CS1 maint: location (
1320:Latin American Antiquity
1260:Latin American Antiquity
1157:Goldstein, Paul (1993).
873:Latin American Antiquity
524:
3472:Hernán Pérez de Quesada
2318:Mesoamerican chronology
314:
2175:Archaeological periods
929:Janusek, John (2004).
817:Relationship with Wari
754:
690:
658:
636:
624:
517:
334:
311:
299:
247:based in the southern
232:
227:
96:• Disestablished
3627:Prehistory of Bolivia
3478:List of Conquistadors
3365:KĘĽinich JanaabĘĽ Pakal
2776:Quebrada de Humahuaca
2195:Caddoan Mississippian
1962:Ancient South America
1960:Bruhns, Karen Olsen,
1805:Isbell, W. H., 2004,
1229:Ancient South America
752:
688:
653:
634:
611:
515:
498:University of Chicago
377:Colonies and diaspora
332:
305:
293:
61:Common languages
3602:Andean civilizations
3445:Francisco de Montejo
3373:Jasaw Chan KĘĽawiil I
2486:Andean civilizations
2413:Shaft tomb tradition
2040:1(3): 395–422, 1985.
1848:Archaeology Magazine
1829:Publication no. 21.
1796:, vol. 30, pp. 7-27.
867:Marsh, Erik (2019).
681:Architecture and art
253:Andean civilizations
3637:Prehistory of Chile
3617:300s establishments
3411:Manco Inca Yupanqui
2716:Manteño-Huancavilca
2185:Ancestral Puebloans
1974:Hoshower, Lisa M.,
1793:Estudios Atacameños
1765:Pino Quivira, Mario
1654:2017NatSR...745809L
1387:1989JArSc..16..233K
1202:Annu. Rev. Anthrop.
993:Visions of Tiwanaku
886:10.1017/laq.2019.73
595:south-central Chile
86:• Established
3632:Prehistory of Peru
3534:Columbian exchange
3524:Portal:Mesoamerica
2676:La Tolita (Tumaco)
2491:Indigenous peoples
2230:Hopewell tradition
2157:Indigenous peoples
1987:American Antiquity
1842:Harmon, P., 2002,
1777:81 (2007): 949–960
1710:Moulian, RodrĂgo;
1453:American Antiquity
1227:Bruhns, K (1994),
801:Radiocarbon dating
755:
691:
637:
635:Gateway of the Sun
518:
385:area and into the
335:
312:
300:
3589:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3559:Pre-Columbian art
3495:
3494:
3489:Francisco Pizarro
3455:Pedro de Alvarado
2771:Pucará de Tilcara
2070:Revista Pumapunku
1955:978-0-691-03359-4
1662:10.1038/srep45809
1143:978-1-55786-183-2
1079:World Archaeology
1061:978-0-520-23245-7
1002:978-0-917956-09-6
366:William H. Isbell
216:
215:
194:
193:
190:
189:
170:
169:
151:Wankarani culture
55:Tiwanaku, Bolivia
3664:
3647:Former countries
3607:Tiwanaku culture
3576:
3575:
3574:
3498:
3497:
3484:Spanish Conquest
3461:Spanish Conquest
3436:Spanish Conquest
3425:Spanish Conquest
2867:
2866:
2116:
2109:
2102:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2077:
2063:
2057:
2049:
2025:
1976:Jane E. Buikstra
1934:
1933:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1880:
1871:
1866:Bray, Tamara L.
1864:
1858:
1840:
1834:
1823:
1814:
1803:
1797:
1784:
1778:
1761:Dillehay, Tom D.
1758:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1737:
1707:
1698:
1693:
1684:
1683:
1673:
1633:
1627:
1626:
1609:(306): 778–790.
1598:
1592:
1591:
1572:10.2307/30042486
1555:
1546:
1545:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1492:
1484:
1444:
1433:
1426:
1420:
1415:Kolata, Alan L.
1413:
1407:
1406:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1311:
1300:
1299:
1251:
1234:
1232:
1224:
1218:
1211:
1205:
1198:
1192:
1187:
1178:
1177:
1169:
1163:
1162:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1122:
1091:
1088:
1082:
1075:
1066:
1065:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1013:
1007:
1006:
988:
982:
981:
975:
967:
959:
953:
952:
936:
926:
909:
908:
898:
888:
864:
855:
854:
846:
721:
717:
622:
567:Puquina language
563:Mapuche language
294:General view of
235:
186:
185:
174:
173:
161:
160:
147:
146:
133:
132:
126:
125:
110:
109:
43:
28:
19:
18:
3672:
3671:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3661:
3592:
3591:
3590:
3581:
3572:
3570:
3563:
3505:
3496:
3486:
3475:
3469:
3463:
3452:
3448:
3442:
3438:
3427:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3382:Quemuenchatocha
3380:
3371:
3367:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3311:
3180:
3089:
3063:
3052:
2999:Human Sacrifice
2996:
2988:Human Sacrifice
2985:
2959:
2932:Mayan Languages
2860:
2472:
2304:
2161:
2142:Genetic history
2125:
2120:
2051:
2050:
1942:
1937:
1926:
1922:
1911:
1907:
1896:
1892:
1881:
1874:
1865:
1861:
1841:
1837:
1824:
1817:
1804:
1800:
1785:
1781:
1759:
1750:
1740:
1738:
1712:Catrileo, MarĂa
1708:
1701:
1694:
1687:
1634:
1630:
1599:
1595:
1556:
1549:
1526:10.2307/4005057
1506:
1502:
1486:
1485:
1445:
1436:
1427:
1423:
1414:
1410:
1367:
1363:
1312:
1303:
1252:
1237:
1225:
1221:
1212:
1208:
1199:
1195:
1188:
1181:
1170:
1166:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1134:Wiley-Blackwell
1126:Kolata, Alan L.
1123:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1081:(2004): 123–41.
1076:
1069:
1062:
1048:
1044:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1014:
1010:
1003:
989:
985:
969:
968:
960:
956:
949:
927:
912:
865:
858:
847:
843:
839:
819:
810:
760:
719:
715:
696:
683:
629:
623:
621:and co-workers.
617:
539:
527:
510:
477:Llanos de Moxos
458:" agriculture (
452:
433:, particularly
427:
387:Moquegua Valley
379:
349:, and northern
323:
317:
220:Tiwanaku Polity
209:
205:
183:
158:
144:
137:Chiripa culture
130:
97:
87:
46:
29:
26:
24:
23:Tiwanaku Polity
17:
12:
11:
5:
3670:
3660:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3587:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3568:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3493:
3492:
3481:
3458:
3433:
3422:
3418:
3417:
3396:
3375:
3362:
3345:
3344:Notable Rulers
3341:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3316:
3315:
3313:Neo-Inca State
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3287:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3262:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3237:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3212:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3186:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3131:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3106:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3084:
3079:
3075:
3074:
3069:
3058:
3047:
3042:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3013:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2991:
2980:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2919:
2914:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2862:
2861:
2859:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2532:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2515:
2514:
2513:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2482:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2314:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2171:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2133:
2131:
2127:
2126:
2119:
2118:
2111:
2104:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2079:
2072:(in Spanish),
2065:
2041:
2034:
2027:
2007:10.2307/972273
1990:
1983:
1972:
1965:
1958:
1945:Bermann, Marc
1941:
1938:
1936:
1935:
1920:
1905:
1890:
1872:
1859:
1835:
1815:
1798:
1779:
1748:
1724:(in Spanish).
1699:
1685:
1628:
1593:
1547:
1500:
1465:10.2307/280805
1434:
1421:
1408:
1381:(3): 233–263.
1361:
1332:10.2307/972273
1301:
1272:10.2307/971574
1266:(3): 183–210.
1235:
1219:
1213:Bahn, Paul G.
1206:
1193:
1179:
1164:
1149:
1142:
1092:
1083:
1067:
1060:
1042:
1028:
1008:
1001:
983:
954:
948:978-0415946346
947:
910:
879:(4): 798–817.
856:
840:
838:
835:
827:Pukara culture
818:
815:
809:
806:
759:
756:
695:
692:
682:
679:
628:
625:
615:
546:the collapse.
538:
535:
526:
523:
509:
506:
451:
448:
426:
423:
378:
375:
319:Main article:
316:
313:
214:
213:
200:
196:
195:
192:
191:
188:
187:
180:
171:
168:
167:
165:Pukara culture
162:
154:
153:
148:
140:
139:
134:
122:
121:
116:
106:
105:
102:
101:
98:
95:
92:
91:
88:
85:
82:
81:
78:
77:
75:Middle Horizon
72:
71:Historical era
68:
67:
62:
58:
57:
52:
48:
47:
44:
36:
35:
31:
30:
25:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3669:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3580:
3579:
3566:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3508:
3504:
3499:
3490:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3473:
3467:
3462:
3459:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3430:Hernán Cortés
3426:
3423:
3419:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3346:
3342:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3317:
3314:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3213:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3157:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3107:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3093:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3076:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3062:
3059:
3056:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3039:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3014:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3000:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2984:
2981:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2963:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2946:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2868:
2863:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2541:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2516:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2479:
2478:South America
2475:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2301:
2300:Weeden Island
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2275:Poverty Point
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2240:Mississippian
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2167:North America
2164:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2137:Paleo-Indians
2135:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2112:
2110:
2105:
2103:
2098:
2097:
2094:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2055:
2047:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2001:(2): 99–125,
2000:
1996:
1991:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1970:
1966:
1963:
1959:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1943:
1931:
1924:
1916:
1909:
1901:
1894:
1886:
1879:
1877:
1869:
1863:
1856:
1854:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1832:
1828:
1822:
1820:
1812:
1808:
1802:
1795:
1794:
1789:
1783:
1776:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1706:
1704:
1697:
1692:
1690:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1554:
1552:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1496:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1431:
1425:
1418:
1412:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1365:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1326:(2): 99–125.
1325:
1321:
1317:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1230:
1223:
1216:
1210:
1203:
1197:
1191:
1186:
1184:
1175:
1168:
1160:
1153:
1145:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1087:
1080:
1074:
1072:
1063:
1057:
1053:
1046:
1031:
1029:0-89599-043-1
1025:
1021:
1020:
1012:
1004:
998:
994:
987:
979:
973:
965:
958:
950:
944:
940:
935:
934:
925:
923:
921:
919:
917:
915:
906:
902:
897:
892:
887:
882:
878:
874:
870:
863:
861:
852:
845:
841:
834:
830:
828:
824:
814:
805:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
781:
779:
775:
771:
767:
766:
751:
747:
743:
741:
737:
736:Lake Titicaca
733:
729:
723:
713:
709:
705:
701:
687:
678:
674:
670:
668:
662:
657:
652:
650:
646:
641:
633:
620:
614:
610:
608:
607:Lumaco Valley
604:
600:
599:raised fields
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
555:
553:
547:
545:
534:
532:
522:
514:
505:
501:
499:
495:
491:
486:
481:
478:
472:
469:
465:
461:
457:
450:Raised Fields
447:
444:
438:
436:
432:
422:
420:
416:
412:
408:
403:
401:
395:
393:
388:
384:
374:
370:
367:
363:
358:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
331:
327:
322:
309:
304:
297:
292:
288:
285:
281:
278:
272:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
249:Lake Titicaca
246:
242:
239:
238:Pre-Columbian
234:
229:
225:
221:
212:
208:
204:
201:
199:Today part of
197:
181:
179:
176:
175:
172:
166:
163:
156:
155:
152:
149:
142:
141:
138:
135:
128:
127:
124:
123:
120:
117:
115:
112:
111:
107:
103:
99:
93:
89:
83:
79:
76:
73:
69:
66:
63:
59:
56:
53:
49:
42:
37:
32:
20:
3569:
3502:
3352:Moctezuma II
3309:Inca history
3234:Andean Music
3178:Architecture
3173:Architecture
3168:Architecture
3163:Architecture
3159:Architecture
3153:Gender Roles
2898:Tenochtitlan
2825:
2821:Timoto–Cuica
2816:Tierradentro
2601:Casma–Sechin
2333:Chalcatzingo
2083:
2073:
2069:
2045:
2037:
2030:
1998:
1994:
1986:
1979:
1968:
1961:
1946:
1940:Bibliography
1929:
1923:
1914:
1908:
1899:
1893:
1884:
1867:
1862:
1852:
1847:
1838:
1830:
1826:
1806:
1801:
1791:
1787:
1782:
1772:
1739:. Retrieved
1728:(2): 73–96.
1725:
1719:
1645:
1641:
1631:
1606:
1602:
1596:
1566:(1): 45–81.
1563:
1559:
1520:(1): 44–45.
1517:
1513:
1503:
1489:cite journal
1456:
1452:
1432:24: 271-296.
1429:
1424:
1416:
1411:
1378:
1374:
1364:
1323:
1319:
1263:
1259:
1228:
1222:
1214:
1209:
1201:
1196:
1173:
1167:
1158:
1152:
1129:
1086:
1078:
1051:
1045:
1033:. Retrieved
1019:First Cities
1018:
1011:
992:
986:
963:
957:
937:. New York:
932:
896:11336/175804
876:
872:
850:
844:
831:
823:Wari culture
820:
811:
782:
763:
761:
744:
730:. The green
724:
697:
675:
671:
663:
659:
654:
642:
638:
619:Tom Dillehay
612:
591:Tom Dillehay
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
556:
552:Isla del Sol
548:
543:
540:
530:
528:
519:
502:
493:
489:
484:
482:
473:
459:
456:raised field
453:
439:
428:
411:pastoralists
404:
400:Azapa Valley
396:
380:
371:
359:
336:
324:
286:
282:
273:
219:
217:
119:Succeeded by
118:
113:
3415:TĂşpac Amaru
3399:Manco Cápac
3348:Moctezuma I
3259:Agriculture
3254:Agriculture
3249:Agriculture
3240:Agriculture
3183:Road System
3072:Mathematics
2937:Muysc Cubun
2791:San AgustĂn
2741:Monte Verde
2418:Teotihuacan
2310:Mesoamerica
2205:Coles Creek
2190:Anishinaabe
2147:Archaeology
1853:Archaeology
1741:January 13,
1215:Lost Cities
1204:33: 73-102.
728:metric tons
585:(salt) and
577:(warlock),
425:Agriculture
275:as part of
269:Inca Empire
243:in western
178:Wari Empire
114:Preceded by
3596:Categories
3386:Tisquesusa
3360:Cuauhtémoc
3356:Cuitláhuac
2686:Lauricocha
2656:Gran Chaco
2646:Cupisnique
2631:Chinchorro
2606:Chachapoya
2596:Caral–Supe
2438:Tlaxcaltec
2428:Teuchitlán
2343:ChupĂcuaro
2270:Plum Bayou
2265:Plaquemine
2235:Marksville
2200:Chichimeca
837:References
797:pilgrimage
770:polychrome
758:Other arts
740:reed boats
645:Kalasasaya
589:(mother).
569:including
494:suka qullu
490:suka qullu
485:suka qullu
460:suka qullu
296:Kalasasaya
233:Tiahuanacu
228:Tiahuanaco
27:Tiahuanaco
3407:Atahualpa
3403:Pachacuti
3378:Nemequene
3244:Chinampas
3066:Astronomy
3055:Astronomy
3035:Mythology
3030:Mythology
3025:Mythology
3020:Mythology
3016:Mythology
2846:Wankarani
2836:Tuncahuán
2726:Marajoara
2681:Las Vegas
2567:Atacameño
2463:Xochipala
2403:Purépecha
2363:Epi-Olmec
2353:Cuicuilco
2295:Troyville
2285:St. Johns
1947:Lukurmata
1774:Antiquity
1648:: 45809.
1623:131156410
1603:Antiquity
1588:149450446
1534:0094-5080
1473:0002-7316
1403:0305-4403
1340:1045-6635
1296:155785477
1280:1045-6635
1233:, 424 pp.
972:cite book
939:Routledge
905:213080578
808:Lukurmata
778:Staff God
712:Pumapunku
649:Pumapunku
603:Budi Lake
443:Altiplano
383:altiplano
351:Argentina
308:Pumapunku
306:Ruins of
3503:See also
3421:Conquest
3394:Zoratama
3061:Calendar
3050:Calendar
3045:Calendar
3041:Calendar
3010:Religion
3005:Religion
2994:Religion
2983:Religion
2979:Religion
2968:Numerals
2962:Numerals
2923:Language
2903:Multiple
2841:Valdivia
2826:Tiwanaku
2786:Saladoid
2781:Quimbaya
2671:Kuhikugu
2651:Diaguita
2641:Chorrera
2458:Veraguas
2453:Veracruz
2433:Tlatilco
2245:Mogollon
2152:Cultures
2130:Americas
2054:citation
1855:magazine
1680:28378755
1580:30042486
1128:(1993).
774:libation
732:andesite
667:chullpas
627:Religion
616:—
581:(moon),
537:Collapse
508:Terraces
468:Tiwanaku
431:camelids
407:artisans
321:Tiwanaku
265:Tiwanaku
236:) was a
34:600–1000
3390:Tundama
3319:Peoples
3304:History
3299:History
3294:History
3290:History
3284:Cuisine
3279:Cuisine
3274:Cuisine
3269:Cuisine
3265:Cuisine
3123:Warfare
3118:Warfare
3113:Warfare
3109:Warfare
3103:Society
3098:Economy
3087:Society
3082:Society
3078:Society
2948:Writing
2942:Quechua
2927:Nahuatl
2894:Capital
2831:Toyopán
2811:Tairona
2721:Mapuche
2636:Chiripa
2611:Chancay
2582:Cañaris
2557:Amotape
2552:El Abra
2468:Zapotec
2448:Totonac
2423:Tepanec
2408:Quelepa
2378:Mezcala
2368:Huastec
2338:Cholula
2328:Capacha
2323:Acolhua
2280:Sinagua
2255:Patayan
2225:Hohokam
2215:Fremont
2023:3812420
1671:5381098
1650:Bibcode
1542:4005057
1383:Bibcode
1356:3812420
1035:26 July
789:jaguars
708:Akapana
573:(sun),
559:Mapuche
347:Bolivia
310:complex
298:complex
245:Bolivia
224:Spanish
203:Bolivia
65:Puquina
51:Capital
3333:Muisca
3328:Mayans
3323:Aztecs
2957:Script
2952:Script
2912:Bacatá
2883:Muisca
2766:Pucará
2761:Piaroa
2756:Paiján
2751:Omagua
2706:Lupaca
2701:Lokono
2666:Kalina
2661:Huetar
2621:ChavĂn
2616:Chango
2591:Nariño
2587:CapulĂ
2577:Calima
2572:Aymara
2562:Arawak
2443:Toltec
2393:Olmecs
2388:Nicoya
2383:Mixtec
2358:Diquis
2260:Picosa
2250:Oshara
2220:Glades
2210:Dorset
2076:: 8–66
2021:
2015:972273
2013:
1953:
1678:
1668:
1642:Nature
1621:
1586:
1578:
1540:
1532:
1481:280805
1479:
1471:
1401:
1354:
1348:972273
1346:
1338:
1294:
1288:971574
1286:
1278:
1140:
1058:
1026:
999:
945:
903:
704:ashlar
656:manner
531:qochas
464:Katari
435:llamas
339:Yungas
241:polity
3338:Incas
3229:Music
3224:Music
3219:Music
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