Youngest Toba eruption

736:

exhibits evidence of a major population decline and it has been suggested that the abundant springs of the Jurreru Valley may have offered its inhabitants unique protection. At the Jurreru Valley in southern India, Middle Paleolithic stone tools below the Toba ash layer are dated by OSL to 77±4 kyr, while the age of stone tools above the ash layer is constrained to be no older than 55 kyr. This age gap is suspected to be due to the removal of post-eruption sediments or decimation of the local population until re-occupation at 55 kyr. Additional archaeological evidence from southern and northern India also suggests a lack of evidence for effects of the eruption on local populations, causing the authors of the study to conclude, "many forms of life survived the supereruption, contrary to other research which has suggested significant animal extinctions and genetic bottlenecks". However, some researchers have questioned the techniques utilized to date artifacts to the period subsequent to the Toba supervolcano. The Toba Catastrophe also coincides with the disappearance of the

556:. Maximum global mean cooling is 2.3 °C (4.1 °F) for the lower emission and 4.1 °C (7.4 °F) for the higher emission. Strong decrease in precipitation occurs in high emission. Negative temperature anomalies return to less than 1 °C (1.8 °F) within 3 and 6 years for each emission scenario after the eruption. But so far no model can simulate aerosol microphysical processes with sufficient accuracy, empirical constraints from historical eruptions suggest that aerosol size may substantially reduce magnitude of cooling to less than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) no matter how much sulfur emitted. 488:, whether the eruption played any role in accelerating these events is much more debated. South China Sea marine records of climate, sampled at every centennial interval, shows 1 °C (1.8 °F) cooling above Toba ash layer for a thousand years but the authors concede that it may just be GS20. Arabian Sea marine records confirm that Toba ash occurred after the onset of GS20 but also that GS20 is not colder than GS21 in the records, from which authors conclude that the eruption did not intensify GS20 cooling. Dense sampling of environmental records, at every 6 784: 798: 40: 154: 516:

sulfate loadings that have ever been identified. In the ice core records, GS20 cooling was already underway by the time of sulfate deposition, nonetheless a 110-year period of accelerated cooling followed the sulfate event, and the authors interpret this acceleration as AMOC weakened by the Toba eruption.

515:

No Toba ash has been identified in ice core records, but four sulfate events within the ice strata have been proposed to possibly represent the deposition of aerosols from Toba eruption. One sulfate event at 73.75–74.16 kyr, which has all the characteristics of the Toba eruption, is among the largest

245: 451:

5 to glacial MIS 4, experiencing cooling and glacial expansion. This transition is a part of Pleistocene interglacial-glacial cycle driven by variations in the earth's orbit. Ocean temperature cooled by 0.9 °C (1.6 °F). Sea level fell 60 m (200 ft). Northern Hemisphere ice sheets

588:

found very few variants, and to account for the low frequency of variation human population must have been as low as a few thousand until very recently. More genetic studies confirmed an effective population on the order of 10,000 for much of human history. Subsequent research on the differences in

735:

at the Jurreru Valley in southern India were found above and below a thick layer of ash from the Toba eruption and were very similar across these layers, suggesting that the dust clouds from the eruption did not wipe out this local population. However, another site in India, the Middle Son Valley,

600:

In 1993, science journalist Ann Gibbons posited that population growth was suppressed by the cold climate of the last Pleistocene Ice Age, possibly exacerbated by the Toba super-eruption which at the time was dated to between 73 and 75 kyr near the beginning of glacial period MIS 4. The subsequent

703:

reached a nadir around 50 kyr, though the long-term declining trend already started before 200 kyr. The estimated remaining effective population sizes are around 10,000 individuals, larger than the estimated non-African size during their bottleneck. Unlike the non-African populations, there is no

722:

subspecies. Whole-genome analysis similarly recovers very low African population sizes around 1 million years ago. This 1 million year old bottleneck is thought to have been caused by severe ice age MIS 22 which marked the mid-Pleistocene climate transition with widespread aridity across Africa.

617:

hypothesized that the Toba eruption caused a human population crash to only a few thousand surviving individuals, and the subsequent recovery was suppressed by the global glacial condition of MIS 4 until the climate eventually transitioned to the warmer condition of MIS 3 about 60,000 years ago,

677:

to the complete set of genetic material to infer human population history. In non-African populations, studies recover a long-term steep decline in numbers starting 200 kyr and reaching the lowest point around 40–60 kyr. During this bottleneck non-African populations experienced 5- to 15-fold

687:

related to cold adaptations in non-African populations, of which 31 sweeps occurred during 72–97 kyr. This event of closely timed selections is named Arabian Standstill and may have been caused by the severe cold arid conditions from the onset of MIS 4 and exacerbated by Toba super-eruption.

4597:

Fan, Shaohua; Spence, Jeffrey P.; Feng, Yuanqing; Hansen, Matthew E.B.; Terhorst, Jonathan; Beltrame, Marcia H.; Ranciaro, Alessia; Hirbo, Jibril; Beggs, William; Thomas, Neil; Nyambo, Thomas; Mpoloka, Sununguko Wata; Mokone, Gaonyadiwe George; Njamnshi, Alfred K.; Fokunang, Charles (2023).

2744:

Schaefer, Joerg M.; Putnam, Aaron E.; Denton, George H.; Kaplan, Michael R.; Birkel, Sean; Doughty, Alice M.; Kelley, Sam; Barrell, David J.A.; Finkel, Robert C.; Winckler, Gisela; Anderson, Robert F.; Ninneman, Ulysses S.; Barker, Stephen; Schwartz, Roseanne; Andersen, Bjorn G. (2015).

536:, volcanic winter has a maximum global mean cooling of 3.5 °C (6.3 °F) and returns gradually within the range of natural variability 5 years after the eruption. An initiation of 1,000-year cold period or ice age is not supported by the model. Two other emission scenarios, 4167:

Higham, Tom; Douka, Katerina; Wood, Rachel; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Brock, Fiona; Basell, Laura; Camps, Marta; Arrizabalaga, Alvaro; Baena, Javier; Barroso-Ruíz, Cecillio; Bergman, Christopher; Boitard, Coralie; Boscato, Paolo; Caparrós, Miguel; Conard, Nicholas J. (2014).

504:. The Lake Malawi studies concluded that the environmental effects of the eruption were mild and limited to less than a decade in East Africa, but these studies are questioned due to sediment mixing which would have diminished the cooling signal. Environmental records from a 5089:

Fan, Shaohua; Kelly, Derek E.; Beltrame, Marcia H.; Hansen, Matthew E. B.; Mallick, Swapan; Ranciaro, Alessia; Hirbo, Jibril; Thompson, Simon; Beggs, William; Nyambo, Thomas; Omar, Sabah A.; Meskel, Dawit Wolde; Belay, Gurja; Froment, Alain; Patterson, Nick (2019-04-26).

6673:

ScienceDaily (Mar. 17, 2005) – By analyzing the relationship between the geographic location of current human populations in relation to East Africa and the genetic variability within these populations, researchers have found new evidence for an African origin of modern

3022: 1872:

Kappelman, John; Todd, Lawrence C.; Davis, Christopher A.; Cerling, Thure E.; Feseha, Mulugeta; Getahun, Abebe; Johnsen, Racheal; Kay, Marvin; Kocurek, Gary A.; Nachman, Brett A.; Negash, Agazi; Negash, Tewabe; O'Brien, Kaedan; Pante, Michael; Ren, Minghua (2024).

4655:

Petraglia, Michael; Korisettar, Ravi; Boivin, Nicole; Clarkson, Christopher; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Koshy, Jinu; Lahr, Marta Mirazón; Oppenheimer, Clive; Pyle, David; Roberts, Richard; Schwenninger, Jean-Luc; Arnold, Lee; White, Kevin (2007-07-06).

4279:

Sutikna, Thomas; Tocheri, Matthew W.; Morwood, Michael J.; Saptomo, E. Wahyu; Jatmiko; Awe, Rokus Due; Wasisto, Sri; Westaway, Kira E.; Aubert, Maxime; Li, Bo; Zhao, Jian-xin; Storey, Michael; Alloway, Brent V.; Morley, Mike W.; Meijer, Hanneke J. M. (2016).

4474:

Mallick, Swapan; Li, Heng; Lipson, Mark; Mathieson, Iain; Gymrek, Melissa; Racimo, Fernando; Zhao, Mengyao; Chennagiri, Niru; Nordenfelt, Susanne; Tandon, Arti; Skoglund, Pontus; Lazaridis, Iosif; Sankararaman, Sriram; Fu, Qiaomei; Rohland, Nadin (2016).

715:

has shown that the effective human population size was less than 26,000 at 1.2 million years ago; possible explanations for the low population size of human ancestors may include repeated population crashes or periodic replacement events from competing

682:

caused by Out-of-Africa dispersal. As a small group with a size of a few thousand people migrated from the African continent into the Near East, the drastic reduction in numbers imprinted on non-African genomic diversity. Genetic analysis identified 56

704:

consensus as to the cause of African bottleneck. Proposed causes include climatic deterioration (from MIS 5, Toba eruption, GS20 and/or MIS 4), reduction in substructure across African populations, and founder effects from the dispersal within Africa.

324:

that flowed over the ground, and approximately 800 km (190 cu mi) that fell as ash mostly to the west. However, as more outcrops become available, the most recent estimate of eruptive volume is 3,800 km (910 cu mi)

740:. Evidence from pollen analysis has suggested prolonged deforestation in South Asia, and some researchers have suggested that the Toba eruption may have forced humans to adopt new adaptive strategies, which may have permitted them to replace 362:

in 3.5 cm (1.4 in), and Central Indian Ocean Basin in 10 cm (3.9 in). Its horizon of ashfall covered an area of more than 38,000,000 km (15,000,000 sq mi) in 1 cm (0.39 in) or more thickness. In

3237:

Crick, Laura; Burke, Andrea; Hutchison, William; Kohno, Mika; Moore, Kathryn A.; Savarino, Joel; Doyle, Emily A.; Mahony, Sue; Kipfstuhl, Sepp; Rae, James W. B.; Steele, Robert C. J.; Sparks, R. Stephen J.; Wolff, Eric W. (2021-10-18).

4223:

Jacobs, Zenobia; Li, Bo; Shunkov, Michael V.; Kozlikin, Maxim B.; Bolikhovskaya, Nataliya S.; Agadjanian, Alexander K.; Uliyanov, Vladimir A.; Vasiliev, Sergei K.; O'Gorman, Kieran; Derevianko, Anatoly P.; Roberts, Richard G. (2019).

6499:

Williams, Martin A.J.; Stanley H. Ambrose; Sander van der Kaars; Carsten Ruehlemann; Umesh Chattopadhyaya; Jagannath Pal; Parth R. Chauhan (30 December 2009). "Environmental impact of the 73 ka Toba super-eruption in South Asia".

3180:

Ambrose, S. H. (2019), "Chapter 6 chronological calibration of Late Pleistocene Modern Human dispersals, climate change and Archaeology with Geochemical Isochrons", in Sahle, Yonatan; Reyes-Centeno, Hugo; Bentz, Christian (eds.),

2291:

Svensson, A.; Bigler, M.; Blunier, T.; Clausen, H. B.; Dahl-Jensen, D.; Fischer, H.; Fujita, S.; Goto-Azuma, K.; Johnsen, S. J.; Kawamura, K.; Kipfstuhl, S.; Kohno, M.; Parrenin, F.; Popp, T.; Rasmussen, S. O. (2013-03-19).

2141:

Du, Wenjing; Cheng, Hai; Xu, Yao; Yang, Xunlin; Zhang, Pingzhong; Sha, Lijuan; Li, Hanying; Zhu, Xiaoyan; Zhang, Meiliang; Stríkis, Nicolás M.; Cruz, Francisco W.; Edwards, R. Lawrence; Zhang, Haiwei; Ning, Youfeng (2019).

341:

is over 600 m (2,000 ft). The outflow sheet originally covered an area of 20,000–30,000 km (7,700–11,600 sq mi) with thickness nearly 100 m (330 ft), likely reaching into the

907: 439:. The start of GS20 cooling event corresponds to the start of Antarctic Isotope Maxima 19 (AIM19) warming event. GS20 was associated with iceberg discharges into the North Atlantic, thus it was also named 2424:

Menking, James A.; Shackleton, Sarah A.; Bauska, Thomas K.; Buffen, Aron M.; Brook, Edward J.; Barker, Stephen; Severinghaus, Jeffrey P.; Dyonisius, Michael N.; Petrenko, Vasilii V. (2022-09-16).

5491: 3668:"Had Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT, ca. 75 ka) eruption really destroyed living media explicitly in entire Southeast Asia or just a theoretical debate? An extensive review of its catastrophic event" 1808:; Johnsen, Racheal; Ren, Minghua; Fisher, Erich C.; Oestmo, Simen; Wilkins, Jayne; Harris, Jacob A.; Karkanas, Panagiotis; Fitch, Shelby; Ciravolo, Amber; Keenan, Deborah; Cleghorn, Naomi; 5529:

Shea, John. (2008). Transitions or Turnovers? Climatically-forced Extinctions of Homo sapiens and Neanderthals in the East Mediterranean Levant. Quaternary Science Reviews 27: 2253-2270.

419:

that started around the time of Toba eruption. The timing of the initiation of GS20 is dated to 74.0–74.2 kyr, and the entire event lasted about 1,500 years. It is the stadial part of

5937:

Luo, Shu-Jin; Zhang, Yue; Johnson, Warren E.; Miao, Lin; Martelli, Paolo; et al. (2014). "Sympatric Asian felid phylogeography reveals a major Indochinese-Sundaic divergence".

5433:

Jones, Sacha. (2012). Local- and Regional-scale Impacts of the ~74 ka Toba Supervolcanic Eruption on Hominin Population and Habitats in India. Quaternary International 258: 100-118.

4557:

A, Bergstrom; SA, McCarthy; R, Hui; MA, Almarri; Q, Ayub; P, Danecek; Y, Chen; S, Felkel; P, Hallast; J, Kamm; H, Blanche; JF, Deleuze; H, Cann; S, Mallick; D, Reich (2020-10-23).

273:

flows. The ignimbrite phase is characterized by low eruption fountain, but co-ignimbrite column developed on top of pyroclastic flows reached a height of 32 km (20 mi).

2878:

De Deckker, Patrick; Arnold, Lee J.; van der Kaars, Sander; Bayon, Germain; Stuut, Jan-Berend W.; Perner, Kerstin; Lopes dos Santos, Raquel; Uemura, Ryu; Demuro, Martina (2019).

2679:

Batchelor, Christine L.; Margold, Martin; Krapp, Mario; Murton, Della K.; Dalton, April S.; Gibbard, Philip L.; Stokes, Chris R.; Murton, Julian B.; Manica, Andrea (2019-08-16).

6530: 2583:

Shackleton, Sarah; Menking, James A.; Brook, Edward; Buizert, Christo; Dyonisius, Michael N.; Petrenko, Vasilii V.; Baggenstos, Daniel; Severinghaus, Jeffrey P. (2021-10-27).

337:

period. Previous volume estimates have ranged from 2,000 km (480 cu mi) to 6,000 km (1,400 cu mi). Inside the caldera, the maximum thickness of

5344: 320:

have estimated that the total amount of material released in the eruption was at least 2,800 km (670 cu mi)—about 2,000 km (480 cu mi) of

665:

and discoveries of archaeological cultures with Toba ash layer add further light to how humans had fared during the eruption and the following GS20 and MIS 4 ice age.

6680:

ScienceDaily (Feb. 16, 2007) – When man made his way out of Africa some 60,000 years ago to populate the world, he was not alone: He was accompanied by the bacterium

6719: 678:

reduction, with only 1,000–3,000 remaining individuals at 50 kyr, consistent with the earliest mtDNA studies. This severe non-African contraction is consistent with

4335:

Détroit, Florent; Mijares, Armand Salvador; Corny, Julien; Daver, Guillaume; Zanolli, Clément; Dizon, Eusebio; Robles, Emil; Grün, Rainer; Piper, Philip J. (2019).

6021:

Ninkovich, D.; N.J. Shackleton; A.A. Abdel-Monem; J.D. Obradovich; G. Izett (7 December 1978). "K−Ar age of the late Pleistocene eruption of Toba, north Sumatra".

3344:

Timmreck, Claudia; Graf, Hans-F.; Lorenz, Stephan J.; Niemeier, Ulrike; Zanchettin, Davide; Matei, Daniela; Jungclaus, Johann H.; Crowley, Thomas J. (2010-12-22).

269:

were activated within a few centuries before the eruption. The eruption commenced with small and limited air-fall and was directly followed by the main phase of

576:. However, some physical evidence disputes the association with the millennium-long cold event and genetic bottleneck, and some consider the theory disproven. 293:, depending on the existence of separate sulfur gas in the Toba magma chamber. The lower end of estimate is due to the low solubility of sulfur in the magma. 84: 2538:"Variations in the Earth's Orbit: Pacemaker of the Ice Ages: For 500,000 years, major climatic changes have followed variations in obliquity and precession" 2095: 1154:"Tephra glass chemistry provides storage and discharge details of five magma reservoirs which fed the 75 ka Youngest Toba Tuff eruption, northern Sumatra" 6661:

by Professor Stanley H. Ambrose, Department of Anthropology, University Of Illinois, Urbana, USA; Extract from "Journal of Human Evolution" 34, 623–651

524:

The modeled climate effects of the Toba eruption hinges on the mass of sulfurous gases and aerosol microphysical processes. Modeling on an emission of

5499: 645:, survived the Toba eruption and subsequent MIS 4 ice age, as their latest presence are dated to ca. 40 kyr, and ca. 55 kyr. Other lineages including 3131:"Subdecadal phytolith and charcoal records from Lake Malawi, East Africa imply minimal effects on human evolution from the ~74 ka Toba supereruption" 210:-forming eruptions at this location, with the earlier known caldera having formed around 1.2 million years ago. This last eruption had an estimated 4390:

Chang, Chun-Hsiang; Kaifu, Yousuke; Takai, Masanaru; Kono, Reiko T.; Grün, Rainer; Matsu'ura, Shuji; Kinsley, Les; Lin, Liang-Kong (2015-01-27).

257:

The exact year of the eruption is unknown, but the pattern of ash deposits suggests that it occurred during the northern summer because only the

3081:"High-resolution paleoecological records from Lake Malawi show no significant cooling associated with the Mount Toba supereruption at ca. 75 ka" 2880:"Marine Isotope Stage 4 in Australasia: A full glacial culminating 65,000 years ago – Global connections and implications for human dispersal" 6712: 993:"The exceptional magnitude and intensity of the Toba eruption, sumatra: An example of the use of deep-sea tephra layers as a geological tool" 5398: 5224:

Hu, Wangjie; Hao, Ziqian; Du, Pengyuan; Di Vincenzo, Fabio; Manzi, Giorgio; Cui, Jialong; Fu, Yun-Xin; Pan, Yi-Hsuan; Li, Haipeng (2023).

424: 398:

The subsequent collapse formed a caldera that filled with water, creating Lake Toba. The island in the center of the lake is formed by a

6622: 2096:"Rapid speleothem δ13C change in southwestern North America coincident with Greenland stadial 20 and the Toba (Indonesia) supereruption" 6230: 6176: 3023:"The Toba Volcanic Event and Interstadial/Stadial Climates at the Marine Isotopic Stage 5 to 4 Transition in the Northern Indian Ocean" 484:

While Toba eruption occurred in the backdrop of rapid climate transitions of GS20 and MIS 4 triggered by changes in ocean currents and

261:

could have deposited Toba ashfall in the South China Sea. The eruption lasted perhaps 9 to 14 days. The most recent two high-precision

1993:

Baxter, A. J.; Verschuren, D.; Peterse, F.; Miralles, D. G.; Martin-Jones, C. M.; Maitituerdi, A.; Van der Meeren, T.; Van Daele, M.;

4967:

Tobler, Raymond; Souilmi, Yassine; Huber, Christian D.; Bean, Nigel; Turney, Chris S. M.; Grey, Shane T.; Cooper, Alan (2023-05-30).

6561: 6930: 6705: 5416: 138: 6920: 614: 17: 5352: 731:

Other research has cast doubt on an association between the Toba Caldera Complex and a genetic bottleneck. For example, ancient

6830: 6728: 1473:

Lin, Jiamei; Abbott, Peter M.; Sigl, Michael; Steffensen, Jørgen P.; Mulvaney, Robert; Severi, Mirko; Svensson, Anders (2023).

829: 941:"Toba ash layers in the South China Sea: Evidence of contrasting wind directions during eruption ca. 74 ka: Comment and Reply" 6011: 5878: 5445:"The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years" 1662:"The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years" 1048:"Astronomically calibrated 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age for the Toba supereruption and global synchronization of late Quaternary records" 862:"The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years" 443:. Heinrich events tend to be longer, colder and with weaker AMOC in the Atlantic ocean than other DO stadials. From 74 to 58 752:

Some evidence indicates population crashes of other animals after the Toba eruption. The populations of the Eastern African

508:

site in Ethiopia, however, shows that a severe drought occurred concurrently with Toba ash layer which altered early human

3468:

McGraw, Zachary; DallaSanta, Kevin; Polvani, Lorenzo M.; Tsigaridis, Kostas; Orbe, Clara; Bauer, Susanne E. (2024-02-15).

1709:"Discovery of the Toba Ash ( c. 70 ka) in a high-resolution core recovering millennial monsoonal variability off Pakistan" 610: 329:(DRE), of which 1,800 km (430 cu mi) was deposited as ash fall and 2,000 km (480 cu mi) as 3594:"Understanding the overestimated impact of the Toba volcanic super-eruption on global environments and ancient hominins" 2833:"The Last Interglacial–Glacial cycle (MIS 5–2) re-examined based on long proxy records from central and northern Europe" 6910: 6592: 3305:

Timmreck, Claudia; Graf, Hans-F.; Zanchettin, Davide; Hagemann, Stefan; Kleinen, Thomas; Krüger, Kirstin (2012-05-01).

223: 6641: 6058:

Oppenheimer, Clive (August 2002), "Limited global change due to largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74 kyr BP?",

2361:"A new view on abrupt climate changes and the bipolar seesaw based on paleotemperatures from Iberian Margin sediments" 6162: 4600:"Whole-genome sequencing reveals a complex African population demographic history and signatures of local adaptation" 3648: 2632:

Cutler, K.B; Edwards, R.L; Taylor, F.W; Cheng, H; Adkins, J; Gallup, C.D; Cutler, P.M; Burr, G.S; Bloom, A.L (2003).

1449: 317: 5281:"Hominin population bottleneck coincided with migration from Africa during the Early Pleistocene ice age transition" 1475:"Bipolar ice-core records constrain possible dates and global radiative forcing following the ∼74 ka Toba eruption" 239: 6687: 5738: 2974:"Cooling of the South China Sea by the Toba Eruption and correlation with other climate proxies ~71,000 years ago" 1584:"The Young Toba Tuff (73.9 ka) Magma Body – True Size and the most Extensive and Voluminous Ignimbrite Yet Known?" 6900: 6777: 6327: 4969:"The role of genetic selection and climatic factors in the dispersal of anatomically modern humans out of Africa" 533: 6659:

Mount Toba: Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans

5688: 3401:

Black, Benjamin A.; Lamarque, Jean-François; Marsh, Daniel R.; Schmidt, Anja; Bardeen, Charles G. (2021-07-20).

6915: 6895: 6818: 6795: 6771: 6143:"Volcanic winter in the Garden of Eden: The Toba supereruption and the late Pleistocene human population crash" 3534:"Volcanic winter in the Garden of Eden: The Toba supereruption and the late Pleistocene human population crash" 2071:

Guo, Z., Liu, J., Chu, G., & JFW, N. (2002). Composition and origin of tephra of the Huguangyan Maar Lake.

964: 835: 661:

may have also survived through the eruption. More recently, reconstructions of human demographic history using

6386: 1436:, Geophysical Monograph Series, vol. 139, Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union, pp. 11–40, 1152:

Pearce, Nicholas J.G.; Westgate, John A.; Gualda, Guilherme A.R.; Gatti, Emma; Muhammad, Ros F. (2019-10-14).

1115:"High-precision 40Ar/39Ar dating of Pleistocene tuffs and temporal anchoring of the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary" 6848: 6801: 5092:"African evolutionary history inferred from whole genome sequence data of 44 indigenous African populations" 1543:

Kutterolf, S.; Schindlbeck-Belo, J.C.; Müller, F.; Pank, K.; Lee, H.-Y.; Wang, K.-L.; Schmitt, A.K. (2023).

1203:"Constraining magma storage conditions of the Toba magmatic system: a plagioclase and amphibole perspective" 6870: 5451:. The Toba Volcanic Super-eruption of 74,000 Years Ago: Climate Change, Environments, and Evolving Humans. 823: 553: 489: 420: 3195:

Zielinski, G. A.; Mayewski, P. A.; Meeker, L. D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M. S.; Taylor, K. (1996-04-15).

1545:"Revisiting the occurrence and distribution of Indian Ocean Tephra: Quaternary marine Toba ash inventory" 817: 803: 313: 187: 5813: 6940: 6875: 6655:, including bibliographic information on the two papers he has published on the Toba catastrophe theory 5623: 3080: 211: 133:

in 5 cm (2.0 in) of ash, volcanic winter may have caused a severe human population bottleneck

116: 6088:"Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-eruption" 5867:"The Toba Supervolcanic Eruption: Tephra-Fall Deposits in India and Paleoanthropological Implications" 5812:

Huff, Chad. D; Xing, Jinchuan; Rogers, Alan R.; Witherspoon, David; Jorde, Lynn B. (19 January 2010).

5619:"Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans" 5444: 4658:"Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-Eruption" 3593: 2242: 1755: 6935: 6880: 6836: 6783: 3021:

Schulz, Hartmut; Emeis, Kay-Christian; Erlenkeuser, Helmut; Rad, Ulrich von; Rolf, Christian (2002).

1178: 737: 594: 465: 6087: 6086:

Petraglia, M.; Korisettar, R.; Boivin, N.; Clarkson, C.; Ditchfield, P.; et al. (6 July 2007).

1708: 6925: 6885: 5443:

Petraglia, Michael D.; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Korisettar, Ravi; Pal, J. N. (2012-05-01).

4910:

Henn, Brenna M.; Botigué, Laura R.; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Clark, Andrew G.; Gravel, Simon (2015).

5226:"Genomic inference of a severe human bottleneck during the Early to Middle Pleistocene transition" 3566: 1615:"Stratigraphy of the Toba Tuffs and the evolution of the Toba Caldera Complex, Sumatra, Indonesia" 44:

Artist's impression of early stages of eruption from about 42 km (26 mi) above northern

6905: 6748: 6677: 6670: 5539: 5374: 3470:"Severe Global Cooling After Volcanic Super-Eruptions? The Answer Hinges on Unknown Aerosol Size" 3306: 2746: 1936:"Ash from the Toba supereruption in Lake Malawi shows no volcanic winter in East Africa at 75 ka" 1544: 1390: 662: 925:

Stratigraphy of the Toba Tuffs and the evolution of the Toba Caldera Complex, Sumatra, Indonesia

6529:

Zielinski, G.A.; Mayewski, P.A.; Meeker, L.D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M.S.; Taylor, K. (1996).

6359: 811: 262: 5866: 3821:"Drosophila melanogaster mitochondrial DNA: gene organization and evolutionary considerations" 2031: 6754: 6678:

Out of Africa – Bacteria, As Well: Homo Sapiens And H. Pylori Jointly Spread Across The Globe

6626: 5765:

Hernandez, R.D.; Hubisz, M.J.; Wheeler, D.A.; Smith, D.G.; Ferguson, B.; et al. (2007).

4780:"Robust and scalable inference of population history from hundreds of unphased whole genomes" 691:

African populations experienced a slightly earlier, milder bottleneck and recovered earlier.

601:

explosive human expansion was believed to be the result of the end of the ice age. Geologist

569: 448: 326: 6423:

Steiper, M.E. (2006). "Population history, biogeography, and taxonomy of orangutans (Genus:

6269: 6215: 5888:

Luo, S.-J.; Kim, J.-H.; Johnson, W.E.; Van der Walt, J.; Martenson, J.; et al. (2004).

2649: 2537: 1660:

Petraglia, Michael D.; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Korisettar, Ravi; Pal, J.N. (2012).

1430:"Petrological and volcanological constraints on volcanic sulfur emissions to the atmosphere" 860:

Petraglia, Michael D.; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Korisettar, Ravi; Pal, J.N. (2012).

6842: 6667:

by The Bradshaw Foundation – includes discussion on Toba eruption, DNA and human migrations

6545: 6509: 6436: 6403: 6394:

Self, Stephen; Blake, Stephen (February 2008). "Consequences of Explosive Supereruptions".

6374: 6336: 6293: 6245: 6191: 6102: 6067: 6030: 5999: 5946: 5825: 5782: 5709: 5676: 5632: 5456: 5292: 5237: 5162: 4980: 4851: 4669: 4488: 4403: 4348: 4293: 4237: 4181: 4125: 4055: 3773: 3679: 3605: 3533: 3481: 3414: 3357: 3318: 3251: 3240:"New insights into the ~ 74 ka Toba eruption from sulfur isotopes of polar ice cores" 3208: 3142: 3092: 3034: 2985: 2938: 2891: 2844: 2797: 2758: 2692: 2645: 2634:"Rapid sea-level fall and deep-ocean temperature change since the last interglacial period" 2596: 2502: 2437: 2426:"Multiple carbon cycle mechanisms associated with the glaciation of Marine Isotope Stage 4" 2372: 2305: 2254: 2207: 2155: 2107: 2010: 1947: 1886: 1825: 1767: 1720: 1673: 1626: 1595: 1556: 1486: 1402: 1352: 1264: 1214: 1059: 1004: 952: 873: 453: 162: 143:(Potentially) almost all of humanity, leaving around 3,000–10,000 humans left on the planet 6281: 5661: 3789: 3378: 2243:"Compiled Southern Ocean sea surface temperatures correlate with Antarctic Isotope Maxima" 1522: 8: 6824: 6681: 820: – Most recent individual from which all organisms in a group are directly descended 606: 568:

of six to ten years and contributed to a 1,000-year-long cooling episode, resulting in a

351: 130: 6658: 6549: 6513: 6440: 6407: 6378: 6340: 6297: 6249: 6195: 6106: 6071: 6034: 6003: 5950: 5829: 5786: 5713: 5697: 5680: 5636: 5618: 5460: 5321: 5296: 5280: 5241: 5166: 5009: 4984: 4968: 4855: 4673: 4632: 4492: 4407: 4352: 4297: 4241: 4185: 4129: 4059: 3683: 3609: 3546: 3485: 3418: 3361: 3322: 3255: 3212: 3146: 3096: 3038: 2989: 2942: 2895: 2848: 2801: 2762: 2696: 2600: 2506: 2441: 2401: 2376: 2309: 2258: 2211: 2159: 2111: 2049: 2014: 1998: 1951: 1890: 1829: 1771: 1724: 1677: 1630: 1599: 1583: 1560: 1490: 1406: 1356: 1268: 1218: 1063: 1008: 956: 877: 367:, microscopic glass shards from this eruption are also discovered on the south coast of 6890: 6616: 6261: 6226: 6207: 6172: 6138: 6126: 6046: 5978: 5848: 5814:"Mobile Elements Reveal Small Population Size in the Ancient Ancestors of Homo Sapiens" 5390: 5126: 5091: 5066: 5033: 4944: 4911: 4882: 4839: 4812: 4779: 4748: 4716:"Inferring human population size and separation history from multiple genome sequences" 4715: 4559:"Insights into human genetic variation and population history from 929 diverse genomes" 4527: 4476: 4442: 4391: 4109: 4079: 4039: 4013: 3954: 3942: 3888: 3853: 3705: 3629: 3529: 3445: 3402: 3383: 3287: 3058: 3003: 2721: 2680: 2466: 2425: 2341: 1970: 1935: 1756:"New occurrence of Youngest Toba Tuff in abyssal sediments of the Central Indian Basin" 1090: 1047: 1028: 924: 602: 364: 227: 6079: 5920: 5889: 5150: 4113: 3403:"Global climate disruption and regional climate shelters after the Toba supereruption" 2657: 1779: 6598: 6588: 6487: 6452: 6309: 6265: 6158: 6142: 6118: 6007: 5970: 5962: 5925: 5874: 5853: 5800: 5725: 5648: 5472: 5394: 5326: 5308: 5261: 5253: 5186: 5178: 5131: 5113: 5071: 5053: 5014: 4996: 4949: 4931: 4887: 4869: 4817: 4799: 4753: 4735: 4693: 4685: 4637: 4619: 4574: 4532: 4514: 4447: 4429: 4372: 4364: 4317: 4309: 4282:"Revised stratigraphy and chronology for Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua in Indonesia" 4261: 4253: 4205: 4197: 4149: 4141: 4071: 4021: 4005: 3946: 3908: 3858: 3840: 3801: 3793: 3754: 3746: 3709: 3697: 3633: 3621: 3497: 3450: 3432: 3291: 3279: 3160: 3108: 3062: 3050: 3007: 2954: 2907: 2879: 2860: 2832: 2813: 2726: 2708: 2661: 2614: 2565: 2557: 2518: 2490: 2471: 2453: 2406: 2388: 2333: 2294:"Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores at the Toba eruption (74 ka BP)" 2270: 2241:

Anderson, H. J.; Pedro, J. B.; Bostock, H. C.; Chase, Z.; Noble, T. L. (2021-03-01).

2223: 2195: 2194:

Menviel, Laurie C.; Skinner, Luke C.; Tarasov, Lev; Tzedakis, Polychronis C. (2020).

2173: 2123: 2054: 2036: 1975: 1910: 1902: 1874: 1849: 1841: 1783: 1736: 1689: 1642: 1568: 1504: 1445: 1414: 1368: 1321: 1280: 1230: 1183: 1134: 1095: 1077: 1032: 1020: 968: 889: 757: 647: 590: 347: 215: 6321:

Robock, A.; Ammann, C.M.; Oman, L.; Shindell, D.; Levis, S.; Stenchikov, G. (2009).

6130: 5982: 5767:"Demographic histories and patterns of linkage disequilibrium in Chinese and Indian 5662:"Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) Clarified" 4336: 4225: 3958: 3387: 2903: 2856: 2770: 2514: 2345: 2266: 1499: 1474: 6742: 6553: 6517: 6477: 6444: 6411: 6382: 6344: 6301: 6253: 6211: 6199: 6150: 6110: 6075: 6050: 6038: 5954: 5915: 5905: 5843: 5833: 5790: 5717: 5684: 5640: 5464: 5382: 5316: 5300: 5245: 5170: 5121: 5103: 5061: 5045: 5004: 4988: 4939: 4923: 4877: 4859: 4807: 4791: 4743: 4727: 4677: 4627: 4611: 4566: 4522: 4504: 4496: 4437: 4419: 4411: 4356: 4301: 4245: 4189: 4133: 4083: 4063: 3977: 3938: 3900: 3876: 3848: 3832: 3785: 3736: 3687: 3613: 3489: 3440: 3422: 3373: 3365: 3326: 3269: 3259: 3239: 3216: 3150: 3100: 3079:

Jackson, Lily J.; Stone, Jeffery R.; Cohen, Andrew S.; Yost, Chad L. (2015-09-01).

3042: 2993: 2946: 2899: 2852: 2805: 2766: 2716: 2700: 2653: 2633: 2604: 2584: 2549: 2510: 2461: 2445: 2396: 2380: 2323: 2313: 2262: 2215: 2163: 2115: 2044: 2026: 2018: 1965: 1955: 1894: 1833: 1775: 1728: 1681: 1634: 1564: 1494: 1437: 1410: 1360: 1311: 1272: 1222: 1173: 1165: 1126: 1085: 1067: 1012: 960: 881: 789: 505: 500:

after the deposition of Toba ash, but cooling-forced aridity killed high elevation

485: 338: 191: 6697: 2553: 1732: 1252: 1114: 6580: 6521: 6448: 5991: 5910: 5492:"Newly Discovered Archaeological Sites in India Reveals Ancient Life before Toba" 5468: 3836: 3617: 3536:, Volcanic Hazards and Disasters in Human Antiquity, Floyd W. McCoy, Grant Heiken 3330: 3155: 3130: 2293: 2168: 2143: 1814:"Humans thrived in South Africa through the Toba eruption about 74,000 years ago" 1707:

Von Rad, Ulrich; Burgath, Klaus-Peter; Pervaz, Muhammad; Schulz, Hartmut (2002).

1685: 1316: 1299: 1276: 1130: 885: 684: 653: 565: 359: 6652: 5721: 4599: 3820: 3692: 3667: 1202: 4615: 4477:"The Simons Genome Diversity Project: 300 genomes from 142 diverse populations" 3989: 3985: 3981: 3973: 3926: 3884: 3880: 2704: 2489:

Doughty, Alice M.; Kaplan, Michael R.; Peltier, Carly; Barker, Stephen (2021).

2449: 2219: 2022: 1994: 1931: 1898: 1809: 1805: 1661: 1226: 861: 761: 679: 493: 461: 457: 440: 428: 416: 399: 67: 6692: 6602: 6415: 6177:"Volcanic Winter and Accelerated Glaciation following the Toba Super-eruption" 5660:

Chesner, C.A.; Westgate, J.A.; Rose, W.I.; Drake, R.; Deino, A. (March 1991).

5108: 5034:"Inference of human population history from individual whole-genome sequences" 4360: 4281: 4249: 4169: 4044:"Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba super-eruption" 3741: 3724: 3469: 2927:"Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba super-eruption" 2747:"The Southern Glacial Maximum 65,000 years ago and its Unfinished Termination" 1875:"Adaptive foraging behaviours in the Horn of Africa during Toba supereruption" 1813: 6864: 6664: 6646: 6154: 5966: 5476: 5412: 5312: 5257: 5225: 5182: 5117: 5057: 5000: 4935: 4873: 4803: 4739: 4689: 4657: 4623: 4578: 4518: 4433: 4368: 4313: 4257: 4201: 4145: 4075: 4009: 3912: 3844: 3797: 3750: 3701: 3625: 3501: 3493: 3436: 3283: 3112: 3054: 2958: 2911: 2864: 2817: 2712: 2665: 2618: 2561: 2522: 2457: 2392: 2360: 2337: 2274: 2227: 2177: 2144:"Timing and structure of the weak Asian Monsoon event about 73,000 years ago" 2127: 2040: 1906: 1845: 1787: 1740: 1693: 1646: 1508: 1372: 1325: 1284: 1234: 1187: 1138: 1081: 1024: 972: 940: 893: 700: 696: 436: 266: 265:

dated the eruption to 73,880 ± 320 and 73,700 ± 300 years ago. Five distinct

99: 86: 6482: 6465: 6305: 6114: 5838: 5795: 5766: 5304: 5249: 5174: 4992: 4864: 4681: 4137: 3427: 3345: 3264: 2681:"The configuration of Northern Hemisphere ice sheets through the Quaternary" 2609: 2384: 1960: 1072: 423:

20 (DO20), commonly explained by an abrupt reduction in the strength of the

6585:

When Humans Nearly Vanished: The Catastrophic Explosion of the Toba Volcano

6491: 6456: 6257: 6122: 5974: 5929: 5857: 5804: 5729: 5644: 5330: 5265: 5190: 5135: 5075: 5018: 4953: 4891: 4821: 4757: 4697: 4641: 4536: 4451: 4376: 4321: 4265: 4226:"Timing of archaic hominin occupation of Denisova Cave in southern Siberia" 4209: 4043: 3994:"Mismatch Distributions of mtDNA Reveal Recent Human Population Expansions" 3950: 3454: 3164: 3046: 2926: 2730: 2569: 2475: 2410: 2058: 1999:"Reversed Holocene temperature–moisture relationship in the Horn of Africa" 1979: 1914: 1853: 1340: 1099: 840: 772:, all expanded from very small populations around 70,000–55,000 years ago. 712: 708: 692: 674: 564:

The Toba catastrophe theory holds that the eruption caused a severe global

368: 343: 184: 6531:"Potential Atmospheric Impact of the Toba Mega-Eruption ~71,000 years ago" 6323:"Did the Toba Volcanic Eruption of ~74k BP Produce Widespread Glaciation?" 6313: 5652: 5386: 4153: 4025: 3862: 3805: 3758: 3197:"Potential atmospheric impact of the Toba Mega-Eruption ~71,000 years ago" 2972:

Huang, Chi-Yue; Zhao, Meixun; Wang, Chia-Chun; Wei, Ganjian (2001-10-15).

2318: 468:. Southern Hemisphere glaciation grew to its maximum extent during MIS 4. 6789: 6349: 6322: 5151:"Late Pleistocene Demography and the Appearance of Modern Human Behavior" 4838:

Henn, Brenna M.; Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.; Feldman, Marcus W. (2012-10-30).

3369: 3196: 2998: 2973: 741: 636: 501: 469: 415:

Greenland stadial 20 (GS20) is a millennium-long cold event in the north

388: 380: 355: 6464:

Thalman, O.; Fisher, A.; Lankester, F.; Pääbo, S.; Vigilant, L. (2007).

5049: 4558: 4509: 4500: 4305: 4193: 4017: 3993: 1837: 613:

supported her theory. In 1998, anthropologist Stanley H. Ambrose of the

6231:"Climate–Volcanism Feedback and the Toba Eruption of ~74,000 Years ago" 5996:

Comet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society: an Interdisciplinary Approach

4570: 4415: 4170:"The timing and spatiotemporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance" 3274: 2785: 2328: 2094:

Polyak, Victor J.; Asmerom, Yemane; Lachniet, Matthew S. (2017-09-01).

1638: 1016: 753: 732: 585: 432: 384: 334: 330: 321: 270: 219: 6557: 6149:. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America Special Paper 345. 5958: 5520:

National Geographic- Did early humans in India survive a supervolcano?

4424: 3220: 2809: 1153: 6203: 6042: 4067: 3104: 2950: 2119: 1614: 1429: 1364: 1169: 992: 642: 274: 244: 203: 195: 158: 56: 5540:"Supervolcano Eruption In Sumatra Deforested India 73,000 Years ago" 4927: 4795: 4731: 4337:"A new species of Homo from the Late Pleistocene of the Philippines" 3346:"Aerosol size confines climate response to volcanic super-eruptions" 2196:"An ice–climate oscillatory framework for Dansgaard–Oeschger cycles" 1441: 1046:

Storey, Michael; Roberts, Richard G.; Saidin, Mokhtar (2012-11-13).

908:"Surprisingly, Humanity Survived the Super-volcano 74,000 Years Ago" 3929:(1995). "Genetic Evidence for a Pleistocene Population Explosion". 3904: 3550: 1542: 1201:

Lubbers, Jordan; Kent, Adam J. R.; de Silva, Shanaka (2024-01-18).

783: 658: 509: 492:

9 year interval, in Lake Malawi, show no cooling-induced change in

376: 372: 294: 5992:"The GGE Threat: Facing and Coping with Global Geophysical Events" 5442: 2877: 1659: 859: 552:, are investigated using state-of-art simulations provided by the 6427:) based on a population genetic meta-analysis of multiple loci". 4654: 3467: 765: 497: 473: 258: 207: 199: 77: 45: 991:

Ninkovich, D.; Sparks, R. S. J.; Ledbetter, M. T. (1978-09-01).

472:, Africa and Europe were characterized by increasingly cold and 3875: 3567:"Toba Supervolcano Not to Blame for Humanity's Near-Extinction" 3307:"Climate response to the Toba super-eruption: Regional changes" 2585:"Evolution of mean ocean temperature in Marine Isotope Stage 4" 1992: 832: – "Out of Africa" theory of the early migration of humans 797: 39: 5345:"Mount Toba Eruption – Ancient Humans Unscathed, Study Claims" 5149:

Powell, Adam; Shennan, Stephen; Thomas, Mark G. (2009-06-05).

3971: 3304: 3194: 1391:"A melt inclusion study of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia" 452:

embarked on significant expansion and surpassed the extent of

6466:"The complex history of gorillas: insights from genomic data" 2786:"A climatic context for the out-of-Africa migration: COMMENT" 2582: 2423: 2193: 1997:; Haug, G. H.; Olago, D. O.; Sinninghe Damsté, J. S. (2023). 1428:

Scaillet, Bruno; Luhr, James F.; Carroll, Michael R. (2003),

769: 573: 5871:

The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia

4278: 2290: 826: – Extinctions of large mammals in the Late Pleistocene 153: 5689:

10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2

2678: 2536:

Hays, J. D.; Imbrie, John; Shackleton, N. J. (1976-12-10).

1526: 1341:"Dimensions and dynamics of co-ignimbrite eruption columns" 718: 631: 392: 4909: 3343: 2743: 2488: 1706: 965:

10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<1056:talits>2.0.co;2

6387:

10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<913:DOAITG>2.0.CO;2

6282:"Bottleneck in the Human Evolution and the Toba Eruption" 4837: 3400: 3020: 2240: 1871: 1151: 444: 277:

constraints on sulfur emission yielded a wide range from

5753:"Genetics and biogeography of East African chimpanzees ( 4778:

Terhorst, Jonathan; Kamm, John A.; Song, Yun S. (2017).

4473: 4334: 3236: 2631: 990: 618:

during which rapid human population expansion occurred.

6280:

Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (24 December 1993).

4222: 1754:

Pattan, J. N; Shane, Phil; Banakar, V. K (1999-03-01).

1472: 747: 479: 5088: 4966: 3513: 3511: 814: – Spread of humans from Africa through the world 699:

attained their lowest numbers around 70–80 kyr, while

4166: 4114:"Bottleneck in Human Evolution and the Toba Eruption" 3078: 2093: 1803: 297:

records estimate the sulfur emission on the order of

6360:"Dispersal of Ash in the Great Toba Eruption, 75 ka" 3889:"The Genetic Structure of Ancient Human Populations" 2784:

Stewart, John R.; Fenberg, Phillip B. (2018-05-01).

2535: 1581: 1300:"Petrogenesis of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia" 779: 597:

of 1,000 to 10,000, sometime between 35 and 65 kyr.

27:

Volcanic supereruption 74,000 years ago in Indonesia

6727: 5936: 5148: 4596: 4389: 4090: 3508: 1582:Self, S.; Gouramanis, C.; Storey, M. (2019-12-01). 1427: 1200: 1045: 6688:Magma 'Pancakes' May Have Fueled Toba Supervolcano 5223: 1753: 1613:Chesner, Craig A.; Rose, William I. (1991-06-01). 843: – Line separating Asian and Australian fauna 252: 6502:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6147:Volcanic Hazards and Disasters in Human Antiquity 5279:Muttoni, Giovanni; Kent, Dennis V. (2024-03-26). 3547:"Toba super-volcano catastrophe idea 'dismissed'" 2491:"A maximum in global glacier extent during MIS 4" 6862: 5994:. In Bobrowsky, Peter T.; Rickman, Hans (eds.). 5890:"Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers ( 4777: 3666:Singh, Ajab; Srivastava, Ashok K. (2022-06-01). 3600:. Current Research on Prehistoric Central Asia. 2971: 1930: 1713:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 1389:Chesner, Craig A.; Luhr, James F. (2010-11-30). 938: 190:that occurred about 74,000 years ago during the 6528: 6085: 6020: 5818:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5764: 5590: 5285:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4973:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4912:"Estimating the mutation load in human genomes" 4844:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4713: 3665: 3407:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2365:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1940:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1052:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 939:Bühring, Christian; Sarnthein, Michael (2000). 354:in a layer of 5 cm (2.0 in) ash, the 206:. It was the last in a series of at least four 6498: 6137: 5556: 3725:"Population size and protein variation in man" 2783: 1549:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 1395:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 1112: 410: 350:. The air-fall of this eruption blanketed the 333:, making this eruption the largest during the 6713: 6463: 5659: 3649:"The so-called Toba bottleneck didn't happen" 2140: 6320: 6279: 6225: 5739:"Human Ancestors Were an Endangered Species" 4714:Schiffels, Stephan; Durbin, Richard (2014). 1338: 668: 593:sequences dated a rapid growth from a small 214:of 8, making it the largest-known explosive 6357: 6171: 6057: 5869:. In Petraglia, M. D.; Allchin, B. (eds.). 5417:"At last, the death of the Toba bottleneck" 5278: 4108: 4038: 2925:Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (1992). 2924: 2359:Davtian, Nina; Bard, Edouard (2023-03-13). 2358: 1612: 1388: 1339:Woods, Andrew W.; Wohletz, Kenneth (1991). 621: 425:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 6720: 6706: 6671:Geography Predicts Human Genetic Diversity 6617:Population Bottlenecks and Volcanic Winter 6358:Rose, W.I.; Chesner, C.A. (October 1987). 5811: 5411: 5204: 3722: 3128: 986: 984: 982: 918: 559: 308: 152: 38: 6481: 6393: 6348: 5919: 5909: 5887: 5847: 5837: 5794: 5601: 5372: 5320: 5125: 5107: 5065: 5008: 4943: 4881: 4863: 4811: 4747: 4631: 4526: 4508: 4441: 4423: 3852: 3740: 3723:Haigh, John; Smith, John Maynard (1972). 3691: 3444: 3426: 3377: 3273: 3263: 3154: 2997: 2720: 2608: 2465: 2400: 2327: 2317: 2167: 2048: 2030: 1969: 1959: 1498: 1315: 1207:Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 1179:2160/dba3b012-8369-4dbb-8a89-1102f11e92c3 1177: 1089: 1071: 726: 248:Location of Lake Toba shown in red on map 6653:Homepage of Professor Stanley H. Ambrose 6579: 5749: 5568: 5031: 3771: 1523:"Supersized eruptions are all the rage!" 243: 6422: 5989: 5760:(PhD). Harvard University, unpublished. 5736: 5695: 5616: 5579: 5208: 4096: 3818: 3774:"Allelic genealogy and human evolution" 3517: 2830: 1934:; Chorn, B. T.; Johnson, T. C. (2013). 1297: 1250: 1113:Channell, J.E.T.; Hodell, D.A. (2017). 979: 615:University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 447:, Earth transitioned from interglacial 14: 6863: 6145:. In McCoy, F. W.; Heiken, G. (eds.). 5401:from the original on December 7, 2008. 5219: 5217: 4905: 4903: 4901: 4833: 4831: 4773: 4771: 4769: 4767: 4709: 4707: 4592: 4590: 4588: 4556: 4552: 4550: 4548: 4546: 4469: 4467: 4465: 4463: 4461: 3925: 3176: 3174: 3129:Yost, Chad; et al. (March 2018). 3074: 3072: 2200:Nature Reviews Earth & Environment 2189: 2187: 2089: 2087: 2085: 1867: 1865: 1863: 1468: 1466: 1246: 1244: 847: 830:Recent African origin of modern humans 609:and volcanologist Stephen Self of the 427:(AMOC). Weaker AMOC caused warming in 391:, Toba tephras is found in Huguangyan 6701: 5864: 3790:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a039995 3646: 3591: 3232: 3230: 3124: 3122: 2286: 2284: 1926: 1924: 1799: 1797: 1538: 1536: 1384: 1382: 934: 932: 6693:Youtube video "Stone Age Apocalypse" 6175:; Self, Stephen (2 September 1992). 4563:Yearbook of Paediatric Endocrinology 4392:"The first archaic Homo from Taiwan" 3564: 1515: 1434:Volcanism and the Earth's Atmosphere 748:Genetic bottlenecks in other mammals 480:Possible climate records of eruption 5698:"Pleistocene Population Explosions" 5214: 4898: 4828: 4764: 4704: 4585: 4543: 4458: 3171: 3069: 2638:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2184: 2082: 1860: 1463: 1241: 744:and "other archaic human species". 519: 405: 24: 6573: 5498:. 25 February 2010. Archived from 5373:Sanderson, Katherine (July 2007). 5032:Li, Heng; Durbin, Richard (2011). 4032: 3943:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1995.tb02297.x 3672:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 3640: 3592:Ge, Yong; Gao, Xing (2020-09-10). 3227: 3183:Modern Human Origins and Dispersal 3119: 3014: 2281: 2032:1854/LU-01HF6GN7WZQ65R3C82NK0HC57E 1921: 1794: 1533: 1379: 929: 532:of sulfur, which is 100 times the 435:, and this asynchrony is known as 358:in 1 mm (0.039 in), the 25: 6952: 6610: 6587:. Washington: Smithsonian Books. 318:Michigan Technological University 224:largest known explosive eruptions 5737:Gibbons, Ann (19 January 2010). 5595: 5584: 5573: 5562: 5550: 1569:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2023.107879 1415:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.06.001 796: 782: 240:List of large volcanic eruptions 6931:Volcanic eruptions in Indonesia 6729:Volcanic eruptions in Indonesia 6470:Molecular Biology and Evolution 6328:Journal of Geophysical Research 5696:Gibbons, Ann (1 October 1993). 5532: 5523: 5514: 5483: 5436: 5427: 5405: 5366: 5337: 5272: 5197: 5142: 5082: 5025: 4960: 4648: 4383: 4328: 4272: 4216: 4160: 4102: 3965: 3919: 3869: 3812: 3778:Molecular Biology and Evolution 3765: 3716: 3659: 3647:Hawks, John (9 February 2018). 3585: 3565:Choi, Charles Q. (2013-04-29). 3539: 3523: 3461: 3394: 3337: 3298: 3188: 2965: 2918: 2904:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.11.017 2871: 2857:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.12.012 2824: 2777: 2771:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.02.009 2737: 2672: 2625: 2576: 2529: 2515:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106948 2482: 2417: 2352: 2267:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106821 2234: 2134: 2065: 1986: 1747: 1700: 1653: 1606: 1575: 1500:10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108162 1421: 1332: 1291: 253:Chronology of the Toba eruption 6921:Events that forced the climate 6623:"Toba Volcano by George Weber" 5998:. Springer. pp. 123–141. 5873:. Springer. pp. 173–200. 5755:Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii 4112:; Self, Stephen (1993-12-24). 4042:; Self, Stephen (1992-09-03). 3379:11858/00-001M-0000-0011-F70C-7 1194: 1145: 1106: 1039: 900: 853: 836:Timeline of volcanism on Earth 611:University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa 584:In 1972, an analysis of human 13: 1: 6642:"The proper study of mankind" 6080:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00154-8 5609: 5375:"Super-eruption: no problem?" 5351:. 6 July 2007. Archived from 2658:10.1016/s0012-821x(02)01107-x 2554:10.1126/science.194.4270.1121 1812:; Matthews, Thalassa (2018). 1780:10.1016/S0025-3227(98)00160-1 1733:10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.195.01.25 1158:Journal of Quaternary Science 6538:Geophysical Research Letters 6522:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.10.009 6449:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.12.005 5911:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020442 5617:Ambrose, Stanley H. (1998). 5469:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042 3618:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.06.021 3532:, Stanley H. Ambrose, 2000. 3350:Geophysical Research Letters 3331:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.10.008 3201:Geophysical Research Letters 3156:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.11.005 2978:Geophysical Research Letters 2169:10.1016/j.quageo.2019.05.002 1686:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042 1277:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.025 1131:10.1016/j.quageo.2017.08.002 886:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042 824:Late Pleistocene extinctions 707:Earlier genetic analysis of 554:Community Earth System Model 7: 5722:10.1126/science.262.5130.27 5591:Hernandez & others 2007 4840:"The great human expansion" 3693:10.1016/j.jaesx.2022.100083 3185:, Kerns Verlag, pp. 171–213 818:Most recent common ancestor 804:Evolutionary biology portal 775: 411:Climate at time of eruption 233: 194:at the site of present-day 10: 6957: 6684:...; illus. migration map. 6508:(3–4). Elsevier: 295–314. 6429:Journal of Human Evolution 6060:Quaternary Science Reviews 5624:Journal of Human Evolution 5557:Williams & others 2009 4616:10.1016/j.cell.2023.01.042 3837:10.1093/genetics/118.4.649 3135:Journal of Human Evolution 2884:Quaternary Science Reviews 2837:Quaternary Science Reviews 2831:Helmens, Karin F. (2014). 2751:Quaternary Science Reviews 2705:10.1038/s41467-019-11601-2 2495:Quaternary Science Reviews 2450:10.1038/s41467-022-33166-3 2247:Quaternary Science Reviews 2220:10.1038/s43017-020-00106-y 2023:10.1038/s41586-023-06272-5 1899:10.1038/s41586-024-07208-3 1588:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts 1479:Quaternary Science Reviews 1317:10.1093/petrology/39.3.397 1253:"The Toba Caldera Complex" 1251:Chesner, Craig A. (2012). 1227:10.1007/s00410-023-02089-7 579: 449:marine isotope stage (MIS) 237: 6911:Ancient natural disasters 6811: 6764: 6735: 6416:10.2113/GSELEMENTS.4.1.41 6141:; Ambrose, S. H. (2000). 5109:10.1186/s13059-019-1679-2 4361:10.1038/s41586-019-1067-9 4250:10.1038/s41586-018-0843-2 3819:Garesse, R (1988-04-01). 3742:10.1017/S0016672300014282 1298:CHESNER, C (1998-03-01). 738:Skhul and Qafzeh hominins 669:Human demographic history 595:effective population size 466:North American Cordillera 151: 147: 137: 125: 115: 73: 62: 52: 37: 32: 6229:; Self, Stephen (1993). 6155:10.1130/0-8137-2345-0.71 5449:Quaternary International 3598:Quaternary International 3494:10.1175/jcli-d-23-0116.1 3311:Quaternary International 2148:Quaternary Geochronology 1666:Quaternary International 1257:Quaternary International 1119:Quaternary Geochronology 866:Quaternary International 673:Recent analysis applies 421:Dansgaard–Oeschger event 6765:19th & 20th century 6306:10.1126/science.8266085 6115:10.1126/science.1141564 5839:10.1073/pnas.0909000107 5796:10.1126/science.1140462 5750:Goldberg, T.L. (1996). 5305:10.1073/pnas.2318903121 5250:10.1126/science.abq7487 5175:10.1126/science.1170165 4993:10.1073/pnas.2213061120 4916:Nature Reviews Genetics 4865:10.1073/pnas.1212380109 4682:10.1126/science.1141564 4138:10.1126/science.8266085 3428:10.1073/pnas.2013046118 3265:10.5194/cp-17-2119-2021 2650:2003E&PSL.206..253C 2610:10.5194/cp-17-2273-2021 2385:10.1073/pnas.2209558120 1961:10.1073/pnas.1301474110 1619:Bulletin of Volcanology 1073:10.1073/pnas.1208178109 997:Bulletin Volcanologique 663:whole-genome sequencing 560:Toba catastrophe theory 309:Effects of the eruption 18:Toba catastrophe theory 6901:Pre-Holocene volcanism 6745:(21 million years ago) 6258:10.1006/qres.1993.1081 5990:McGuire, W.J. (2007). 5645:10.1006/jhev.1998.0219 5205:Huff & others 2010 3879:; Sherry, Stephen T.; 3047:10.1006/qres.2001.2291 812:Early human migrations 727:Archaeological studies 249: 181:Youngest Toba eruption 175:(sometimes called the 33:Youngest Toba eruption 6916:Pleistocene volcanism 6896:Prehistoric Indonesia 6483:10.1093/molbev/msl160 5865:Jones, S. C. (2007). 5602:Luo & others 2004 5387:10.1038/news070702-15 4396:Nature Communications 3772:Takahata, N. (1993). 2685:Nature Communications 2430:Nature Communications 2319:10.5194/cp-9-749-2013 534:1991 Pinatubo sulphur 327:dense-rock equivalent 316:and Craig Chesner of 247: 6751:(c. 74,000 years BP) 6350:10.1029/2008JD011652 6066:(14–15): 1593–1609, 3972:Sherry, Stephen T.; 3893:Current Anthropology 3877:Harpending, Henry C. 3370:10.1029/2010GL045464 2999:10.1029/2000GL006113 1304:Journal of Petrology 622:Possible effects on 454:Last Glacial Maximum 57:Toba Caldera Complex 6871:Scientific theories 6682:Helicobacter pylori 6581:Prothero, Donald R. 6550:1996GeoRL..23..837Z 6514:2009PPP...284..295W 6441:2006JHumE..50..509S 6408:2008Eleme...4...41S 6379:1987Geo....15..913R 6341:2009JGRD..11410107R 6298:1993Sci...262.1955R 6250:1993QuRes..40..269R 6238:Quaternary Research 6227:Rampino, Michael R. 6221:on 20 October 2011. 6196:1992Natur.359...50R 6173:Rampino, Michael R. 6107:2007Sci...317..114P 6072:2002QSRv...21.1593O 6035:1978Natur.276..574N 6004:2007caih.book.....B 5951:2014MolEc..23.2072L 5830:2010PNAS..107.2147H 5787:2007Sci...316..240H 5714:1993Sci...262...27G 5681:1991Geo....19..200C 5637:1998JHumE..34..623A 5546:. 24 November 2009. 5461:2012QuInt.258..119P 5297:2024PNAS..12118903M 5291:(13): e2318903121. 5242:2023Sci...381..979H 5167:2009Sci...324.1298P 5161:(5932): 1298–1301. 5050:10.1038/nature10231 4985:2023PNAS..12013061T 4979:(22): e2213061120. 4856:2012PNAS..10917758H 4850:(44): 17758–17764. 4674:2007Sci...317..114P 4501:10.1038/nature18964 4493:2016Natur.538..201M 4408:2015NatCo...6.6037C 4353:2019Natur.568..181D 4306:10.1038/nature17179 4298:2016Natur.532..366S 4242:2019Natur.565..594J 4194:10.1038/nature13621 4186:2014Natur.512..306H 4130:1993Sci...262.1955R 4110:Rampino, Michael R. 4060:1992Natur.359...50R 4040:Rampino, Michael R. 3684:2022JAESX...700083S 3610:2020QuInt.559...24G 3486:2024JCli...37.1449M 3419:2021PNAS..11813046B 3413:(29): e2013046118. 3362:2010GeoRL..3724705T 3323:2012QuInt.258...30T 3256:2021CliPa..17.2119C 3244:Climate of the Past 3213:1996GeoRL..23..837Z 3147:2018JHumE.116...75Y 3141:. Elsevier: 75–94. 3097:2015Geo....43..823J 3039:2002QuRes..57...22S 3027:Quaternary Research 2990:2001GeoRL..28.3915H 2943:1992Natur.359...50R 2896:2019QSRv..204..187D 2849:2014QSRv...86..115H 2802:2018Geo....46E.442S 2763:2015QSRv..114...52S 2697:2019NatCo..10.3713B 2601:2021CliPa..17.2273S 2589:Climate of the Past 2548:(4270): 1121–1132. 2507:2021QSRv..26106948D 2442:2022NatCo..13.5443M 2377:2023PNAS..12009558D 2371:(12): e2209558120. 2310:2013CliPa...9..749S 2298:Climate of the Past 2259:2021QSRv..25506821A 2212:2020NRvEE...1..677M 2160:2019QuGeo..5301003D 2112:2017Geo....45..843P 2073:Quaternary Sciences 2015:2023Natur.620..336B 1952:2013PNAS..110.8025L 1891:2024Natur.628..365K 1838:10.1038/nature25967 1830:2018Natur.555..511S 1772:1999MGeol.155..243P 1725:2002GSLSP.195..445V 1678:2012QuInt.258..119P 1631:1991BVol...53..343C 1600:2019AGUFM.V51H0141S 1561:2023JVGR..44107879K 1491:2023QSRv..31208162L 1407:2010JVGR..197..259C 1357:1991Natur.350..225W 1269:2012QuInt.258....5C 1219:2024CoMP..179...12L 1064:2012PNAS..10918684S 1058:(46): 18684–18688. 1009:1978BVol...41..286N 957:2000Geo....28.1056B 878:2012QuInt.258..119P 848:Citations and notes 629:At least two other 607:New York University 510:foraging behaviours 502:afromontane forests 470:Australasian region 441:Heinrich stadial 7a 352:Indian subcontinent 263:argon–argon datings 131:Indian subcontinent 96: / 6665:Journey of Mankind 4610:(5): 923–939.e14. 4571:10.1530/ey.17.14.4 4416:10.1038/ncomms7037 3530:Michael R. Rampino 3474:Journal of Climate 1810:Lane, Christine S. 1804:Smith, Eugene I.; 1639:10.1007/BF00280226 1017:10.1007/BF02597228 711:across the entire 603:Michael R. Rampino 570:genetic bottleneck 365:Sub-Saharan Africa 348:Straits of Malacca 250: 177:Toba supereruption 100:2.6845°N 98.8756°E 6941:Asahan Toba basin 6876:Extinction events 6858: 6857: 6629:on April 22, 2011 6567:on July 18, 2011. 6558:10.1029/96GL00706 6101:(5834): 114–116. 6029:(5688): 574–577. 6013:978-3-540-32709-7 5959:10.1111/mec.12716 5939:Molecular Ecology 5904:(12): 2275–2293. 5880:978-1-4020-5561-4 5781:(5822): 240–243. 5421:john hawks weblog 5381:: news070702–15. 5236:(6661): 979–984. 5044:(7357): 493–496. 4668:(5834): 114–116. 4487:(7624): 201–206. 4347:(7751): 181–186. 4292:(7599): 366–369. 4236:(7741): 594–599. 4180:(7514): 306–309. 3978:Harpending, Henry 3729:Genetics Research 3653:john hawks weblog 3221:10.1029/96GL00706 2984:(20): 3915–3918. 2810:10.1130/g40057c.1 2009:(7973): 336–343. 1946:(20): 8025–8029. 1885:(8007): 365–372. 1824:(7697): 511–515. 1351:(6315): 225–227. 760:, central Indian 758:Bornean orangutan 591:mitochondrial DNA 339:pyroclastic flows 222:, and one of the 216:volcanic eruption 169: 168: 161:is the resulting 16:(Redirected from 6948: 6936:Volcanic winters 6881:Geology theories 6722: 6715: 6708: 6699: 6698: 6638: 6636: 6634: 6625:. Archived from 6606: 6568: 6566: 6560:. Archived from 6535: 6525: 6495: 6485: 6460: 6419: 6390: 6364: 6354: 6352: 6317: 6276: 6274: 6268:. Archived from 6235: 6222: 6220: 6214:. Archived from 6204:10.1038/359050a0 6181: 6168: 6134: 6092: 6082: 6054: 6043:10.1038/276574a0 6017: 5986: 5945:(8): 2072–2092. 5933: 5923: 5913: 5884: 5861: 5851: 5841: 5824:(5): 2147–2152. 5808: 5798: 5761: 5746: 5733: 5692: 5666: 5656: 5604: 5599: 5593: 5588: 5582: 5577: 5571: 5566: 5560: 5554: 5548: 5547: 5536: 5530: 5527: 5521: 5518: 5512: 5511: 5509: 5507: 5496:Anthropology.net 5487: 5481: 5480: 5440: 5434: 5431: 5425: 5424: 5409: 5403: 5402: 5370: 5364: 5363: 5361: 5360: 5349:Anthropology.net 5341: 5335: 5334: 5324: 5276: 5270: 5269: 5221: 5212: 5201: 5195: 5194: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5129: 5111: 5086: 5080: 5079: 5069: 5029: 5023: 5022: 5012: 4964: 4958: 4957: 4947: 4907: 4896: 4895: 4885: 4867: 4835: 4826: 4825: 4815: 4775: 4762: 4761: 4751: 4711: 4702: 4701: 4652: 4646: 4645: 4635: 4594: 4583: 4582: 4554: 4541: 4540: 4530: 4512: 4471: 4456: 4455: 4445: 4427: 4387: 4381: 4380: 4332: 4326: 4325: 4276: 4270: 4269: 4220: 4214: 4213: 4164: 4158: 4157: 4106: 4100: 4094: 4088: 4087: 4068:10.1038/359050a0 4036: 4030: 4029: 3969: 3963: 3962: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3873: 3867: 3866: 3856: 3816: 3810: 3809: 3769: 3763: 3762: 3744: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3695: 3663: 3657: 3656: 3644: 3638: 3637: 3589: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3577: 3561: 3559: 3558: 3543: 3537: 3527: 3521: 3515: 3506: 3505: 3480:(4): 1449–1464. 3465: 3459: 3458: 3448: 3430: 3398: 3392: 3391: 3381: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3302: 3296: 3295: 3277: 3267: 3250:(5): 2119–2137. 3234: 3225: 3224: 3192: 3186: 3178: 3169: 3168: 3158: 3126: 3117: 3116: 3105:10.1130/G36917.1 3076: 3067: 3066: 3018: 3012: 3011: 3001: 2969: 2963: 2962: 2951:10.1038/359050a0 2922: 2916: 2915: 2875: 2869: 2868: 2828: 2822: 2821: 2781: 2775: 2774: 2741: 2735: 2734: 2724: 2676: 2670: 2669: 2644:(3–4): 253–271. 2629: 2623: 2622: 2612: 2595:(5): 2273–2289. 2580: 2574: 2573: 2533: 2527: 2526: 2486: 2480: 2479: 2469: 2421: 2415: 2414: 2404: 2356: 2350: 2349: 2331: 2321: 2288: 2279: 2278: 2238: 2232: 2231: 2191: 2182: 2181: 2171: 2138: 2132: 2131: 2120:10.1130/G39149.1 2091: 2080: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2052: 2034: 1990: 1984: 1983: 1973: 1963: 1928: 1919: 1918: 1869: 1858: 1857: 1801: 1792: 1791: 1751: 1745: 1744: 1704: 1698: 1697: 1657: 1651: 1650: 1610: 1604: 1603: 1579: 1573: 1572: 1540: 1531: 1530: 1529:. 28 April 2005. 1519: 1513: 1512: 1502: 1470: 1461: 1460: 1459: 1458: 1425: 1419: 1418: 1401:(1–4): 259–278. 1386: 1377: 1376: 1365:10.1038/350225a0 1336: 1330: 1329: 1319: 1295: 1289: 1288: 1248: 1239: 1238: 1198: 1192: 1191: 1181: 1170:10.1002/jqs.3149 1164:(1–2): 256–271. 1149: 1143: 1142: 1110: 1104: 1103: 1093: 1075: 1043: 1037: 1036: 988: 977: 976: 936: 927: 922: 916: 915: 904: 898: 897: 857: 806: 801: 800: 792: 790:Volcanoes portal 787: 786: 685:selective sweeps 551: 549: 543: 541: 531: 529: 520:Climate modeling 506:Middle Stone Age 498:grassy woodlands 406:Climatic effects 304: 302: 292: 290: 284: 282: 192:Late Pleistocene 156: 111: 110: 108: 107: 106: 101: 97: 94: 93: 92: 89: 66:c. 74,000 years 42: 30: 29: 21: 6956: 6955: 6951: 6950: 6949: 6947: 6946: 6945: 6926:VEI-8 eruptions 6886:Human evolution 6861: 6860: 6859: 6854: 6807: 6760: 6731: 6726: 6632: 6630: 6621: 6613: 6595: 6576: 6574:Further reading 6571: 6564: 6533: 6373:(10): 913–917. 6362: 6335:(D10): D10107. 6272: 6233: 6218: 6190:(6390): 50–52. 6179: 6165: 6090: 6014: 5892:Panthera tigris 5881: 5708:(5130): 27–28. 5664: 5612: 5607: 5600: 5596: 5589: 5585: 5578: 5574: 5567: 5563: 5555: 5551: 5538: 5537: 5533: 5528: 5524: 5519: 5515: 5505: 5503: 5502:on 22 July 2011 5490: 5488: 5484: 5441: 5437: 5432: 5428: 5415:(5 July 2007). 5410: 5406: 5371: 5367: 5358: 5356: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5277: 5273: 5222: 5215: 5202: 5198: 5147: 5143: 5087: 5083: 5030: 5026: 4965: 4961: 4928:10.1038/nrg3931 4908: 4899: 4836: 4829: 4796:10.1038/ng.3748 4784:Nature Genetics 4776: 4765: 4732:10.1038/ng.3015 4720:Nature Genetics 4712: 4705: 4653: 4649: 4595: 4586: 4555: 4544: 4472: 4459: 4388: 4384: 4333: 4329: 4277: 4273: 4221: 4217: 4165: 4161: 4107: 4103: 4095: 4091: 4054:(6390): 50–52. 4037: 4033: 3990:Stoneking, Mark 3986:Jenkins, Trefor 3982:Soodyall, Himla 3974:Rogers, Alan R. 3970: 3966: 3927:Rogers, Alan R. 3924: 3920: 3885:Stoneking, Mark 3881:Rogers, Alan R. 3874: 3870: 3817: 3813: 3770: 3766: 3721: 3717: 3664: 3660: 3645: 3641: 3590: 3586: 3575: 3573: 3571:Livescience.com 3556: 3554: 3553:. 30 April 2013 3545: 3544: 3540: 3528: 3524: 3516: 3509: 3466: 3462: 3399: 3395: 3342: 3338: 3303: 3299: 3235: 3228: 3193: 3189: 3179: 3172: 3127: 3120: 3077: 3070: 3019: 3015: 2970: 2966: 2937:(6390): 50–52. 2923: 2919: 2876: 2872: 2829: 2825: 2782: 2778: 2742: 2738: 2677: 2673: 2630: 2626: 2581: 2577: 2534: 2530: 2487: 2483: 2422: 2418: 2357: 2353: 2289: 2282: 2239: 2235: 2206:(12): 677–693. 2192: 2185: 2139: 2135: 2092: 2083: 2070: 2066: 1991: 1987: 1929: 1922: 1870: 1861: 1806:Jacobs, Zenobia 1802: 1795: 1752: 1748: 1705: 1701: 1658: 1654: 1611: 1607: 1580: 1576: 1541: 1534: 1521: 1520: 1516: 1471: 1464: 1456: 1454: 1452: 1442:10.1029/139gm02 1426: 1422: 1387: 1380: 1337: 1333: 1296: 1292: 1249: 1242: 1199: 1195: 1150: 1146: 1111: 1107: 1044: 1040: 989: 980: 937: 930: 923: 919: 906: 905: 901: 858: 854: 850: 802: 795: 788: 781: 778: 750: 729: 671: 648:H. floresiensis 638:H. neanderthals 627: 582: 566:volcanic winter 562: 547: 545: 539: 537: 527: 525: 522: 482: 413: 408: 360:South China Sea 311: 300: 298: 288: 286: 280: 278: 255: 242: 236: 228:Earth's history 165: 105:2.6845; 98.8756 104: 102: 98: 95: 90: 87: 85: 83: 82: 81: 48: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6954: 6944: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6906:Supervolcanoes 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6856: 6855: 6853: 6852: 6846: 6840: 6834: 6828: 6822: 6815: 6813: 6809: 6808: 6806: 6805: 6799: 6793: 6787: 6781: 6775: 6768: 6766: 6762: 6761: 6759: 6758: 6752: 6746: 6739: 6737: 6733: 6732: 6725: 6724: 6717: 6710: 6702: 6696: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6675: 6668: 6662: 6656: 6650: 6639: 6619: 6612: 6611:External links 6609: 6608: 6607: 6594:978-1588346353 6593: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6569: 6544:(8): 837–840. 6526: 6496: 6461: 6435:(5): 509–522. 6420: 6391: 6355: 6318: 6292:(5142): 1955. 6277: 6275:on 2011-10-21. 6244:(3): 269–280. 6223: 6169: 6163: 6139:Rampino, M. R. 6135: 6083: 6055: 6018: 6012: 5987: 5934: 5885: 5879: 5862: 5809: 5762: 5747: 5734: 5693: 5675:(3): 200–203. 5657: 5631:(6): 623–651. 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5605: 5594: 5583: 5572: 5561: 5549: 5531: 5522: 5513: 5482: 5435: 5426: 5404: 5365: 5336: 5271: 5213: 5196: 5141: 5096:Genome Biology 5081: 5024: 4959: 4922:(6): 333–343. 4897: 4827: 4790:(2): 303–309. 4763: 4726:(8): 919–925. 4703: 4647: 4584: 4542: 4457: 4382: 4327: 4271: 4215: 4159: 4124:(5142): 1955. 4101: 4089: 4031: 4004:(5): 761–775. 3964: 3937:(4): 608–615. 3918: 3905:10.1086/204195 3899:(4): 483–496. 3868: 3831:(4): 649–663. 3811: 3764: 3715: 3658: 3639: 3584: 3582: 3581: 3538: 3522: 3507: 3460: 3393: 3336: 3297: 3226: 3207:(8): 837–840. 3187: 3170: 3118: 3091:(9): 823–826. 3068: 3013: 2964: 2917: 2870: 2823: 2776: 2736: 2671: 2624: 2575: 2528: 2481: 2416: 2351: 2304:(2): 749–766. 2280: 2233: 2183: 2133: 2106:(9): 843–846. 2081: 2064: 1985: 1920: 1859: 1793: 1766:(3): 243–248. 1760:Marine Geology 1746: 1719:(1): 445–461. 1699: 1652: 1625:(5): 343–356. 1605: 1574: 1532: 1514: 1462: 1450: 1420: 1378: 1331: 1310:(3): 397–438. 1290: 1240: 1193: 1144: 1105: 1038: 1003:(3): 286–298. 978: 928: 917: 899: 851: 849: 846: 845: 844: 838: 833: 827: 821: 815: 808: 807: 793: 777: 774: 749: 746: 728: 725: 680:founder effect 670: 667: 626: 620: 581: 578: 561: 558: 521: 518: 481: 478: 462:Northeast Asia 458:eastern Europe 437:bipolar seesaw 429:Southern Ocean 417:Atlantic ocean 412: 409: 407: 404: 400:resurgent dome 310: 307: 259:summer monsoon 254: 251: 235: 232: 167: 166: 157: 149: 148: 145: 144: 141: 135: 134: 127: 123: 122: 119: 113: 112: 75: 71: 70: 64: 60: 59: 54: 50: 49: 43: 35: 34: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6953: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6868: 6866: 6850: 6847: 6844: 6841: 6838: 6837:Anak Krakatoa 6835: 6832: 6829: 6826: 6823: 6820: 6817: 6816: 6814: 6810: 6803: 6800: 6797: 6794: 6791: 6788: 6785: 6782: 6779: 6776: 6773: 6772:Mount Tambora 6770: 6769: 6767: 6763: 6756: 6753: 6750: 6747: 6744: 6741: 6740: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6723: 6718: 6716: 6711: 6709: 6704: 6703: 6700: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6683: 6679: 6676: 6672: 6669: 6666: 6663: 6660: 6657: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6648: 6647:The Economist 6644:– Article in 6643: 6640: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6614: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6577: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6539: 6532: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6278: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6164:0-8137-2345-0 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6089: 6084: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6019: 6015: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5893: 5886: 5882: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5770: 5763: 5759: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5663: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5614: 5603: 5598: 5592: 5587: 5581: 5576: 5570: 5569:Goldberg 1996 5565: 5558: 5553: 5545: 5541: 5535: 5526: 5517: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5486: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5439: 5430: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5408: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5369: 5355:on 2008-01-11 5354: 5350: 5346: 5340: 5332: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5275: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5220: 5218: 5210: 5206: 5200: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5145: 5137: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5085: 5077: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5028: 5020: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4963: 4955: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4906: 4904: 4902: 4893: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4834: 4832: 4823: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4774: 4772: 4770: 4768: 4759: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4710: 4708: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4651: 4643: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4593: 4591: 4589: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4538: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4470: 4468: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4453: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4426: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4386: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4331: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4275: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4219: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4163: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4105: 4098: 4093: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4035: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3998:Human Biology 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3968: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3922: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3872: 3864: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3815: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3768: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3743: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3719: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3654: 3650: 3643: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3588: 3572: 3568: 3563: 3562: 3552: 3548: 3542: 3535: 3531: 3526: 3519: 3514: 3512: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3464: 3456: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3429: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3397: 3389: 3385: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3301: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3233: 3231: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3184: 3177: 3175: 3166: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3125: 3123: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3075: 3073: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3017: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2968: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2921: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2874: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2827: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2780: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2740: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2675: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2628: 2620: 2616: 2611: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2579: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2532: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2485: 2477: 2473: 2468: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2420: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2355: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2330: 2325: 2320: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2287: 2285: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2237: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2188: 2179: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2137: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2090: 2088: 2086: 2079:(3), 266-272. 2078: 2074: 2068: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1989: 1981: 1977: 1972: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1927: 1925: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1868: 1866: 1864: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1800: 1798: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1750: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1703: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1656: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1609: 1601: 1597: 1594:: V51H–0141. 1593: 1589: 1585: 1578: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1539: 1537: 1528: 1524: 1518: 1510: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1469: 1467: 1453: 1451:0-87590-998-1 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1424: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1385: 1383: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1335: 1327: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1294: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1247: 1245: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1197: 1189: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1148: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1109: 1101: 1097: 1092: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1074: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1042: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 987: 985: 983: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 935: 933: 926: 921: 913: 909: 903: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 856: 852: 842: 839: 837: 834: 831: 828: 825: 822: 819: 816: 813: 810: 809: 805: 799: 794: 791: 785: 780: 773: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 745: 743: 739: 734: 724: 721: 720: 714: 710: 709:Alu sequences 705: 702: 701:Yoruba people 698: 697:Maasai people 694: 689: 686: 681: 676: 666: 664: 660: 656: 655: 654:H. luzonensis 650: 649: 644: 640: 639: 634: 633: 625: 619: 616: 612: 608: 604: 598: 596: 592: 587: 577: 575: 571: 567: 557: 555: 535: 517: 513: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 477: 476:environment. 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 403: 401: 396: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 375:of northwest 374: 370: 366: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 340: 336: 332: 328: 323: 319: 315: 306: 296: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 246: 241: 231: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 186: 185:supervolcanic 182: 178: 174: 173:Toba eruption 164: 160: 155: 150: 146: 142: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 118: 114: 109: 79: 76: 72: 69: 65: 61: 58: 55: 51: 47: 41: 36: 31: 19: 6849:Mount Marapi 6819:Mount Merapi 6812:21st century 6802:Mount Marapi 6645: 6631:. Retrieved 6627:the original 6584: 6562:the original 6541: 6537: 6505: 6501: 6473: 6469: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6402:(1): 41–46. 6399: 6395: 6370: 6366: 6332: 6326: 6289: 6285: 6270:the original 6241: 6237: 6216:the original 6187: 6183: 6146: 6098: 6094: 6063: 6059: 6026: 6022: 5995: 5942: 5938: 5901: 5898:PLOS Biology 5897: 5891: 5870: 5821: 5817: 5778: 5774: 5768: 5758: 5754: 5751: 5742: 5705: 5701: 5672: 5668: 5628: 5622: 5597: 5586: 5580:Steiper 2006 5575: 5564: 5552: 5544:ScienceDaily 5543: 5534: 5525: 5516: 5504:. Retrieved 5500:the original 5495: 5485: 5452: 5448: 5438: 5429: 5420: 5407: 5378: 5368: 5357:. Retrieved 5353:the original 5348: 5339: 5288: 5284: 5274: 5233: 5229: 5209:Gibbons 2010 5199: 5158: 5154: 5144: 5099: 5095: 5084: 5041: 5037: 5027: 4976: 4972: 4962: 4919: 4915: 4847: 4843: 4787: 4783: 4723: 4719: 4665: 4661: 4650: 4607: 4603: 4562: 4510:11336/125570 4484: 4480: 4399: 4395: 4385: 4344: 4340: 4330: 4289: 4285: 4274: 4233: 4229: 4218: 4177: 4173: 4162: 4121: 4117: 4104: 4097:Gibbons 1993 4092: 4051: 4047: 4034: 4001: 3997: 3967: 3934: 3930: 3921: 3896: 3892: 3871: 3828: 3824: 3814: 3781: 3777: 3767: 3735:(1): 73–89. 3732: 3728: 3718: 3675: 3671: 3661: 3652: 3642: 3601: 3597: 3587: 3574:. Retrieved 3570: 3555:. Retrieved 3541: 3525: 3518:Ambrose 1998 3477: 3473: 3463: 3410: 3406: 3396: 3353: 3349: 3339: 3314: 3310: 3300: 3247: 3243: 3204: 3200: 3190: 3182: 3138: 3134: 3088: 3084: 3033:(1): 22–31. 3030: 3026: 3016: 2981: 2977: 2967: 2934: 2930: 2920: 2887: 2883: 2873: 2840: 2836: 2826: 2793: 2789: 2779: 2754: 2750: 2739: 2688: 2684: 2674: 2641: 2637: 2627: 2592: 2588: 2578: 2545: 2541: 2531: 2498: 2494: 2484: 2433: 2429: 2419: 2368: 2364: 2354: 2301: 2297: 2250: 2246: 2236: 2203: 2199: 2151: 2147: 2136: 2103: 2099: 2076: 2072: 2067: 2006: 2002: 1988: 1943: 1939: 1882: 1878: 1821: 1817: 1763: 1759: 1749: 1716: 1712: 1702: 1669: 1665: 1655: 1622: 1618: 1608: 1591: 1587: 1577: 1552: 1548: 1517: 1482: 1478: 1455:, retrieved 1433: 1423: 1398: 1394: 1348: 1344: 1334: 1307: 1303: 1293: 1260: 1256: 1210: 1206: 1196: 1161: 1157: 1147: 1122: 1118: 1108: 1055: 1051: 1041: 1000: 996: 951:(11): 1056. 948: 944: 920: 911: 902: 869: 865: 855: 841:Wallace Line 751: 742:Neanderthals 730: 717: 713:human genome 706: 690: 675:Markov model 672: 652: 646: 637: 630: 628: 623: 599: 583: 563: 523: 514: 494:lake ecology 483: 414: 397: 369:South Africa 344:Indian Ocean 312: 275:Petrological 267:magma bodies 256: 180: 176: 172: 170: 129:Covered the 6833:(2017–2019) 6831:Mount Agung 6790:Mount Agung 6736:Before 1800 6476:: 146–158. 5506:28 February 5455:: 119–134. 4402:(1): 6037. 3784:(1): 2–22. 3356:(24): n/a. 3275:10023/24161 2890:: 187–207. 2843:: 115–143. 2796:(5): e442. 2691:(1): 3713. 2436:(1): 5443. 2329:2158/774798 1995:Lane, C. S. 1932:Lane, C. S. 1672:: 119–134. 872:: 119–134. 733:stone tools 586:hemoglobins 389:South China 381:Lake Malawi 356:Arabian Sea 163:crater lake 103: / 80:, Indonesia 6865:Categories 6603:1020313538 5743:ScienceNow 5610:References 5413:John Hawks 5359:2008-04-20 4425:1885/12938 3678:: 100083. 3576:2017-01-08 3557:2017-01-08 2501:: 106948. 2253:: 106821. 2154:: 101003. 1555:: 107879. 1485:: 108162. 1457:2024-04-25 754:chimpanzee 643:Denisovans 635:lineages, 486:insolation 433:Antarctica 385:Lake Chala 335:Quaternary 331:ignimbrite 322:ignimbrite 271:ignimbrite 238:See also: 220:Quaternary 91:98°52′32″E 6891:Lake Toba 6266:129546088 5967:0962-1083 5771:macaques" 5489:See also 5477:1040-6182 5395:177216526 5313:0027-8424 5258:0036-8075 5183:0036-8075 5118:1474-760X 5102:(1): 82. 5058:1476-4687 5001:0027-8424 4936:1471-0064 4874:0027-8424 4804:1546-1718 4740:1546-1718 4690:0036-8075 4624:0092-8674 4579:1662-4009 4519:1476-4687 4434:2041-1723 4369:1476-4687 4314:1476-4687 4258:1476-4687 4202:1476-4687 4146:0036-8075 4076:1476-4687 4010:0018-7143 3931:Evolution 3913:0011-3204 3845:1943-2631 3798:1537-1719 3751:1469-5073 3710:246416256 3702:2590-0560 3634:225418492 3626:1040-6182 3604:: 24–33. 3502:0894-8755 3437:0027-8424 3317:: 30–44. 3292:239203480 3284:1814-9324 3113:0091-7613 3063:129838182 3055:0033-5894 3008:128903263 2959:1476-4687 2912:0277-3791 2865:0277-3791 2818:0091-7613 2757:: 52–60. 2713:2041-1723 2666:0012-821X 2619:1814-9324 2562:0036-8075 2523:0277-3791 2458:2041-1723 2393:0027-8424 2338:1814-9324 2275:0277-3791 2228:2662-138X 2178:1871-1014 2128:0091-7613 2041:1476-4687 1907:1476-4687 1846:1476-4687 1788:0025-3227 1741:0305-8719 1694:1040-6182 1647:1432-0819 1509:0277-3791 1373:1476-4687 1326:1460-2415 1285:1040-6182 1235:0010-7999 1213:(2): 12. 1188:0267-8179 1139:1871-1014 1125:: 56–59. 1082:0027-8424 1033:128626019 1025:1432-0819 973:0091-7613 894:1040-6182 550:10 g 542:10 g 530:10 g 393:Maar Lake 383:, and in 371:, in the 314:Bill Rose 303:10 g 291:10 g 204:Indonesia 196:Lake Toba 159:Lake Toba 88:2°41′04″N 6784:Krakatoa 6583:(2018). 6492:17065595 6457:16472840 6396:Elements 6131:20380351 6123:17615356 5983:40030155 5975:24629132 5930:15583716 5858:20133859 5805:17431170 5730:17742951 5399:Archived 5331:38466876 5322:10990135 5266:37651513 5191:19498164 5136:31023338 5076:21753753 5019:37220274 5010:10235988 4954:25963372 4892:23077256 4822:28024154 4758:24952747 4698:17615356 4642:36868214 4633:10568978 4537:27654912 4452:25625212 4377:30971845 4322:27027286 4266:30700870 4210:25143113 4018:41465014 3992:(1994). 3959:29309837 3951:28565146 3887:(1993). 3825:Genetics 3551:BBC News 3455:34230096 3388:12790660 3165:29477183 2731:31420542 2570:17790893 2476:36114188 2411:36913575 2402:10041096 2346:17741316 2059:37558848 2050:10412447 1980:23630269 1915:38509364 1854:29531318 1263:: 5–18. 1100:23112159 776:See also 659:Penghu 1 464:and the 377:Ethiopia 373:lowlands 346:and the 295:Ice core 234:Eruption 188:eruption 183:) was a 74:Location 6755:Samalas 6743:Semilir 6674:humans. 6633:June 1, 6546:Bibcode 6510:Bibcode 6437:Bibcode 6404:Bibcode 6375:Bibcode 6367:Geology 6337:Bibcode 6314:8266085 6294:Bibcode 6286:Science 6246:Bibcode 6212:4322781 6192:Bibcode 6103:Bibcode 6095:Science 6068:Bibcode 6051:4364788 6031:Bibcode 6000:Bibcode 5947:Bibcode 5849:2836654 5826:Bibcode 5783:Bibcode 5775:Science 5710:Bibcode 5702:Science 5677:Bibcode 5669:Geology 5653:9650103 5633:Bibcode 5457:Bibcode 5293:Bibcode 5238:Bibcode 5230:Science 5207:, p.6; 5163:Bibcode 5155:Science 5127:6485071 5067:3154645 4981:Bibcode 4945:4959039 4883:3497766 4852:Bibcode 4813:5470542 4749:4116295 4670:Bibcode 4662:Science 4528:5161557 4489:Bibcode 4443:4316746 4404:Bibcode 4349:Bibcode 4294:Bibcode 4238:Bibcode 4182:Bibcode 4154:8266085 4126:Bibcode 4118:Science 4084:4322781 4056:Bibcode 4026:8001908 3863:3130291 3854:1203320 3806:8450756 3759:5024715 3680:Bibcode 3606:Bibcode 3482:Bibcode 3446:8307270 3415:Bibcode 3358:Bibcode 3319:Bibcode 3252:Bibcode 3209:Bibcode 3143:Bibcode 3093:Bibcode 3085:Geology 3035:Bibcode 2986:Bibcode 2939:Bibcode 2892:Bibcode 2845:Bibcode 2798:Bibcode 2790:Geology 2759:Bibcode 2722:6697730 2693:Bibcode 2646:Bibcode 2597:Bibcode 2542:Science 2503:Bibcode 2467:9481522 2438:Bibcode 2373:Bibcode 2306:Bibcode 2255:Bibcode 2208:Bibcode 2156:Bibcode 2108:Bibcode 2100:Geology 2011:Bibcode 1971:3657767 1948:Bibcode 1887:Bibcode 1826:Bibcode 1768:Bibcode 1721:Bibcode 1674:Bibcode 1627:Bibcode 1596:Bibcode 1557:Bibcode 1487:Bibcode 1403:Bibcode 1353:Bibcode 1265:Bibcode 1215:Bibcode 1091:3503200 1060:Bibcode 1005:Bibcode 953:Bibcode 945:Geology 912:Haaretz 874:Bibcode 766:cheetah 762:macaque 580:History 496:and in 226:in the 218:in the 208:caldera 200:Sumatra 179:or the 78:Sumatra 53:Volcano 46:Sumatra 6851:(2023) 6845:(2021) 6843:Semeru 6839:(2018) 6827:(2014) 6821:(2010) 6804:(1979) 6798:(1979) 6796:Sinila 6792:(1963) 6786:(1883) 6780:(1871) 6774:(1815) 6757:(1257) 6601: 6591: 6490: 6455: 6312: 6264: 6210: 6184:Nature 6161: 6129: 6121: 6049: 6023:Nature 6010: 5981: 5973: 5965: 5928: 5921:534810 5918: 5877: 5856: 5846: 5803: 5769:Rhesus 5728: 5651: 5475: 5393: 5379:Nature 5329: 5319: 5311: 5264: 5256: 5189: 5181: 5134: 5124: 5116: 5074: 5064: 5056: 5038:Nature 5017: 5007: 4999: 4952: 4942: 4934: 4890: 4880: 4872: 4820: 4810: 4802: 4756: 4746: 4738: 4696: 4688: 4640: 4630: 4622: 4577: 4535: 4525: 4517: 4481:Nature 4450: 4440: 4432: 4375: 4367: 4341:Nature 4320: 4312: 4286:Nature 4264: 4256: 4230:Nature 4208: 4200: 4174:Nature 4152: 4144: 4082: 4074: 4048:Nature 4024: 4016: 4008: 3957: 3949: 3911: 3861: 3851: 3843: 3804: 3796: 3757: 3749: 3708: 3700: 3632: 3624: 3500: 3453: 3443: 3435: 3386: 3290: 3282: 3163: 3111: 3061: 3053: 3006: 2957: 2931:Nature 2910: 2863: 2816: 2729: 2719: 2711: 2664: 2617: 2568: 2560: 2521: 2474: 2464: 2456: 2409: 2399: 2391: 2344: 2336: 2273: 2226: 2176: 2126: 2057: 2047: 2039: 2003:Nature 1978: 1968: 1913: 1905: 1879:Nature 1852: 1844: 1818:Nature 1786: 1739: 1692: 1645: 1507: 1448: 1371: 1345:Nature 1324: 1283: 1233: 1186: 1137: 1098: 1088: 1080: 1031: 1023: 971: 892: 657:, and 641:, and 589:human 574:humans 139:Deaths 126:Impact 6825:Kelud 6778:Ruang 6565:(PDF) 6534:(PDF) 6425:Pongo 6363:(PDF) 6273:(PDF) 6262:S2CID 6234:(PDF) 6219:(PDF) 6208:S2CID 6180:(PDF) 6127:S2CID 6091:(PDF) 6047:S2CID 5979:S2CID 5665:(PDF) 5391:S2CID 4080:S2CID 4014:JSTOR 3955:S2CID 3706:S2CID 3630:S2CID 3384:S2CID 3288:S2CID 3059:S2CID 3004:S2CID 2342:S2CID 1029:S2CID 770:tiger 693:Luhya 387:. In 379:, in 6749:Toba 6635:2006 6599:OCLC 6589:ISBN 6488:PMID 6453:PMID 6310:PMID 6159:ISBN 6119:PMID 6008:ISBN 5971:PMID 5963:ISSN 5926:PMID 5875:ISBN 5854:PMID 5801:PMID 5726:PMID 5649:PMID 5508:2010 5473:ISSN 5327:PMID 5309:ISSN 5262:PMID 5254:ISSN 5203:See 5187:PMID 5179:ISSN 5132:PMID 5114:ISSN 5072:PMID 5054:ISSN 5015:PMID 4997:ISSN 4950:PMID 4932:ISSN 4888:PMID 4870:ISSN 4818:PMID 4800:ISSN 4754:PMID 4736:ISSN 4694:PMID 4686:ISSN 4638:PMID 4620:ISSN 4604:Cell 4575:ISSN 4533:PMID 4515:ISSN 4448:PMID 4430:ISSN 4373:PMID 4365:ISSN 4318:PMID 4310:ISSN 4262:PMID 4254:ISSN 4206:PMID 4198:ISSN 4150:PMID 4142:ISSN 4072:ISSN 4022:PMID 4006:ISSN 3947:PMID 3909:ISSN 3859:PMID 3841:ISSN 3802:PMID 3794:ISSN 3755:PMID 3747:ISSN 3698:ISSN 3622:ISSN 3498:ISSN 3451:PMID 3433:ISSN 3280:ISSN 3161:PMID 3109:ISSN 3051:ISSN 2955:ISSN 2908:ISSN 2861:ISSN 2814:ISSN 2727:PMID 2709:ISSN 2662:ISSN 2615:ISSN 2566:PMID 2558:ISSN 2519:ISSN 2472:PMID 2454:ISSN 2407:PMID 2389:ISSN 2334:ISSN 2271:ISSN 2224:ISSN 2174:ISSN 2124:ISSN 2055:PMID 2037:ISSN 1976:PMID 1911:PMID 1903:ISSN 1850:PMID 1842:ISSN 1784:ISSN 1737:ISSN 1690:ISSN 1643:ISSN 1592:2019 1527:USGS 1505:ISSN 1446:ISBN 1369:ISSN 1322:ISSN 1281:ISSN 1231:ISSN 1184:ISSN 1135:ISSN 1096:PMID 1078:ISSN 1021:ISSN 969:ISSN 890:ISSN 768:and 719:Homo 695:and 632:Homo 624:Homo 544:and 474:arid 431:and 171:The 63:Date 6554:doi 6518:doi 6506:284 6478:doi 6445:doi 6412:doi 6383:doi 6345:doi 6333:114 6302:doi 6290:262 6254:doi 6200:doi 6188:359 6151:doi 6111:doi 6099:317 6076:doi 6039:doi 6027:276 5955:doi 5916:PMC 5906:doi 5844:PMC 5834:doi 5822:107 5791:doi 5779:316 5718:doi 5706:262 5685:doi 5641:doi 5465:doi 5453:258 5383:doi 5317:PMC 5301:doi 5289:121 5246:doi 5234:381 5171:doi 5159:324 5122:PMC 5104:doi 5062:PMC 5046:doi 5042:475 5005:PMC 4989:doi 4977:120 4940:PMC 4924:doi 4878:PMC 4860:doi 4848:109 4808:PMC 4792:doi 4744:PMC 4728:doi 4678:doi 4666:317 4628:PMC 4612:doi 4608:186 4567:doi 4523:PMC 4505:hdl 4497:doi 4485:538 4438:PMC 4420:hdl 4412:doi 4357:doi 4345:568 4302:doi 4290:532 4246:doi 4234:565 4190:doi 4178:512 4134:doi 4122:262 4064:doi 4052:359 3939:doi 3901:doi 3849:PMC 3833:doi 3829:118 3786:doi 3737:doi 3688:doi 3614:doi 3602:559 3490:doi 3441:PMC 3423:doi 3411:118 3374:hdl 3366:doi 3327:doi 3315:258 3270:hdl 3260:doi 3217:doi 3151:doi 3139:116 3101:doi 3043:doi 2994:doi 2947:doi 2935:359 2900:doi 2888:204 2853:doi 2806:doi 2767:doi 2755:114 2717:PMC 2701:doi 2654:doi 2642:206 2605:doi 2550:doi 2546:194 2511:doi 2499:261 2462:PMC 2446:doi 2397:PMC 2381:doi 2369:120 2324:hdl 2314:doi 2263:doi 2251:255 2216:doi 2164:doi 2116:doi 2045:PMC 2027:hdl 2019:doi 2007:620 1966:PMC 1956:doi 1944:110 1895:doi 1883:628 1834:doi 1822:555 1776:doi 1764:155 1729:doi 1717:195 1682:doi 1670:258 1635:doi 1565:doi 1553:441 1495:doi 1483:312 1438:doi 1411:doi 1399:197 1361:doi 1349:350 1312:doi 1273:doi 1261:258 1223:doi 1211:179 1174:hdl 1166:doi 1127:doi 1086:PMC 1068:doi 1056:109 1013:doi 961:doi 882:doi 870:258 605:of 572:in 526:8.5 456:in 445:kyr 285:to 212:VEI 198:in 117:VEI 6867:: 6597:. 6552:. 6542:23 6540:. 6536:. 6516:. 6504:. 6486:. 6474:24 6472:. 6468:. 6451:. 6443:. 6433:50 6431:. 6410:. 6398:. 6381:. 6371:15 6369:. 6365:. 6343:. 6331:. 6325:. 6308:. 6300:. 6288:. 6284:. 6260:. 6252:. 6242:40 6240:. 6236:. 6206:. 6198:. 6186:. 6182:. 6157:. 6125:. 6117:. 6109:. 6097:. 6093:. 6074:, 6064:21 6062:, 6045:. 6037:. 6025:. 6006:. 5977:. 5969:. 5961:. 5953:. 5943:23 5941:. 5924:. 5914:. 5900:. 5896:. 5894:)" 5852:. 5842:. 5832:. 5820:. 5816:. 5799:. 5789:. 5777:. 5773:. 5757:)" 5741:. 5724:. 5716:. 5704:. 5700:. 5683:. 5673:19 5671:. 5667:. 5647:. 5639:. 5629:34 5627:. 5621:. 5542:. 5494:. 5471:. 5463:. 5447:. 5419:. 5397:. 5389:. 5377:. 5347:. 5325:. 5315:. 5307:. 5299:. 5287:. 5283:. 5260:. 5252:. 5244:. 5232:. 5228:. 5216:^ 5185:. 5177:. 5169:. 5157:. 5153:. 5130:. 5120:. 5112:. 5100:20 5098:. 5094:. 5070:. 5060:. 5052:. 5040:. 5036:. 5013:. 5003:. 4995:. 4987:. 4975:. 4971:. 4948:. 4938:. 4930:. 4920:16 4918:. 4914:. 4900:^ 4886:. 4876:. 4868:. 4858:. 4846:. 4842:. 4830:^ 4816:. 4806:. 4798:. 4788:49 4786:. 4782:. 4766:^ 4752:. 4742:. 4734:. 4724:46 4722:. 4718:. 4706:^ 4692:. 4684:. 4676:. 4664:. 4660:. 4636:. 4626:. 4618:. 4606:. 4602:. 4587:^ 4573:. 4565:. 4561:. 4545:^ 4531:. 4521:. 4513:. 4503:. 4495:. 4483:. 4479:. 4460:^ 4446:. 4436:. 4428:. 4418:. 4410:. 4398:. 4394:. 4371:. 4363:. 4355:. 4343:. 4339:. 4316:. 4308:. 4300:. 4288:. 4284:. 4260:. 4252:. 4244:. 4232:. 4228:. 4204:. 4196:. 4188:. 4176:. 4172:. 4148:. 4140:. 4132:. 4120:. 4116:. 4078:. 4070:. 4062:. 4050:. 4046:. 4020:. 4012:. 4002:66 4000:. 3996:. 3988:; 3984:; 3980:; 3976:; 3953:. 3945:. 3935:49 3933:. 3907:. 3897:34 3895:. 3891:. 3883:; 3857:. 3847:. 3839:. 3827:. 3823:. 3800:. 3792:. 3782:10 3780:. 3776:. 3753:. 3745:. 3733:19 3731:. 3727:. 3704:. 3696:. 3686:. 3674:. 3670:. 3651:. 3628:. 3620:. 3612:. 3596:. 3569:. 3549:. 3510:^ 3496:. 3488:. 3478:37 3476:. 3472:. 3449:. 3439:. 3431:. 3421:. 3409:. 3405:. 3382:. 3372:. 3364:. 3354:37 3352:. 3348:. 3325:. 3313:. 3309:. 3286:. 3278:. 3268:. 3258:. 3248:17 3246:. 3242:. 3229:^ 3215:. 3205:23 3203:. 3199:. 3173:^ 3159:. 3149:. 3137:. 3133:. 3121:^ 3107:. 3099:. 3089:43 3087:. 3083:. 3071:^ 3057:. 3049:. 3041:. 3031:57 3029:. 3025:. 3002:. 2992:. 2982:28 2980:. 2976:. 2953:. 2945:. 2933:. 2929:. 2906:. 2898:. 2886:. 2882:. 2859:. 2851:. 2841:86 2839:. 2835:. 2812:. 2804:. 2794:46 2792:. 2788:. 2765:. 2753:. 2749:. 2725:. 2715:. 2707:. 2699:. 2689:10 2687:. 2683:. 2660:. 2652:. 2640:. 2636:. 2613:. 2603:. 2593:17 2591:. 2587:. 2564:. 2556:. 2544:. 2540:. 2517:. 2509:. 2497:. 2493:. 2470:. 2460:. 2452:. 2444:. 2434:13 2432:. 2428:. 2405:. 2395:. 2387:. 2379:. 2367:. 2363:. 2340:. 2332:. 2322:. 2312:. 2300:. 2296:. 2283:^ 2269:. 2261:. 2249:. 2245:. 2222:. 2214:. 2202:. 2198:. 2186:^ 2172:. 2162:. 2152:53 2150:. 2146:. 2122:. 2114:. 2104:45 2102:. 2098:. 2084:^ 2077:22 2075:, 2053:. 2043:. 2035:. 2025:. 2017:. 2005:. 2001:. 1974:. 1964:. 1954:. 1942:. 1938:. 1923:^ 1909:. 1901:. 1893:. 1881:. 1877:. 1862:^ 1848:. 1840:. 1832:. 1820:. 1816:. 1796:^ 1782:. 1774:. 1762:. 1758:. 1735:. 1727:. 1715:. 1711:. 1688:. 1680:. 1668:. 1664:. 1641:. 1633:. 1623:53 1621:. 1617:. 1590:. 1586:. 1563:. 1551:. 1547:. 1535:^ 1525:. 1503:. 1493:. 1481:. 1477:. 1465:^ 1444:, 1432:, 1409:. 1397:. 1393:. 1381:^ 1367:. 1359:. 1347:. 1343:. 1320:. 1308:39 1306:. 1302:. 1279:. 1271:. 1259:. 1255:. 1243:^ 1229:. 1221:. 1209:. 1205:. 1182:. 1172:. 1162:35 1160:. 1156:. 1133:. 1123:42 1121:. 1117:. 1094:. 1084:. 1076:. 1066:. 1054:. 1050:. 1027:. 1019:. 1011:. 1001:41 999:. 995:. 981:^ 967:. 959:. 949:28 947:. 943:. 931:^ 910:. 888:. 880:. 868:. 864:. 764:, 756:, 651:, 512:. 460:, 402:. 395:. 305:. 283:10 230:. 202:, 68:BP 6721:e 6714:t 6707:v 6637:. 6605:. 6556:: 6548:: 6524:. 6520:: 6512:: 6494:. 6480:: 6459:. 6447:: 6439:: 6418:. 6414:: 6406:: 6400:4 6389:. 6385:: 6377:: 6353:. 6347:: 6339:: 6316:. 6304:: 6296:: 6256:: 6248:: 6202:: 6194:: 6167:. 6153:: 6133:. 6113:: 6105:: 6078:: 6070:: 6053:. 6041:: 6033:: 6016:. 6002:: 5985:. 5957:: 5949:: 5932:. 5908:: 5902:2 5883:. 5860:. 5836:: 5828:: 5807:. 5793:: 5785:: 5745:. 5732:. 5720:: 5712:: 5691:. 5687:: 5679:: 5655:. 5643:: 5635:: 5559:. 5510:. 5479:. 5467:: 5459:: 5423:. 5385:: 5362:. 5333:. 5303:: 5295:: 5268:. 5248:: 5240:: 5211:. 5193:. 5173:: 5165:: 5138:. 5106:: 5078:. 5048:: 5021:. 4991:: 4983:: 4956:. 4926:: 4894:. 4862:: 4854:: 4824:. 4794:: 4760:. 4730:: 4700:. 4680:: 4672:: 4644:. 4614:: 4581:. 4569:: 4539:. 4507:: 4499:: 4491:: 4454:. 4422:: 4414:: 4406:: 4400:6 4379:. 4359:: 4351:: 4324:. 4304:: 4296:: 4268:. 4248:: 4240:: 4212:. 4192:: 4184:: 4156:. 4136:: 4128:: 4099:. 4086:. 4066:: 4058:: 4028:. 3961:. 3941:: 3915:. 3903:: 3865:. 3835:: 3808:. 3788:: 3761:. 3739:: 3712:. 3690:: 3682:: 3676:7 3655:. 3636:. 3616:: 3608:: 3579:. 3560:. 3520:. 3504:. 3492:: 3484:: 3457:. 3425:: 3417:: 3390:. 3376:: 3368:: 3360:: 3333:. 3329:: 3321:: 3294:. 3272:: 3262:: 3254:: 3223:. 3219:: 3211:: 3167:. 3153:: 3145:: 3115:. 3103:: 3095:: 3065:. 3045:: 3037:: 3010:. 2996:: 2988:: 2961:. 2949:: 2941:: 2914:. 2902:: 2894:: 2867:. 2855:: 2847:: 2820:. 2808:: 2800:: 2773:. 2769:: 2761:: 2733:. 2703:: 2695:: 2668:. 2656:: 2648:: 2621:. 2607:: 2599:: 2572:. 2552:: 2525:. 2513:: 2505:: 2478:. 2448:: 2440:: 2413:. 2383:: 2375:: 2348:. 2326:: 2316:: 2308:: 2302:9 2277:. 2265:: 2257:: 2230:. 2218:: 2210:: 2204:1 2180:. 2166:: 2158:: 2130:. 2118:: 2110:: 2061:. 2029:: 2021:: 2013:: 1982:. 1958:: 1950:: 1917:. 1897:: 1889:: 1856:. 1836:: 1828:: 1790:. 1778:: 1770:: 1743:. 1731:: 1723:: 1696:. 1684:: 1676:: 1649:. 1637:: 1629:: 1602:. 1598:: 1571:. 1567:: 1559:: 1511:. 1497:: 1489:: 1440:: 1417:. 1413:: 1405:: 1375:. 1363:: 1355:: 1328:. 1314:: 1287:. 1275:: 1267:: 1237:. 1225:: 1217:: 1190:. 1176:: 1168:: 1141:. 1129:: 1102:. 1070:: 1062:: 1035:. 1015:: 1007:: 975:. 963:: 955:: 914:. 896:. 884:: 876:: 548:× 546:1 540:× 538:1 528:× 490:– 301:× 299:1 289:× 287:1 281:× 279:1 121:8 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Knowledge

Youngest Toba eruption

Index