Trans fat - Knowledge

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many other countries, trans fat levels of less than 0.5 grams per serving can be listed as 0 grams trans fat on the food label. According to a study published in the Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, without an interpretive footnote or further information on recommended daily value, many consumers do not know how to interpret the meaning of trans fat content on the Nutrition Facts panel. Without specific prior knowledge about trans fat and its negative health effects, consumers, including those at risk for heart disease, may misinterpret nutrient information provided on the panel. The FDA did not approve nutrient content claims such as "trans fat free" or "low trans fat", as they could not determine a "recommended daily value". In July 2023, the agency published notice of plans for a consumer study to evaluate the consumer understanding of such claims and perhaps consider regulation allowing their use on packaged foods. However, there is no requirement to list trans fats on institutional food packaging; thus bulk purchasers such as schools, hospitals, jails and cafeterias are unable to evaluate the trans fat content of commercial food items.

1277:: Research indicates that trans fat may increase weight gain and abdominal fat, despite a similar caloric intake. A 6-year experiment revealed that monkeys fed a trans fat diet gained 7.2% of their body weight, as compared to 1.8% for monkeys on a mono-unsaturated fat diet. Although obesity is frequently linked to trans fat in the popular media, this is generally in the context of eating too many calories; there is not a strong scientific consensus connecting trans fat and obesity, although the 6-year experiment did find such a link, concluding that "under controlled feeding conditions, long-term TFA consumption was an independent factor in weight gain. TFAs enhanced intra-abdominal deposition of fat, even in the absence of caloric excess, and were associated with insulin resistance, with evidence that there is impaired post-insulin receptor binding signal transduction." 428:. During Napoleon's reign in France in the early 19th century, a type of margarine was invented to feed troops using tallow and buttermilk. Soybeans began to be imported into the U.S. as a source of protein in the early 20th century, resulting in an abundance of soybean oil as a by-product that could be turned into a solid fat, thereby addressing a shortage of butterfat. Furthermore, with the advent of refrigeration, margarines based on hydrogenated fats presented the advantage that, unlike butter, they could be taken out of a refrigerator and immediately spread on bread. Some minor changes to the chemical composition of hydrogenated fats yielded superior baking properties compared to lard. As a result of these factors, margarine made from partially hydrogenated soybean oil began to replace butterfat. Partially hydrogenated fat such as Crisco and 1828:", which was widely seen as a precursor to reclassifying trans fats as a "food additive," meaning they could not be used in foods without specific regulatory authorization. This would have the effect of virtually eliminating trans fats from the US food supply. The ruling was formally enacted on 16 June 2015, requiring that within three years no food prepared in the U.S. is allowed to include trans fats, unless approved by the FDA. The FDA specifically ruled that trans fat was not generally recognized as safe and "could no longer be added to food after 18 June 2018, unless a manufacturer could present convincing scientific evidence that a particular use was safe." Kummerow stated: "Science won out." 1852:, a natural oil extracted from the fruit of oil palm trees that is semi-solid at room temperature (15–25 degrees Celsius), can potentially serve as a substitute for partially hydrogenated fats in baking and processed food applications, although there is disagreement about whether replacing partially hydrogenated fats with palm oil confers any health benefits. A 2006 study supported by the National Institutes of Health and the USDA Agricultural Research Service concluded that palm oil is not a safe substitute for partially hydrogenated fats (trans fats) in the food industry, because palm oil results in adverse changes in the blood concentrations of LDL and apolipoprotein B just as trans fat does. 958: 1121:(CAD). A 1994 study estimated that over 30,000 cardiac deaths per year in the U.S. are attributable to the consumption of trans fats. By 2006 upper estimates of 100,000 deaths were suggested. A comprehensive review of studies of trans fats published in 2006 in the New England Journal of Medicine reports a strong and reliable connection between trans fat consumption and CAD, concluding that "On a per-calorie basis, trans fats appear to increase the risk of CAD more than any other macronutrient, conferring a substantially increased risk at low levels of consumption (1 to 3% of total energy intake)". 436:

particularly for restaurants and manufacturers. However, during the 1980s regulators, physicians, nutritionists, popular health media, educational curricula and cookbooks began to promote diets low in saturated fats for health reasons. Advocacy groups in the U.S. responded by demanding the replacement of saturated animal and tropical fats with vegetable alternatives. The Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) campaigned vigorously against the use of saturated fats by corporations, including fast-food restaurants, endorsing trans fats as a healthier alternative. The

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household. When asked how they decide what food to buy, the most important factors were price, nutritional value, and need. When looking at the nutritional facts, however, they indicated that they looked at the ingredients, and neglected to pay attention to the amount of trans fat. This means that trans fat is not on their minds unless they are specifically told of it. When asked if they ever heard about trans fat, 98% said, "Yes." However, only 27% said that it was unhealthy. Also, 79% said that they only knew a little about trans fats, and could have been more educated.

776:-fats. The standard 140 kPa (20 psi) process of hydrogenation produces a product of about 40% trans fatty acid by weight, compared to about 17% using higher pressures of hydrogen. Blended with unhydrogenated liquid soybean oil, the high-pressure-processed oil produced margarine containing 5 to 6% trans fat. Based on current U.S. labeling requirements (see below), the manufacturer could claim the product was free of trans fat. The level of trans fat may also be altered by modification of the temperature and the length of time during hydrogenation. 1775: 459:. Studies in the early 1990s brought renewed scrutiny and confirmation of the negative health impact of trans fats. In 1994, it was estimated that trans fats caused at least 20,000 deaths annually in the U.S. from heart disease. In the 1990s, activists such as CSPI that had promoted trans fat safety began arguing that trans fats should be disclosed on product labels and menus. Several lawsuits were launched against high-visibility restaurants and food manufacturers with the objective of supporting a broader phase-out of trans fats. 1257:: In 2007 the American Cancer Society stated that a relationship between trans fats and cancer "has not been determined." One study has found a positive connection between trans fat and prostate cancer. However, a larger study found a correlation between trans fats and a significant decrease in high-grade prostate cancer. An increased intake of trans fatty acids may raise the risk of breast cancer by 75%, suggest the results from the French part of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. 580: 236: 598: 562: 323: 571: 589: 258:. They arise from the action of bacteria in the rumen. In contrast to industrially produced trans fats, the bacterial produced versions exist only as a few isomers. Polyunsaturated fats are toxic to the rumen-based bacteria, which induces the latter to detoxify the fats by changing some cis-double bonds to trans. As industrial sources of trans fats are eliminated, increased attention focuses on ruminant derived trans fats. 1801:, recommend that the government require nutrition facts labeling of trans fats on all commercial food products. They also urge federal, state, and local governments to ban and monitor use of trans fats in restaurants. Furthermore, the APHA recommends barring the sales and availability of foods containing significant amounts of trans fat in public facilities including universities, prisons, and day care facilities etc. 1610:

and labels of prepackaged processed food with industrially-produced TFA must comply with the guidelines stated in the DOH Administrative Order No. 2021-0039 and the FDA Circular No. 2021- 0028. Violation of any of the provisions of the administrative order and the FDA circular would be grounds for the disapproval, suspension, or cancellation of the certificate of product registration of concerned food manufacturers.

607: 31: 1423:. Hydrogenated oils and fats come under the scope of Codex Stan 19. Non-dairy fat spreads are covered by Codex Stan 256-2007. In the Codex Alimentarius, trans fat to be labelled as such is defined as the geometrical isomers of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids having non-conjugated carbon-carbon double bonds in the trans configuration. This definition excludes specifically the trans fats ( 471:(WHO) has set a goal to make the world free from industrially produced trans fat by the end of 2023. By the end of 2021, the WHO announced that 40 countries had implemented industrial trans fat elimination policies that "are protecting 1.4 billion people from this deadly food compound" but that 10 of the 15 countries suffering the highest health impacts from trans fats had not yet adopted a policy. 1746:

for diet: (1) reduction of dietary salt to 3 g per day by 2025; (2) halving consumption of saturated fats; and (3) eliminating the use of industrially produced trans fatty acids in food. However, the recommendations were greeted unhappily by the food industry, which stated that it was already voluntarily dropping the trans fat levels to below the WHO recommendations of a maximum of 2%.

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it is classified as "polyunsaturated") by increasing the amount of hydrogen (and, thus, single bonds) in the fatty acid. This subsequent lesser degree of unsaturation (and, simultaneously, greater degree of saturation) thereby changes the consistency of the fatty acid by way of allowing its molecules to more greatly compress and congeal and in turn thereby makes it less prone to

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respondents that called trans fat a major concern, 56% of them still would not change their diet to non-trans fat snacks. This is because taste and food gratification take precedence over perceived risk to health. "The consumption of trans fats and the associated increased risk of CHD is a public health concern regardless of age and socioeconomic status".

467:(FDA) definition of "zero grams trans fats per serving" (that is less than one gram per tablespoon, or up to 7% by weight; or less than 0.5 grams per serving size) by boosting the saturation and then diluting the resulting solid fat with unsaturated vegetable oils. Noting that elimination of industrially produced trans fat is feasible and achievable, the 1243:

proteins critical to healthy neurological function and inflammation in and around the hippocampus, the part of the brain responsible for learning and memory. These are the exact types of changes normally seen at the onset of Alzheimer's, but seen after six weeks, even though the rats were still young. A systematic review of five articles based on four

1622:(SFDA) requires importers and manufacturers to write trans fats amounts in the nutritional facts labels of food products according to the requirements of Saudi Standard Specifications/Gulf Specifications. Starting in 2020, Saudi Minister of Health announced the ban of trans fat in all food products due to their health risks. 1821:, seeking to compel the FDA to respond to his petition and "to ban partially hydrogenated oils unless a complete administrative review finds new evidence for their safety." Kummerow's petition stated that "Artificial trans fat is a poisonous and deleterious substance, and the FDA has acknowledged the danger." 360: 1817:, a trans fat researcher who had campaigned for decades for a federal ban on the substance, filed a petition with the FDA seeking elimination of artificial trans fats from the U.S. food supply. The FDA did not act on his petition for four years, and in 2013 Kummerow filed a lawsuit against the FDA and the 1835:

The FDA agreed in May 2018 to give companies one more year to find other ingredients for enhancing product flavors or greasing industrial baking pans, effectively banning trans fats in the U.S. from May 2019 onwards. Also, while new products can no longer be made with trans fats, foods already on the

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to reduce production of unhealthy foods. Fast-food outlets were mentioned as a risk factor, with (in 2007) 170 g of McDonald's fries and 160 g nuggets containing 6 to 8 g of trans fats, conferring a substantially increased risk of coronary artery disease death. NICE made three specific recommendation

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announced that trans fat would be completely banned effective on 15 September 2018. The ban came into effect in September 2018, banning partially hydrogenated oils (the largest source of industrially produced trans fats in foods). It is now illegal for manufacturers to add partially hydrogenated oils

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has reminded food companies to reformulate and remove industrially produced trans fatty acids (TFA) from their products by June 18, 2023. It said that non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular disease have been one of the leading causes of death in the country. All product formulations

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Because of these facts and concerns, the NAS has concluded there is no safe level of trans fat consumption. There is no adequate level, recommended daily amount or tolerable upper limit for trans fats. This is because any incremental increase in trans fat intake increases the risk of coronary artery

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Trans fats are used in shortenings for deep-frying in restaurants, as they can be used for longer than most conventional oils before becoming rancid. In the early 21st century, non-hydrogenated vegetable oils that have lifespans exceeding that of the frying shortenings became available. As fast-food

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fluctuate with maternal consumption of trans fat, and that the amount of trans fats in the bloodstream of breastfed infants fluctuates with the amounts found in their milk. In 1999, reported percentages of trans fats (compared to total fats) in human milk ranged from 1% in Spain, 2% in France, 4% in

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fat consumed today is created by the processed food industry as a side effect of partially hydrogenating unsaturated plant fats (generally vegetable oils). These partially hydrogenated fats have displaced natural solid fats and liquid oils in many areas, the most notable ones being in the fast food,

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Beginning around 2000, as the scientific evidence and public concern about trans fat increased, major American users of trans fat began to switch to safer alternatives. The process received a large boost in 2003 when the FDA announced it would require trans fat labeling on packaged food starting in

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On 11 July 2003, the FDA issued a regulation requiring manufacturers to list trans fat on the Nutrition Facts panel of foods and some dietary supplements. The new labeling rule became mandatory across the board on 1 January 2006, even for companies that petitioned for extensions. However, unlike in

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Trans fat content labeling is required starting in August 2006. Since 2010, vegetable oils and fats sold to consumers directly must contain only 2% of trans fat over total fat, and other food must contain less than 5% of their total fat. Starting on 10 December 2014, Argentina has on effect a total

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While the mechanisms through which trans fatty acids contribute to coronary artery disease are understood, the mechanism for their effects on diabetes is still under investigation. They may impair the metabolism of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs), but maternal pregnancy trans fatty

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In the sense of food production, however, the goal is not necessarily to simply change the configuration of double bonds while maintaining the same ratios of hydrogen to carbon; rather, the goal is to decrease the number of double bonds (when a fatty acid molecule contains more than one double bond

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Before 1 January 2006, consumers in the U.S. could not always determine the presence, or quantity, of trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils in food products, because this information was not required on the ingredient list before that date. In 2010, according to the FDA, the average American

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Ministry of National Health Services Regulations and Coordination, Government of Pakistan with the support of WHO has taken the initiative to eliminate trans fat from food chain in Pakistan. Vanaspati Ghee (partially hydrogenated fat) and margarine have been identified as major dietary vectors for

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Respondents aged 41–60 were more likely to view trans fat as a major health concern, compared to ages 18–40. When asked if they would stop buying their favorite snacks if they knew it contained trans fat, most said they would continue purchasing it, especially the younger respondents. Also, of the

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A cross-sectional study was conducted in Regina, Saskatchewan in February 2009 at 3 different grocery stores located in 3 different regions that had the same median income before taxes of around $ 30,000. Of the 211 respondents to the study, most were women who purchased most of the food for their

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that occurs in foods. Trace concentrations of trans fats occur naturally, but large amounts are found in some processed foods. Since consumption of trans fats is unhealthy, artificial trans fats are highly regulated or banned in many nations. However, they are still widely consumed in developing

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Critics of the plan, including FDA advisor Dr. Carlos Camargo, have expressed concern that the 0.5 gram per serving threshold is too high to refer to a food as free of trans fat. This is because a person eating many servings of a product, or eating multiple products over the course of the day may

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Resolution 360, dated December 23, 2003, by the Brazilian ministry of health required the amount of trans fat to be specified in labels of food products. On 31 July 2006, such labeling of trans fat contents became mandatory. In 2019 Anvisa published a new legislation to reduce the total amount of

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Consumption of industrial trans fat in the form of partially hydrogenated oil causes many health problems. They were abundant in fast food restaurants. They are consumed in greater quantities by people who lack access to a diet consisting of fewer partially-hydrogenated fats, or who often consume

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reduced and then removed partially hydrogenated oils (containing artificial trans fats) by 2009. This was a major step toward trans fat removal, as french fries were one of the largest sources of trans fat in the American diet, with a large fries typically having about 6 grams of trans fat until

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rather than the final products. This regulatory approach has made Denmark the first country in which it is possible to eat "far less" than 1 g of industrially produced trans fats daily, even with a diet including prepared foods. It is hypothesized that the Danish government's efforts to decrease

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in February 2003 suggested that the intake of both trans fats and saturated fats promote the development of Alzheimer disease, although not confirmed in an animal model. It has been found that trans fats impaired memory and learning in middle-age rats. The trans-fat eating rats' brains had fewer

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The US National Dairy Council has asserted that the trans fats present in foods of animal origin are of a different type than those in partially hydrogenated oils, and do not appear to exhibit the same negative effects. A scientific review agrees with the conclusion (stating that "the sum of the

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The ban is believed to prevent about 90,000 premature deaths annually. The FDA estimates the ban will cost the food industry $ 6.2 billion over 20 years as the industry reformulates products and substitutes new ingredients for trans fat. The benefits are estimated at $ 140 billion over 20 years

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declared that 40,000 cardiovascular disease deaths in 2006 were "mostly preventable". To achieve this, NICE offered 24 recommendations including product labelling, public education, protecting under–16s from marketing of unhealthy foods, promoting exercise and physically active travel, and even

1152:: 0.97 to 1.41). "The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates." Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of 1080:

A meta-analysis showed that all trans fats, regardless of natural or artificial origin equally raise LDL and lower HDL levels. Other studies though have shown different results when it comes to animal based trans fats like conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Although CLA is known for its anticancer

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Despite this concern, the NAS dietary recommendations have not included eliminating trans fat from the diet. This is because trans fat is naturally present in many animal foods in trace quantities, and thus its removal from ordinary diets might introduce undesirable side effects and nutritional

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Production of partially hydrogenated fats increased steadily in the 20th century as processed vegetable fats replaced animal fats in the U.S. and other Western countries. At first, the argument was a financial one due to the lower costs of margarines and shortenings compared to lard and butter,

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launched on 15 March 2012 a voluntary pledge to remove artificial trans fats by the end of the year. Asda, Pizza Hut, Burger King, Tesco, Unilever and United Biscuits are some of 73 businesses who have agreed to do so. Lansley and his special Adviser Bill Morgan formerly worked for firms with

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Trans fat can be an unintentional byproduct of the industrial processing of oils. Unlike naturally derived trans fats, the trans fats that result from hydrogenation consist of many isomers. In food production, liquid cis-unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils are hydrogenated to produce more

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serving (as compared with 1.5 grams per tablespoon of original Crisco). As of 24 January 2007, Smucker claimed that all Crisco shortening products in the US have been reformulated to contain less than one gram of trans fat per serving while keeping saturated fat content less than butter. The

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The Conseil Supérieur de la Santé published in 2012 a science-policy advisory report on industrially produced trans fatty acids that focuses on the general population. Its recommendation to the legislature was to prohibit more than 2 g of trans fatty acids per 100 g of fat in food products.

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chains routinely use different fats in different locations, trans fat levels in fast food can have large variations. For example, an analysis of samples of McDonald's French fries collected in 2004 and 2005 found that fries served in New York City contained twice as much trans fat as in

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Mandatory food labeling was introduced in several countries and Denmark was first to mandate limits on industrially-produced trans fats in 2004. In January 2007, faced with the prospect of an outright ban on the sale of their product, Crisco was reformulated to meet the U.S.

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Phivilay A, Julien C, Tremblay C, Berthiaume L, Julien P, Giguère Y, Calon F (March 2009). "High dietary consumption of trans fatty acids decreases brain docosahexaenoic acid but does not alter amyloid-beta and tau pathologies in the 3xTg-AD model of Alzheimer's disease".

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configuration is noticeably kinked as can be seen from the three-dimensional representation shown above. Cis- and trans fatty acids (and their derivatives) have distinct chemical (and metabolic) properties, For example, the melting point of elaidic acid is

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by raising the level of LDL, but, unlike saturated fat, it has the additional effect of decreasing levels of HDL. The net increase in LDL/HDL ratio with trans fat is approximately double that due to saturated fat. (Higher ratios are worse.) One randomized

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of an unsaturated fatty acid is intended to convert unsaturated fatty acids (and unsaturated fats) to saturated derivatives. The hydrogenation process however can cause cis C=C bonds to become trans. Typical commercial hydrogenation is partial to obtain a

1315:: Spanish researchers analysed the diets of 12,059 people over six years and found that those who ate the most trans fats had a 48 per cent higher risk of depression than those who did not eat trans fats. One mechanism may be trans-fats' substitution for 1077:

current evidence suggests that the Public health implications of consuming trans fats from ruminant products are relatively limited") but cautions that this may be due to the low consumption of trans fats from animal sources compared to artificial ones.

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Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils were an increasingly significant part of the human diet for about 100 years, especially after 1950 as processed food rose in popularity. The deleterious effects of trans fat consumption are scientifically accepted.

215:(WHO) had set a goal to make the world free from industrially produced trans fat by the end of 2023. The goal was not met, and the WHO announced another goal "for accelerated action till 2025 to complete this effort" along with associated support on 1 1980:

informed its suppliers they needed to remove trans fat by 2015 if they wanted to continue to sell their products at its stores. As Walmart is the largest brick-and-mortar retailer in the U.S., mainstream food brands had little choice but to comply.

6377:"Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic products, nutrition and allergies (NDA) related to the presence of trans fatty acids in foods and the effect on human health of the consumption of trans fatty acids. Question number: EFSA-Q-2003-022" 1952:

2006. Packaged food companies then faced the choice of either eliminating trans fat from their products, or having to declare the trans fat on their nutrition label. Lawsuits in the U.S. against trans fat users also encouraged its removal.

1057:(HDL), thus increasing the risk of coronary artery disease. The NAS is concerned "that dietary trans fatty acids are more deleterious with respect to coronary artery disease than saturated fatty acids". This analysis is supported by a 2006 1048:

Their recommendations are based on two key facts. First, "trans fatty acids are not essential and provide no known benefit to human health", whether of animal or plant origin. Second, while both saturated and trans fats increase levels of

1144:: 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk ( 768:

attack double bonds). In this second sense of the goal being to simply reduce the degree of unsaturation in an unsaturated fatty acid, the production of trans fatty acids is thus an undesirable side effect of partial hydrogenation.

2795: 1323:(OFC). Very high intake of trans-fatty acids (43% of total fat) in mice from 2 to 16 months of age was associated with lowered DHA levels in the brain (p=0.001). When the brains of 15 major depressive subjects who had committed 4460:

Kummerow FA, Zhou Q, Mahfouz MM, Smiricky MR, Grieshop CM, Schaeffer DJ (April 2004). "Trans fatty acids in hydrogenated fat inhibited the synthesis of the polyunsaturated fatty acids in the phospholipid of arterial cells".

1357:: In a 2015 article, researchers re-analyzing results from the 1999-2005 UCSD Statin Study argue that "greater dietary trans fatty acid consumption is linked to worse word memory in adults during years of high productivity." 1991:

complaints, and to New York's restaurant trans fat ban, with companies such as McDonald's stating they would not be selling a unique product just for New York customers but would implement a nationwide or worldwide change.

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A number of old and new ingredients are available to replace partially-hydrogenated oil containing significant levels of trans fat. These include partially-hydrogenated oil made with improved processes, plant oils rich in

386:. It took only two years until the hardened fat could be successfully produced in the plant in Warrington, commencing production in the autumn of 1909. The initial year's production totalled nearly 3,000 tonnes. In 1909, 1350:: a 2012 observational analysis of subjects of an earlier study found a strong relation between dietary trans fat acids and self-reported behavioral aggression and irritability, suggesting but not establishing causality. 945:

and decreases refrigeration requirements. Many baked foods require semi-solid fats to suspend solids at room temperature; partially hydrogenated oils have the right consistency to replace animal fats such as butter and

1021:, the pattern was reversed, with Hungary's product containing twice the trans fat of the New York product. Even within the U.S. there was variation, with fries in New York containing 30% more trans fat than those from 6236:

Nasser R, Cook S, Bashutski M, Hill K, Norton D, Coleman J, et al. (August 2011). "Consumer perceptions of trans fats in 2009 show awareness of negative effects but limited concern regarding use in snack foods".

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Eller FJ, List GR, Teel JA, Steidley KR, Adlof RO (July 2005). "Preparation of spread oils meeting U.S. Food and Drug Administration Labeling requirements for trans fatty acids via pressure-controlled hydrogenation".

3935:"trans Fatty acids in human milk are inversely associated with concentrations of essential all-cis n-6 and n-3 fatty acids and determine trans, but not n-6 and n-3, fatty acids in plasma lipids of breast-fed infants" 3380:"21 CFR Part 101. Food labeling; trans fatty acids in nutrition labeling; consumer research to consider nutrient content and health claims and possible footnote or disclosure statements; final rule and proposed rule" 1767:

consumed 5.8 grams of trans fat per day (2.6% of energy intake). Monoglycerides and diglycerides are not considered fats by the FDA, despite their nearly equal calorie per weight contribution during ingestion.

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imbalances if proper nutritional planning is not undertaken. The NAS has, thus, "recommended that trans fatty acid consumption be as low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet". Like the NAS, the

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Two other events were important in the removal of trans fat. First, in 2013 the FDA announced it planned to completely ban artificial trans fat in the form of partially hydrogenated oil. Second, soon after this,

1758:, Professor of Clinical Epidemiology at the University of Liverpool, felt that justifying intake on the basis of average figures was unsuitable since some members of the community could considerably exceed this. 2286:

de Souza, Russell J.; Mente, Andrew; Maroleanu, Adriana; Cozma, Adrian I.; Ha, Vanessa; Kishibe, Teruko; Uleryk, Elizabeth; Budylowski, Patrick; Schünemann, Holger; Beyene, Joseph; Anand, Sonia S. (2015-08-11).

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limits content of trans fats sold in school canteens to 0.1% (Ministerial Decision Υ1γ/ΓΠ/οικ 81025/ΦΕΚ 2135/τ.Β'/29-08-2013 as modified by Ministerial Decision Υ1γ/ Γ.Π/οικ 96605/ΦΕΚ 2800 τ.Β/4-11-201).

7334: 8088: 1309:: One 2007 study found, "Each 2% increase in the intake of energy from trans unsaturated fats, as opposed to that from carbohydrates, was associated with a 73% greater risk of ovulatory infertility...". 487:

based on the respective absence or presence of C=C double bonds in its backbone. If the molecule contains no double C=C bonds, it is said to be saturated; otherwise, it is unsaturated to some degree.

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Wang Y, Jacome-Sosa MM, Vine DF, Proctor SD (20 May 2010). "Beneficial effects of vaccenic acid on postprandial lipid metabolism and dyslipidemia: Impact of natural trans-fats to improve CVD risk".

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The parliament gave the government a mandate in 2011 to submit without delay a law prohibiting the use of industrially produced trans fats in foods, as of 2017 the law has not yet been implemented.

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As of 2018, Australia's food labeling laws do not require trans fats to be shown separately from the total fat content. However, margarine in Australia has been mostly free of trans fat since 1996.

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French fries. They urged multinational fast-food restaurants and food manufacturers to switch to vegetable oils, and almost all targeted firms responded by replacing saturated fats with trans fats.

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Menaa F, Menaa A, Menaa B, Tréton J (June 2013). "Trans-fatty acids, dangerous bonds for health? A background review paper of their use, consumption, health implications and regulation in France".

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were examined post-mortem and compared against 27 age-matched controls, the suicidal brains were found to have 16% less (male average) to 32% less (female average) DHA in the OFC. The OFC controls

6084: 6976: 2289:"Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies" 8096: 6145: 7251: 1754:

interests in the food industry and some journalists have alleged that this results in a conflict of interest. Many health professionals are not happy with the voluntary nature of the deal.

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Because trans fats are more linear, they crystallize more easily, allowing them to be solid (rather than liquid) at room temperatures. This has several processing and storage advantages.

8039: 7004: 1190:. The ratio test is more accepted, while the cytokine test may be more powerful but is still being studied. The effect of trans fat consumption has been documented on each as follows: 1503:

In a process that began in 2004, Health Canada finally banned partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs), the primary source of industrially produced trans fats in foods, in September 2018.

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has tried to balance public health goals with a practical level of trans fat consumption, recommending in 2003 that trans fats be limited to less than 1% of overall energy intake.

4892:"Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials" 674: 1160:

more than halves the risk of CAD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans unsaturated fats reduces the risk of CAD by 43%.

7443: 1251:). The review based this conclusion on finding that 4 of the 5 reports appeared biased and therefore recommended more well-designed prospective studies to clarify this issue. 7137:"FDA food labeling: trans fatty acids in nutrition labeling; consumer research to consider nutrient content and health claims and possible footnote or disclosure statements" 7031: 739:. They both have a double bond located midway along the carbon chain. It is the configuration of this bond that sets them apart. The configuration has implications for the 5188: 1459:, asked fast food outlets to reduce their trans fat use. A draft plan was proposed, with a September 2007 timetable, to reduce reliance on trans fats and saturated fats. 1597:

trans fat. PSQCA (Pakistan Standard and Quality Control Authority) has set the deadline for the reduction of trans fat level as per recommendations of WHO by June 2023.

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fast food. A diet high in trans fats can contribute to obesity, high blood pressure, and higher risk for heart disease. Trans fat is also implicated in Type 2 diabetes.

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announced on 6 March 2019 that partially-hydrogenated oils (PHOs) will be banned. A target is set to ban PHOs by June 2021, aiming to encourage healthy eating habits.

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launched a plan to eliminate trans fat from the global food supply. They estimate that trans fat leads to more than 500,000 deaths from cardiovascular disease yearly.

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acid intake has been inversely associated with LCPUFAs levels in infants at birth thought to underlie the positive association between breastfeeding and intelligence.

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Scientific studies have examined other negative effects of industrial trans fat beyond cardiovascular disease, with the next most studied area being type-2 diabetes.

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that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's

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scientific review that states "from a nutritional standpoint, the consumption of trans fatty acids results in considerable potential harm but no apparent benefit."

6684: 3076: 4373:

Zulet MA, Marti A, Parra MD, Martínez JA (September 2005). "Inflammation and conjugated linoleic acid: mechanisms of action and implications for human health".

7512:"Palm and partially hydrogenated soybean oils adversely alter lipoprotein profiles compared with soybean and canola oils in moderately hyperlipidemic subjects" 5634: 4638: 3472: 2585: 7192: 6449: 5007:

Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Bennett DA, Aggarwal N, et al. (February 2003). "Dietary fats and the risk of incident Alzheimer disease".

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of individuals did not find a robust association between their intake of trans fatty acids and development of Alzheimer's disease (or several other forms of

7577: 7417: 7388: 6647: 6091: 3848: 2163: 3975: 3805:

Mozaffarian, Dariush; Katan, Martijn B.; Ascherio, Alberto; Stampfer, Meir J.; Willett, Walter C. (2006). "Trans Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Disease".

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showed that liquid oils could be hydrogenated. He patented the process in 1902. During the years 1905–1910, Normann built a fat-hardening facility in the

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Tarrago-Trani MT, Phillips KM, Lemar LE, Holden JM (June 2006). "New and existing oils and fats used in products with reduced trans-fatty acid content".

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increases with trans fat consumption. However, consensus has not been reached. For example, one study found that risk is higher for those in the highest

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properties, researchers have also found that the cis-9, trans-11 form of CLA can reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease and help fight inflammation.

7109: 6982: 6930: 2840: 7226: 5661:"Selective deficits in the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid in the postmortem orbitofrontal cortex of patients with major depressive disorder" 4931:

Gatto LM, Sullivan DR, Samman S (May 2003). "Postprandial effects of dietary trans fatty acids on apolipoprotein(a) and cholesteryl ester transfer".

3535: 1928: 1901:'s hydrogenation hardened oils) announced that they have eliminated trans fats from all their margarine products in Canada, including their flagship 351:

When heated (cooked), some unsaturated fats change from their normal geometry to trans. The rate of isomerization is accelerated by free radicals.

6869: 5909: 2821: 7462: 2123: 1755: 1588:

Since 2014, it is obligatory to mark food products with more than 2% (by weight) fat. The nutritional facts must contain the amount of trans fats.

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became the first country to introduce laws strictly regulating the sale of many foods containing trans fats in March 2003, a move that effectively

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Gormley JJ, Juturu V (2010). "Partially Hydrogenated Fats in the US Diet and Their Role in Disease". In De Meester F, Zibadi S, Watson RR (eds.).

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The C=C double bond is rotationally rigid. If the hydrogen bonded to each of the carbons in this double bond are on the same side, this is called

343:. The technology has improved such that a 2021 review indicates that trans fat from hydrogenated fats is no longer a problem in modern countries. 7056: 5875: 8082: 5475: 1881:. This blend yielded an equivalent shortening much like the prior partially hydrogenated Crisco, and was labelled zero grams of trans fat per 1 8112:

Federal Register – 68 FR 41433 11 July 2003: Food Labeling: Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling, Nutrient Content Claims, and Health Claims

8054: 7998: 6961: 2461:

Sarah K. Gebauer; Jean-Michel Chardigny; Marianne Uhre Jakobsen; Benoît Lamarche; Adam L. Lock; Spencer D. Proctor; David J. Baer (July 2011).

6530: 7885: 7779:"KFC Sued for Fouling Chicken with Partially Hydrogenated Oil: Lawsuit Aimed at Eliminating, or Disclosing Use of Artery-Clogging Frying Oil" 6210: 2236: 1671:, an editorial also called for better labelling. In January 2007, the British Retail Consortium announced that major UK retailers, including 7008: 6117: 1873:(the original partially hydrogenated vegetable shortening), in 2004 released a new formulation made from solid saturated palm oil cut with 1818: 1491:

Since January 1, 2023, the use, production and import of hydrogenated vegetable oils in food for consumption has been completely banned by

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Although this shift to trans fats was rooted in health concerns, there were suggestions in the scientific literature as early as 1956 that

1720:

issued news releases stating that voluntary measures to reduce trans fats in food had already resulted in safe levels of consumer intake.

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of trans fat consumption. Another study has found no diabetes risk once other factors such as total fat intake and BMI were accounted for.

1037:(NAS) advises the U.S. and Canadian governments on nutritional science for use in public policy and product labeling programs. Their 2002 8509: 5565:

Mahfouz M (1981). "Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on the delta 5, delta 6 and delta 9 desaturases of rat liver microsomes in vivo".

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produced a scientific opinion on trans fatty acids, surmising that "higher intakes of TFA may increase risk for coronary heart disease".

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Another study considered deaths due to CAD, with consumption of trans fats being linked to an increase in mortality, and consumption of

1101:) leading to changes in the phospholipid fatty acid composition of the arterial walls, thereby raising risk of coronary artery disease. 9082: 7604: 1559:

From 2 April 2021 foods in the EU intended for consumers are required to contain less than 2g of industrial trans fat per 100g of fat.

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Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid found in animal fats and is the intended product in full hydrogenation. Stearic acid is neither

7356: 5948: 7782: 6569: 2768: 1985: 6846: 2856: 4213:

Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients)

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Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids (macronutrients)

4124:

Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients)

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Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids (macronutrients)

4064:

Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients)

2922: 7911: 6017: 1447:

ban on food with trans fat, a regulation the government estimated could save them more than US$ 100 million a year on healthcare.

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fats compared to their total fats. High-fat dairy products such as butter contain about 4%. Margarines not reformulated to reduce

7693: 5192: 4062: 2895: 2397: 3098: 1211:

transfer (CET) was 28% higher after the trans meal than after the cis meal and that lipoprotein concentrations were enriched in

7855: 6595: 6424: 5294: 2467:

Fatty Acids on Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer: A Comprehensive Review of Epidemiological, Clinical, and Mechanistic Studies"

1824:

Three months after the suit was filed, on 7 November 2013, the FDA issued a preliminary determination that trans fats are not "

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fat is created as a side effect of partially catalytic hydrogenation of unsaturated plant fats (generally vegetable oils) with

8854: 8028: 5546: 4105: 3890: 3623: 3511: 2949: 2074: 7778: 6940: 3379: 402:). Further success came from the marketing technique of giving away free cookbooks in which every recipe called for Crisco. 8859: 7804: 7670: 4167:

Mozaffarian D, Katan MB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC (April 2006). "Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease".

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trans fat intake from 6 g to 1 g per day over 20 years is related to a 50% decrease in deaths from ischemic heart disease.

3414: 7622: 7136: 5138:

Nwaru BI, Dierkes J, Ramel A, Arnesen EK, Thorisdottir B, Lamberg-Allardt C, Söderlund F, Bärebring L, Åkesson A (2022).

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partially hydrogenated oils. The limit is 2% of fats and oils destined for human consumption. This restriction is on the

7709:"Temporal Trends in Fast-Food Restaurant Energy, Sodium, Saturated Fat, and Trans Fat Content, United States, 1996–2013" 4851:"Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on high-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in healthy subjects" 3275: 2599: 1863:

cookie. The lawsuit was withdrawn when Kraft agreed to work on ways to find a substitute for the trans fat in the Oreo.

7970: 7955: 2349:"Eliminating trans fat from foods will save lives without changing the taste: Only our hearts will know the difference" 1794: 1606: 4642: 4275:"Effect of animal and industrial trans fatty acids on HDL and LDL cholesterol levels in humans--a quantitative review" 3906:

Hunter JE (2005). "Dietary levels of trans fatty acids" basis for health concerns and industry efforts to limit use".

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Schleifer D (January 2012). "The perfect solution: How trans fats became the healthy replacement for saturated fats".

2414:

Alves, Susana P.; Vahmani, Payam; Mapiye, Cletos; McAllister, Tim A.; Bessa, Rui J. B.; Dugan, Michael E. R. (2021). "

2179:"Effect of animal and industrial trans fatty acids on HDL and LDL cholesterol levels in humans--a quantitative review" 7200: 4228: 3858: 2761: 6453: 5997: 5660: 4806:

Ascherio A, Katan MB, Zock PL, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC (June 1999). "Trans fatty acids and coronary heart disease".

9009: 8626: 8138: 5140:"Quality of dietary fat and risk of Alzheimer's disease and dementia in adults aged ≥50 years: a systematic review" 4767:"Dietary fat intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women: 20 years of follow-up of the nurses' health study" 4334:"Opposing effects of cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid on blood lipids in healthy humans" 7581: 5091:"Effects of a saturated fat and high cholesterol diet on memory and hippocampal morphology in the middle-aged rat" 1039:

Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids

8641: 8502: 4676:(Consultation on the health implications of alternatives to trans fatty acids: Summary of Responses from Experts) 3979: 1855:

In May 2003, BanTransFats.com Inc., a U.S. non-profit corporation, filed a lawsuit against the food manufacturer

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supports any state and federal efforts to ban the use of artificial trans fats in U.S. restaurants and bakeries.

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The same molecule, containing the same number of atoms, with a double bond in the same location, can be either a

8960: 8425: 6801: 2717:

Chatgilialoglu, Chryssostomos; Ferreri, Carla; Melchiorre, Michele; Sansone, Anna; Torreggiani, Armida (2014).

1631: 1553: 182: 7266: 7113: 6501: 4968:"Consumption of trans fatty acids is related to plasma biomarkers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction" 4686:

Zaloga GP, Harvey KA, Stillwell W, Siddiqui R (October 2006). "Trans fatty acids and coronary heart disease".

3480: 3349:"Information Sheet: REPLACE trans fat: an action package to eliminate industrially produced trans-fatty acids" 2673: 390:

acquired the United States rights to the Normann patent; in 1911, they began marketing the first hydrogenated

9308: 8772: 6867:

FSA Board to advise the Department of Health to maintain successful voluntary approach for trans fats in food

6399: 1619: 7764: 6934: 5247:"Serum phospholipid fatty acids and prostate cancer risk: results from the prostate cancer prevention trial" 9077: 8997: 8702: 7288: 1825: 1787: 464: 5318:"Association between serum trans-monounsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk in the E3N-EPIC Study" 2516:

Bassett CM, Edel AL, Patenaude AF, McCullough RS, Blackwood DP, Chouinard PY, et al. (January 2010).

2460: 9092: 9087: 8814: 8804: 8093:

Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling, Nutrient Content Claims, Health Claims; Small Entity Compliance Guide"

7886:"KFC Canada phasing in zero grams trans fat menu in all 786 restaurants nationally early in the new year" 6866: 5906: 4209: 4142: 4120: 4081: 4060: 3696: 242:, a naturally occurring trans fatty acid, comprises 0.4–4% of the total fatty acid content in dairy milk. 7252:"Researcher files lawsuit vs FDA after it ignored his petition calling for ban on artificial trans fats" 7170: 6806:

Waitrose eliminated the use of hydrogenated vegetable oils in all own label products by the end of 2006.

2836: 2371: 1222:

of trans fat consumption had blood levels of CRP that were 73% higher than those in the lowest quartile.

9193: 8844: 8819: 8636: 8565: 8495: 8181: 8176: 7064: 5979: 1742: 1244: 432:, sold in England, began to replace butter and lard in baking bread, pies, cookies, and cakes in 1920. 17: 7090:. Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series. Geneva. 1974 5882: 5316:

Chajès V, Thiébaut AC, Rotival M, Gauthier E, Maillard V, Boutron-Ruault MC, et al. (June 2008).

5215: 9298: 9218: 9161: 8809: 8762: 8612: 8575: 7995: 6475: 2817: 1435: 1312: 1070: 941:

Partially hydrogenated oils have been used in food for many reasons. Hydrogenation increases product

468: 429: 212: 8072: 4671: 4259: 9203: 9016: 8970: 8965: 8789: 8767: 8415: 6538: 6045:"Trans fatty acids in adipose tissue and the food supply are associated with myocardial infarction" 3299:"Approaches to removing trans fats from the food supply in industrialized and developing countries" 2244: 1866: 1470:

Trans fat content is limited to 4% of total fat, or 2% on products that contain more than 20% fat.

1428: 1264: 1054: 895: 292:

The shelf life of fats correlates with the degree of saturation: polyunsaturated fats are prone to

251: 7889: 756:

higher than that of oleic acid. This notably means that it is a solid at human body temperatures.

494:, and leads to a bent molecular chain. If the two hydrogens are on opposite sides, this is called 9258: 9240: 8722: 8717: 8681: 8651: 7856:"KFC announces switch to zero trans fat cooking oil following two-year test for same great taste" 7551: 7284: 4966:

Lopez-Garcia E, Schulze MB, Meigs JB, Manson JE, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, et al. (March 2005).

3448:"Newswise: most consumers misinterpret meaning of trans fat information on Nutrition Facts panel" 3230: 1729:

editorial called for trans fats to be "virtually eliminated in the United Kingdom by next year".

1170:

There are two accepted tests that measure an individual's risk for coronary artery disease, both

1125: 1118: 1050: 957: 637: 456: 156: 6272: 2845: Process for converting unsaturated fatty acids or their glycerides into saturated compounds 2826: Process for converting unsaturated fatty acids or their glycerides into saturated compounds 2672:

Teresa Tarrago-Trani, Maria; Phillips, Katherine M.; Lemar, Linda E.; Holden, Joanne M. (2006).

250:. For example, butter contains about 3% trans fat. These naturally occurring trans fats include 9230: 9213: 9208: 9198: 9039: 8975: 8617: 8518: 6622:"MOH to ban key source of artificial trans fats in food like cookies and pizzas from June 2021" 2089: 2001: 1810: 1235: 1133: 667: 326:

The desirable (left) and undesirable pathways for partial hydrogenation of an unsaturated fat.

9235: 8980: 8839: 8831: 8799: 8686: 7608: 7085: 6862: 6839: 6311: 4658: 4246: 2117: 1717: 1684: 1662: 1239: 4332:

Tricon S, Burdge GC, Kew S, Banerjee T, Russell JJ, Jones EL, et al. (September 2004).

4229:"comments on 'Docket No. 2003N-0076 Food Labeling: Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling'" 1797:

adopted a new policy statement regarding trans fats in 2007. These new guidelines, entitled

9293: 9149: 9144: 8948: 8740: 8410: 8186: 8131: 6565: 5955: 5778: 5719: 5089:

Granholm AC, Bimonte-Nelson HA, Moore AB, Nelson ME, Freeman LR, Sambamurti K (June 2008).

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Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Rimm E, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, et al. (November 1997).

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trans fat in any industrialized food sold in Brazil to a maximum of 2% by the end of 2023.

1409: 1364: 1320: 1316: 1117:

The most important health risk identified for trans fat consumption is an elevated risk of

1094: 95: 5302: 4089: 4083: 3575: 3558: 8: 9225: 8992: 7478:"Analysis | Artificial trans fats, widely linked to heart disease, are officially banned" 6843: 2867: 2011: 1328: 1164: 1149: 1141: 950:

at lower cost. They are also an inexpensive alternative to other semi-solid oils such as

765: 387: 340: 332: 299:

Saturated fats tend to be more solid at room temperature. This property is important for

73: 68: 7915: 5782: 5723: 5659:

McNamara RK, Hahn CG, Jandacek R, Rider T, Tso P, Stanford KE, Richtand NM (July 2007).

5498:"Trans fat diet induces abdominal obesity and changes in insulin sensitivity in monkeys" 4290: 3348: 2926: 2194: 1194:

Cholesterol ratio: This ratio compares the levels of LDL to HDL. Trans fat behaves like

9303: 9288: 9139: 9049: 8631: 8405: 8231: 8226: 8221: 7741: 7403: 7311: 6911: 6778: 6753: 6358: 6298:

Stender S, Dyerberg J, Bysted A, Leth T, Astrup A (May 2006). "A trans world journey".

6021: 5927:"WHO plan to eliminate industrially-produced trans-fatty acids from global food supply" 5852: 5825: 5801: 5766: 5742: 5707: 5688: 5527: 5342: 5317: 5271: 5246: 5164: 5139: 5115: 5090: 5071: 5059: 4831: 4579: 4398: 4309: 4274: 4211: 4192: 4144: 4122: 3325: 3177: 3152: 3050: 3001: 2985: 2674:"New and Existing Oils and Fats Used in Products with Reduced Trans-Fatty Acid Content" 2649: 2624: 2493: 2462: 2443: 2321: 2288: 2273:"WHO plan to eliminate industrially-produced trans-fatty acids from global food supply" 2213: 2178: 1420: 1396: 1306: 1187: 1098: 1042: 740: 175: 116: 111: 106: 101: 8111: 6666: 6192: 5245:

Brasky TM, Till C, White E, Neuhouser ML, Song X, Goodman P, et al. (June 2011).

4532: 4068: 3559:"Fatty acid composition of caprine milk: major, branched-chain, and trans fatty acids" 3126: 2899: 1218:

C-reactive protein (CRP): A study of over 700 nurses showed that those in the highest

8930: 8879: 8779: 8024: 7746: 7728: 7533: 7485: 7364: 6955: 6928: 6903: 6886:

Mozaffarian D, Stampfer MJ (April 2010). "Removing industrial trans fat from foods".

6783: 6431: 6350: 6315: 6254: 6066: 5857: 5806: 5747: 5680: 5615: 5574: 5519: 5448: 5429: 5388: 5347: 5276: 5169: 5120: 5063: 5024: 4989: 4948: 4913: 4872: 4823: 4788: 4747: 4703: 4583: 4571: 4536: 4501: 4478: 4442: 4390: 4355: 4314: 4184: 4101: 4043: 3956: 3886: 3854: 3822: 3784: 3749: 3662: 3619: 3588: 3507: 3330: 3182: 3118: 3042: 2993: 2945: 2740: 2696: 2654: 2539: 2498: 2447: 2435: 2326: 2308: 2258: 2218: 2157: 2070: 1703:

intended to cease adding trans fatty acids to their own products by the end of 2007.

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Kavanagh K, Jones KL, Sawyer J, Kelley K, Carr JJ, Wagner JD, Rudel LL (July 2007).

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during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CAD risk roughly doubled (

8935: 8584: 8487: 8249: 7736: 7720: 7523: 6895: 6773: 6765: 6376: 6342: 6307: 6246: 6056: 5847: 5837: 5796: 5786: 5737: 5727: 5676: 5672: 5605: 5550: 5531: 5509: 5419: 5378: 5337: 5329: 5266: 5258: 5159: 5151: 5110: 5102: 5055: 5016: 4979: 4940: 4903: 4862: 4815: 4778: 4737: 4695: 4610: 4563: 4528: 4496:

Mojska H (2003). "Influence of trans fatty acids on infant and fetus development".

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followed Denmark's trans fats ban, and implemented its own starting in April 2008.

1456: 1296: 716: 693: 617: 383: 7708: 6711: 5216:"A prospective study of blood trans fatty acid levels and risk of prostate cancer" 4210: