734:; "As in the field, so in the cabinet, there are moments to be seized as they pass, and they who preside in either should be left in capacity to improve them. So often and so essentially have we heretofore suffered from the want of secrecy and despatch, that the Constitution would have been inexcusably defective, if no attention had been paid to those objects. Those matters which in negotiations usually require the most secrecy and the most despatch, are those preparatory and auxiliary measures which are not otherwise important in a national view, than as they tend to facilitate the attainment of the objects of the negotiation. For these, the President will find no difficulty to provide; and should any circumstance occur which requires the advice and consent of the Senate, he may at any time convene them. Thus we see that the Constitution provides that our negotiations for treaties shall have every advantage which can be derived from talents, information, integrity, and deliberate investigations, on the one hand, and from secrecy and despatch on the other."
178:, who had participated in the Convention, declared as a Senator in 1818 that "the Senate may, and ought to, look into and watch over every branch of the foreign affairs of the nation; they may, therefore, at any time call for full and exact information respecting the foreign affairs, and express their opinion and advice to the President respecting the same, when, and under whatever other circumstances, they may think such advice expedient." Likewise, several prominent delegates at the Convention argued unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives to share in treaty. However, the idea was widely rejected, due to the fact that the House was a much larger body than the Senate, and thus would be less likely to act decisively or keep certain sensitive agreements secret. Additionally, delegates from smaller states were wary of being disadvantaged in foreign affairs, since the House benefited more populous states; by contrast, the Senate guaranteed every state an equal voice through two senators, regardless of population.
1051:(1840): "A few extracts from an eminent writer on the laws of nations, showing the manner in which these different words have been used, and the different meanings sometimes attached to them, will, perhaps, contribute to explain the reason for using them all in the Constitution....Vattel, page 192, sec. 152, says: 'A treaty, in Latin foedus, is a compact made with a view to the public welfare, by the superior power, either for perpetuity, or for a considerable time.' Section 153. 'The compacts which have temporary matters for their object, are called agreements, conventions, and pacts. They are accomplished by one single act, and not by repeated acts. These compacts are perfected in their execution once for all; treaties receive a successive execution, whose duration equals that of the treaty.' Section 154...After reading these extracts, we can be at no loss to comprehend the intention of the framers of the Constitution in using all these words, 'treaty,' 'compact,' 'agreement.'"
1288:, 247 F.2d 538 (2d Cir. 1957), a reservation attached by the Senate to a 1950 treaty with Canada was held invalid. The court observed that the reservation was properly not a part of the treaty but that if it were it would still be void as an attempt to circumvent constitutional procedures for enacting amendments to existing federal laws. The Supreme Court vacated the judgment on mootness grounds. 355 U.S. 64 (1957). In United States v. Guy W. Capps, Inc., 204 F.2d 655 (4th Cir. 1953), an executive agreement with Canada was held void as conflicting with existing legislation. The Supreme Court affirmed on nonconstitutional grounds. 348 U.S. 296 (1955).
623:
give up its demands on the
Mississippi. The Northern states, which would have benefited most from the trade treaty and cared little about New Orleans, had a majority, but not a supermajority, in the Continental Congress. Under the Articles of Confederation, treaties required assent of a supermajority (nine out of thirteen) of the states, and the South was able to block the treaty. It was undoubtedly that experience that impelled the Framers to carry over the supermajority principle from the Articles of Confederation, as the Southern states (and many people in the North) concluded that the supermajority requirement had prevented an unwise treaty.
514:. But the Constitution did not forbid my doing what I did. I put the agreement into effect, and I continued its execution for two years before the Senate acted; and I would have continued it until the end of my term, if necessary, without any action by Congress. But it was far preferable that there should be action by Congress, so that we might be proceeding under a treaty which was the law of the land and not merely by a direction of the Chief Executive which would lapse when that particular executive left office. I therefore did my best to get the Senate to ratify what I had done.
389:, usually take the form of congressional-executive agreements, and typically include an explicit right to withdraw after giving sufficient written notice to the other parties. If an international commercial accord contains binding "treaty" commitments, then a two-thirds vote of the Senate may be required. Executive agreements, for which the exact scope remains unsettled by the courts, generally pertain to matters implicating diplomatic relations, such as claim settlements between U.S. citizens and foreign nationals, or national security, such as the
247:
if unsatisfied, may still be asserted. But yet where a treaty is the law of the land, and as such affects the rights of parties litigating in court, that treaty as much binds those rights and is as much to be regarded by the court as an act of congress; and although restoration may be an executive, when viewed as a substantive act, independent of and unconnected with other circumstances, yet to condemn a vessel, the restoration of which is directed by a law of the land, would be a direct infraction of that law, and of consequence improper.
495:—the first under the Constitution and therefore the Treaty Clause—presidents have generally not sought the Senate's participation in all stages of treaty-making. Washington had initially consulted the Senate on proposed treaties, but ultimately abandoned the practice after finding it unproductive. The subsequent and widely accepted practice is that the President independently negotiates and signs treaties and then presents the proposed treaty to the Senate for its approval or disapproval.
413:, the Treaty Clause provides that the power to make treaties is shared between the President and the Senate. However, the clause has never been interpreted as giving the Senate the power or duty to advise the President before a treaty is concluded; in practice, the Senate's authority is limited to either disapproving or approving a treaty, with the latter including the power to attach conditions or reservations.
426:, the U.S. Supreme Court has consistently held that Congress can abrogate a treaty through subsequent legislative action, even if this amounts to a violation of the treaty under international law. The court has also maintained that the judiciary "have nothing to do and can give no redress" with respect to the international consequences and controversies arising from such Congressional action, since it is a
154:, Jay argued that while the Senate would check presidential powers in treaty making, the President would have the power, when necessary, to negotiate international agreements without senatorial approval. Madison, hailed as the Father of the Constitution, described the Treaty Clause as giving the Senate only "partial agency" in the President’s foreign-relations power. Hamilton argued in
306:(2008), a decision that is widely interpreted by both courts and jurists as further limiting the power of treaties. The court ruled that treaties, even if otherwise constituting an international obligation, do not automatically have the force of domestic law unless they are explicitly "self-executing" in the text or implemented by an act of Congress. The
378:
circumstances. A congressional-executive agreement can only cover matters that the
Constitution explicitly places within the powers of Congress and the President; likewise, a sole-executive agreement can only concern subjects within the President's authority, or for which Congress has delegated authority to the President.
1325:, at 167-171; Bestor, Respective Roles of Senate and President in the Making and Abrogation of Treaties: The Original Intent of the Framers of the Constitution Historically Examined, 55 Wash. L. Rev. 1 (1979); Berger, The President’s Unilateral Termination of the Taiwan Treaty, 75 Nw. U. L. Rev. 577 (1980).
275:
Our constitution declares a treaty to be the law of the land. It is, consequently, to be regarded in courts of justice as equivalent to an act of the legislature, whenever it operates of itself, without the aid of any legislative provision. But when the terms of the stipulation import a contract—when
260:
U.S. law distinguishes self-executing treaties, which do not require additional legislative action to take effect, and non-self-executing treaties, which must be implemented by an act of the legislature. While such distinctions of procedure and terminology do not affect the binding status of accords
246:
It is certainly true that the execution of a contract between nations is to be demanded from, and, in the general, superintended by the executive of each nation, and therefore whatever the decision of this court may be relative to the rights of parties litigating before it, the claim upon the nation,
335:
It is desirable, in many instances, to exchange mutual advantages by
Legislative Acts rather than by treaty: because the former, though understood to be in consideration of each other, and therefore greatly respected, yet when they become too inconvenient, can be dropped at the will of either party:
169:
The qualities elsewhere detailed as indispensable in the management of foreign negotiations point out the executive as the most fit agent in those transactions; while the vast importance of the trust and the operation of treaties as laws plead strongly for the participation of the whole or a portion
95:
was the sole national governing body, with both legislative and executive functions, including the power to make treaties. However, to take effect, treaties needed the approval of a supermajority of states (nine out of thirteen), a high bar that prevented many foreign pacts from being made. Although
474:
Presently, there is no
Supreme Court ruling on whether the President has the power to break a treaty without the approval of Congress; it remains unclear which branch of government is empowered by the Constitution to terminate a treaty, much less the procedure for doing so. In practice, a president
128:
of
Congress, would have the power to make treaties (as well as to appoint ambassadors and judges of the Supreme Court). Just ten days before the Convention adjourned, it was decided that these powers would be shared with the President. Many delegates cited the established international tradition of
111:
state legislatures to repeal all legislation that conflicted with the treaty and to authorize state courts to enforce it. While a bare majority of states complied to varying degrees, the inability of the national government to follow through on its obligations to foreign powers proved to be both an
622:
An important episode under the
Articles of Confederation had highlighted the problem. The United States desired a trade treaty with Spain and sought free access to the Mississippi River through Spanish-controlled New Orleans. Spain offered favorable trade terms, but only if the United States would
323:
does distinguish between "treaties" (which states are forbidden to make) and "agreements" (which states may make with the consent of
Congress). Some legal scholars have read this provision as permitting "a class of less-important international agreements" that did not warrant the Treaty Clause
103:, which stipulated that Congress protect the property rights of British creditors and Loyalists. Many state governments either failed to enforce the treaty or took measures to deliberately violate it. In response to protests by the British government, the U.S. Secretary for Foreign Affairs
251:
Although courts have since differed on the enforceability of some types of international agreements, as well as on the precise scope of a treaty's legal obligations, it is generally agreed by constitutional scholars and the judiciary that treaties are generally as binding as federal law.
377:
While indistinguishable from treaties under international law, such agreements are legally distinct under U.S. law; for example, the
Supremacy Clause applies only to foreign pacts made pursuant to the Treaty Clause. The Supreme Court has generally upheld non-treaty agreements in limited
522:
can only be negotiated and entered into through the president's authority (1) in foreign policy, (2) as commander-in-chief of the armed forces, (3) from a prior act of
Congress, or (4) from a prior treaty. Agreements beyond these competencies must have the approval of Congress (for
396:
Treaties are comparatively rare in modern U.S. foreign policy. Between 1946 and 1999, the federal government completed nearly 16,000 international agreements, of which only 6% (912) were treaties submitted to the Senate for approval under
Article II of the Constitution; most were
290:
of the federal government; hence treaties can be used to legislate in areas otherwise within the exclusive authority of the states, and by implication, in areas not within the scope of the federal government or its branches. However, this broad interpretation was circumscribed in
434:
Additionally, the Supreme Court has consistently held that an international accord that is inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution is void, as would be case with any other federal law in conflict with the Constitution. This principle was most clearly established in the 1957 case
318:
It is debated among constitutional scholars and courts whether the Treaty Clause represents the only legal means of entering into international agreements. Though the Constitution does not expressly provide for an alternative to the Article II treaty procedure,
226:
decision did not address the Treaty Clause explicitly, it held that both states and private citizens were bound to comply with the treaty obligations of the federal government, which was in turn bound to the "law of nations" with respect to honoring treaties.
112:
international embarrassment and potentially damaging to national interests; many Founding Fathers worried that nations would likewise renege on treaties with the United States or refrain from entering treaties that would be beneficial to trade and commerce.
446:, or on any other branch of Government, which is free from the restraints of the Constitution". Consequently, the Supreme Court could theoretically rule an Article II treaty unconstitutional and void under domestic law, although it has not yet done so.
4681:
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7, at 47, 54 (Max Farrand ed., 1937), and then adopted the Paterson Plan which made treaties the supreme law of the land, binding on state judges, and authorized the Executive to use force to compel observance when such treaties were resisted.
3213:
3223:
3208:
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either of the parties engages to perform a particular act, the treaty addresses itself to the political, not the judicial department; and the legislature must execute the contract, before it can become a rule for the court.
1160:(Paul Leicester Ford ed. 1892), page 235: "It is provided by the constitution that no commercial treaty shall be made by the president without the consent of two-thirds of the senators present...." Retrieved 2008-04-12.
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1251: “The treaty is . . . a law made by the proper authority, and the courts of justice have no right to annul or disregard any of its provisions, unless they violate the Constitution of the United States.”
533:
prevents Congress from delegating its legislative authority to the executive branch, Congress has allowed the executive to act as its "agent" in trade negotiations, such as by setting tariffs, and, in the case of
1259:, 78 U.S. (11 Wall.) 616, 620 (1871); Geofroy v. Riggs, 133 U.S. 258, 267 (1890); United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649, 700 (1898); Asakura v. City of Seattle, 265 U.S. 332, 341 (1924)
430:
beyond judicial review. Subsequently, Congressional modifications of a treaty will be enforced by U.S. courts regardless of whether foreign actors still consider the old treaty obligations binding upon the U.S.
421:
James Madison contended that Congress had the constitutional right and duty to modify or repeal treaties based on its own determination of what is expedient for the national interest. Beginning with the 1884
241:
the court cited a treaty in support of a private citizen's lawsuit against the government, and for the first time elaborated upon the legal significance of constitutionally ratified international agreements:
4686:
4784:
4268:
297:(1957), which held that the Bill of Rights could not be abrogated by a treaty; the ruling is widely interpreted as limiting the ability of treaties to circumvent constitutional restrictions overall.
3821:
3816:
3811:
91:, the first governmental framework of the United States. The Articles established a weak central government and accorded significant autonomy and deference to the individual states. The unicameral
2312:
3793:
3203:
4418:
3610:
2002:
660:
at 27–29. In the draft reported by the Committee on Detail, the language thus adopted was close to the present Supremacy Clause; the draft omitted the authorization of force from the clause,
129:
executives holding exclusive power over foreign relations and agreements; the participation of the Senate through the "advice and consent" mechanism was added as something of a compromise.
3826:
3181:
3082:
1820:
471:
dissented, arguing that the "issue of decision-making authority must be resolved as a matter of constitutional law, not political discretion" and therefore was subject to judicial review.
3198:
2327:
1757:
346:
2277:
5093:
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463:. The case went before the Supreme Court but was dismissed without hearing an oral argument by a majority of six Justices, on the grounds that "The issue at hand ... was essentially a
3833:
3803:
1858:
2125:
1255:, 57 U.S. (16 How.) 635, 656 (1853); “It need hardly be said that a treaty cannot change the Constitution or be held valid if it be in violation of that instrument.”
271:, while affirming that a treaty is constitutionally the "law of the land", first articulated the difference between self-executing and non-self-executing agreements domestically:
3097:
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3798:
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5277:
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1997:
320:
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of the U.S. Constitution, with "no superior efficacy ... given to either over the other". Thus, by virtue of ratification, a treaty is incorporated into the body of
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was held in 1787 to debate and draft a more robust governing document. During the Convention, it was initially contemplated that the U.S. Senate, the newly proposed
2317:
4831:
4794:
4413:
4105:
1695:
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1680:
1670:
340:
Alternatives to formal treaties are common throughout U.S. history, and in fact comprise the majority of agreements with other nations. Beyond the Treaty Clause,
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states were obligated by the Articles not to "interfere" with Congress' international commitments, in practice they often ignored or even defied such agreements.
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511:
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2307:
2202:
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1550:
1540:
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1284:
W. Willoughby, The Constitutional Law of the United States 549–552 (2d ed. 1929), at 561; L. Henkin, Foreign Affairs and the Constitution, at 137. In
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3958:
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2012:
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1575:
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1535:
538:, by solely authoring the implementing legislation for trade agreements. The constitutionality of this delegation was upheld by the Supreme Court in
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822:
310:
decision likewise limited the President's ability to unilaterally enforce an international agreement without the explicit delegation of Congress.
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849:
Reports of Cases Ruled and Adjudged in the Several Courts of the United States and of Pennsylvania Held at the Seat of the Federal Government
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972:
354 U.S. at 16–17; Restatement, Foreign Relations, § 302; Nowak & Rotunda, A Comment on the Creation and Resolution of a “Non-Problem”;
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4016:
3838:
3411:
2695:
1747:
371:
73:
shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur...
1043:
has ruled that the words "treaty" and "agreement" were technical terms of international diplomacy, when the Constitution was written. See
5142:
4758:
4474:
4355:
4073:
4026:
3620:
3022:
2408:
2207:
1313:
Treaty Termination: Hearings Before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 96th Congress, 1st Sess. (1979). On the issue generally,
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The Convention at first leaned toward giving Congress a negative over state laws which were contrary to federal statutes or treaties, 1
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4622:
4263:
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1943:
1469:
1432:
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212:. The legally binding nature of treaties under the Constitution has been consistently recognized by the courts; as early as 1796, the
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3989:
3542:
3430:
3155:
2182:
2152:
1938:
1903:
1883:
121:
87:
As with the drafting of the U.S. Constitution as a whole, the Treaty Clause was influenced by perceived flaws and limitations of the
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526:
In 1972, Congress passed legislation requiring the president to notify Congress of any executive agreements that are formed.
341:
1136:
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2443:
2237:
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4934:
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3996:
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2438:
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222:, applied the Supremacy Clause for the first time in ruling that a treaty superseded conflicting state law. Although the
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in 2002, six months after giving the required notice of intent, but faced no judicial interference nor legal action.
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all supported this arrangement, particularly the amount of agency given to the President relative to the Senate. In
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at 183, but in another clause the legislative branch was authorized to call out the militia to "enforce treaties".
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41:
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381:
In general, arms control agreements are often ratified by the treaty mechanism; trade agreements, such as the
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4001:
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1977:
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506:, argued that ratification was necessary where an international accord would bind subsequent governments:
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Nevertheless, the precise delineation of treaty-making power between the two branches remained contested.
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1863:
1194:"Interpretation: Article II, Section 2: Treaty Power and Appointments | The National Constitution Center"
1158:
Essays on the Constitution of the United States, Published During its Discussion by the People, 1787-1788
1095:"Interpretation: Article II, Section 2: Treaty Power and Appointments | The National Constitution Center"
1016:"Interpretation: Article II, Section 2: Treaty Power and Appointments | The National Constitution Center"
286:(1920) the Supreme Court ruled that the constitutional power to make treaties is separate from the other
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explained that the Article II treaty procedure is not necessary when there is no long-term commitment:
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5015:
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2353:
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at 182. The two words were struck subsequently “as being superfluous” in view of the Supremacy Clause.
26:
1137:"The Unconstitutionality of Long-Term Nuclear Pacts that are Rejected by Over One-Third of the Senate"
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The weakness of the Articles with respect to foreign affairs was most pronounced with respect to the
88:
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Like Washington, many Presidents have approached the Article II treaty process in different ways.
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1992:
1987:
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976:, the Foreign Affairs Power, and the Role of the Courts, 29 UCLA L. Rev. 1129 (1982); L. Henkin,
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Federalist Papers: Primary Documents in American History - Research Guides at Library of Congress
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205:
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that the Article II procedure made the two branches "appropriately combined" in foreign affairs:
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1918:
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100:
189:
Federal statutes and treaties are similarly regarded as the "supreme law of the land" per the
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1961:
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Alliances, Coalitions, and Ententes - The American alliance system: an unamerican tradition
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under international law, they do have major implications under U.S. law; in the 1829 case,
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851:, Vol. III, edited by Dallas, Alexander J, Banks Law Publishing, New York (1905), p. 198.
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and could not be reviewed by the court, as Congress had not issued a formal opposition";
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282:
1154:“Observations on the Alterations Proposed as Amendments to the New Federal Constitution”
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1228:"The Treaty Making Power | Constitution Annotated | Congress.gov | Library of Congress"
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1732:
571:
475:
may terminate a treaty unilaterally if permitted by said treaty's terms. President
423:
328:
190:
133:
61:
1413:
5034:
3984:
3892:
2840:
2788:
2669:
2628:
2539:
2463:
2367:
2349:
2085:
2055:
1913:
1371:
824:
Treaties and other International Agreements: the Role of the United States Senate
209:
1170:
5128:
4300:
4223:
4150:
2778:
2757:
2741:
2705:
2649:
2618:
2433:
690:
2 Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 (Max Farrand ed., 1937), at 538–39.
561:
510:
The Constitution did not explicitly give me power to bring about the necessary
476:
437:
336:
whereas stipulations by treaty are forever irrevocable but by joint consent....
293:
218:
115:
5351:
4452:
4058:
3865:
2883:
2804:
2762:
2731:
2659:
2581:
2453:
2423:
2242:
1953:
1908:
268:
141:
120:
In response to various concerns about the ineffectualness of the Articles, a
53:
45:
681:
2 Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, at 183 (Max Farrand ed., 1937).
442:
which held that "no agreement with a foreign nation can confer power on the
5323:
4547:
4447:
4095:
4090:
456:
34:
1176:
4296:
4248:
4155:
4110:
2970:
2835:
2715:
198:
125:
1339:
756:
706:
606:
2560:
480:
313:
175:
344:
provide for two other mechanisms for making international agreements:
4519:
4125:
2468:
1384:
5094:
First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln
4512:
3963:
1119:
137:
104:
523:
congressional-executive agreements) or the Senate (for treaties).
4033:
2503:
1933:
370:
which are entered into unilaterally by the President pursuant to
4899:
4494:
460:
82:
37:
300:
The Supreme Court clarified the enforceability of treaties in
5073:
Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States
4145:
116:
Debate about treaty making in the Constitutional Convention
184:
3866:
Powers, privileges, procedure, committees, history, media
455:, Congress challenged the constitutionality of President
1365:“Withdrawal from the ABM Treaty: Legal Considerations”
1454:
4996:
List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex
314:
The Treaty Clause and other international agreements
170:
of the legislative body in the office of making them
44:
as the primary negotiator of agreements between the
1075:"Report of the Secretary of State to the President"
459:'s unilateral termination of a defense treaty with
4542:
2878:Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787
1317:Restatement, Foreign Relations, § 339; CRS Study,
479:unilaterally withdrew the United States from the
5349:
5115:George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door
4682:Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations
1120:"Analysis of Congressional-Executive Agreements"
363:followed by the signature of the President; and
486:
18:Clause of the Constitution of the United States
2889:Bibliography of the United States Constitution
1141:Denver Journal of International Law and Policy
5358:Article Two of the United States Constitution
2986:
1440:
649:The Records of the Federal Convention of 178
83:Treaties under the Articles of Confederation
5143:Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way
3000:
2993:
2979:
1447:
1433:
327:As early as 1791, then Secretary of State
204:As with statutes, treaties are subject to
5373:Clauses of the United States Constitution
887:"The UNITED STATES v. The SCHOONER PEGGY"
5329:United States Capitol cornerstone laying
2945:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution
1340:"The Heritage Guide to the Constitution"
782:"WHITNEY et al. v. ROBERTSON, Collector"
757:"The Heritage Guide to the Constitution"
707:"The Heritage Guide to the Constitution"
607:"The Heritage Guide to the Constitution"
48:and other countries, and holds that the
4096:Majority of the majority (Hastert Rule)
3056:
1374:, CRS Report for Congress (2002-12-31).
636:Treaties, Their Making and Enforcement,
5368:Foreign relations of the United States
5350:
3573:Caucuses of the United States Congress
1401:. Via Findlaw. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
1344:The Heritage Guide to the Constitution
1062:The Heritage Guide to the Constitution
827:(Congressional Research Service 2001).
818:
816:
814:
812:
810:
808:
806:
804:
802:
761:The Heritage Guide to the Constitution
711:The Heritage Guide to the Constitution
611:The Heritage Guide to the Constitution
351:which, like federal statutes, require
4541:
3864:
3055:
2974:
1428:
1333:
1331:
1188:
1186:
1124:American Journal of International Law
1089:
1087:
416:
2924:Constitution Day and Citizenship Day
751:
749:
700:
698:
696:
397:congressional-executive agreements.
393:concerning Iran's nuclear program.
3204:Expelled, censured, and reprimanded
2912:Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom
2439:Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
862:"Ware v. Hylton, 3 U.S. 199 (1796)"
799:
557:Foreign policy of the United States
400:
383:North American Free Trade Agreement
255:
107:, could only propose that Congress
13:
2003:Drafting and ratification timeline
1748:District of Columbia Voting Rights
1337:
1328:
1286:Power Authority of New York v. FPC
1183:
1084:
704:
577:
391:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action
347:congressional-executive agreements
342:laws governing U.S. foreign policy
101:Treaty of Paris with Great Britain
60:renders a treaty binding with the
14:
5384:
5087:Progress of Civilization Pediment
4941:Congressional Pictorial Directory
3794:By length of service historically
1456:Constitution of the United States
1407:
995:LII / Legal Information Institute
916:LII / Legal Information Institute
891:LII / Legal Information Institute
786:LII / Legal Information Institute
746:
693:
4955:Official Congressional Directory
4574:Gov. Accountability Office (GAO)
1859:Convention to propose amendments
493:George Washington administration
33:) establishes the procedure for
4764:Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper
3611:Arab and Middle Eastern members
3508:Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group
3043:Lists of United States Congress
1392:
1377:
1357:
1307:
1291:
1278:
1262:
1245:
1220:
1211:
1163:
1146:
1129:
1112:
1067:
1054:
1033:
1008:
983:
966:
955:
943:
929:
904:
879:
854:
842:
839:, 548 U.S. 331, 353–54 (2006),
830:
774:
372:constitutional executive powers
237:United States v. Schooner Peggy
31:Article II, Section 2, Clause 2
4866:Congressional Research Service
4613:Congr. Workplace Rights (OCWR)
3616:Asian Pacific American members
2474:Separation of church and state
1414:Treaties Pending in the Senate
743:31 Annals of Cong. 106 (1818).
737:
724:
684:
675:
641:
628:
599:
567:List of United States treaties
407:Article II of the Constitution
385:and the U.S. accession to the
1:
5363:Treaties of the United States
5101:Surrender of General Burgoyne
4458:Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819)
3621:Asian Pacific American Caucus
3214:Lost re-election in a primary
1978:Virginia Ratifying Convention
1217:5 Annals of Cong. 493 (1796).
1077:(January 18, 1791) quoted in
593:
481:Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
185:Treaties as "law of the land"
93:Congress of the Confederation
77:
5108:Surrender of Lord Cornwallis
5051:The Apotheosis of Washington
4785:Chief Administrative Officer
4623:Gov. Publishing Office (GPO)
2939:National Constitution Center
2737:Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer
2036:Assemble and Petition Clause
512:agreement with Santo Domingo
487:Scope of presidential powers
7:
5273:Health and Fitness Facility
5065:Declaration of Independence
3834:Killed or wounded in office
3655:Congressional Jewish Caucus
3628:Hispanic and Latino members
2810:Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
1864:State ratifying conventions
1801:Equal Opportunity to Govern
1796:Electoral College abolition
1723:Congressional Apportionment
1079:The Jeffersonian Cyclopedia
545:
504:had a robust foreign policy
269:Chief Justice John Marshall
10:
5389:
4687:Interparliamentary Affairs
4608:Congr. Budget Office (CBO)
4244:Riddick's Senate Procedure
3671:Gender and sexual identity
1177:Dames & Moore v. Regan
1064:, The Heritage Foundation.
974:Dames & Moore v. Regan
234:ruling, in the 1801 case,
27:United States Constitution
5316:
5293:Old Supreme Court Chamber
5258:
5208:
5173:
5162:
5006:Congressional Prayer Room
4986:
4923:
4854:
4772:
4721:
4714:
4669:
4643:
4636:
4559:
4555:
4537:
4487:
4453:Congress Hall (1790–1800)
4404:
4395:
4369:
4287:
4166:
3977:
3951:
3875:
3871:
3860:
3799:Current members by wealth
3786:
3734:
3718:
3670:
3581:
3563:
3556:
3530:
3483:
3399:
3392:
3232:
3224:Elected but did not serve
3174:
3111:
3075:
3068:
3064:
3051:
3008:
2897:
2869:
2849:
2828:
2797:
2771:
2750:
2724:
2688:
2637:
2606:
2590:
2569:
2548:
2527:
2511:
2502:
2381:
2263:Privileges and Immunities
2076:Congressional enforcement
2011:
1998:Rhode Island ratification
1889:Articles of Confederation
1876:
1854:
1831:Parental Rights amendment
1756:
1713:
1638:
1610:
1589:
1526:
1522:
1513:
1462:
1419:List of rejected treaties
1232:constitution.congress.gov
991:"The Treaty Making Power"
912:"The Treaty Making Power"
536:Trade Promotion Authority
122:Constitutional Convention
89:Articles of Confederation
4586:Architect of the Capitol
4448:Federal Hall (1789–1790)
3589:African-American members
3013:House of Representatives
2494:Unitary executive theory
2268:Privileges or Immunities
1983:New York Circular Letter
1973:Massachusetts Compromise
1171:United States v. Belmont
837:Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon
520:sole-executive agreement
387:World Trade Organization
361:House of Representatives
38:international agreements
5136:Washington at Princeton
5080:Apotheosis of Democracy
4500:Congressional Quarterly
4189:Executive communication
4179:Blue slip (U.S. Senate)
4136:Suspension of the rules
3662:Native American members
3088:By shortness of service
2414:Dormant Commerce Clause
2258:Presidential succession
1993:Fayetteville Convention
1988:Hillsborough Convention
1924:Three-fifths Compromise
1904:Philadelphia Convention
1894:Mount Vernon Conference
1781:Campaign finance reform
502:, whose administration
206:judicial interpretation
67:
5303:Webster Page Residence
5278:House Recording Studio
5122:Revolutionary War Door
4883:Register of Copyrights
4464:Biographical Directory
3933:"Necessary and Proper"
3473:Policy Committee Chair
3451:Policy Committee Chair
3002:United States Congress
2577:William Samuel Johnson
2449:Nondelegation doctrine
2021:Admission to the Union
1968:Anti-Federalist Papers
1919:Connecticut Compromise
1383:Roosevelt, Theodore.
1321:, 158-167; L. Henkin,
1198:constitutioncenter.org
1099:constitutioncenter.org
1020:constitutioncenter.org
531:nondelegation doctrine
516:
338:
278:
249:
197:no differently than a
172:
75:
4628:Technology Assessment
4049:Dear Colleague letter
4044:Continuing resolution
4039:Concurrent resolution
3518:Republican Conference
3458:Republican Conference
3419:President pro tempore
3151:Born outside the U.S.
2784:Richard Dobbs Spaight
2253:Presidential Electors
2228:Original Jurisdiction
2168:Full Faith and Credit
2041:Assistance of Counsel
1962:The Federalist Papers
1791:Crittenden Compromise
508:
333:
321:Article I, Section 10
273:
244:
167:
71:
5192:Mountains and Clouds
4948:Congressional Record
4805:Floor Services Chief
4692:Law Revision Counsel
4443:Continental Congress
3938:Power of enforcement
3901:Contempt of Congress
3804:From multiple states
3757:Mormon (LDS) members
3565:Congressional caucus
3209:Served a single term
3141:Expelled or censured
3083:By length of service
2953:A More Perfect Union
2929:Constitution Gardens
2850:Convention Secretary
2512:Convention President
2484:Symmetric federalism
2479:Separation of powers
2213:Necessary and Proper
2208:Natural-born citizen
2153:Freedom of the Press
2091:Copyright and Patent
2081:Contingent Elections
1899:Annapolis Convention
1257:The Cherokee Tobacco
1156:(1788) reprinted in
638:ch. 3 (2d ed. 1916).
366:executive agreements
62:force of federal law
5216:Building Commission
4697:Legislative Counsel
4618:Library of Congress
4579:Comptroller General
4569:Congressional staff
4254:Senatorial courtesy
3643:Hispanic Conference
3058:Members and leaders
2960:Worldwide influence
2701:Gunning Bedford Jr.
2429:Executive privilege
2409:Criminal sentencing
2332:Title of Nobility (
2323:Taxing and Spending
2223:Oath or Affirmation
2183:House Apportionment
2046:Case or Controversy
1929:Committee of Detail
1821:"Liberty" amendment
1786:Christian amendment
1338:Ramsey, Michael D.
1298:Goldwater v. Carter
1118:Charnovitz, Steve.
1073:Jefferson, Thomas.
1060:Michael D. Ramsey,
950:252 U.S. 416 (1920)
730:Federalist No. 68,
705:Ramsey, Michael D.
552:Appointments Clause
452:Goldwater v. Carter
355:in both the Senate
283:Missouri v. Holland
5288:Old Senate Chamber
5154:VP Bust Collection
4978:United States Code
4910:Jefferson Building
4603:Cap. Guide Service
4470:Divided government
4387:Seal of the Senate
4351:Select and special
4316:Discharge petition
4269:Tie-breaking votes
4234:Recess appointment
4174:Advice and consent
4054:Discharge petition
3997:Appropriation bill
3906:Declaration of war
3098:Non-voting members
2614:William Livingston
2598:Alexander Hamilton
2404:Criminal procedure
2399:Constitutional law
2334:Foreign Emoluments
2298:State of the Union
2283:Self-Incrimination
2273:Recess appointment
2066:Compulsory Process
1728:Titles of Nobility
1389:, page 510 (1913).
1370:2008-09-12 at the
1045:Holmes v. Jennison
500:Theodore Roosevelt
465:political question
428:political question
417:Repeal of treaties
230:Shortly after the
214:U.S. Supreme Court
146:Alexander Hamilton
50:advice and consent
40:. It empowers the
5345:
5344:
5341:
5340:
5337:
5336:
5254:
5253:
5058:Statue of Freedom
5022:Statue of Freedom
5001:Brumidi Corridors
4973:Statutes at Large
4927:Publishing Office
4850:
4849:
4710:
4709:
4533:
4532:
4529:
4528:
4483:
4482:
4431:election disputes
4419:speaker elections
4382:Mace of the House
4229:Presiding Officer
4194:Executive session
4141:Unanimous consent
4101:Multiple referral
4086:Lame-duck session
3856:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3782:
3781:
3582:Ethnic and racial
3526:
3525:
3513:Democratic Caucus
3436:Democratic Caucus
3388:
3387:
2968:
2967:
2934:Constitution Week
2919:Independence Mall
2907:National Archives
2865:
2864:
2680:Gouverneur Morris
2665:Thomas Fitzsimons
2645:Benjamin Franklin
2519:George Washington
2419:Enumerated powers
2394:Concurrent powers
2389:Balance of powers
2218:No Religious Test
2158:Freedom of Speech
1949:Independence Hall
1872:
1871:
1776:Bricker amendment
1709:
1708:
1363:Ackerman, David.
1152:Sherman, Roger.
937:Medellin v. Texas
584:Warren F. Kimball
353:simple majorities
303:Medellín v. Texas
288:enumerated powers
264:Foster v. Nielson
151:Federalist No. 64
5380:
5171:
5170:
4988:Capitol Building
4962:U.S. Gov. Manual
4915:Madison Building
4878:Copyright Office
4842:Sergeant at Arms
4800:Floor Operations
4719:
4718:
4641:
4640:
4557:
4556:
4539:
4538:
4402:
4401:
4219:Morning business
4106:House procedures
4069:Joint resolution
3873:
3872:
3862:
3861:
3742:Buddhist members
3561:
3560:
3397:
3396:
3219:Switched parties
3166:Switched parties
3103:Unseated members
3093:Youngest members
3073:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3053:
3052:
2995:
2988:
2981:
2972:
2971:
2815:Charles Pinckney
2624:William Paterson
2556:Nathaniel Gorham
2509:
2508:
2288:Speech or Debate
2116:Equal Protection
1826:Ludlow amendment
1811:Flag Desecration
1806:Federal Marriage
1771:Blaine amendment
1733:Corwin Amendment
1524:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1449:
1442:
1435:
1426:
1425:
1402:
1396:
1390:
1386:An Autobiography
1381:
1375:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1335:
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1311:
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1215:
1209:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1190:
1181:
1167:
1161:
1150:
1144:
1135:Hyman, Andrew.
1133:
1127:
1116:
1110:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1091:
1082:
1071:
1065:
1058:
1052:
1037:
1031:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1012:
1006:
1005:
1003:
1001:
987:
981:
970:
964:
959:
953:
947:
941:
933:
927:
926:
924:
922:
908:
902:
901:
899:
897:
883:
877:
876:
874:
872:
858:
852:
846:
840:
834:
828:
820:
797:
796:
794:
792:
778:
772:
771:
769:
767:
753:
744:
741:
735:
728:
722:
721:
719:
717:
702:
691:
688:
682:
679:
673:
645:
639:
632:
626:
625:
619:
617:
603:
572:Supremacy Clause
491:As early as the
424:Head Money Cases
411:executive branch
409:pertains to the
401:Role of Congress
329:Thomas Jefferson
256:Entry into force
195:U.S. federal law
191:Supremacy Clause
52:of a two-thirds
5388:
5387:
5383:
5382:
5381:
5379:
5378:
5377:
5348:
5347:
5346:
5333:
5312:
5260:
5250:
5204:
5165:
5158:
5035:Hall of Columns
4982:
4926:
4919:
4857:
4846:
4827:Parliamentarian
4768:
4759:Parliamentarian
4706:
4665:
4632:
4561:
4551:
4544:Capitol Complex
4525:
4479:
4475:Party divisions
4391:
4365:
4283:
4167:Senate-specific
4162:
4017:Closed sessions
3985:Act of Congress
3973:
3947:
3943:Taxing/spending
3867:
3848:
3839:Party switchers
3808:Died in office
3778:
3730:
3714:
3683:Equality Caucus
3666:
3638:Hispanic Caucus
3577:
3552:
3522:
3479:
3384:
3228:
3170:
3107:
3060:
3047:
3004:
2999:
2969:
2964:
2899:
2893:
2861:
2857:William Jackson
2845:
2841:Abraham Baldwin
2824:
2793:
2789:Hugh Williamson
2767:
2746:
2720:
2711:Richard Bassett
2684:
2670:Jared Ingersoll
2633:
2629:Jonathan Dayton
2602:
2586:
2565:
2544:
2540:Nicholas Gilman
2523:
2498:
2464:Reserved powers
2444:Judicial review
2377:
2173:General Welfare
2096:Double Jeopardy
2007:
1934:List of Framers
1914:New Jersey Plan
1868:
1850:
1846:Victims' Rights
1766:Balanced budget
1752:
1705:
1634:
1606:
1585:
1509:
1458:
1453:
1410:
1405:
1399:1 U.S.C. 112(b)
1397:
1393:
1382:
1378:
1372:Wayback Machine
1362:
1358:
1348:
1346:
1336:
1329:
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1283:
1279:
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1216:
1212:
1202:
1200:
1192:
1191:
1184:
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1134:
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1117:
1113:
1103:
1101:
1093:
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1085:
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1068:
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1055:
1038:
1034:
1024:
1022:
1014:
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997:
989:
988:
984:
971:
967:
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956:
948:
944:
934:
930:
920:
918:
910:
909:
905:
895:
893:
885:
884:
880:
870:
868:
860:
859:
855:
847:
843:
835:
831:
821:
800:
790:
788:
780:
779:
775:
765:
763:
755:
754:
747:
742:
738:
729:
725:
715:
713:
703:
694:
689:
685:
680:
676:
656:at 245, 316, 2
646:
642:
633:
629:
615:
613:
605:
604:
600:
596:
580:
578:Further reading
548:
489:
469:Justice Brennan
419:
403:
316:
258:
199:legislative act
187:
118:
85:
80:
70:
19:
12:
11:
5:
5386:
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5375:
5370:
5365:
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5310:
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5295:
5290:
5285:
5283:Senate chamber
5280:
5275:
5270:
5268:Botanic Garden
5264:
5262:
5256:
5255:
5252:
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5249:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5221:office lottery
5218:
5212:
5210:
5206:
5205:
5203:
5202:
5197:
5196:
5195:
5183:
5177:
5175:
5168:
5160:
5159:
5157:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5139:
5132:
5129:Columbus Doors
5125:
5118:
5111:
5104:
5097:
5090:
5083:
5076:
5069:
5061:
5054:
5047:
5045:Visitor Center
5042:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5026:
5025:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4992:
4990:
4984:
4983:
4981:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4958:
4951:
4944:
4937:
4935:Public Printer
4931:
4929:
4921:
4920:
4918:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4905:Adams Building
4902:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4886:
4885:
4875:
4874:
4873:
4862:
4860:
4852:
4851:
4848:
4847:
4845:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4823:
4822:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4776:
4774:
4770:
4769:
4767:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4725:
4723:
4716:
4712:
4711:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4673:
4671:
4667:
4666:
4664:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4647:
4645:
4638:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4599:
4598:
4588:
4583:
4582:
4581:
4571:
4565:
4563:
4553:
4552:
4535:
4534:
4531:
4530:
4527:
4526:
4524:
4523:
4516:
4509:
4502:
4497:
4491:
4489:
4485:
4484:
4481:
4480:
4478:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4439:
4438:
4433:
4426:Senate history
4423:
4422:
4421:
4416:
4405:
4399:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4373:
4371:
4367:
4366:
4364:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4301:ranking member
4293:
4291:
4285:
4284:
4282:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4264:Standing Rules
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4239:Reconciliation
4236:
4231:
4226:
4224:Nuclear option
4221:
4216:
4213:Senate Journal
4209:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4170:
4168:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4160:
4159:
4158:
4153:
4151:Line-item veto
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4116:Reconciliation
4113:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4082:
4081:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4030:
4029:
4024:
4014:
4009:
4007:Budget process
4004:
3999:
3994:
3993:
3992:
3981:
3979:
3975:
3974:
3972:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3955:
3953:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3928:Naturalization
3925:
3924:
3923:
3918:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3890:
3885:
3879:
3877:
3869:
3868:
3858:
3857:
3854:
3853:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3830:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3790:
3788:
3784:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3777:
3776:
3769:
3767:Quaker members
3764:
3762:Muslim members
3759:
3754:
3752:Jewish members
3749:
3744:
3738:
3736:
3732:
3731:
3729:
3728:
3722:
3720:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3711:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3687:
3686:
3685:
3674:
3672:
3668:
3667:
3665:
3664:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3650:Jewish members
3647:
3646:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3625:
3624:
3623:
3613:
3608:
3607:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3585:
3583:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3575:
3569:
3567:
3558:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3550:
3548:Gerrymandering
3545:
3540:
3534:
3532:
3528:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3487:
3485:
3481:
3480:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3455:
3454:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3433:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3416:
3415:
3414:
3403:
3401:
3394:
3390:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3383:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3236:
3234:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3127:
3126:
3115:
3113:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3079:
3077:
3070:
3062:
3061:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3045:
3040:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3009:
3006:
3005:
2998:
2997:
2990:
2983:
2975:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2962:
2957:
2949:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2915:
2914:
2903:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2860:
2859:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2801:
2799:
2798:South Carolina
2795:
2794:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2779:William Blount
2775:
2773:
2772:North Carolina
2769:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2742:Daniel Carroll
2739:
2734:
2728:
2726:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2706:John Dickinson
2703:
2698:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2685:
2683:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2650:Thomas Mifflin
2647:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2619:David Brearley
2616:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2594:
2592:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2521:
2515:
2513:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2491:
2489:Taxation power
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2434:Implied powers
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2385:
2383:
2382:Interpretation
2379:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2278:Recommendation
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2163:Fugitive Slave
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2133:
2131:Excessive Bail
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2031:Appropriations
2028:
2023:
2017:
2015:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1958:
1957:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1880:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1848:
1843:
1841:Single subject
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1762:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1719:
1717:
1711:
1710:
1707:
1706:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1616:
1614:
1612:Reconstruction
1608:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1586:
1584:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1532:
1530:
1528:Bill of Rights
1517:
1511:
1510:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1459:
1452:
1451:
1444:
1437:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1421:and other info
1416:
1409:
1408:External links
1406:
1404:
1403:
1391:
1376:
1356:
1327:
1306:
1290:
1277:
1269:Reid v. Covert
1261:
1244:
1219:
1210:
1182:
1162:
1145:
1128:
1111:
1083:
1066:
1053:
1032:
1007:
982:
965:
954:
942:
928:
903:
878:
853:
841:
829:
798:
773:
745:
736:
723:
692:
683:
674:
640:
627:
597:
595:
592:
591:
590:
579:
576:
575:
574:
569:
564:
562:Jus tractatuum
559:
554:
547:
544:
540:Field v. Clark
488:
485:
477:George W. Bush
438:Reid v. Covert
418:
415:
402:
399:
315:
312:
294:Reid v. Covert
257:
254:
219:Ware v. Hylton
186:
183:
117:
114:
84:
81:
79:
76:
69:
66:
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5385:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5355:
5353:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5321:
5319:
5315:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5265:
5263:
5257:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5213:
5211:
5207:
5201:
5198:
5194:
5193:
5189:
5188:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5178:
5176:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5161:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5144:
5140:
5138:
5137:
5133:
5131:
5130:
5126:
5124:
5123:
5119:
5117:
5116:
5112:
5110:
5109:
5105:
5103:
5102:
5098:
5096:
5095:
5091:
5089:
5088:
5084:
5082:
5081:
5077:
5075:
5074:
5070:
5068:
5066:
5062:
5060:
5059:
5055:
5053:
5052:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5040:Statuary Hall
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5024:
5023:
5019:
5018:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4993:
4991:
4989:
4985:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4963:
4959:
4957:
4956:
4952:
4950:
4949:
4945:
4943:
4942:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4922:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4895:Poet Laureate
4893:
4891:
4888:
4884:
4881:
4880:
4879:
4876:
4872:
4869:
4868:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4861:
4859:
4853:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4837:Reading Clerk
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4821:
4818:
4817:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4777:
4775:
4771:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4726:
4724:
4720:
4717:
4713:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4677:Congr. Ethics
4675:
4674:
4672:
4668:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4646:
4642:
4639:
4635:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4597:
4594:
4593:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4580:
4577:
4576:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4566:
4564:
4558:
4554:
4549:
4545:
4540:
4536:
4522:
4521:
4517:
4515:
4514:
4510:
4508:
4507:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4492:
4490:
4486:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4465:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4428:
4427:
4424:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4411:
4410:
4409:House history
4407:
4406:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4394:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4374:
4372:
4368:
4362:
4361:Subcommittees
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4346:List (Senate)
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4298:
4295:
4294:
4292:
4290:
4286:
4280:
4279:Treaty Clause
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4214:
4210:
4208:
4207:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4165:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4148:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4080:
4077:
4076:
4075:
4074:Joint session
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4059:Enrolled bill
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4019:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3991:
3988:
3987:
3986:
3983:
3982:
3980:
3976:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3950:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
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3747:Hindu members
3745:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3737:
3733:
3727:
3724:
3723:
3721:
3717:
3709:
3708:current House
3706:
3704:
3703:Issues Caucus
3701:
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3696:
3694:
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3543:Apportionment
3541:
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3409:
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3341:
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3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
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3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
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3231:
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3215:
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3200:
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3185:
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3180:
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3177:
3173:
3167:
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3162:
3159:
3157:
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3149:
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3139:
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3134:
3132:
3129:
3125:
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3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3054:
3050:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3035: →
3034:
3031: ←
3030:
3026:
3024:
3023:Joint session
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3007:
3003:
2996:
2991:
2989:
2984:
2982:
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2955:
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2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2913:
2910:
2909:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2902:
2896:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2884:Jacob Shallus
2882:
2880:
2879:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2858:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2848:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2827:
2821:
2820:Pierce Butler
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2805:John Rutledge
2803:
2802:
2800:
2796:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2770:
2764:
2763:James Madison
2761:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2732:James McHenry
2730:
2729:
2727:
2723:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2693:
2691:
2687:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2660:George Clymer
2658:
2656:
2655:Robert Morris
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2636:
2630:
2627:
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2622:
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2617:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2609:
2605:
2599:
2596:
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2593:
2589:
2583:
2582:Roger Sherman
2580:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2549:Massachusetts
2547:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2528:New Hampshire
2526:
2520:
2517:
2516:
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2510:
2507:
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2501:
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2477:
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2470:
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2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2454:Plenary power
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2424:Equal footing
2422:
2420:
2417:
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2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
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2374:
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2359:
2355:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2345:Trial by Jury
2343:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
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2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
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2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2198:Ineligibility
2196:
2194:
2193:Import-Export
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2148:Free Exercise
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2138:
2137:Ex Post Facto
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2121:Establishment
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
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2092:
2089:
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2079:
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2072:
2071:Confrontation
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
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2057:
2054:
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2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1954:Syng inkstand
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1909:Virginia Plan
1907:
1906:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
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1836:School Prayer
1834:
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1471:
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1427:
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1334:
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1324:
1320:
1316:
1310:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1287:
1281:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1258:
1254:
1253:Doe v. Braden
1248:
1233:
1229:
1223:
1214:
1199:
1195:
1189:
1187:
1179:
1178:
1173:
1172:
1166:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1125:
1121:
1115:
1100:
1096:
1090:
1088:
1080:
1076:
1070:
1063:
1057:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1041:Supreme Court
1036:
1021:
1017:
1011:
996:
992:
986:
979:
975:
969:
963:
958:
951:
946:
939:
938:
932:
917:
913:
907:
892:
888:
882:
867:
863:
857:
850:
845:
838:
833:
826:
825:
819:
817:
815:
813:
811:
809:
807:
805:
803:
787:
783:
777:
762:
758:
752:
750:
740:
733:
727:
712:
708:
701:
699:
697:
687:
678:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
650:
644:
637:
634:S. Crandall,
631:
624:
612:
608:
602:
598:
589:
585:
582:
581:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
549:
543:
541:
537:
532:
529:Although the
527:
524:
521:
515:
513:
507:
505:
501:
496:
494:
484:
482:
478:
472:
470:
466:
462:
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439:
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414:
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408:
398:
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388:
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379:
375:
373:
369:
367:
362:
358:
354:
350:
348:
343:
337:
332:
330:
325:
324:procedure.
322:
311:
309:
305:
304:
298:
296:
295:
289:
285:
284:
277:
272:
270:
267:
265:
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233:
228:
225:
221:
220:
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207:
202:
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196:
192:
182:
179:
177:
174:By contrast,
171:
166:
164:
163:
159:
158:
153:
152:
147:
143:
142:James Madison
139:
135:
130:
127:
123:
113:
110:
106:
102:
97:
94:
90:
74:
65:
63:
59:
55:
54:supermajority
51:
47:
46:United States
43:
39:
36:
32:
28:
24:
23:Treaty Clause
16:
5324:Capitol Hill
5190:
5141:
5134:
5127:
5120:
5113:
5106:
5099:
5092:
5085:
5078:
5071:
5064:
5056:
5049:
5020:
4960:
4953:
4946:
4939:
4548:Capitol Hill
4518:
4511:
4504:
4463:
4341:List (House)
4336:List (Joint)
4306:Of the Whole
4278:
4212:
4205:
4204:Jefferson's
4091:Magic minute
3844:Slave owners
3827:2000–present
3773:Sikh members
3771:
3678:LGBT members
3604:Black Caucus
3380:118th (2023)
3375:117th (2021)
3370:116th (2019)
3365:115th (2017)
3360:114th (2015)
3355:113th (2013)
3350:112th (2011)
3345:111th (2009)
3340:110th (2007)
3335:109th (2005)
3330:108th (2003)
3325:107th (2001)
3320:106th (1999)
3315:105th (1997)
3310:104th (1995)
3305:103rd (1993)
3300:102nd (1991)
3295:101st (1989)
3290:100th (1987)
2951:
2943:
2876:
2675:James Wilson
2638:Pennsylvania
2535:John Langdon
2339:
2293:Speedy Trial
2135:
2026:Appointments
1960:
1743:Equal Rights
1639:20th century
1394:
1385:
1379:
1359:
1349:December 18,
1347:. Retrieved
1343:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1302:444 U.S. 996
1297:
1293:
1285:
1280:
1268:
1264:
1256:
1252:
1247:
1237:December 18,
1235:. Retrieved
1231:
1222:
1213:
1203:December 18,
1201:. Retrieved
1197:
1175:
1169:
1165:
1157:
1148:
1140:
1131:
1123:
1114:
1104:December 19,
1102:. Retrieved
1098:
1078:
1069:
1056:
1044:
1035:
1025:December 19,
1023:. Retrieved
1019:
1010:
1000:December 19,
998:. Retrieved
994:
985:
980:, at 137-156
977:
973:
968:
957:
945:
935:
931:
921:December 19,
919:. Retrieved
915:
906:
896:December 18,
894:. Retrieved
890:
881:
871:December 19,
869:. Retrieved
865:
856:
848:
844:
836:
832:
823:
791:December 18,
789:. Retrieved
785:
776:
766:December 20,
764:. Retrieved
760:
739:
726:
716:December 19,
714:. Retrieved
710:
686:
677:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
648:
643:
635:
630:
621:
616:December 20,
614:. Retrieved
610:
601:
539:
528:
525:
519:
517:
509:
497:
490:
473:
457:Jimmy Carter
450:
448:
436:
433:
420:
404:
395:
380:
376:
364:
356:
345:
339:
334:
326:
317:
307:
301:
299:
292:
281:
279:
274:
262:
259:
250:
245:
235:
231:
229:
223:
217:
203:
188:
180:
173:
168:
161:
155:
149:
131:
119:
108:
98:
86:
72:
22:
20:
15:
5298:Power Plant
4890:Law Library
4591:Cap. Police
4560:Legislative
4249:Senate hold
4156:Pocket veto
4131:Sponsorship
4111:Quorum call
3911:Impeachment
3285:99th (1985)
3280:98th (1983)
3275:97th (1981)
3270:96th (1979)
3265:95th (1977)
3260:94th (1975)
3255:93rd (1973)
3250:92nd (1971)
3245:91st (1969)
3240:90th (1967)
3233:New members
2836:William Few
2716:Jacob Broom
2696:George Read
2570:Connecticut
2504:Signatories
2354:Legislative
2328:Territorial
2248:Presentment
2233:Origination
2188:Impeachment
2143:Extradition
2111:Engagements
2101:Due Process
2051:Citizenship
1738:Child Labor
1049:39 U.S. 540
134:federalists
126:upper house
5352:Categories
5261:facilities
4968:Serial Set
4856:Library of
4832:Postmaster
4795:Doorkeeper
4656:Historical
4311:Conference
4289:Committees
4274:Traditions
4199:Filibuster
3952:Privileges
3726:Physicians
3719:Occupation
3468:Vice-Chair
3069:Membership
2948:(painting)
2900:and legacy
2758:John Blair
2607:New Jersey
2561:Rufus King
2459:Preemption
2373:War Powers
2308:Suspension
2126:Exceptions
1816:Human Life
1715:Unratified
1515:Amendments
1273:354 U.S. 1
962:354 U.S. 1
866:Justia Law
594:References
176:Rufus King
157:Federalist
78:Background
5236:Longworth
5166:buildings
5149:VP's Room
4810:Historian
4749:Librarian
4744:Historian
4729:Secretary
4715:Employees
4520:Roll Call
4331:Oversight
4259:Seniority
4126:Saxbe fix
4064:Expulsion
3978:Procedure
3916:Inquiries
3896:(Dormant)
3888:Copyright
3883:Article I
3822:1950–1999
3817:1900–1949
3812:1790–1899
3531:Districts
3446:Secretary
3407:President
3187:seniority
3161:Appointed
3124:seniority
2469:Saxbe fix
2358:Executive
2313:Take Care
2303:Supremacy
2178:Guarantee
2106:Elections
1877:Formation
1590:1795–1804
672:at 389–90
405:Although
42:President
35:ratifying
5067:painting
4858:Congress
4780:Chaplain
4734:Chaplain
4513:Politico
4506:The Hill
4356:Standing
4321:Hearings
4297:Chairman
3969:Immunity
3964:Franking
3959:Salaries
3893:Commerce
3735:Religion
3156:Resigned
2751:Virginia
2725:Maryland
2689:Delaware
2591:New York
2368:Vicinage
2362:Judicial
2086:Contract
2056:Commerce
1944:Printing
1758:Proposed
1470:Preamble
1463:Articles
1368:Archived
1174:(1937);
546:See also
542:(1892).
444:Congress
308:Medellin
138:John Jay
132:Leading
105:John Jay
5317:Related
5246:Rayburn
5241:O'Neill
5200:Russell
5181:Dirksen
5030:Rotunda
4871:reports
4739:Curator
4702:Library
4661:Library
4651:Curator
4637:Offices
4562:offices
4436:memoirs
4414:memoirs
4397:History
4184:Classes
4034:Cloture
4012:Censure
3787:Related
3503:Leaders
3491:Speaker
3431:Leaders
3393:Leaders
3182:Members
3146:Classes
3119:Members
3076:Members
2898:Display
2870:Related
2829:Georgia
2350:Vesting
2318:Takings
2203:Militia
2061:Compact
2013:Clauses
1939:Signing
1884:History
1304:(1979).
1275:(1957).
1180:(1981).
1143:(1995).
1126:(2004).
1081:(1900).
109:request
56:of the
25:of the
5308:Subway
5226:Cannon
5174:Senate
5164:Office
4900:THOMAS
4722:Senate
4644:Senate
4495:C-SPAN
4377:Gavels
4326:Markup
4206:Manual
4027:Senate
3876:Powers
3693:Senate
3689:Women
3594:Senate
3557:Groups
3400:Senate
3199:Former
3136:Former
3112:Senate
3018:Senate
2956:(film)
2340:Treaty
2243:Postal
2238:Pardon
940:, 2008
461:Taiwan
210:review
162:No. 75
144:, and
58:Senate
5259:Other
5209:House
5011:Crypt
4820:Board
4815:Pages
4790:Clerk
4773:House
4754:Pages
4670:House
4596:Board
4488:Media
4370:Items
4121:Rider
4022:House
3921:Trial
3698:House
3599:House
3484:House
3463:Chair
3441:Chair
3175:House
3037:119th
3033:118th
3029:117th
1323:supra
1319:supra
978:supra
216:, in
136:like
5231:Ford
5186:Hart
5016:Dome
4925:Gov.
4299:and
4146:Veto
4079:list
4002:Bill
3990:list
3633:list
3538:List
3496:list
3424:list
3412:list
3194:Dean
3131:Dean
1351:2021
1239:2021
1205:2021
1106:2021
1039:The
1027:2021
1002:2021
923:2021
898:2021
873:2021
793:2021
768:2021
718:2021
618:2021
359:the
232:Ware
224:Ware
208:and
68:Text
21:The
1505:VII
1485:III
1315:see
670:Id.
666:Id.
662:id.
658:id.
654:Id.
449:In
374:.
357:and
280:In
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2360:/
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1625:14
1620:13
1602:12
1597:11
1581:10
1500:VI
1490:IV
1480:II
1342:.
1330:^
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