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construction" and "crystallize public sentiment" for "further construction of the same character." Generally, the LHA worked with the
Portland Cement Association to arrange donations of cement for the seeding mileage...The most famous "seedling" and one of the most talked about portions of the Lincoln Highway was the 1.3-mile "Ideal Section" between Dyer and Schererville in Lake County, Indiana. In 1920, the LHA decided to develop a model section of road that would be adequate not only for current traffic but for highway transportation over the following 2 decades. The LHA assembled 17 of the country's foremost highway experts for meetings in December 1920 and February 1921 to decide design details of the Ideal Section. They agreed on such features as: A 110-foot right-of-way; A 40-foot wide concrete pavement 10 inches thick (maximum loads of 8,000 pounds per wheel were the basis for the pavement design); Minimum radius for curves of 1,000 feet, with guardrail at all embankments; Curves superelevated (i.e., banked) for a speed of 35 miles per hour; No grade crossings or advertising signs; and A footpath for pedestrians.
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they last significantly longer than other paving surfaces; but they have a much smaller market share than other paving solutions. Modern paving methods and design methods have changed the economics of concrete paving so that a well-designed and placed concrete pavement will be cheaper in initial cost and significantly cheaper over the life cycle. Another important advantage is that waterproof concrete can be used, which eliminates the need to place storm drains next to the road and reduces the need for a slightly sloped driveway to drain rainwater. Avoiding rainwater discharge by using runoff also means less electricity is needed (otherwise more pumps would be needed in the water distribution system) and rainwater is not polluted because it no longer mixes with polluted water. Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the earth. A previous disadvantage was that they had a higher initial cost and could be more time-consuming to construct. This cost can typically be offset through the long life cycle of the pavement and the higher cost of bitumen. Concrete pavement can be maintained over time utilizing a series of methods known as
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expansion and contraction with non-rubber components. The application of rubberized asphalt is more temperature-sensitive and in many locations can only be applied at certain times of the year. Study results of the long-term acoustic benefits of rubberized asphalt are inconclusive. Initial application of rubberized asphalt may provide a reduction of 3–5 decibels (dB) in tire-pavement-source noise emissions; however, this translates to only 1–3 dB in total traffic-noise reduction when combined with the other components of traffic noise. Compared to traditional passive attenuating measures (e.g., noise walls and earth berms), rubberized asphalt provides shorter-lasting and lesser acoustic benefits at typically much greater expense.
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459:). His road building method was simpler than Telford's, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support the road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath from water and wear. Size of stones was central to McAdam's road building theory. The lower 200-millimetre (7.9 in) road thickness was restricted to stones no larger than 75 millimetres (3.0 in).
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the equipment used to break the concrete pavement and the size of the resulting pieces. The theory is that frequent small cracks will spread thermal stress over a wider area than infrequent large joints, reducing the stress on the overlying asphalt pavement. "Rubblization" is a more complete fracturing of the old, worn-out concrete, effectively converting the old pavement into an aggregate base for a new asphalt road.
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455:. Telford's method of road building involved the digging of a large trench in which a foundation of heavy rock was set. He designed his roads so that they sloped downwards from the centre, allowing drainage to take place, a major improvement on the work of Trésaguet. The surface of his roads consisted of broken stone. McAdam developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known as
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130:. Asphalt mixtures have been used in pavement construction since the beginning of the 20th century and are of two types: metalled (hard-surfaced) and unmetalled roads. Metalled roadways are made to sustain vehicular load and so are usually made on frequently used roads. Unmetalled roads, also known as gravel roads or dirt roads, are rough and can sustain less weight. Road surfaces are frequently
659:. This can reduce the cost of the concrete and improve its physical properties. The material is applied in a freshly mixed slurry and worked mechanically to compact the interior and force some of the cement slurry to the surface to produce a smoother, denser surface free from honeycombing. The water allows the mix to combine molecularly in a chemical reaction called
1504:(AASHTO) 1993/98 "Guide for Design of Pavement Structures". A mechanistic-empirical design guide was developed through the NCHRP process, resulting in the Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG), which was adopted by AASHTO in 2008, although MEPDG implementation by state departments of transportation has been slow.
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increases on rough pavement, as does wear and tear of vehicle components. It has been estimated that poor road surfaces cost the average US driver $ 324 per year in vehicle repairs, or a total of $ 67 billion. Also, it has been estimated that small improvements in road surface conditions can decrease
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The LHA also sponsored short concrete "Seedling Mile" object lesson roads in many locations (the first, built in the fall of 1914, was just west of Malta, Illinois). The "Seedling Miles," according to the LHA's 1924 guide, were intended "to demonstrate the desirability of this permanent type of road
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bed, producing a dust-free road. A TMS road reduces mud problems and provides stone-free roads for local residents where loaded truck traffic is negligible. The TMS layer adds no significant structural strength, and so is used on secondary highways with low traffic volume and minimal weight loading.
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process. Geosynthetics can be used for reflective crack control. With break and seat and crack and seat processes, a heavy weight is dropped on the concrete to induce cracking, then a heavy roller is used to seat the resultant pieces into the subbase. The main difference between the two processes is
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was used for the first time, mixing crumb rubber from used tires with asphalt. While a potential use for tires that would otherwise fill landfills and present a fire hazard, rubberized asphalt has shown greater incidence of wear in freeze-thaw cycles in temperate zones because of the non-homogeneous
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Composite pavements combine a
Portland cement concrete sublayer with an asphalt overlay. They are usually used to rehabilitate existing roadways rather than in new construction. Asphalt overlays are sometimes laid over distressed concrete to restore a smooth wearing surface. A disadvantage of this
1727:"Piryonesi, S. M., & El-Diraby, T. (2018). Using Data Analytics for Cost-Effective Prediction of Road Conditions: Case of The Pavement Condition Index:[summary report] (No. FHWA-HRT-18-065). United States. Federal Highway Administration. Office of Research, Development, and Technology"
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One of the major advantages of concrete pavements is they are typically stronger and more durable than asphalt roadways. The surface can be grooved to provide a durable skid-resistant surface. Concrete roads are more economical to drive in terms of fuel consumption, they reflect light better, and
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Wheeled transport created the need for better roads. Generally, natural materials cannot be both soft enough to form well-graded surfaces and strong enough to bear wheeled vehicles, especially when wet, and stay intact. In urban areas it began to be worthwhile to build stone-paved streets and, in
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Bituminous pavement is heated to 120–150 °C (250–300 °F), milled, combined with a rejuvenating agent and/or virgin asphalt binder, and compacted. It may then be overlaid with new asphalt concrete. This process typically recycles the top 50 mm (2 in) or less and may be used to
655:, and water. In virtually all modern mixes there will also be various admixtures added to increase workability, reduce the required amount of water, mitigate harmful chemical reactions, and for other beneficial purposes. In many cases there will also be Portland cement substitutes added, such as
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The full thickness of the asphalt pavement and underlying material is pulverized to provide a uniform blend of material. A binding agent or stabilizing material may be mixed in to form a base course for the new pavement, or it may be left unbound to form a sub-base course. Common binding agents
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Bituminous pavement is ground or milled into small particles. The asphalt millings are blended with asphalt emulsion, foamed bitumen, or soft bitumen to rejuvenate the aged asphalt binder. New aggregate may also be added. The resulting asphalt mix is paved and compacted. It may serve as the top
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Concrete roadways may produce more noise than asphalt from tire noise on cracks and expansion joints. A concrete pavement composed of multiple slabs of uniform size will produce a periodic sound and vibration in each vehicle as its tires pass over each expansion joint. These monotonous repeated
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A granular surface can be used with a traffic volume where the annual average daily traffic is 1,200 vehicles per day or less. There is some structural strength if the road surface combines a sub base and base and is topped with a double-graded seal aggregate with emulsion. Besides the 4,929
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An asphalt concrete surface will generally be constructed for high-volume primary highways having an average annual daily traffic load greater than 1,200 vehicles per day. Advantages of asphalt roadways include relatively low noise, relatively low cost compared with other paving methods, and
1710:"Ford, K., Arman, M., Labi, S., Sinha, K.C., Thompson, P.D., Shirole, A.M., and Li, Z. 2012. NCHRP Report 713: Estimating life expectancies of highway assets. In Transportation Research Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. Transportation Research Board, Washington DC"
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rates for trucks are higher than those for cars in most countries for this reason, though they are not levied in proportion to the damage done. Passenger cars are considered to have little practical effect on a pavement's service life, from a materials fatigue perspective.
470:, who noticed that spilled tar on the roadway kept the dust down and created a smooth surface. He took out a patent in 1901 for tarmac. Hooley's 1901 patent for tarmac involved mechanically mixing tar and aggregate prior to lay-down, and then compacting the mixture with a
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throughout the world, but fell out of fashion in most countries, due to the high cost of labor required to lay and maintain them, and are typically only kept for historical or aesthetic reasons. In some countries, however, they are still common in local streets. In the
402:. Roman roads varied from simple corduroy roads to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils.
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Other types of BSTs include micropaving, slurry seals and
Novachip. These are laid down using specialized and proprietary equipment. They are most often used in urban areas where the roughness and loose stone associated with chip seals is considered undesirable.
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The decision whether to pave a gravel road or not often hinges on traffic volume. It has been found that maintenance costs for gravel roads often exceed the maintenance costs for paved or surface-treated roads when traffic volumes exceed 200 vehicles per day.
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may or may not have been added. Next, large stones were placed and compacted, followed by successive layers of smaller stones, until the road surface was composed of small stones compacted into a hard, durable surface. "Road metal" later became the name of
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from repeated loading over time is the most common failure mechanism. Most asphalt surfaces are laid on a gravel base, which is generally at least as thick as the asphalt layer, although some 'full depth' asphalt surfaces are laid directly on the native
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Existing concrete pavement is milled into gravel-sized particles. Any steel reinforcing is removed, and the ground pavement is compacted to form the base and/or sub-base layers for new asphalt pavement. Ground pavement may also be compacted for use on
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Roadway surfacing choices are known to affect the intensity and spectrum of sound emanating from the tire/surface interaction. Initial applications of noise studies occurred in the early 1970s. Noise phenomena are highly influenced by vehicle speed.
809:. This pavement is commonly referred to as reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). RAP can be transported to an asphalt plant, where it will be stockpiled for use in new pavement mixes, or it may be recycled in-place using the techniques described below.
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Concrete surfaces have been classified into three common types: jointed plain (JPCP), jointed reinforced (JRCP) and continuously reinforced (CRCP). The one item that distinguishes each type is the jointing system used to control crack development.
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Several design methods have been developed to determine the thickness and composition of road surfaces required to carry predicted traffic loads for a given period of time. Pavement design methods are continuously evolving. Among these are the
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pavements are sometimes found beneath modern asphalt concrete or
Portland cement concrete pavements, because the cost of their removal at the time of renovation would not significantly benefit the durabilty and longevity of the newer surface.
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correct surface defects, such as rutting or polishing. To preserve the condition of the asphalt binder and avoid excessive hydrocarbon emissions, heating is typically achieved gradually through the use of infrared or hot air heaters.
1226:. Another method is to use a brick pattern stencil and apply a surfacing material over the stencil. Materials that can be applied to give the color of the brick and skid resistance can be in many forms. An example is to use colored
895:. This type of surface is described by a wide variety of regional terms including "chip seal", "tar and chip", "oil and stone", "seal coat", "sprayed seal", "surface dressing", "microsurfacing", "seal", or simply as "bitumen".
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There are ways to create the appearance of brick pavement, without the expense of actual bricks. The first method to create brick texture is to heat an asphalt pavement and use metal wires to imprint a brick pattern using a
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to road building in France at the same time as
Metcalf. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France. It involved a layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel.
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has been shown to give a 3–5 dB reduction in tire-pavement noise emissions, and a marginally discernible 1–3 dB reduction in total road noise emissions when compared to conventional asphalt applications.
1198:. One popular measure is to use brick paving - the noise and vibration slows motorists down. At the same time, it is not uncommon for cycle paths alongside a road to have a smoother surface than the road itself.
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Depending on the temperature at which it is applied, asphalt is categorized as hot mix, warm mix, half warm mix, or cold mix. Hot mix asphalt is applied at temperatures over 150 °C (300 °F) with a
914:. The ease of application of BST is one reason for its popularity, but another is its flexibility, which is important when roadways are laid down over unstable terrain that thaws and softens in the spring.
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perceived ease of repair. Disadvantages include less durability than other paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete, the tendency to become slick and soft in hot weather, and a certain amount of
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Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little useful innovation in road building before the 18th century. The first professional road builder to emerge during the
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and mechanical properties of the mix. This technique is typically used to address structural failures in the pavement, such as alligator cracking, deep rutting, and shoulder drop-off.
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method is that movement in the joints between the underlying concrete slabs, whether from thermal expansion and contraction, or from deflection of the concrete slabs from truck
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is used mainly on low-traffic roads, but also as a sealing coat to rejuvenate an asphalt concrete pavement. It generally consists of aggregate spread over a sprayed-on asphalt
1076:". The term originally referred to the process of creating a gravel roadway. The route of the roadway would first be dug down several feet and, depending on local conditions,
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program in 1997. From 1998 through 2007, more than 41,000 km of city streets were converted to local access roads with a speed limit of 30 km/h, for the purpose of
506:), sometimes called flexible pavement since its viscosity causes minute deformations as it distributes loads, has been widely used since the 1920s. The viscous nature of the
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include asphalt emulsion, fly ash, hydrated lime, Portland cement, and calcium chloride. Virgin aggregate, RAP, or crushed
Portland cement may also be added to improve the
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706:, established in October 1913 to oversee the creation of one of the United States' earliest east-west transcontinental highways for the automobile, began to establish
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Road surface markings are used on paved roadways to provide guidance and information to drivers and pedestrians. It can be in the form of mechanical markers such as
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1515:(PAMELA). It is used to simulate everyday scenarios, from different pavement users to varying pavement conditions. There also exists a research facility near
683:, joint and crack sealing, cross-stitching, etc. Diamond grinding is also useful in reducing noise and restoring skid resistance in older concrete pavement.
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Moghadas Nejad, Fereidoon; Noory, Alireza; Toolabi, Saeed; Fallah, Shahab (8 August 2014). "Effect of using geosynthetics on reflective crack prevention".
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Measuring performance indicators for decision-making in winter maintenance operations. 2004 Annual conference of the
Transportation Association of Canada
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Distressed pavement can be reused when rehabilitating a roadway. The existing pavement is broken up and may be ground on-site through a process called
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3097:"Endurablend Systems for Color Surfacing - Colors, Seals, Textures and Protects to Extend Service Life of Asphalt and Concrete Pavement Surfaces"
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which can be heat applied to the top layer of the brick-pattern surface. Other coating materials over stamped asphalt are paints and two-part
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8th World
Congress on Computational Mechanics 5th European Congress on computational methods in applied sciences and engineering ECCOMAS
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cycle in cold climates will dramatically accelerate pavement deterioration, once water can penetrate the surface. Clay and fumed silica
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By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, new methods of highway construction had been pioneered by the work of two
British engineers:
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559:. Warm mix asphalt is applied at temperatures of 95–120 °C (200–250 °F), resulting in reduced energy usage and emissions of
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methods are beginning to be used for low-impact roadways and walkways to prevent flooding. Pavements are crucial to countries such as
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563:. Cold mix asphalt is often used on lower-volume rural roads, where hot mix asphalt would cool too much on the long trip from the
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may be allowed on passenger cars. In Sweden and
Finland, studded passenger car tires account for a very large share of pavement
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Construction involves minimal subgrade preparation, following by covering with a 50-to-100-millimetre (2–4 in) cold mix
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or cut-back asphalt cement. The aggregate is then embedded into the asphalt by rolling it, typically with a rubber-tired
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Al-Qadi, Imad; Elseifi, Mostafa; Carpenter, Samuel (1 March 2007). "Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement - A Literature Review".
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into pavements has led to the development of an indoor, 80-sq-metre artificial pavement at a research centre called
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has the responsibility of maintaining 6,102 kilometres (3,792 mi) of thin membrane surface (TMS) highways.
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Polymer cement overlaying to change asphalt pavement to brick texture and color to create decorative crosswalk
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Guidelines for the Rehabilitation of Concrete Pavements Using Asphalt Overlays (FHWA TPF-5(149) Final Report)
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1143:), generally in the form of pre-cast concrete blocks, are often used for aesthetic purposes, or sometimes at
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Some communities are finding it makes sense to convert their low-volume paved roads to aggregate surfaces.
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Different layers of road including asphalt layer. The total thickness of a pavement can be measured using
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gets stiffer and less flexible. When it gets "old" enough, the surface will start losing aggregates, and
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Asphalt Pavements: A Practical Guide to Design, Production and Maintenance for Engineers and Architects
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Lee, B. J.; Lee, H. (2004). "Position-Invariant Neural Network for Digital Pavement Crack Analysis".
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Other failure modes include aging and surface abrasion. As years go by, the binder in a bituminous
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Making Michigan Move: A History of Michigan Highways and the Michigan Department of Transportation
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In addition to repair costs, the condition of a road surface has economic effects for road users.
372:, a port on the south coast of the island, which had side drains, a 200 mm thick pavement of
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2911:. 6th International Conference on Heavy Vehicle Weights and Dimension Proceedings. Archived from
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An example of composite pavement: hot-mix asphalt overlaid onto Portland cement concrete pavement
159:, in construction, is an outdoor floor or superficial surface covering. Paving materials include
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This article is about road surface pavement material. For other uses of the term "pavement", see
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Li, Qiang; Xiao, Danny X.; Wang, Kelvin C. P.; Hall, Kevin D.; Qiu, Yanjun (27 September 2013).
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or surface dressing can prolong the life of the road at low cost. In areas with cold climate,
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depth increases dramatically. If no maintenance action is done quickly on the wearing course,
718:, while using concrete with the specified concrete "ideal section" for the Lincoln Highway in
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1861:. (Details of this story vary a bit, but the essence of is the same, as are the basic facts).
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86:) is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot
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3347:"Pavements" website of the US Department of Transportation's Federal Highway Administration
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kilometres (3,063 mi) of granular pavements maintained in Saskatchewan, around 40% of
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3070:(presentation video). Seattle Neighborhood Greenways. Event occurs at 3:49 and 9:19 min.
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meant that by 2000 BC stone-cutting tools were generally available in the Middle East and
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1190:, brick paving has made something of a comeback since the adoption of a major nationwide
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2902:"Experimental and numerical simulation of loading impact on modified granular pavements"
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2664:"Feasibility of Alternative salt storage structures in Saskatchewan Neilburg case study"
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is known to have been used extensively in the construction of roads by soldiers of the
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2649:"More than 100 motorists lodge damage claims after road seal peels off at Dome Valley"
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If the road is still structurally sound, a bituminous surface treatment, such as a
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232:. The meaning of a beaten-down floor was obsolete before the word entered English.
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may potentially be used as efficient UV-anti aging coatings in asphalt pavements.
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2062:. 6th International Conference on Heavy Vehicle Weights and Dimension Proceedings
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2518:"Rubblizing with Bituminous Concrete Overlay - 10 Years' Experience in Illinois"
2183:"Road Infrastructure Strategic Framework for South Africa A Discussion Document"
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2613:. National Cooperative Highway. Transportation Research Board. pp. 13–20.
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Construction crew laying down asphalt over fiber-optic trench, in New York City
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Khazanovich, L.; Lederle, R.; Tompkins, D.; Harvey, J.T.; Signore, J. (2012).
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process uses Portland cement concrete to resurface a distressed asphalt road.
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Gerbrandt, Ron; Tim Makahoniuk; Cathy Lynn Borbely; Curtis Berthelot (2000).
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To decrease reflective cracking, concrete pavement is broken apart through a
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Oeser, Markus; Sabine Werkmeister; Alvaro Gonzales; David Alabaster (2008).
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2939:"Cost Comparison of Treatments Used to Maintain or Upgrade Aggregate Roads"
2597:, Local Government & Municipal Knowledge Base, accessed 29 January 2010
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Advances in Pavement Design through Full-scale Accelerated Pavement Testing
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618:
551:
boards are used to delay and minimize frost penetration into the subgrade.
255:
55:
547:
are also used for this purpose, and in some northern countries a layer of
153:
have been launched to optimize the life cycle of different road surfaces.
4669:
4314:
4304:
4279:
4204:
4115:
4068:
4063:
4013:
3818:
3750:
3719:
1580:
1482:
1463:
1442:
can do more than 10,000 times the damage done by a normal passenger car.
1398:
1187:
1166:
1110:
1008:
999:
935:
892:
823:
694:
in 1893. The first mile of concrete pavement in the United States was on
576:
572:
548:
471:
399:
329:
301:
172:
127:
111:
99:
44:
3251:"Mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide (MEPDG): a bird's-eye view"
1411:
1054:
4659:
4535:
4408:
4344:
4309:
4289:
4170:
4140:
4110:
4050:
3998:
3650:
3267:
3250:
3190:
3084:... the cycle track is asphalt (...) and the lane for cars is brick ...
2946:
Proceedings of the 2003 Mid-Continent Transportation Research Symposium
2344:
2328:. Lansing, Michigan: Michigan Department of Transportation. p. 4.
1488:
The physical properties of a stretch of pavement can be tested using a
1307:
Roadway surface types contribute differential noise effects of up to 4
1206:
1182:
1174:
1154:
1090:
1058:
1030:
1026:
1004:
637:
622:
586:
463:
345:
2060:
Effect of Cold-in-place recycling on the Heavyweight Trucking Industry
1523:, that is used to test experimental asphalt pavements for durability.
1430:), the damage done to pavement increases with the fourth power of the
4530:
4377:
4264:
4224:
4214:
4209:
4100:
3968:
3963:
3813:
3732:
3689:
3640:
3630:
3625:
3615:
1431:
1320:
1215:
1029:) but in 1998 a limestone-surfaced road, thought to date back to the
959:
748:
414:
391:
373:
297:
212:
196:
168:
2594:
2323:
833:
pavement layer, or it may be overlaid with new asphalt after curing.
686:
The first street in the United States to be paved with concrete was
4723:
4718:
4550:
4299:
4294:
4155:
4120:
4058:
3704:
3679:
3504:
2517:
1631:
1474:
888:
864:
608:
580:
520:
352:
allowing local streets to be paved. Notably, in about 2000 BC, the
275:
267:
259:
200:
164:
123:
39:
3242:
1502:
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
308:
4621:
4605:
4274:
4125:
3635:
3610:
3447:
Dual carriageway / Divided highway / Expressway
3377:
3169:
Hogan, C. Michael (September 1973). "Analysis of highway noise".
1590:
1459:
1390:
1308:
1202:
1034:
1012:
987:
940:
699:
656:
613:
507:
456:
357:
333:
271:
244:
103:
95:
87:
2479:"Material-Related Aspects of Asphalt Recycling—State-of-the-Art"
2405:
2390:
2081:
David Jones; John Harvey; Imad L. Al-Qadi; Angel Mateos (2012).
1270:
Replacing the old road with concrete blocks in Bo'ao Road area,
710:
of specifically concrete-paved roadbed in various places in the
4728:
4398:
3808:
3771:
3330:
2703:"Highways and Infrastructure — Government of Saskatchewan"
1913:, "Apparatus for the preparation of tar macadam", July 26, 1904
1774:
Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) Oxford University Press, 2009
1761:
Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) Oxford University Press, 2009
1311:, with chip seal type and grooved roads being the loudest, and
1275:
1271:
1231:
1144:
1073:
1069:
1050:
1018:
903:
647:
concrete) are created using a concrete mix of Portland cement,
388:
381:
365:
349:
236:
146:
107:
118:
were extensively used, but these have mostly been replaced by
2522:
The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
2245:"Concrete Pavement Rehabilitation Guide for Diamond Grinding"
1562:
1439:
1427:
1279:
1243:
1162:
1151:
are rarely used in areas that see high-speed vehicle traffic.
1062:
479:
361:
263:
208:
184:
1924:"NUAE Geosynthetics Ltd. News: Project Scout Moor Wind farm"
1513:
Pedestrian Accessibility and Movement Environment Laboratory
228:, meaning a floor beaten or rammed down, through Old French
3408:
3341:
1041:", has had two distinct usages in road surfacing. The term
962:
is a low-cost road surface using a 16–30-millimetre-thick (
652:
535:, thick gravel bases or stabilization of the subgrade with
532:
528:
377:
320:
fact, the first paved streets appear to have been built in
258:
of a pavement can be raised dramatically by arranging good
188:
91:
2673:. Saskatchewan Highways and Transportation. Archived from
4239:
1443:
1319:
surfaces perform intermediately relative to concrete and
1086:
927:
2936:
2131:"LCA Research Brief: Mapping of Excess Fuel Consumption"
2020:. Cornell Local Roads Program. June 2009. Archived from
413:, who constructed about 290 kilometres (180 mi) of
2534:
321:
2101:
2053:"Guidelines must be followed strictly – No exceptions"
873:
newly installed chipseal surface on Ellsworth Road in
510:
binder allows asphalt concrete to sustain significant
3212:
Statement Of Garth Dull For The Senate Epw Committee
1147:
facilities that see long-duration pavement loading.
336:
in 3300 BC, and brick-paved roads were built in the
2477:Karlsson, Robert; Isacsson, Ulf (1 February 2006).
2289:
Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering
730:upon the driver over the course of a long journey.
2661:
2607:Gransberg, Douglas D.; James, David M. B. (2005).
1434:of the vehicles traveling on it. According to the
474:. The tar was modified by adding small amounts of
417:, mainly in the north of England, from 1765, when
3000:Sustainable Safety in the Netherlands - 1998–2007
1995:. Federal Highway Administration. 29 October 2008
1105:" in parts of Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
4797:
3067:What can Seattle learn from Dutch street design?
2874:. Afrisam.com South Africa. 2008. Archived from
2476:
1124:Pavement ends and turns into gravel surface road
1113:roads are unbound granular pavement structures.
398:. This road could be considered superior to any
3008:SWOV – Dutch Institute for Road Safety Research
1804:
1201:Although rarely constructed today, early-style
439:is widely credited with establishing the first
3248:
2995:De balans opgemaakt: Duurzaam Veilig 1998–2007
2937:Mary C. Rukashaza-Mukome; et al. (2003).
2606:
2109:"What is Rubberised Asphalt Commonly Used For"
1037:in Oxfordshire, Britain. Applying gravel, or "
702:in 1909. Following these pioneering uses, the
3393:
2727:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2408:International Journal of Pavement Engineering
2321:
1870:
1840:Construction UK: Introduction to the Industry
812:
543:may be required. Polypropylene and polyester
1993:"Warm Mix Asphalt Technologies and Research"
1864:
1836:
1557:, or non-mechanical markers such as paints,
304:, adjacent to regional highway 375 in Israel
270:to reduce moisture content in the pavements
2015:"Hot, Warm, Luke Warm and Cold Mix Asphalt"
344:from around the same time. Improvements in
3400:
3386:
2968:"Roads to Ruin: Towns Rip Up the Pavement"
2549:
1830:
1422:As pavement systems primarily fail due to
1298:
421:passed an act authorising the creation of
34:Road covered with durable surface material
3266:
2857:
2576:. Cornell Local Roads Program. March 2004
2540:
2483:Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
2357:
2266:"Bellefontaine, Ohio: Court Avenue photo"
1957:"Highway construction/ Ground insulation"
1843:, Oxford: Blackwell Science, p. 51,
943:aggregate. The Operation Division of the
3040:"Road noise, cobbles and smooth asphalt"
1810:
1685:"Long-Term Pavement Performance Studies"
1410:
1384:
1153:
1119:
1003:
921:
898:BST is used on hundreds of miles of the
868:
788:
737:
627:
612:
585:
493:
307:
291:
61:
49:
38:
3037:
2662:Lazic, Zvjezdan; Ron Gerbrandt (2004).
2046:
2044:
2042:
1531:fuel consumption between 1.8 and 4.7%.
1093:. A road of such material is called a "
945:Ministry of Highways and Infrastructure
466:was patented by British civil engineer
14:
4798:
3010:. 2009. p. 6 (English abstract).
2758:"Bronze Age metalled road near Oxford"
2697:
2695:
2515:
2358:Weingroff, Richard F. (7 April 2011).
2286:
1659:"About Long-Term Pavement Performance"
4496:Median / Central reservation
3381:
3168:
3074:from the original on 13 November 2021
2495:10.1061/(asce)0899-1561(2006)18:1(81)
2472:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2440:
2365:Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
1656:
858:
733:
239:, dates back before the emergence of
3342:PaveShare - Concrete Paver Education
2755:
2721:
2039:
1954:
1682:
1315:without spacers being the quietest.
1089:to form the road-surfacing material
926:A thin membrane surface (TMS) is an
2692:
2322:Kulsea, Bill; Shawver, Tom (1980).
1177:, and wood block pavements such as
356:built a 50 km paved road from
24:
4414:Risk compensation (road transport)
3407:
3283:"Scientists walk on tech pavement"
2728:Manins, Rosie (28 February 2009).
2459:
1379:More decorative brickwork patterns
726:sounds and vibrations can cause a
247:were commonly used by the Romans.
25:
4822:
3323:
2789:Merriam-Webster online dictionary
1234:or spraying. Another material is
1131:
993:
643:Concrete surfaces (specifically,
243:. Pavement laid in patterns like
4780:Glossary of road transport terms
3329:
3255:Journal of Modern Transportation
3038:Hembrow, David (25 April 2011).
2836:
2809:
2782:
2635:"Microsurfacing Treatment Types"
2368:. Federal Highway Administration
2301:10.1111/j.1467-8667.2004.00341.x
2268:. City Profile. 17 February 2011
1929:. NUAE. May 2007. Archived from
1372:
1360:
1345:
1333:
1286:
1263:
1251:
1228:polymer-modified concrete slurry
498:Closeup of asphalt on a driveway
235:Pavement, in the form of beaten
43:A road being resurfaced using a
3301:
3275:
3216:
3205:
3162:
3140:
3113:
3089:
3064:Fred Young (23 February 2013).
3057:
3031:
2986:
2960:
2930:
2893:
2830:
2803:
2776:
2749:
2655:
2641:
2627:
2600:
2588:
2528:
2509:
2434:
2399:
2384:
2351:
2315:
2280:
2258:
2237:
2213:"Concrete Pavement Restoration"
2205:
2189:. 29 March 2003. Archived from
2175:
2149:
2123:
2074:
2007:
1985:
1964:Styropor: Technical information
1948:
1916:
1901:
1795:
1055:construction or repair of roads
3355:. ITF Research Reports. 2017.
3353:Long-life Surfacings for Roads
3315:. Randall Reilly. August 2011.
3171:Water, Air, and Soil Pollution
2816:Online etymological dictionary
2516:Heckel, L. B. (1 April 2002).
1786:
1777:
1764:
1751:
1737:
1719:
1702:
1676:
1663:Federal Highway Administration
1650:
1601:List of road types by features
1101:" in Canada and the US, or a "
902:and other similar roadways in
798:An asphalt milling machine in
281:
151:Long-Term Pavement Performance
13:
1:
4762:Pavement performance modeling
4752:International roughness index
3128:. Alternative Paving Concepts
2730:"New dust suppression method"
1689:Transportation Research Board
1643:
1407:Pavement performance modeling
1367:Decorative mock-brick pattern
1312:
673:concrete pavement restoration
523:. In areas with very soft or
437:Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet
296:Old Roman road, leading from
4757:Present serviceability index
4551:Sidewalk / Pavement
4096:Diamond grinding of pavement
3148:"Decorative Stamped Asphalt"
2420:10.1080/10298436.2014.943128
1657:Nehme, Jean (14 July 2017).
1586:Diamond grinding of pavement
1490:falling weight deflectometer
954:
881:Bituminous surface treatment
784:
728:fatiguing or hypnotic effect
195:, pavements are part of the
7:
4729:Underpass / Tunnel
4724:Overpass / Flyover
4478:High-occupancy vehicle lane
4368:Driving under the influence
3442:Freeway / Motorway
3122:High-Performance Crosswalks
2570:"Asphalt Paving Principles"
1879:National Geographic Society
1568:
1534:
1352:Decorative wavy pattern on
714:, starting in 1914 west of
704:Lincoln Highway Association
602:
10:
4827:
3656:Highway systems by country
3044:A view from the cycle path
2161:concreteformworksydney.com
1538:
1388:
1061:, and is derived from the
997:
934:which is laid down upon a
862:
813:In-place recycling methods
606:
567:to the construction site.
561:volatile organic compounds
489:
285:
241:anatomically modern humans
26:
4775:
4767:Granular base equivalency
4737:
4708:
4614:
4586:Traffic signal preemption
4431:
4391:
4353:
4195:
4184:
4036:
3994:Right-in/right-out (RIRO)
3923:
3900:Single-point urban (SPUI)
3840:
3831:
3759:
3664:
3578:
3460:
3427:
3418:
2762:British Archaeology: News
1772:Oxford English Dictionary
1759:Oxford English Dictionary
1509:University College London
364:through the mountains to
338:Indus Valley Civilisation
314:granular base equivalency
288:History of road transport
191:, and sometimes wood. In
29:Pavement (disambiguation)
4747:Pavement condition index
4473:High-occupancy toll lane
4468:Contraflow lane reversal
4443:Barrier transfer machine
3361:10.1787/9789282108116-en
2610:Chip Seal Best Practices
1521:NCAT Pavement Test Track
1426:(in a manner similar to
1230:which can be applied by
830:Cold in-place recycling:
722:, during 1922 and 1923.
387:, covered by a layer of
3601:Express-collector setup
2948:. Iowa State University
2441:Lavin, Patrick (2003).
1813:"The Colossus of Roads"
1299:Acoustical implications
837:Hot in-place recycling:
819:Rubblizing of pavement:
502:Asphalt (specifically,
132:marked to guide traffic
4785:Road types by features
4680:Raised pavement marker
4647:Constant-slope barrier
4571:Traffic directionality
4561:Street running railway
3984:Protected intersection
1874:The Book of Inventions
1871:Harrison, Ian (2004),
1746:The Century Dictionary
1419:
1181:, were once common in
1159:
1125:
1015:
986: in) mixture of
877:
845:Full depth reclamation
802:
743:
640:
625:
591:
575:pollution to soil and
499:
316:
305:
193:landscape architecture
84:North American English
67:
59:
47:
4642:Concrete step barrier
3979:Offset T-intersection
3309:"The Value of Smooth"
2865:"Surfacing Aggregate"
2818:. 2001 Douglas Harper
2791:. Merriam Webster inc
2360:"The Lincoln Highway"
1837:Ralph Morton (2002),
1683:Raab, Robert (n.d.).
1498:Shell Pavement design
1414:
1385:Surface deterioration
1157:
1123:
1085:chippings mixed with
1045:refers to the broken
1007:
922:Thin membrane surface
872:
797:
741:
631:
616:
607:Further information:
589:
497:
407:Industrial Revolution
311:
295:
65:
53:
42:
4685:Road surface marking
4383:Single-vehicle crash
4106:Full depth recycling
4004:Seagull intersection
3338:at Wikimedia Commons
2574:www.clrp.cornell.edu
2193:on 27 September 2007
1907:Hooley, E. Purnell,
1541:Road surface marking
1507:Further research by
1158:Brick paving machine
1068:, which means both "
720:Lake County, Indiana
617:Concrete roadway in
557:free floating screed
468:Edgar Purnell Hooley
429:funded roads in the
126:laid on a compacted
54:Red surfacing for a
4511:Pedestrian crossing
4074:Reinforced concrete
3910:Three-level diamond
3621:Two-lane expressway
3606:Farm-to-market road
3289:. 12 September 2006
3183:1973WASP....2..387H
2972:Wall Street Journal
1910:U.S. patent 765,975
1733:on 2 February 2019.
1616:Portuguese pavement
1606:Pavement management
1596:Good Roads Movement
1224:decorative concrete
692:Bellefontaine, Ohio
681:dowel bar retrofits
632:A concrete road in
512:plastic deformation
441:scientific approach
342:Indian subcontinent
4541:Runaway truck ramp
4363:Driver's education
4151:Rubberized asphalt
4086:Crocodile cracking
4009:Split intersection
3777:Hierarchy of roads
3738:Single carriageway
3268:10.1007/bf03325749
3191:10.1007/BF00159677
2845:. WordWeb Software
2756:Anon (July 1998).
2709:on 8 February 2008
2111:. 12 February 2021
2027:on 21 October 2012
1955:Anon (June 1991).
1936:on 8 December 2015
1877:, Washington, DC:
1528:Rolling resistance
1420:
1395:Crocodile cracking
1325:Rubberized asphalt
1160:
1126:
1016:
990:and crushed rock.
878:
859:Bituminous surface
803:
744:
734:Composite pavement
641:
626:
596:rubberized asphalt
594:In the mid-1960s,
592:
527:subgrades such as
500:
453:John Loudon McAdam
376:blocks bound with
317:
306:
68:
60:
58:in the Netherlands
48:
4793:
4792:
4601:Wide outside lane
4427:
4426:
4404:Automotive safety
4285:Road slipperiness
4032:
4031:
3880:Diverging diamond
3827:
3826:
3743:Single-track road
3685:Bicycle boulevard
3370:978-92-821-0810-9
3334:Media related to
3230:. 11 January 2019
3017:978-90-73946-06-4
2735:Otago Daily Times
2620:978-0-309-09744-4
2452:978-0-203-45329-2
2163:. 11 January 2022
2137:. 5 December 2014
2094:978-0-203-07301-8
1973:on 2 October 2018
1888:978-0-7922-8296-9
1627:Road slipperiness
1622:Road construction
1517:Auburn University
1438:, heavily loaded
1313:concrete surfaces
1179:Nicolson pavement
1097:" in Britain, a "
795:
757:in the asphalt.
754:reflective cracks
751:, usually causes
700:Detroit, Michigan
394:and had separate
222:comes from Latin
167:, stones such as
16:(Redirected from
4818:
4637:Cat's eye (road)
4458:Complete streets
4230:Dead Man's Curve
4193:
4192:
4131:Pavement milling
4046:Asphalt concrete
3989:Quadrant roadway
3930:
3852:
3838:
3837:
3804:Street hierarchy
3452:Elevated highway
3425:
3424:
3402:
3395:
3388:
3379:
3378:
3374:
3333:
3317:
3316:
3305:
3299:
3298:
3296:
3294:
3279:
3273:
3272:
3270:
3246:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3235:
3228:MN Land Clearing
3220:
3214:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3155:
3144:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3133:
3127:
3117:
3111:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3101:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3081:
3079:
3061:
3055:
3054:
3052:
3050:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3026:
3024:
3005:
2990:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2964:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2943:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2923:
2918:on 18 March 2009
2917:
2906:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2881:on 18 March 2009
2880:
2872:Product brochure
2869:
2861:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2843:World Web Online
2834:
2828:
2827:
2825:
2823:
2807:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2796:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2742:
2725:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2714:
2705:. Archived from
2699:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2680:on 18 March 2009
2679:
2668:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2645:
2639:
2638:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2604:
2598:
2592:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2566:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2474:
2457:
2456:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2375:
2373:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2342:
2340:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2273:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2253:
2251:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2225:on 17 April 2012
2224:
2218:. Archived from
2217:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2187:transport.gov.za
2179:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2157:"Concrete Roads"
2153:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2057:
2048:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2026:
2019:
2011:
2005:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1972:
1966:. Archived from
1961:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1935:
1928:
1920:
1914:
1912:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1868:
1862:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1824:
1808:
1802:
1799:
1793:
1790:
1784:
1781:
1775:
1770:"paver" def. 2.
1768:
1762:
1755:
1749:
1741:
1735:
1734:
1729:. Archived from
1723:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1654:
1500:method, and the
1403:Bleeding (roads)
1376:
1364:
1349:
1337:
1290:
1267:
1255:
985:
984:
980:
977:
971:
970:
966:
912:British Columbia
875:Tomah, Wisconsin
796:
712:American Midwest
708:"seedling miles"
677:diamond grinding
649:coarse aggregate
504:asphalt concrete
252:bearing capacity
199:and are used on
181:artificial stone
139:permeable paving
21:
4826:
4825:
4821:
4820:
4819:
4817:
4816:
4815:
4796:
4795:
4794:
4789:
4771:
4739:
4733:
4704:
4695:Traffic barrier
4655:F-Shape barrier
4610:
4566:Traffic calming
4526:Reversible lane
4516:Pedestrian zone
4501:Motorcycle lane
4463:Contraflow lane
4435:time allocation
4434:
4423:
4419:Underride guard
4387:
4349:
4235:Expansion joint
4197:
4187:
4180:
4166:Stamped asphalt
4028:
3959:Continuous flow
3932:
3928:
3927:
3919:
3853:
3849:grade-separated
3846:
3845:
3823:
3782:Private highway
3755:
3660:
3574:
3456:
3414:
3406:
3371:
3351:
3326:
3321:
3320:
3307:
3306:
3302:
3292:
3290:
3281:
3280:
3276:
3247:
3243:
3233:
3231:
3224:"Land Clearing"
3222:
3221:
3217:
3210:
3206:
3167:
3163:
3153:
3151:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3095:
3094:
3090:
3077:
3075:
3063:
3062:
3058:
3048:
3046:
3036:
3032:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3003:
2992:
2991:
2987:
2977:
2975:
2966:
2965:
2961:
2951:
2949:
2941:
2935:
2931:
2921:
2919:
2915:
2904:
2898:
2894:
2884:
2882:
2878:
2867:
2863:
2862:
2858:
2848:
2846:
2839:"Metalled Road"
2835:
2831:
2821:
2819:
2808:
2804:
2794:
2792:
2781:
2777:
2767:
2765:
2754:
2750:
2740:
2738:
2726:
2722:
2712:
2710:
2701:
2700:
2693:
2683:
2681:
2677:
2666:
2660:
2656:
2647:
2646:
2642:
2633:
2632:
2628:
2621:
2605:
2601:
2593:
2589:
2579:
2577:
2568:
2567:
2550:
2542:10.1.1.390.3460
2533:
2529:
2514:
2510:
2475:
2460:
2453:
2439:
2435:
2404:
2400:
2389:
2385:
2371:
2369:
2356:
2352:
2338:
2336:
2320:
2316:
2285:
2281:
2271:
2269:
2264:
2263:
2259:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2215:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2196:
2194:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2164:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2140:
2138:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2114:
2112:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2095:
2079:
2075:
2065:
2063:
2055:
2049:
2040:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2013:
2012:
2008:
1998:
1996:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1959:
1953:
1949:
1939:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1922:
1921:
1917:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1893:
1891:
1889:
1881:, p. 277,
1869:
1865:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1835:
1831:
1822:
1820:
1809:
1805:
1801:Lay (1992), p44
1800:
1796:
1792:Lay (1992), p43
1791:
1787:
1783:Lay (1992), p51
1782:
1778:
1769:
1765:
1757:"pavement, n."
1756:
1752:
1742:
1738:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1712:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1693:
1691:
1681:
1677:
1667:
1665:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1571:
1543:
1537:
1462:will form. The
1436:AASHO Road Test
1409:
1387:
1380:
1377:
1368:
1365:
1356:
1350:
1341:
1338:
1301:
1294:
1291:
1282:
1268:
1259:
1258:Concrete pavers
1256:
1220:stamped asphalt
1196:traffic calming
1134:
1033:, was found at
1002:
996:
994:Gravel surface
982:
978:
975:
973:
968:
964:
963:
957:
924:
910:, and northern
908:Yukon Territory
867:
861:
815:
789:
787:
762:break and seat,
736:
716:Malta, Illinois
696:Woodward Avenue
645:Portland cement
611:
605:
537:Portland cement
492:
476:Portland cement
423:turnpike trusts
290:
284:
98:. In the past,
76:British English
35:
32:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4824:
4814:
4813:
4808:
4791:
4790:
4788:
4787:
4782:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4743:
4741:
4735:
4734:
4732:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4712:
4710:
4706:
4705:
4703:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4665:Jersey barrier
4662:
4657:
4652:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4618:
4616:
4612:
4611:
4609:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4596:Unused highway
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4576:Traffic island
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4439:
4437:
4429:
4428:
4425:
4424:
4422:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4395:
4393:
4389:
4388:
4386:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4373:Drowsy driving
4370:
4365:
4359:
4357:
4351:
4350:
4348:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4255:Level crossing
4252:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4201:
4199:
4190:
4182:
4181:
4179:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4077:
4076:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4053:
4048:
4042:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4030:
4029:
4027:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3954:Channelization
3951:
3946:
3941:
3939:3-way junction
3935:
3933:
3924:
3921:
3920:
3918:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3856:
3854:
3841:
3835:
3833:Road junctions
3829:
3828:
3825:
3824:
3822:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3797:business route
3794:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3763:
3761:
3757:
3756:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3727:
3725:Primitive road
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3668:
3666:
3662:
3661:
3659:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3596:County highway
3593:
3591:Collector road
3588:
3582:
3580:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3567:
3565:United Kingdom
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3500:Czech Republic
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3466:
3464:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3433:
3431:
3429:Limited-access
3422:
3416:
3415:
3405:
3404:
3397:
3390:
3382:
3376:
3375:
3369:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3325:
3324:External links
3322:
3319:
3318:
3300:
3274:
3261:(2): 114–133.
3241:
3215:
3204:
3177:(3): 387–392.
3161:
3139:
3112:
3088:
3056:
3030:
3016:
2985:
2974:. 17 July 2010
2959:
2929:
2892:
2856:
2829:
2802:
2775:
2748:
2720:
2691:
2654:
2640:
2626:
2619:
2599:
2587:
2548:
2527:
2508:
2458:
2451:
2433:
2414:(6): 477–487.
2398:
2383:
2350:
2314:
2295:(2): 105–118.
2279:
2257:
2236:
2204:
2174:
2148:
2122:
2100:
2093:
2073:
2038:
2006:
1984:
1947:
1915:
1900:
1887:
1863:
1849:
1829:
1811:Craig, David,
1803:
1794:
1785:
1776:
1763:
1750:
1736:
1718:
1701:
1675:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1613:
1611:Plastic armour
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1561:, plastic and
1539:Main article:
1536:
1533:
1452:wearing course
1415:Deteriorating
1386:
1383:
1382:
1381:
1378:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1359:
1357:
1351:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1332:
1300:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1292:
1285:
1283:
1269:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1250:
1192:traffic safety
1133:
1132:Other surfaces
1130:
998:Main article:
995:
992:
956:
953:
923:
920:
900:Alaska Highway
863:Main article:
860:
857:
856:
855:
841:
834:
827:
814:
811:
786:
783:
765:crack and seat
735:
732:
675:which include
604:
601:
590:Laying asphalt
491:
488:
449:Thomas Telford
328:were built in
326:Corduroy roads
286:Main article:
283:
280:
33:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4823:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4803:
4801:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4777:
4774:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4744:
4742:
4736:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4714:
4713:
4711:
4707:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4675:Noise barrier
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4632:Cable barrier
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4619:
4617:
4613:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4581:Traffic lanes
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4521:Refuge island
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4486:Living street
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4453:Climbing lane
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4440:
4438:
4436:
4430:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4396:
4394:
4390:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4360:
4358:
4356:
4355:Human factors
4352:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4320:Traffic light
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4270:Oversize load
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4260:Manhole cover
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4200:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4183:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4091:Crushed stone
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4075:
4072:
4071:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4039:
4035:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3974:Michigan left
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3926:Intersections
3922:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3875:Directional T
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3850:
3844:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3792:special route
3790:
3789:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3758:
3752:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3710:Frontage road
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3670:
3669:
3667:
3663:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3586:Arterial road
3584:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3571:
3570:United States
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3459:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3430:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3420:Types of road
3417:
3413:
3410:
3403:
3398:
3396:
3391:
3389:
3384:
3383:
3380:
3372:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3332:
3328:
3327:
3314:
3310:
3304:
3288:
3284:
3278:
3269:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3245:
3229:
3225:
3219:
3213:
3208:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3165:
3150:. ThermOTrack
3149:
3143:
3124:
3123:
3116:
3098:
3092:
3085:
3073:
3069:
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2480:
2473:
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2469:
2467:
2465:
2463:
2454:
2448:
2445:. CRC Press.
2444:
2437:
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2158:
2152:
2136:
2135:cshub.mit.edu
2132:
2126:
2110:
2104:
2096:
2090:
2087:. CRC Press.
2086:
2085:
2077:
2061:
2054:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2023:
2016:
2010:
1994:
1988:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1951:
1932:
1925:
1919:
1911:
1904:
1890:
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1852:
1850:0-632-05852-8
1846:
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1833:
1819:, Strum.co.uk
1818:
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1690:
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1679:
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1653:
1649:
1638:
1637:Sett (paving)
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:(mosaic-like)
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1559:thermoplastic
1556:
1555:rumble strips
1552:
1548:
1542:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1493:
1491:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1479:studded tires
1476:
1471:
1469:
1468:nanoparticles
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1448:
1445:
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1281:
1277:
1273:
1266:
1261:
1254:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1240:thermoplastic
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1189:
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1146:
1142:
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1129:
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1118:
1114:
1112:
1106:
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1100:
1096:
1095:metalled road
1092:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1078:French drains
1075:
1071:
1067:
1064:
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1056:
1052:
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588:
584:
582:
578:
574:
568:
566:
565:asphalt plant
562:
558:
552:
550:
546:
545:geosynthetics
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
517:
513:
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481:
477:
473:
469:
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458:
454:
450:
445:
442:
438:
434:
432:
431:Knaresborough
428:
424:
420:
416:
415:turnpike road
412:
408:
403:
401:
397:
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257:
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216:
214:
210:
206:
205:road surfaces
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
152:
148:
144:
143:United States
140:
135:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
116:granite setts
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
64:
57:
52:
46:
41:
37:
30:
19:
4811:Road hazards
4700:Traffic cone
4690:Rumble strip
4591:Truck bypass
4546:Shared space
4506:Passing lane
4491:Managed lane
4448:Bicycle lane
4330:Washboarding
4325:Traffic sign
4250:Hairpin turn
4037:
4019:Texas U-turn
3949:Box junction
3843:Interchanges
3787:Route number
3695:Country lane
3437:Bike freeway
3352:
3313:Better Roads
3312:
3303:
3291:. Retrieved
3286:
3277:
3258:
3254:
3244:
3232:. Retrieved
3227:
3218:
3207:
3174:
3170:
3164:
3152:. Retrieved
3142:
3130:. Retrieved
3121:
3115:
3103:. Retrieved
3091:
3083:
3076:. Retrieved
3066:
3059:
3047:. Retrieved
3043:
3033:
3021:. Retrieved
3006:(in Dutch).
2999:
2994:
2988:
2978:16 September
2976:. Retrieved
2971:
2962:
2952:16 September
2950:. Retrieved
2945:
2932:
2920:. Retrieved
2913:the original
2908:
2895:
2883:. Retrieved
2876:the original
2871:
2859:
2847:. Retrieved
2842:
2832:
2820:. Retrieved
2815:
2805:
2793:. Retrieved
2788:
2785:"Road metal"
2778:
2766:. Retrieved
2761:
2751:
2739:. Retrieved
2733:
2723:
2711:. Retrieved
2707:the original
2682:. Retrieved
2675:the original
2670:
2657:
2643:
2629:
2609:
2602:
2595:Sprayed Seal
2590:
2578:. Retrieved
2573:
2530:
2521:
2511:
2489:(1): 81–92.
2486:
2482:
2442:
2436:
2411:
2407:
2401:
2392:
2386:
2377:
2372:25 September
2370:. Retrieved
2363:
2353:
2343:– via
2337:. Retrieved
2324:
2317:
2292:
2288:
2282:
2270:. Retrieved
2260:
2248:. Retrieved
2239:
2227:. Retrieved
2220:the original
2207:
2195:. Retrieved
2191:the original
2186:
2177:
2165:. Retrieved
2160:
2151:
2139:. Retrieved
2134:
2125:
2113:. Retrieved
2103:
2083:
2076:
2064:. Retrieved
2059:
2029:. Retrieved
2022:the original
2009:
1997:. Retrieved
1987:
1975:. Retrieved
1968:the original
1963:
1950:
1938:. Retrieved
1931:the original
1918:
1903:
1892:, retrieved
1873:
1866:
1854:, retrieved
1839:
1832:
1821:, retrieved
1816:
1806:
1797:
1788:
1779:
1771:
1766:
1758:
1753:
1745:
1744:"Pavement",
1739:
1731:the original
1721:
1704:
1692:. Retrieved
1678:
1666:. Retrieved
1652:
1544:
1525:
1506:
1494:
1487:
1472:
1456:macrotexture
1449:
1421:
1306:
1302:
1238:-reinforced
1212:
1200:
1161:
1140:
1136:
1135:
1127:
1115:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1065:
1053:used in the
1042:
1038:
1023:Roman Empire
1017:
958:
949:Saskatchewan
925:
916:
897:
884:
880:
879:
843:
836:
829:
824:gravel roads
818:
804:
800:Boise, Idaho
779:whitetopping
776:
770:rubblization
768:
764:
761:
759:
752:
745:
724:
688:Court Avenue
685:
669:
665:
642:
593:
569:
553:
501:
461:
446:
435:
411:John Metcalf
404:
360:in northern
324:in 4000 BC.
318:
256:service life
249:
234:
229:
223:
219:
217:
204:
156:
155:
136:
90:, such as a
79:
72:road surface
71:
69:
56:bicycle lane
36:
4738:Performance
4670:Kassel kerb
4627:Botts' dots
4615:Demarcation
4315:Storm drain
4280:Road debris
4205:Aquaplaning
4198:environment
4186:Road safety
4064:Cobblestone
4014:Superstreet
3819:Winter road
3767:Concurrency
3760:Other terms
3751:Sunken lane
3720:Main street
3665:Local roads
3154:13 November
3132:13 November
3105:13 November
2684:25 February
2115:12 February
1581:Cobblestone
1551:botts' dots
1464:freeze-thaw
1399:Rut (roads)
1188:Netherlands
1183:urban areas
1167:cobblestone
1111:New Zealand
1103:sealed road
1009:Gravel road
1000:Gravel road
936:gravel road
577:groundwater
573:hydrocarbon
549:polystyrene
514:, although
472:steamroller
330:Glastonbury
302:Beit Gubrin
282:Development
266:or covered
262:by an open
173:cobblestone
128:base course
112:cobblestone
100:gravel road
45:road roller
4800:Categories
4740:indicators
4709:Structures
4660:Guard rail
4536:Road verge
4409:Seat belts
4345:Snowsquall
4310:Speed bump
4290:Road train
4111:Glassphalt
4051:Bioasphalt
4024:Turnaround
3999:Roundabout
3929:(at-grade)
3895:Roundabout
3860:Cloverleaf
3715:Green lane
3651:Trunk road
3579:Main roads
3462:By country
3234:10 October
2922:25 January
2885:25 January
2849:29 January
2822:29 January
2795:29 January
2768:29 January
2741:5 November
2345:Wikisource
2339:18 January
2066:25 January
1977:29 January
1940:2 November
1817:Palimpsest
1694:22 October
1668:22 October
1644:References
1547:cat's eyes
1389:See also:
1218:to create
1175:wood plank
1099:paved road
1043:road metal
1031:Bronze Age
1027:Roman road
749:axle loads
638:New Jersey
623:California
419:Parliament
400:Roman road
392:flagstones
346:metallurgy
225:pavimentum
213:courtyards
102:surfaces,
4806:Pavements
4531:Road diet
4433:Space and
4378:Road rage
4265:Oil spill
4225:Crosswind
4215:Black ice
4210:Avalanche
4136:Permeable
3969:Jughandle
3964:Hook turn
3870:Free-flow
3814:Toll road
3733:Side road
3690:Boulevard
3646:Super two
3641:Ring road
3616:Link road
3515:Hong Kong
3470:Australia
3412:hierarchy
3336:Pavements
3199:109914430
3078:14 August
3049:14 August
2580:5 October
2537:CiteSeerX
2503:0899-1561
2428:137582766
2309:109522695
1432:axle load
1354:La Rambla
1321:chip seal
1317:Asphaltic
1246:coating.
1236:aggregate
1232:screeding
1216:compactor
1039:metalling
960:Otta seal
955:Otta seal
932:aggregate
930:-treated
883:(BST) or
852:gradation
785:Recycling
661:hydration
581:waterways
525:expansive
425:to build
396:shoulders
374:sandstone
298:Jerusalem
218:The term
201:sidewalks
197:hardscape
169:flagstone
4719:Causeway
4556:Shoulder
4392:Vehicles
4340:Whiteout
4300:Rockfall
4295:Roadkill
4220:Bleeding
4196:Road and
4156:Sealcoat
4081:Corduroy
4069:Concrete
4059:Chipseal
4038:Surfaces
3890:Raindrop
3705:Driveway
3700:Dead end
3680:Backroad
3631:2+2 road
3626:2+1 road
3550:Portugal
3540:Pakistan
3287:BBC News
3072:Archived
2713:15 April
2031:4 August
1999:4 August
1632:Sealcoat
1569:See also
1535:Markings
1475:chipseal
1460:potholes
1141:paviours
1066:metallum
1059:railways
889:emulsion
885:chipseal
865:Chipseal
826:.
619:San Jose
609:Concrete
603:Concrete
521:subgrade
389:basaltic
276:subgrade
260:drainage
230:pavement
220:pavement
165:concrete
157:Pavement
124:concrete
80:pavement
4622:Bollard
4606:Woonerf
4335:Washout
4275:Pothole
4188:factors
4176:Texture
4146:Plastic
4126:Macadam
3915:Trumpet
3865:Diamond
3636:Parkway
3611:Highway
3525:Ireland
3505:Germany
3495:Croatia
3475:Belgium
3179:Bibcode
3023:13 July
2812:"Metal"
2334:8169232
2272:2 April
2250:7 April
2229:7 April
2197:27 June
2167:27 June
1894:23 June
1856:22 June
1823:18 June
1591:Ecogrid
1576:Asphalt
1483:rutting
1424:fatigue
1417:asphalt
1391:Pothole
1340:Cobbles
1203:macadam
1072:" and "
1051:cinders
1035:Yarnton
1013:Namibia
988:bitumen
981:⁄
967:⁄
941:asphalt
807:milling
657:fly ash
516:fatigue
508:bitumen
490:Asphalt
462:Modern
457:macadam
358:Knossos
354:Minoans
340:on the
334:England
272:subbase
245:mosaics
215:, etc.
161:asphalt
137:Today,
120:asphalt
104:macadam
96:walkway
88:traffic
18:Unpaved
4715:Bridge
4399:Airbag
4171:Tarmac
4116:Gravel
3944:Bowtie
3885:Parclo
3809:Stroad
3772:Detour
3747:Street
3675:Avenue
3560:Taiwan
3545:Poland
3510:Greece
3485:Canada
3480:Brazil
3367:
3293:22 May
3197:
3014:
3002:]
2837:Anon.
2810:Anon.
2783:Anon.
2617:
2539:
2501:
2449:
2426:
2332:
2307:
2141:7 June
2091:
1885:
1847:
1519:, the
1440:trucks
1428:metals
1405:, and
1276:Hainan
1274:City,
1272:Haikou
1207:tarmac
1149:Pavers
1137:Pavers
1091:tarmac
1074:quarry
1019:Gravel
906:, the
904:Alaska
893:roller
482:, and
464:tarmac
433:area.
385:mortar
382:gypsum
370:Lebena
366:Gortyn
350:Greece
268:drains
237:gravel
209:patios
185:bricks
175:, and
147:Canada
108:hoggin
4141:Plank
4055:Brick
3905:Stack
3671:Alley
3555:Spain
3535:Nepal
3530:Italy
3520:India
3490:China
3195:S2CID
3126:(PDF)
3100:(PDF)
3004:(PDF)
2998:[
2942:(PDF)
2916:(PDF)
2905:(PDF)
2879:(PDF)
2868:(PDF)
2678:(PDF)
2667:(PDF)
2424:S2CID
2305:S2CID
2223:(PDF)
2216:(PDF)
2056:(PDF)
2025:(PDF)
2018:(PDF)
1971:(PDF)
1960:(PDF)
1934:(PDF)
1927:(PDF)
1713:(PDF)
1563:epoxy
1280:China
1244:epoxy
1163:Brick
1083:stone
1063:Latin
1047:stone
1025:(see
767:, or
634:Ewing
484:pitch
480:resin
362:Crete
264:ditch
189:tiles
177:setts
78:) or
4651:Curb
4482:Lane
4245:Ford
4161:Sett
4101:Dirt
3729:Road
3409:Road
3365:ISBN
3295:2010
3236:2019
3156:2014
3134:2014
3107:2014
3080:2014
3051:2014
3025:2014
3012:ISBN
2980:2011
2954:2011
2924:2009
2887:2009
2851:2010
2824:2010
2797:2010
2770:2010
2764:(36)
2743:2011
2715:2008
2686:2009
2615:ISBN
2582:2016
2499:ISSN
2447:ISBN
2374:2017
2341:2021
2330:OCLC
2274:2018
2252:2012
2231:2012
2199:2022
2169:2022
2143:2022
2117:2021
2089:ISBN
2068:2009
2033:2010
2001:2010
1979:2010
1942:2008
1896:2010
1883:ISBN
1858:2010
1845:ISBN
1825:2010
1696:2017
1670:2017
1553:and
1205:and
1171:sett
1145:port
1139:(or
1070:mine
777:The
653:sand
541:lime
533:peat
529:clay
451:and
427:toll
409:was
378:clay
368:and
274:and
254:and
250:The
145:and
114:and
92:road
4305:Rut
4240:Fog
4121:Ice
3357:doi
3263:doi
3187:doi
2491:doi
2416:doi
2297:doi
1444:Tax
1087:tar
1057:or
1049:or
1011:in
947:in
928:oil
698:in
690:in
579:or
539:or
531:or
300:to
122:or
94:or
4802::
3363:.
3311:.
3285:.
3259:19
3257:.
3253:.
3226:.
3193:.
3185:.
3173:.
3082:.
3042:.
2970:.
2944:.
2907:.
2870:.
2841:.
2814:.
2787:.
2760:.
2732:.
2694:^
2669:.
2572:.
2551:^
2520:.
2497:.
2487:18
2485:.
2481:.
2461:^
2422:.
2412:16
2410:.
2376:.
2362:.
2303:.
2293:19
2291:.
2185:.
2159:.
2133:.
2058:.
2041:^
1962:.
1815:,
1687:.
1661:.
1565:.
1549:,
1492:.
1485:.
1401:,
1397:,
1393:,
1323:.
1309:dB
1278:,
1173:,
1169:,
1165:,
679:,
663:.
651:,
636:,
621:,
486:.
478:,
332:,
322:Ur
278:.
211:,
207:,
203:,
187:,
183:,
179:,
171:,
163:,
134:.
110:,
106:,
70:A
3851:)
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