215:
writer and researcher, Ann Oakley, who pioneered an interview methodology based on an anti-oppression framework. Oakley argues that the form of structured interviews positions the interviewee as a subordinate, which supports the masculine "paradigm of inquiry" and produces a "perfect interview" that is "morally indefensible". As an alternative, Oakley writes that "the best way to find out about someone else's lives is through non-hierarchical relationships where the interviewer is prepared to invest their own personal identity in the research relationship, answering questions and sharing knowledge". Oakley argues that interviews need to be conducted as equal relationships so that the research can lead to a retrieval of more fruitful and significant data. Together, Howard Becker and Oakley have argued that interviews should be more natural and more like an everyday conversation. Oakley argues that traditional guidelines contradict the aims of feminist research and that for a feminist interviewing women, the "use of prescribed interviewing practice is morally indefensible general and irreconcilable contradictions at the heart of the textbook are exposed". This approach is viewed by many contemporary researchers as ethically responsible and it is very relevant in terms of developing research approaches that are grounded by the experience of in minorities. "Feminists have argued that the production of atomistic 'facts' and figures fracture people's lives" and letting others speak for themselves allows work to be produced which challenges stereotypes, oppression, and exploitation. Only one small part of experience is abstracted typically from structured interviews and questionnaires as the focus for attention as it is only "a simple matrix of standardized variables which is unable to convey an in-depth understanding of, feeling of, the people under the study". To break down imbalances of power within the relationships of the interviewer and the interviewee, the unstructured interview approach to research maximizes the ability to explore a full account of life experience. It can be seen that the principle belief of feminist research "must begin with an open-ended exploration of women's experiences, since only from that vantage point is it possible to see how their world is organized and the extent to which it differs from that of men". It is also important to note that this approach to research is used to explore life experience from those belonging to all other minority groups.
108:
interviewees so that they do not potentially introduce biased topics. Interviewers must remember to minimize any form of bias within the conversation. This way, the interviewee is able to freely discuss the topic given or their work from their own point of view, typically something the researcher hopes for in their search for information. Others maintain that the interviewer may introduce encouraging nods, expressions and non-directive, neutral probes. From the participant, "They are generally very short, such as 'Why?' or 'Uh, huh' or 'That’s interesting.' The non-directive interview originated in psychotherapy, intending to neutrally probe the respondent's deepest and most subjective feelings". These acknowledgments such as "yeah," "right," "great," "okay," and "mhm" show response or influence from the interviewee's answers can have on interviewer, not through contributions to the development of the topic but through minimal feedback. If these acknowledgements are not used then the conversation can be seen as problematic. However, at its extremes, these neutral probes may activate repressed feelings that the respondent may or may not know he or she had or was not willing to admit to him or herself originally before the conversation. Typically these probes uncover important issues and topics that can eventually guide future inquiries.
241:
interviewee. Oakley sees both issues as interlinked or, as she puts it "no intimacy without reciprocity". In 1974, Oakley interviewed women twice before the birth of their children and then twice afterwards. Each woman was interviewed for around nine hours on average. The women also asked her questions during the interviews and Oakley responded as openly and honestly as she wished for them to respond. Oakley wanted the respondents to be collaborators in her research rather than just interviewees causing the women to become increasingly interested in the research and contacting her with any information they thought important after the interviews. Oakley as well used the unstructured interview approach to study women's experiences of both house work and maternity care. Oakley interviewed 40 women about how much housework they did and how they and their partners organised domestic work. Both unstructured interview studies "were aimed at raising awareness of women's experiences and of promoting policy changes - for example, Oakley called for domestic work to be recognized as 'work' and to be given an appropriate status in relation to paid employment". These are prime examples of the advantages of rapport and the depth of information even beyond the interview using the unstructured interview research approach.
117:
questions are given and answered one after another, typically transcribed with little or no silences evident in between the responses. Oftentimes, it is up to the interviewer to present their interviewing skills by making sure the conversation does not hold any silences. However, with the fact that the unstructured interview is more like an everyday conversation, silence or the use of silence can be observed as a very important aspect of a natural conversation and in fact current research suggests that being attentive to silences will tell us a lot about how knowledge is constructed. Typically silence is overlooked in qualitative research, keeping in mind that there are multiple meanings involved in the conversation involving the interplay between speech and silence, it can be seen as one of the best types of probes used in interviews. Silences are profoundly meaningful as they can signify a withholding or resistance, can reflect a cultural mode of self-representation, or may represent a topic or idea as unthinkable. Many see the possible utility of silence as a strategic device to enhance data collection, while others argue that silence can be seen to represent failure on the part of the interviewer to ‘draw out’ information from the respondent.
189:
interviewer's bias to be brought into discussion and to intervene than with the structured interview. Others maintain that "Although there is invariable potential for the interviewer bias in qualitative interviews, it is offset, at least to some extent, by the greater participation and involvement of the interviewer in the interaction aimed at reaching greater depth". While the unstructured interview can be seen to be unreliable due to the interviewer, bias can be easily be built into a highly structured interview. However, it is important to find where one stands with their bias, acknowledging their biases rather than trying to do away with it. The notion of bias is evident in that anything quantitative already holds bias and biases are already built into everyday form. "Although typical of the selection process, the research on interviews suggests that unstructured procedures are vulnerable to a variety of biases that can lower the quality of decisions," such as gathering information on an applicant's traits during a job interview and selecting applicants determined by their qualifications. Any interview can also be subject to
157:
the conversation formally with structure where the interviewer holds power over the conversation and determines how it evolves, "the interviewer attempts to retrieve interviewee's world by understanding their perspective in a language that is natural to them". Ethnographic interviewing methods are a large example of how unstructured interviews can balance power relationships between the interviewer and interviewee. Ethnographic interviewing originated in studies of cultural anthropology, emphasizing on the quality of the relationship with respondents. Ethnographic interviews are normally conducted in the form of the unstructured interview with participants from a particular culture in which the interviewer or researcher wishes to obtain knowledge from. The key feature to this approach is that the "researcher is there to learn from the respondent rather than impose an external frame of reference, epitomized in
Spradely's (1979: 34) representation of the researcher's posture as being that 'I want to know what you know in the way that you know it...Will you become my teacher and help me understand?'".
148:
respondent to respondent so that the interviewer must change the question wording to meet the understanding of each individual participant. Another situation where the unstructured interview is said to be more valid than the structured interview is where the respondent is experiencing memory failure. The unstructured interview enables the interviewer to return to the same topic numerous times, allowing the interviewee is able to produce information with stimulated memory. With the interview being more like an everyday conversation, a safe and relaxed environment can be created within the space of the interview; unlike the highly structured interview where the respondent may feel stressed in its more hurried and formal environment and may not respond accurately if they feel the need to move on to the next question.
99:
open-ended questions "can require the interview to transcribe a lengthy statement". It can require a skillful interviewer to bring a talkative respondent back on topic. However, these open-ended questions give the ability for the respondent to reply about a topic which neither the interviewee nor the interviewer may have thought about before. Some evidence shows that using open-ended questions in interviews "result in greater reporting of sensitive or socially disapproved behavior than when closed-ended questions on a self-reporting questionnaire are used". Although open-ended questions can be used in both quantitative and qualitative studies, they are much more prominent and favored in qualitative work as they produce information from the respondents with greater detail and depth.
90:
Because the interview is occurring as a way of collecting data, it is also typical for the interviewer to gather knowledge of his or her respondent, whether that is about their career, studies, or work, as a place to start and continue the conversation. While the unstructured interview does not always have all these features, these main topics or questions serve to provide the conversation's "skeleton". Sometimes too much preparation is made when attempting to conduct an unstructured interview, and while not a negative method, such planning may lead to a semi-structured interview rather than an unstructured interview.
20:
206:
an opportunity to say what they like freely, the data collected in unstructured interviews is also prone to digression and much of the data collected could be worthless. Some suggest that this limits the comparability of responses and the outcome is thereby a less systematic and comprehensive set of data which may make organization and analysis of the data difficult. The data gathered though unstructured interviews are difficulty to analyze because the kind of data obtained during the interview are unpredictable and open in nature, thereby making it hard to make comparisons across data.
44:
interview, much like an everyday conversation. Probing is seen to be the part of the research process that differentiates the in-depth, unstructured interview from an everyday conversation. This nature of conversation allows for spontaneity and for questions to develop during the course of the interview, which are based on the interviewees' responses. The chief feature of the unstructured interview is the idea of probe questions that are designed to be as open as possible. It is a
197:. Newell and Rice suggest that many of the problems involved with predictive validity during interviews are due to interpersonal perception, the interpretation of the interviewee's personality or social identity. Race, gender, class, religion, are all aspects of society that feed into the development of our social identity, however these can also be factors which bias people's interpretations in an interview.
81:
interview in that it produces more reliable information and may enable the interview subject to bring forward experiences and knowledge that the interviewer had not previously considered. Each unstructured depends on the interviewer and interviewee together to create knowledge, and therefore the characteristics of the interview can vary from one conversation to another.
156:
The in-depth non-directive interviewing method implies an egalitarian relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee. Rather than focusing on the interview as a method of data retrieval, it is the interviewee's unique account which is being sought and highly valued. Instead of entering into
89:
To achieve the level of depth and detail sought after using the method of the unstructured interview, the researcher or interviewer may choose main questions to focus on, probing questions and follow-up questions. A central idea or topic is typically chosen before beginning an unstructured interview.
80:
While the method of the unstructured interview varies widely, the chief feature of the unstructured interview is to reveal information from the respondent in a more neutral environment with less attached bias from the interviewer. This gives the unstructured interview an advantage over the structured
240:
has written numerous academic works focusing on the lives and roles of women in society. Oakley is a well-known pioneer in the unstructured interview research approach directed towards qualitative research that challenges existing power imbalances within the relationships of the interviewer and the
205:
The outcome of unstructured interviews results in diverse types of information collected from interviewees who are asking different questions. While the data from an unstructured interview has more quality than that obtained from a structured interview, in the sense that the participant has more of
214:
Feminist researchers often use unstructured interviews as opposed to more structured interview in terms of research techniques because it attempts to eliminate power imbalances in the relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee. Some feminist researchers are influenced by the works of
116:
Silence, being the apparent opposite of speech, is sometimes used in the method of the unstructured or non-directive interview. It is often suggested that silences may often be seen as awkward and are an enduring feature of human interaction. During more organized and highly structured interviews,
55:
and the depth of the interviewees' answers. One of the potential drawbacks is the loss of reliability, thereby making it more difficult to draw patterns among interviewees' responses in comparison to structured interviews. Unstructured interviews are used in a variety of fields and circumstances,
188:
It is important to understand that bias or the use of bias during an interview from the researcher is an important aspect that greatly affects validity of the interview's gathered knowledge. Since the interview is more like an everyday conversation, some claim that there are opportunities for the
98:
Open-ended questions have no prepared response choices which enables and empower the interviewee to shift the direction of the interview and to bring in unanticipated information. Whereas closed-ended questions require only that the interviewer read the question and marks the appropriate answer,
147:
It is argued that the unstructured interview can sometimes be more valid than the highly structured interview. According to Gorden, more valid responses may be created by letting the respondent follow what he calls "the natural paths of free association". "The universe of discourse" varies from
175:
Unstructured interviews are a lot more time-consuming in comparison to other research methods. This is because there are typically no prearranged questions asked during an unstructured interview, and if there are questions prepared, they are open-ended questions, which can result in elaborate
130:
An unstructured interview allows for the interviewer to build better rapport with the interviewee due to its parallels with a normal conversation. Unstructured interviews can be particularly useful when asking about personal experiences. In an unstructured interview the interviewer is able to
43:
which offers a set amount of standardized questions. The form of the unstructured interview varies widely, with some questions being prepared in advance in relation to a topic that the researcher or interviewer wishes to cover. They tend to be more informal and free flowing than a structured
107:
Although the method of the unstructured interview allows for social interaction and different modes of communication between the interviewer and interviewee, some maintain that it is important that interviewers resist the urge to agree, disagree, or give biased probes and encouragement to
131:
discover important information which did not seem relevant before the interview and the interviewer can ask the participant to go further into the new topic. For this reason they are often considered to be a better methodology for researching sensitive subjects, such as
676:
161:
interviews can be seen as a form of the ethnographic interview using the unstructured interview approach as they often share emphases documenting the respondent's life, or an aspect of it that has developed over the life course.
176:
answers. These open-ended questions "can require the interviewer to transcribe a lengthy statement". As a result, the unstructured interview is sometimes expensive and only feasible with small samples, affecting the data's
1264:
180:
and representativeness. However, current research shows there is a need to take up the unstructured interview in order to address unbalanced minority representation in research methods.
1283:
2009:
815:
Corbin, Juliet; Morse, Janice M. (2003). "The
Unstructured Interactive Interview: Issues of Reciprocity and Risks when Dealing with Sensitive Topics".
2070:
2029:
1091:
659:
382:
2024:
1797:
2090:
2039:
574:
320:
1189:
135:, whereas structured interviews are often considered intimidating due to their formality and can often make the interviewee subject to
1561:
1231:
1604:
64:, to college and job interviews. Fontana and Frey have identified three types of in depth, ethnographic, unstructured interviews -
2049:
2034:
1981:
2014:
68:, creative interviews (an unconventional interview in that it does not follow the rules of traditional interviewing), and
2080:
139:, a tendency for participants to answer questions inaccurately to suit response that can be viewed favorably by others.
1971:
1961:
1571:
1384:
1355:
1172:
1122:
1075:
961:
859:
747:
643:
618:
557:
481:
456:
418:
353:
1241:
1035:
986:
584:
517:
2131:
2121:
2126:
701:
Poland, Blake; Pederson, Ann (1998). "Reading
Between the Lines: Interpreting Silences in Qualitative Research".
1051:
Newell, S.; Rice, C. (1999). Millmore, M. (ed.). "Assessment, selection and evaluation: problems and pitfalls".
2116:
2111:
1541:
1513:
1460:
1426:
1330:
1147:
936:
906:
799:
772:
39:
in which questions are not prearranged. These non-directive interviews are considered to be the opposite of a
1190:"The Unstructured Interactive Interview: Issues of Reciprocity and Risks When Dealing With Sensitive Topics"
1907:
1597:
696:
694:
692:
896:
27:. Field interviews by journalists are more often than not unstructured, without many prearranged questions
1500:
Subject women : [where women stand today - politically, economically, socially, emotionally]
1802:
1003:
689:
1832:
2103:
2044:
1872:
1725:
1650:
255:
1307:
158:
136:
610:
604:
1877:
1720:
1614:
1590:
19:
1994:
1976:
1867:
1752:
1630:
789:
1482:
1114:
1107:
375:
2004:
1887:
1747:
1700:
1294:
295:
290:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1925:
1862:
1852:
1705:
1645:
1640:
265:
260:
45:
40:
8:
2154:
2085:
2054:
1807:
1715:
1690:
1505:
1435:
1902:
1817:
1792:
1764:
1737:
1672:
1470:
1373:
1212:
1085:
832:
718:
653:
363:
2019:
1892:
1857:
1787:
1567:
1537:
1509:
1456:
1422:
1380:
1351:
1326:
1237:
1216:
1168:
1143:
1118:
1071:
1031:
1025:
982:
957:
932:
902:
855:
836:
795:
768:
743:
722:
639:
614:
580:
553:
513:
477:
452:
414:
349:
132:
1999:
1812:
1660:
1204:
901:(3rd ed.). London: Chartered Inst. of Personnel and Development. p. 129.
824:
710:
52:
875:
873:
871:
1935:
1897:
1732:
1695:
1622:
1498:
1416:
1142:(Repr. ed.). Singapore: Singapore Univ. Press, National Univ. of Singapore.
922:
920:
918:
737:
404:
402:
400:
398:
396:
394:
392:
57:
48:
1208:
828:
685:. Vol. 19. University of Sydney: Oxford University Press. pp. 204–205.
1945:
1827:
1822:
1777:
1772:
1710:
1685:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1253:
868:
714:
194:
177:
915:
389:
2148:
1989:
1966:
1882:
1844:
1782:
1635:
1055:. Just How Extensive is the Practice of Strategic Recruitment and Selection?.
280:
69:
1250:
1940:
1742:
1325:(1. publ. in Great Britain. ed.). Bristol: Policy Press. p. 222.
285:
65:
75:
1582:
1448:
325:. University of California: Science research associates. pp. 105–112
275:
142:
1165:
Qualitative research methods for second language education: a coursebook
1930:
237:
190:
765:
Interviews : an introduction to qualitative research interviewing
767:(5. print. ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage. pp. 133–135.
250:
229:
61:
36:
550:
Research
Methods In Health: Investigating Health And Health Services
1555:
1553:
956:( ed.). Fort Worth : Harcourt College Publishers. p. 34.
680:
503:
501:
499:
497:
495:
493:
270:
233:
598:
596:
609:(5th ed.). Australia: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning. p.
24:
1550:
627:
490:
2075:
1680:
1011:
Trent Focus for
Research and Development in Primary Health Care
638:(7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Cengage. p. 134.
593:
344:
Holt, compiled and edited by
Richard Thorpe, and Robin (2007).
854:(4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 227.
512:. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. pp. 206–214.
1527:
1525:
1323:
The Ann Oakley reader : gender, women and social science
413:(1st ed.). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Pub. p. 129.
442:
440:
438:
436:
434:
432:
430:
209:
1113:(3. ed., ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif. : Sage. p.
979:
The SAGE dictionary of social and cultural research methods
300:
200:
1522:
1504:(1. American ed.). New York: Pantheon Books. p.
1418:
Representing the Other: A Feminism & Psychology Reader
1402:
102:
2010:
Household, Income and Labour
Dynamics in Australia Survey
427:
1167:. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. p. 100.
931:. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. p. 99.
1350:. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press. p. 84.
794:( ed.). Fort Worth : Harcourt College Publishers.
76:
Possible characteristics of a less structured interview
742:(First ed.). San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass.
671:
669:
552:. United Kingdom: McGraw-Hill Education. p. 398.
346:
143:
Readability and validity of the unstructured interview
1453:
Researching women's lives from a feminist perspective
537:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp. 361–376.
1027:
Research in personnel and human resources management
1024:
Dipboye, Robert L. (1994). Ferris, Gerald R. (ed.).
125:
2076:
European
Society for Opinion and Marketing Research
666:
1497:
1414:
1372:
1106:
84:
576:Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data
476:(Repr. ed.). London: Sage Publ. p. 87.
151:
16:Interview in which questions are not prearranged.
2146:
2071:American Association for Public Opinion Research
2030:National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
1070:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 259.
1002:Mathers, Nigel; Fox, Nick; Hunn, Amanda (1998).
882:Interviewing: Strategy, Techniques, and Tactics
411:Qualitative research in the study of leadership
2025:List of household surveys in the United States
1001:
929:The Sage dictionary of social research methods
736:Bierema, Laura L.; Merriam, Sharan B. (2013).
735:
700:
2091:World Association for Public Opinion Research
1598:
1446:
1109:Qualitative research & evaluation methods
2040:Suffolk University Political Research Center
1455:. London: Taylor & Francis. p. 11.
1090:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
658:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1399:
1187:
814:
532:
471:
1612:
1605:
1591:
1415:Wilkinson, Sue; Kitzinger, Ceclia (1996).
1284:"The Epistemology of Qualitative Research"
1050:
739:Adult learning linking theory and practice
573:Rubin, Herbet J.; Rubin, Irene S. (2011).
572:
472:David, Matthew; Sutton, Carole D. (2009).
348:. London: Sage Publications. p. 117.
1188:Corbin, Juliet; Morse, Janice M. (2003).
1162:
381:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
210:Types of use in feminist research methods
1370:
1348:Feminist research in theory and practice
1345:
1004:"Using Interviews in a Research Project"
951:
787:
533:Fontana, Andrea; Frey, James H. (1994).
451:(4. ed.). Free Press. p. 194.
201:Perceived difficulties in comparing data
18:
2050:Quinnipiac University Polling Institute
1137:
1023:
675:
547:
507:
183:
103:Neutral probes/non-biased encouragement
93:
2147:
2035:New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study
1982:Comparative Study of Electoral Systems
1531:
1495:
1320:
1281:
1263:
1104:
1065:
894:
879:
849:
633:
446:
408:
318:
23:Television journalists interviewing a
1586:
1559:
1379:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1229:
1140:Approaching English language research
762:
634:Babbie, Allen Rubin, Earl R. (2011).
602:
1271:. London: Routledge. pp. 40–41.
976:
926:
535:The Handbook of Qualitative Research
343:
2081:International Statistical Institute
1536:( ed.). Oxford: B. Blackwell.
1375:Feminist methods in social research
1066:Lawley, Daniel King, Scott (2012).
218:
13:
1972:American National Election Studies
1962:List of comparative social surveys
14:
2166:
1163:Zacharias, Nugrahenny T. (2012).
510:Indigenous research methodologies
474:Social research : the basics
170:
126:More complex issues can be probed
35:or non-directive interview is an
1563:Theory and Practice in Sociology
1233:Theory and Practice in Sociology
636:Research methods for social work
579:. Sage publishing. p. 134.
165:
1489:
1408:
1393:
1364:
1339:
1314:
1275:
1223:
1181:
1156:
1131:
1098:
1059:
1053:The Irish Journal of Management
1044:
1030:. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press.
1017:
995:
970:
945:
888:
884:. Dorsey Press. pp. 48–50.
843:
808:
781:
756:
729:
606:Research methods in social work
85:Light structure and preparation
1400:Stanley, L.; Wise, S. (1983).
1267:(1981). Roberts, Helen (ed.).
1105:Patton, Michael Quinn (2004).
981:(1st ed.). London: SAGE.
566:
541:
526:
465:
337:
312:
152:Balance in power relationships
1:
322:Frontier Thinking in Guidance
306:
223:
120:
51:and accordingly prioritizes
7:
2015:International Social Survey
1371:Reinharz, Shulamit (1992).
1209:10.1177/1077800403009003001
952:Spradley, James P. (1997).
880:Gorden, Raymond L. (1969).
829:10.1177/1077800403009003001
788:Spradley, James P. (1997).
447:Bailey, Kenneth D. (2008).
244:
10:
2171:
1534:The sociology of housework
1282:Becker, Howard S. (1990).
954:The ethnographic interview
927:Jupp, Victor, ed. (2006).
791:The ethnographic interview
715:10.1177/107780049800400209
449:Methods of Social Research
111:
2099:
2063:
2045:The Phillips Academy Poll
1954:
1918:
1873:Exploratory data analysis
1843:
1763:
1726:Sample size determination
1671:
1621:
1447:Maynard, edited by Mary;
1421:. CA: Sage Publications.
1321:Oakley, Ann, ed. (2005).
1138:Allison, Desmond (2002).
256:Semi-structured interview
56:ranging from research in
1346:Letherby, Gayle (2003).
1068:Organizational behaviour
895:Taylor, Stephen (2005).
508:Chilisa, Bagele (2012).
319:Rogers, Carl R. (1945).
137:social desirability bias
1986:Emerson College Polling
1878:Multivariate statistics
1721:Nonprobability sampling
1269:Doing feminist research
852:Social research methods
763:Kvale, Steinar (1996).
1995:European Social Survey
1977:Asian Barometer Survey
1868:Descriptive statistics
1753:Cross-sequential study
1706:Simple random sampling
1302:Cite journal requires
409:Klenke, Karin (2008).
228:Distinguished British
33:unstructured interview
28:
2005:General Social Survey
1888:Statistical inference
1748:Cross-sectional study
977:Jupp, Victor (2004).
850:Bryman, Alan (2012).
603:Royse, David (2008).
548:Bowling, Ann (2014).
296:Closed-ended question
22:
1926:Audience measurement
1863:Level of measurement
1696:Sampling for surveys
1532:Oakley, Ann (1985).
1496:Oakley, Ann (1981).
1404:. London: Routledge.
266:Qualitative research
261:Structured interview
184:Opportunity for bias
94:Open-ended questions
41:structured interview
2086:Pew Research Center
2055:World Values Survey
1798:Specification error
1716:Stratified sampling
1560:Marsh, Ian (2014).
1230:Marsh, Ian (2014).
1197:Qualitative Inquiry
817:Qualitative Inquiry
703:Qualitative Inquiry
682:Applied Linguistics
1893:Statistical models
1793:Non-sampling error
1691:Statistical sample
1631:Collection methods
1481:has generic name (
374:has generic name (
29:
2142:
2141:
1858:Contingency table
1833:Processing errors
1818:Non-response bias
1808:Measurement error
1788:Systematic errors
898:People resourcing
133:domestic violence
2162:
1853:Categorical data
1607:
1600:
1593:
1584:
1583:
1578:
1577:
1557:
1548:
1547:
1529:
1520:
1519:
1503:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1480:
1476:
1474:
1466:
1444:
1433:
1432:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1378:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1343:
1337:
1336:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1305:
1300:
1298:
1290:
1288:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1261:
1248:
1247:
1227:
1221:
1220:
1194:
1185:
1179:
1178:
1160:
1154:
1153:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1112:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1089:
1081:
1063:
1057:
1056:
1048:
1042:
1041:
1021:
1015:
1014:
1008:
999:
993:
992:
974:
968:
967:
949:
943:
942:
924:
913:
912:
892:
886:
885:
877:
866:
865:
847:
841:
840:
812:
806:
805:
785:
779:
778:
760:
754:
753:
733:
727:
726:
698:
687:
686:
673:
664:
663:
657:
649:
631:
625:
624:
600:
591:
590:
570:
564:
563:
545:
539:
538:
530:
524:
523:
505:
488:
487:
469:
463:
462:
444:
425:
424:
406:
387:
386:
379:
373:
369:
367:
359:
341:
335:
334:
332:
330:
316:
219:Notable examples
178:generalizability
2170:
2169:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2145:
2144:
2143:
2138:
2095:
2059:
2020:Latinobarómetro
1950:
1936:Market research
1914:
1839:
1813:Response errors
1759:
1733:Research design
1701:Random sampling
1667:
1651:Semi-structured
1623:Data collection
1617:
1615:survey research
1611:
1581:
1574:
1558:
1551:
1544:
1530:
1523:
1516:
1494:
1490:
1478:
1477:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1445:
1436:
1429:
1413:
1409:
1398:
1394:
1387:
1369:
1365:
1358:
1344:
1340:
1333:
1319:
1315:
1303:
1301:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1280:
1276:
1262:
1251:
1244:
1228:
1224:
1192:
1186:
1182:
1175:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1103:
1099:
1083:
1082:
1078:
1064:
1060:
1049:
1045:
1038:
1022:
1018:
1006:
1000:
996:
989:
975:
971:
964:
950:
946:
939:
925:
916:
909:
893:
889:
878:
869:
862:
848:
844:
813:
809:
802:
786:
782:
775:
761:
757:
750:
734:
730:
699:
690:
674:
667:
651:
650:
646:
632:
628:
621:
601:
594:
587:
571:
567:
560:
546:
542:
531:
527:
520:
506:
491:
484:
470:
466:
459:
445:
428:
421:
407:
390:
380:
371:
370:
361:
360:
356:
342:
338:
328:
326:
317:
313:
309:
247:
226:
221:
212:
203:
186:
173:
168:
154:
145:
128:
123:
114:
105:
96:
87:
78:
58:social sciences
49:research method
17:
12:
11:
5:
2168:
2158:
2157:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2106:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1958:
1956:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1946:Public opinion
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1849:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1838:
1837:
1836:
1835:
1830:
1828:Pseudo-opinion
1825:
1823:Coverage error
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1778:Standard error
1775:
1773:Sampling error
1769:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1730:
1729:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1711:Quota sampling
1708:
1703:
1693:
1688:
1686:Sampling frame
1683:
1677:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1638:
1633:
1627:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1610:
1609:
1602:
1595:
1587:
1580:
1579:
1573:978-1317904847
1572:
1549:
1542:
1521:
1514:
1488:
1461:
1434:
1427:
1407:
1392:
1386:978-0195073867
1385:
1363:
1357:978-0335200290
1356:
1338:
1331:
1313:
1304:|journal=
1274:
1249:
1242:
1222:
1180:
1174:978-1443835510
1173:
1155:
1148:
1130:
1124:978-0761919711
1123:
1097:
1077:978-0199603091
1076:
1058:
1043:
1036:
1016:
994:
987:
969:
963:978-0030444968
962:
944:
937:
914:
907:
887:
867:
861:978-0199588053
860:
842:
823:(3): 335–354.
807:
800:
780:
773:
755:
749:978-1118416310
748:
728:
709:(2): 293–312.
688:
665:
645:978-0495811718
644:
626:
620:978-0495115663
619:
592:
585:
565:
559:978-0335262748
558:
540:
525:
518:
489:
483:978-0761973676
482:
464:
458:978-1439118894
457:
426:
420:978-0080464107
419:
388:
355:978-1849203418
354:
336:
310:
308:
305:
304:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
246:
243:
236:, and writer,
225:
222:
220:
217:
211:
208:
202:
199:
195:discrimination
185:
182:
172:
171:Time-consuming
169:
167:
164:
153:
150:
144:
141:
127:
124:
122:
119:
113:
110:
104:
101:
95:
92:
86:
83:
77:
74:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2167:
2156:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2098:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1990:Eurobarometer
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1967:Afrobarometer
1965:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1957:
1955:Major surveys
1953:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1883:Psychometrics
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1845:Data analysis
1842:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1783:Sampling bias
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1765:Survey errors
1762:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1734:
1731:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1643:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1636:Questionnaire
1634:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1608:
1603:
1601:
1596:
1594:
1589:
1588:
1585:
1575:
1569:
1566:. Routledge.
1565:
1564:
1556:
1554:
1545:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1526:
1517:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1501:
1492:
1484:
1479:|first1=
1472:
1464:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1430:
1424:
1420:
1419:
1411:
1403:
1396:
1388:
1382:
1377:
1376:
1367:
1359:
1353:
1349:
1342:
1334:
1328:
1324:
1317:
1309:
1296:
1285:
1278:
1270:
1266:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1245:
1243:9781317904847
1239:
1236:. Routledge.
1235:
1234:
1226:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1184:
1176:
1170:
1166:
1159:
1151:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1126:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1110:
1101:
1093:
1087:
1079:
1073:
1069:
1062:
1054:
1047:
1039:
1037:1-55938-733-5
1033:
1029:
1028:
1020:
1012:
1005:
998:
990:
988:9780761962984
984:
980:
973:
965:
959:
955:
948:
940:
934:
930:
923:
921:
919:
910:
904:
900:
899:
891:
883:
876:
874:
872:
863:
857:
853:
846:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
811:
803:
797:
793:
792:
784:
776:
770:
766:
759:
751:
745:
741:
740:
732:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
697:
695:
693:
684:
683:
678:
672:
670:
661:
655:
647:
641:
637:
630:
622:
616:
612:
608:
607:
599:
597:
588:
586:9781452285863
582:
578:
577:
569:
561:
555:
551:
544:
536:
529:
521:
519:9781412958820
515:
511:
504:
502:
500:
498:
496:
494:
485:
479:
475:
468:
460:
454:
450:
443:
441:
439:
437:
435:
433:
431:
422:
416:
412:
405:
403:
401:
399:
397:
395:
393:
384:
377:
372:|first1=
365:
357:
351:
347:
340:
324:
323:
315:
311:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
281:Postmodernism
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
248:
242:
239:
235:
231:
216:
207:
198:
196:
192:
181:
179:
166:Disadvantages
163:
160:
149:
140:
138:
134:
118:
109:
100:
91:
82:
73:
71:
67:
63:
59:
54:
50:
47:
42:
38:
34:
26:
21:
2064:Associations
1941:Opinion poll
1919:Applications
1743:Cohort study
1656:Unstructured
1655:
1562:
1533:
1499:
1491:
1452:
1449:Purvis, June
1417:
1410:
1401:
1395:
1374:
1366:
1347:
1341:
1322:
1316:
1295:cite journal
1277:
1268:
1232:
1225:
1200:
1196:
1183:
1164:
1158:
1139:
1133:
1108:
1100:
1067:
1061:
1052:
1046:
1026:
1019:
1010:
997:
978:
972:
953:
947:
928:
897:
890:
881:
851:
845:
820:
816:
810:
790:
783:
764:
758:
738:
731:
706:
702:
681:
677:Gardner, Rod
635:
629:
605:
575:
568:
549:
543:
534:
528:
509:
473:
467:
448:
410:
345:
339:
327:. Retrieved
321:
314:
286:Oral history
227:
213:
204:
187:
174:
159:Life history
155:
146:
129:
115:
106:
97:
88:
79:
72:interviews.
66:oral history
32:
30:
2000:Gallup Poll
1803:Frame error
1738:Panel study
1673:Methodology
1265:Oakley, Ann
276:Ethnography
230:sociologist
191:stereotypes
70:post-modern
46:qualitative
2155:Interviews
2132:Statistics
2122:Psychology
1931:Demography
1908:Structural
1903:Log-linear
1646:Structured
1543:0631139249
1515:0394521706
1462:113534034X
1428:1446235432
1332:1861346913
1203:(3): 340.
1149:9971692589
938:1847877141
908:1843980770
801:0030444969
774:080395820X
307:References
238:Ann Oakley
224:Ann Oakley
121:Advantages
60:, such as
2127:Sociology
2108:Projects
1898:Graphical
1641:Interview
1471:cite book
1217:145777818
1086:cite book
837:145777818
723:144885090
654:cite book
364:cite book
329:March 18,
251:Interview
62:sociology
37:interview
25:cosplayer
2149:Category
2117:Politics
2112:Business
2104:Category
1451:(1994).
679:(1994).
291:Validity
271:Feminism
245:See also
234:feminist
53:validity
1613:Social
112:Silence
1681:Census
1661:Couple
1570:
1540:
1512:
1459:
1425:
1383:
1354:
1329:
1240:
1215:
1171:
1146:
1121:
1074:
1034:
985:
960:
935:
905:
858:
835:
798:
771:
746:
721:
642:
617:
583:
556:
516:
480:
455:
417:
352:
1287:(PDF)
1213:S2CID
1193:(PDF)
1007:(PDF)
833:S2CID
719:S2CID
1568:ISBN
1538:ISBN
1510:ISBN
1483:help
1457:ISBN
1423:ISBN
1381:ISBN
1352:ISBN
1327:ISBN
1308:help
1238:ISBN
1169:ISBN
1144:ISBN
1119:ISBN
1092:link
1072:ISBN
1032:ISBN
1013:: 8.
983:ISBN
958:ISBN
933:ISBN
903:ISBN
856:ISBN
796:ISBN
769:ISBN
744:ISBN
660:link
640:ISBN
615:ISBN
581:ISBN
554:ISBN
514:ISBN
478:ISBN
453:ISBN
415:ISBN
383:link
376:help
350:ISBN
331:2015
301:Bias
193:and
1205:doi
1115:349
825:doi
711:doi
611:183
31:An
2151::
1552:^
1524:^
1508:.
1506:41
1475::
1473:}}
1469:{{
1437:^
1299::
1297:}}
1293:{{
1252:^
1211:.
1199:.
1195:.
1117:.
1088:}}
1084:{{
1009:.
917:^
870:^
831:.
819:.
717:.
705:.
691:^
668:^
656:}}
652:{{
613:.
595:^
492:^
429:^
391:^
368::
366:}}
362:{{
232:,
1606:e
1599:t
1592:v
1576:.
1546:.
1518:.
1485:)
1465:.
1431:.
1389:.
1360:.
1335:.
1310:)
1306:(
1289:.
1246:.
1219:.
1207::
1201:9
1177:.
1152:.
1127:.
1094:)
1080:.
1040:.
991:.
966:.
941:.
911:.
864:.
839:.
827::
821:9
804:.
777:.
752:.
725:.
713::
707:4
662:)
648:.
623:.
589:.
562:.
522:.
486:.
461:.
423:.
385:)
378:)
358:.
333:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
