2247:
more than 1000 m. The 'temples' of the monumental group of Tell Qanas may have been residences for the leaders of the city. These are thus very hierarchical habitats, indicating the social differentiation that existed in the urban centres of the Late Uruk period (much more than in the preceding period). Another trait of the nascent urban society is revealed by the organisation of domestic space. The houses seem to fold in on themselves, with a new floor plan developed from the tripartite plan current in the Ubayd period, but augmented by a reception area and by a central space (perhaps open to the sky), around which the other rooms were arranged. These houses thus had a private space separated from a public space where guests could be received. In an urban society with a community so much larger than village societies, the relations with people outside the household became more distant, leading to this separation of the house. Thus the old rural house was adapted to the realities of urban society. This model of a house with a central space remained very widespread in the cities of
Mesopotamia in the following periods, although it must be kept in mind that the floor plans of residences were very diverse and depended on the development of urbanism in different sites.
1566:
types of site, ranging from colonies that could be actual
Urukian sites through to trading posts with an Urukian enclave and sites that are mostly local with a weak or non-existent Urukian influence, as well as others where contacts are more or less strong without supplanting the local culture. The case of Susiana and the Iranian plateau, which is generally studied by different scholars from those who work on Syrian and Anatolian sites, has led to some attempted explanations based on local developments, notably the development of the proto-Elamite culture, which is sometimes seen as a product of the expansion and sometimes as an adversary. The case of the southern Levant and Egypt is different again and helps to highlight the role of local cultures as receivers of the Uruk culture. In the Levant there was no stratified society with embryonic cities and bureaucracy, and therefore no strong elite to act as local intermediaries of Urukian culture and as a result Urukian influence is especially weak. In Egypt, Urukian influence seems to be limited to a few objects which were seen as prestigious or exotic (most notably the knife of Jebel el-Arak), chosen by the elite at a moment when they needed to assert their power in a developing state.
2168:
product of a long process and preceded by the appearance of 'chieftainships.' This process was not a linear progression but was marked by phases of growth and decline (like the 'collapse' of archaeological cultures). Its roots lie in the societies of the
Neolithic period, and the process is characterised by the increase of social inequality over the long term, visible in particular in the creation of monumental architecture and funerary materials by groups of the elite, which reinforced itself as a collective and managed to exercise its power in a firmer and firmer manner. Among the main causes proposed by proponents of the functionalist model of the state are a collective response to practical problems (particularly following serious crises or a deadlocks), like the need to better manage the demographic growth of a community or to provide it with resources through agricultural production or trade, alternatively others suggest that it was driven by the need to soothe or direct conflicts arising from the process of securing those resources. Other explanatory models put more stress on the personal interest of individuals in their quest for power and prestige. It is likely that several of these explanations are relevant.
1542:
therefore poorly placed to evaluate the impact of the development of southern
Mesopotamia, since we have almost no archaeological evidence about it. Moreover, the chronology of this period is far from established, which makes it difficult to date the expansion. It has proven difficult to make the levels at different sites correspond closely enough to attribute them to a single period, making the elaboration of relative chronology very complicated. Among the theories that have been advanced to explain the Uruk expansion, the commercial explanation is frequently revived. However, although long-distance trade is undoubtedly a secondary phenomenon for the south Mesopotamian states compared to local production and seems to follow the development of increased social complexity rather than causing it, this does not necessarily prove a process of colonisation. Some other theories propose a form of agrarian colonisation resulting from a shortage of land in Lower Mesopotamia or a migration of refugees after the Uruk region suffered ecological or political upheavals. These explanations are largely advanced to explain the sites of the Syro-Anatolian world, rather than as global theories.
2506:, argues that from the beginning writing was more than just a managerial tool; it was also a method for recording concepts and language (i.e. Sumerian), because from its invention the signs did not only represent real objects (pictograms) but also ideas (ideograms), along with their associated sounds (phonograms). This theory presents writing as a radical conceptual change, resulting in a change in the way the world was perceived. From the beginning of writing, scribes wrote lexical lists on the edges of administrative documents. These were proper scholarly works, enabling them to explore the possibilities of the writing system in classifying signs according to their 'families', inventing new signs, and developing the writing system, but more generally they were also producing a classification of the things that constituted the world which they inhabited, improving their understanding of it. According to Glassner, this indicates that the invention of writing cannot be entirely linked with material considerations. The invention of such a system required reflection on the image and the different senses that a sign could bear, notably for representing the abstract.
991:
9822:
1504:
1478:, elaborating the model colonialism and incipient imperial expansion that sought to explain the Uruk civilization. In his view, which has met with some approval, but has also found many critics, the 'Urukians' created a collection of colonies outside Lower Mesopotamia, first in Upper Mesopotamia (Habuba Kabira and Jebel Aruda, as well as Nineveh, Tell Brak and Samsat to the north), then in Susiana and the Iranian plateau. For Algaze, the motivation of this activity is considered to be a form of economic imperialism: the elites of southern Mesopotamia wanted to obtain the numerous raw materials which were not available in the Tigris and Euphrates floodplains, and founded their colonies on nodal points which controlled a vast commercial network (although it remains impossible to determine what exactly was exchanged), settling them with refugees as in some models of
1142:, is located right next to lower Mesopotamia, which exercised a powerful influence on it from the 5th millennium BC, and might be considered to have been part of the Uruk culture in the second half of the 4th millennium BC, either as a result of conquest or a more gradual acculturation, but it did retain its own unique characteristics. The Uruk period levels at Susa are called Susa I (c. 4000â3700 BC) and Susa II (c. 3700â3100 BC), during which the site became an urban settlement. Susa I saw the beginning of monumental architecture on the site, with the construction of a 'High Terrace', which was increased during Susa II to measure roughly 60 x 45 metres. The most interesting aspect of this site is the objects discovered there, which are the most important evidence available to us for the art of the Uruk period and the beginning of administration and writing. The
919:
Thereafter, the buildings were vastly larger than earlier, some had novel designs and new construction techniques were used for the structure and the decoration. Level IV of the Eanna is divided into two monumental groups: in the west, a complex centred on the 'Temple with mosaics' (decorated with mosaics made of painted clay cones) of level IVB, subsequently covered by another building (the 'Riemchen
Building') of level IVA. To the east there is a very important group of structuresânotably a 'Square Building' and the 'Riemchen Temple Building', which were subsequently replaced by other buildings with original plans, like the 'Hall with Pillars' and the 'Hall with Mosaics', a square 'Grand Court' and two very large buildings with a tripartite plan, 'Temple C' (54 x 22 m) and 'Temple D' (80 x 50 m, the largest building known from the Uruk period).
2256:
1516:
2292:
writing. This, notably, allowed them to administer trading posts with precision, noting down the arrival and departure of productsâsometimes presented as purchase and saleâin order to maintain an exact count of the products in stock in the storerooms which the scribe had responsibility for. These storage spaces were closed and marked with the seal of the administrator in charge. The scribal class were involved in understanding and managing the state, in the exploitation and production capacity of the fields, troops, and artisans, for many years, which involved the production of inventories, and led to the construction of true archives of the activities of an institution or one of its subdivisions. This was possible due to the progressive development of more management tools, especially true writing.
2177:
1704:, we know from archaeological discoveries that these fruits are consumed in Lower Mesopotamia in the 5th millennium BC. The date of its first cultivation by man can't be precisely determined: it is commonly supposed that the culture of this tree knew its development during the Late Uruk period, but the texts are not explicit on this matter. This system which progressively developed over two thousand years enabled higher yields, leaving more surplus than previously for workers, whose rations mainly consisted of barley. The human, material, and technical resources were now available for agriculture based on paid labour, although family-based farming remained the base unit. All of this undoubtedly led to population increase and thus urbanisation and the development of state structures.
1083:, where the influence of southern Mesopotamia remains barely perceptible. But in other areas the Uruk culture is more evident, such as Upper Mesopotamia, northern Syria, western Iran and southeastern Anatolia. They generally experienced an evolution similar to that of lower Mesopotamia, with the development of urban agglomerations and larger political entities and they were strongly influenced by the culture of the 'centre' in the later part of the period (c. 3400â3200), before a general strengthening of their own regional cultures took place at the turn of the 3rd millennium BC. The interpretation of the expansion of the Uruk culture into neighbouring regions poses numerous problems and many explanatory models (general and regional) have been proposed in order to explain it.
1821:
showing that a new level of mass-production had been reached, for a larger populationâespecially in cities in contact with large administrative systems. They were mainly used for holding various kinds of agricultural production (barley, beer, dates, milk, etc.) and were thus pervasive in everyday life. This period marks the appearance of potters who specialised in the production of large quantities of pottery, which resulted in the emergence of specialised districts within communities. Although the quality was low, the diversity of shapes and sizes became more important than previously, with the diversification of the functions served by pottery. Not all the pottery of this period was produced on the potter's wheel: the most distinctive vessel of the Uruk period, the
2095:
for the exercise of power have been identified for sure and no monumental tomb for a ruler has been found either. Images on steles and cylinder-seals are a little more evocative. An important figure who clearly holds some kind of authority has long been noted: a bearded man with a headband who is usually depicted wearing a bell-shaped skirt or as ritually naked. He is often represented as a warrior fighting human enemies or wild animals, e.g. in the 'Stele of the Hunt' found at Uruk, in which he defeats lions with his bow. He is also found in victory scenes accompanied by prisoners or structures. He also is shown leading cult activities, as on a vase from Uruk of the Jemdet Nasr period which shows him leading a procession towards a goddess, who is almost certainly
813:
millennium BC, the first system of writing, and it is the material and symbolic culture of this region which had the most influence on the rest of the Near East at this time. However, this region is not well-known archaeologically, since only the site of Uruk itself has provided traces of monumental architecture and administrative documents which justify seeing this region as the most dynamic and influential. At some other sites, construction from this period has been found, but they are usually known only as a result of soundages. In the current state of knowledge it remains impossible to determine whether the site of Uruk was actually unique in this region or if it is simply an accident of excavation that makes it seem more important than the others.
9259:
2215:(Tell Brak, Hamoukar, Tell al-Hawa, Grai Resh). Excavations in the latter region tend to contradict the idea that urbanisation began in Mesopotamia and then spread to neighbouring regions; the appearance of an urban centre at Tell Brak appears to have resulted from a local process with the progressive aggregation of village communities that had previously lived separately, and without the influence of any strong central power (unlike what seems to have been the case at Uruk). Early urbanisation should therefore be thought of as a phenomenon which took place simultaneously in several regions of the Near East in the 4th millennium BC, though further research and excavation is still required in order to make this process clearer to us.
8399:
673:. The chronology of the Uruk period is highly debated and still very uncertain. It is known that it covered most of the 4th millennium BC. But there is no agreement on the date when it began or ended and the major breaks within the period are difficult to determine. This is due primarily to the fact that the original stratigraphy of the central quarter of Uruk is ancient and very unclear and the excavations of it were conducted in the 1930s, before many modern dating techniques existed. These problems are largely linked to the difficulty specialists have had establishing synchronisms between the different archaeological sites and a relative chronology, which would enable the development of a more reliable absolute chronology.
7031:
605:
7994:
2054:
of Eridu, which had an area of only 280 mâand the Eanna complex's other buildings cover a further 1000 m, while the Ubayd temple of Eridu was a stand-alone structure. The change in size reflects a step-change in the ability of central authorities to mobilise human and material resources. Tombs also show a growing differentiation of wealth and thus an increasingly powerful elite, who sought to distinguish themselves from the rest of the population by obtaining prestige goods, through trade if possible and by employing increasingly specialised artisans. The idea that the Uruk period saw the appearance of a true state, simultaneously with the appearance of the first cities (following
5289:
11486:
1355:, was excavated by G. Stein and was located at the crossroads of some important commercial routes. Beveled rim bowls appear from phase B1 (c. 3800/3700 BC) and they are also present in phase B2 (3700â3300 BC), along with other objects characteristic of Late Uruk, like mosaics of clay cones, a terracotta sickle, an accounting bulla imprinted with the pattern from a cylinder seal, an uninscribed clay tablet, etc. This material co-exists with local pottery, which remains dominant throughout. The excavator of the site thinks that there was an enclave of people from Lower Mesopotamia who lived on the site alongside a majority population of local people.
2300:(cylinders engraved with a motif which could be rolled over clay in order to impress a symbol in it) were invented and replaced the simple seals. They were used to seal clay envelopes and tablets, and to authenticate objects and goods, because they functioned like a signature for the person who applied the seal or for the institution which they represented. These cylinder seals would remain a characteristic element of Near Eastern civilization for several millennia. The reasons for their success lay in the possibilities that they offered of an image and thus a message with more detail, with a narrative structure, and perhaps an element of magic.
1731:). With its high transport capacity (about double that of a human), it enabled the further development of trade over short and long distances. Pastoralism of animals which had already been domesticated (sheep, horses, cattle) also developed further. Previously these animals had been raised mainly as sources of meat, but they now became more important for the products which they provided (wool, fur, hides, milk) and as beasts of burden. This final aspect was especially connected with the cattle, which became essential for work in the fields with the appearance of the ard, and the donkey which assumed a major role in the transportation of goods.
1373:, is the most remarkable site of the period in eastern Anatolia. It has been excavated by M. Frangipane. During the first half of the 4th millennium BC, this site was dominated by a building called 'Temple C' by the excavators, which was built on a platform. It was abandoned around 3500 BC and replaced by a monumental complex which seems to have been the regional centre of power. The culture of Late Uruk had a discernible influence, which can be seen most clearly in the numerous sealings found on the site, many of which are in a south Mesopotamian style. Around 3000 BC, the site was destroyed by a fire. The monuments were not restored and the
7703:
5293:
11116:
1924:
1252:, and numerical tablets from the end of the period. Thus this new city has every appearance of being an Urukian colony. Around 20 residences of various sorts have been excavated. They have a tripartite plan, arranged around a reception hall with a foyer opening onto an internal courtyard, with additional rooms arranged around it. In the south of the site is a hill, Tell Qanas, which has a monumental group of several structures identified speculatively as 'temples' on an artificial terrace. The site was abandoned at the end of the 4th millennium BC, apparently without violence, during the period when the Uruk culture retreated.
1075:. The Uruk culture itself is certainly characterised mainly by sites of southern Mesopotamia and others which seem to have directly resulted from migrations from this region (the 'colonies' or 'emporia'), which are clearly part of the Uruk culture. But the phenomenon which is known as the Uruk expansion is detected on sites situated across a vast zone of influence, covering the whole Near East, regions which were not all really part of the Uruk culture, which was strictly-speaking limited to Lower Mesopotamia. The relations of some areas with the Uruk culture are very unclear, such as the little-known cultures of the
885:
9652:
2540:
the central figure of society as the monarch, but also some ordinary men engaged in everyday life, agricultural and artisanal work (pottery, weaving). This realism indicates a true shift, which might be called 'humanist', because it marks a turning point in
Mesopotamian art and more generally a change in the mental universe which placed man or at least the human form in a more prominent position than ever before. It is perhaps at the end of the Uruk period that the first signs of anthropomorphism of divinities that became the norm in subsequent periods emerge. The Uruk vase undoubtedly represents the goddess
7666:
7091:
1852:
1832:
8245:
645:
758:, based on recent excavations, especially at sites outside Mesopotamia. They consider the Uruk period to be the "Late Chalcolithic" (LC). Their LC 1 corresponds to the end of the Ubaid period and ends around 4200 BC, with the beginning of LC 2, which is the first phase of the Uruk period. They divide "Old Uruk" into two phases, with the dividing line placed around 4000 BC. Around 3800 BC, LC 3 begins, which corresponds to the "Middle Uruk" phase and continues until around 3400 BC, when it is succeeded by LC 4. It rapidly transitions to LC 5 (Late Uruk), which continues until 3000 BC.
11838:
1299:
monuments which are definitely for cultic purposes. The 'Eye Temple' (as its final stage is known) has walls decorated with terracotta cones which form a mosaic and with inlays of coloured stones and a platform which might have been an altar and is decorated with gold leaf, lapis lazuli, silver nails, and white marble in a central T-shaped room. The most remarkable find are over two hundred "eye figurines" which give the building its name. These figurines have enormous eyes and are definitely votive deposits. Tell Brak has also produced evidence of writing: a numeric tablet and two
2566:
2358:
720:
1331:, which was also important in the Ubayd period, is an important case of the changing scale of monumental architecture and of political entities between the end of the 5th millennium and the first half of the 4th millennium BC (Level XII to VIII). The excavations there have revealed some very rich tombs, different kinds of residence, workshops, and very large buildings with an official or religious function (notably the 'round structure'), which may indicate that Tepe Gawra was a regional political centre. However, it declined before the Uruk expansion into Upper Mesopotamia.
9879:
1102:
2148:), administrators, priests, etc. Their scribes produced administrative documents relating to the management of land, the distribution of rations (barley, wool, oil, beer, etc.) for workers, which include slaves, and listing of the heads of livestock. These institutions could control the production of prestige goods, redistribution, long-distance trade, and the management of public works. They were able to support increasingly specialised workers. The largest institutions contained multiple 'departments' devoted to a single activity (cultivation of fields, herds, etc.).
2264:
1868:
1118:
1915:), the copper-lead alloy being also found, while the tin bronze does not begin to spread until the following millennium (although the Late Uruk Period is supposed to be the beginning of the 'Bronze Age'). The development of metallurgy also implies the development of long-distance trade in metals. Mesopotamia needed to import metal from Iran or Anatolia, which motivated the long-distance trade which we see developing in the 4th millennium BC and explains why Mesopotamian metalworkers preferred techniques which were very economical in their use of raw metal.
2116:
2042:
2696:
2235:
1796:
1671:
8573:
734:
178:
860:
language. Some argue that it is actually
Sumerian, in which case the Sumerians would have been its inventors and would have already been present in the region in the final centuries of the 4th millennium at the latest (which seems to be the most widely accepted position). Whether other ethnic groups were also present, especially Semitic ancestors of the Akkadians or one or several 'pre-Sumerian' peoples (neither Sumerian nor Semite and predating both in the region) is also debated and cannot be resolved by excavation.
7441:
896:
11828:
1880:
1570:
7066:
8844:
7651:
2616:
Mesopotamia from the 3rd millennium BCârather than being linked to specific forces of nature. The presence of a cult surrounded by institutions and bureaucracy, relying on their capacity to produce or collect wealth and apparently controlled by a royal figure indicates that the religion which is seen in the sources was an official religion, in which the sacrificial act was seen as preserving good relations between men and gods, so that the latter would ensure the prosperity of the former.
2553:(hoard) of level III of Eanna (Jemdet Nasr period). Some bas-reliefs are found on steles like the 'Hunt stele' or the great alabaster vase representing a scene of a man giving an offering to a goddess, undoubtedly Inanna. These works also foreground an authority figure who carries out military exploits and manages religious cults. They are also characterised by their level of realism in the depiction of the features of individuals. A final remarkable work of the artists of Uruk III is the
2107:
development is also connected with the changes in iconography and with the emergence of an ideology of royalty intended to support the construction of a new kind of political entity. The elites played a role as religious intermediaries between the divine world and the human world, notably in sacrificial ritual and in festivals which they organised and which assured their symbolic function as the foundation of social order. This reconstruction is apparent from the friezes on the great
10700:
2515:
10591:
7274:
2099:. In other cases, he is shown feeding animals, which suggests the idea of the king as a shepherd, who gathers his people together, protects them and looks after their needs, ensuring the prosperity of the kingdom. These motifs match the functions of the subsequent Sumerian kings: war-leader, chief priest, and builder. Scholars have proposed that this figure should be called the 'Priest-King'. This ruler may be the person designated in Uruk III tablets by the title of
946:
13177:
8913:
958:
2448:, one sign = one word). But this is very contested because there is no obvious correspondence between the tokens and the pictograms that replaced them. In general, a first development (occurring around 3300â3100 BC) is however retained as being based on accounting and management practices, and has been explored in more detailed by H. Nissen and R. Englund. This writing system is pictographic, made up of linear signs incised in clay tablets using a
13187:
9907:
6031:
2160:) of different sizes, from large institutions to modest family groups, that can be classified in modern terms as 'public' or 'private' and which were in constant interaction with one another. Some archives were probably produced in a private context in residences of Susa, Habuba Kabira, and Jebel Aruda. But these documents represent relatively rudimentary accounting, indicating a smaller scale of economic activity. One study carried out at
978:, in levels IV and III, in a context where they had been disposed of, which means that the context in which they were created is not known to us. Uruk III, which corresponds to the Jemdet Nasr period, sees a complete reorganisation of the Eanna quarter, in which the buildings on the site were razed and replaced by a grand terrace, which ignores the earlier buildings. In their foundations, a deposit which is probably of a cultic nature (the
6871:
6861:
2222:, a settlement of limited size. It is necessary to turn to Syria and the neighbouring sites of Habuba Kabira and Jebel Aruda for an example of urbanism that is relatively well-known. Habuba Kabira consisted of 22 hectares, surrounded by a wall and organised around some important buildings, major streets and narrow alleys, and a group of residences of similar shape organised around a courtyard. It was clearly a planned city created
1413:
27:
1248:, a fortified port on the right bank of the river in Syria. The city covered around 22 hectares, surrounded by a defensive wall, roughly 10 percent of which has been uncovered. Study of the buildings on this site shows that it was a planned settlement, which would have required significant means. The archaeological material from the site is identical to that of Uruk, consisting of pottery, cylinder-seals, bullae, accounting
12057:
2710:
548:
2067:
those that existed in the 3rd millennium BC. This seems to be corroborated by the existence of 'civic seals' in the Jemdet Nasr period, which bear symbols of the
Sumerian cities of Uruk, Ur, Larsa, etc. The fact that these symbols appeared together might indicate a kind of league or confederation uniting the cities of southern Mesopotamia, perhaps for religious purposes, perhaps under the authority of one of them (Uruk?).
10933:
7925:
13197:
934:
13207:
9021:
1735:
2682:
1787:) had the same results for the processing and its redistribution, giving the ancient Mesopotamian economy its two key industries and went along with the economic development of large systems. Moreover, wool could be exported easily (unlike perishable food products), which may have meant that the Mesopotamians had something to exchange with their neighbours who had more in the way of primary materials.
1269:
1623:
7838:
7661:
9016:
8568:
8240:
7833:
7646:
9133:
8095:
2071:
7078:
1362:(also in the Euphrates valley). An Urukian site was revealed at Samsat during a hasty rescue excavation before the area was flooded as a result of the construction of a hydroelectric dam. Fragments of clay cones from a wall mosaic were found. A little to the south is Kurban HöyĂŒk, where clay cones and pottery characteristic of Uruk have also been found in tripartite buildings.
836:, a flat region transected by waterways, resulting in a potentially vast area of cultivable land, over which communications by river or land were easy. It may also have become a highly populated and urbanised region in the 4th millennium BC, with a social hierarchy, artisanal activities, and long-distance commerce. It has been the focus of archaeological investigation led by
2308:). The latter come in various forms: balls, cones, rods, discs, etc. Each of these models has been identified as representing a certain numerical value, or a specific type of merchandise. They made it possible to store information for the management of institutions (arrival and departure of goods) or commercial operations, and to send that information to other places. These
1327:(Tell Kuyunjik, level 4) was located on some major commercial routes and was also within the Urukian sphere of influence. The site covered roughly 40 hectaresâthe whole area of Tell Kuyunjik. The material remains of the period are very limited, but beveled rim bowls, an accounting bulla, and a numerical tablet characteristic of the Late Uruk period have been found. Nearby,
1482:. The relations established between Lower Mesopotamia and the neighbouring regions were thus of an asymmetric kind. The inhabitants of Lower Mesopotamia had the advantage in the interactions with neighbouring regions as a result of the high productivity of their lands, which had allowed their region to "take off" (he speaks of "the Sumerian takeoff") resulting in both a
1783:. Subsequently, this resulted in the development of an important textile industry, attested by many cylinder-seal impressions. This too was largely an institutional development, since wool became an essential element in the maintenance rations provided to workers along with barley. The establishment of this 'wool cycle' alongside the 'barley cycle' (the terms used by
840:, whose work has been very important for the understanding of the emergence of urban societies in this region. A clear settlement hierarchy has been identified, dominated by a number of agglomerations which grew more and more important over the 4th millennium BC, of which Uruk seems to have been the most important by far, making this the most ancient known case of
2608:). These gods received various offerings in everyday cult, but also in festival ceremonies like those in subsequent periods. The great vase of Uruk also seems to represent a procession bringing offerings to the goddess Inanna, whose symbol appears on the frieze. The religious beliefs of the 4th millennium BC have been the object of debate:
765:
from the end of the Ubaid period (Old Uruk), then a period of expansion (Middle Uruk), with a peak during which the characteristic traits of the 'Uruk civilization' are definitively established (Late Uruk), and then a retreat of
Urukian influence and increase in cultural diversity in the Near East along with a decline of the 'centre'.
2585:
similarity with buildings in later periods which were certainly sanctuaries: the white temple of Uruk, the temples of Eridu, of Tell Uqair. Some religious installations like altars and basins have been found here. It appears that deities were worshiped in temples. They call to mind several temples, designated by the sign for 'house' (
2531:
elements. Painted pottery is less common than in previous periods, with no decoration or just incisions or pellets. The greater complexity of the society and the development of more powerful elites who wanted to express their power in more diverse ways offered new opportunities to artists who could express themselves in other media.
805:
2189:
an 'urban' society as distinct from the 'rural' society which provided food for the growing portion of the population that did not feed itself, although the relationship between the two groups and the views of the people of the time about this distinction remain difficult to discern. This phenomenon was characterised by
1043:, which dates to the end of the Uruk period or perhaps the Jemdet Nasr period, and consists of two terraces superimposed on one another with a building of around 18 x 22 m identified as having a cultic function. More recently, a level belonging to the Uruk period has been revealed on the tell southeast of the site of
1039:, site of the main monumental structures of the Ubaid period in Lower Mesopotamia, is poorly known for the Uruk period though Uruk Period pottery was found there. The only important structure from the end of the 4th millennium BC so far known from the region outside Uruk is the 'Painted Temple' on the platform of
1307:, where excavations began in 1999. This vast site has provided the normal evidence found at sites under Urukian influence in Upper Mesopotamia (pottery, seals) and evidence of the existence of an important urban centre in this region in the Uruk period, like Tell Brak. Further to the east again, the site of
1647:
the 'colonies' of the middle
Euphrates). The aspects traced here are mostly those of the Late Uruk period, which is the best known and undoubtedly the period in which the most rapid change took placeâit is the moment when the characteristic traits of the ancient Mesopotamian civilization were established.
974:
palace chapels), desired by the dominant power in the city, whose nature is still unclear. In any case, it was necessary to invest considerable effort to construct these buildings, which shows the capacities of the elites of this period. Uruk is also the site of the most important discoveries of early
2295:
Seals were used to secure merchandise that had been stocked or exchanged, to secure storage areas, or to identify an administrator or merchant. They are attested from the middle of the 7th millennium BC. With the development of institutions and long-distance trade, their use became widespread. In the
2246:
The study of houses at the sites of Habuba Kabira and Jebel Aruda has revealed the social evolution which accompanied the appearance of urban society. The former site, which is the better known, has houses of different sizes, which cover an average area of 400 m, while the largest have a footprint of
2197:
and inseparable from the appearance of the first states. This model, which is based on material evidence, has been heavily debated ever since. The causes of the appearance of cities have been discussed a great deal. Some scholars explain the development of the first cities by their role as ceremonial
2066:
What kind of political organisation existed in the Uruk period is debated. No evidence supports the idea that this period saw the development of a kind of 'proto-empire' centred on Uruk, as has been proposed by Algaze and others. It is probably best to understand an organisation in 'city-states' like
1646:
In order to discern the key developments which make this period a crucial step in the history of the ancient Near East, research focusses mainly on the centre, Lower Mesopotamia, and on sites in neighbouring regions which are clearly integrated into the civilization which originated there (especially
1630:
On the cusp of prehistory and history, the Uruk period can be considered 'revolutionary' and foundational in many ways. Many of the innovations which it produced were turning points in the history of Mesopotamia and indeed of the world. It is in this period that one sees the general appearance of the
1565:
In effect, the impact of Uruk is generally distinguished in specific sites and regions, which has led to the development of multiple typologies of material considered to be characteristic of the Uruk culture (especially the pottery and the beveled rim bowls). It has been possible to identify multiple
1443:
Recent excavations have focused on sites outside Mesopotamia, as a 'periphery', and with an interest in how they related to the 'centre', the site of Uruk. Subsequently, theories and knowledge have developed to the point of general models, drawing on parallels from other places and periods, which has
1439:
Later, questions arose about the relationship between Lower Mesopotamia and the neighbouring regions. The fact that the characteristics of the culture of the Uruk region are found across such a large territory (from northern Syria to the Iranian plateau), with Lower Mesopotamia as a clear centre, led
926:
by the excavators of the site, because it was the location of a sanctuary for this god some 3000 years later. It is dominated by a series of temples built on a high terrace after the Ubayd period. The best-preserved of these is the "White Temple" of level IV, which measures 17.5 x 22.3 m and gets its
2530:
The Uruk period saw a notable renewal, which accompanied substantial changes in the symbolic sphere. This is visible primarily in the artistic media: the forms of pottery became more rudimentary, after the development of the potter's wheel, which allowed mass-production without a focus on decorative
2455:
The majority of the texts of the Uruk period are concerned with management and accounting, so it is logical to imagine that writing was developed in response to the needs of the state institutions which engaged in more and more management over time, since it offered the possibility of recording more
2106:
Researchers who analyse the appearance of the state as being characterised by greater central control and stronger social hierarchy, are interested in the role of the elites who sought to reinforce and organise their power over a network of people and institutions and to augment their prestige. This
1699:
techniques also seem to have improved in the Uruk period. These different inventions allowed the progressive development of a new agricultural landscape, characteristic of ancient Lower Mesopotamia. It consisted of long rectangular fields suited for being worked in furrows, each bordered by a little
1259:
on a rocky outcrop, only 8 km further north. As at Habuba Kabira, there is an urban centre made up of residences of various kinds and a central monumental complex of two 'temples'. It is beyond doubt that this city too was built by 'Urukians'. A little further north, is a third possibly Urukian
1151:
and clay tokens, indicate the rise of administration and of accounting techniques at Susa during the second half of the 4th millennium BC. Susa has also yielded some of the most ancient writing tablets, making it a key site for our understanding of the origins of writing. Other sites in Susiana also
764:
Although the chronology of the Uruk period is full of uncertainties, it is generally agreed to have a rough span of a thousand years covering the period from 4000 to 3000 BC and to be divided into several phases: an initial urbanisation and elaboration of Urukian cultural traits marks the transition
2535:
took on exceptional importance, whether it was carved in the round, or as bas-relief on steles and especially on cylinder seals which first appeared in the Middle Uruk period. These have been the object of numerous studies because they are very good evidence for the mental universe of the people of
2392:
The texts of this period are mostly of an administrative type and are found principally in contexts that seem to be public (palaces or temples), rather than private. But the texts of Uruk, which constitute the majority of the total corpus for this period, were discovered in a trash heap rather than
2188:
The Uruk period saw some settlements achieve a new importance and population density, as well as the development of monumental civic architecture. They reached a level where they can properly be called cities. This was accompanied by a number of social changes resulting in what can fairly be called
2135:
With respect to this development of a more centralised control of resources, the tablets of Late Uruk reveal the existence of institutions that played an important role in society and economy and undoubtedly in contemporary politics. Whether these institutions were temples or palaces is debated. In
2053:
The Uruk period provides the earliest signs of the existence of states in the Near East. The monumental architecture is more imposing than that of the preceding period; 'Temple D' of Eanna covers around 4600 mâa substantial increase compared to the largest known temple of the Ubayd period, level VI
1642:
more than 6000 years earlier and which had picked up steam in the preceding Ubayd period in Mesopotamia. This is especially the case in English-language scholarship, in which the theoretical approaches have been largely inspired by anthropology since the 1970s, and which has studied the Uruk period
1435:
Tell Sheikh Hassan was located on the left (eastern) bank of the river, and it was founded during the Middle Uruk period. Later, during the earlier part of the Late Uruk period, Jebel Aruda, and Habuba Kabira-South, together with Tell Qanas right next to it, were founded on the opposite bank of the
968:
The function of these buildings, which are unparalleled in their size and the fact that they are gathered in monumental groups, is debated. The excavators of the site wanted to see them as 'temples', influenced by the fact that in the historic period, the Eanna was the area dedicated to the goddess
2584:
The religious universe of the Late Uruk period is very difficult to understand. As already stated, the cult places are very difficult to identify archaeologically, in particular in the area of the Eanna in Uruk. But in many cases, the cult foundations of buildings seems very probable, based on the
2539:
The artistic canons of the period were clearly more realistic than the preceding periods. The human being is at the centre of this art. This is notably the case with the cylinder seals and prints of cylinder seals found at Susa (level II), which are the most realistic of the period: they represent
2460:
and was not capable of recording complete phrases because it only had symbols for real objects, especially goods and people, with a vast number of numerical signs for the multiple different metrological systems, and only a few actions (Englund calls this the stage of the 'numerical tablets' and of
2202:
which considers the appearance of cities to be a result of the appearance of the state and its institutions, which attracted wealth and people to central settlements, and encouraged residents to become increasingly specialised. This theory thus leads the problem of the origin of cities back to the
2094:
It is clear that there were major changes in the political organisation of society in this period. The nature of the powerholders is not easy to determine because they cannot be identified in the written sources and the archaeological evidence is not very informative: no palaces or other buildings
1820:
to smooth the surface and decoration became less and less complex until there was basically none. Painted pottery was then secondary and the rare examples of decoration are mainly incisions (lozenge patterns or grid lines). Archaeological sites from this period produce large quantities of pottery,
1577:
It might be added that an interpretation of the relations of this period as centre/periphery interaction, although often relevant in period, risks prejudicing researchers to see decisions in an asymmetric or diffusionist fashion, and this needs to be nuanced. Thus, it increasingly appears that the
973:
and the other sector was dedicated to the god An. This conformed to the theory of the 'temple-city' which was in vogue during the inter-war period. It is possible that this is actually a place of power formed by a complex of buildings of different forms (palatial residences, administrative spaces,
914:
site, which was the largest by far, according to our current knowledge, and it is the main one from which the chronological sequence of the period has been constructed. It may have covered 230â500 hectares at its peak during the Late Uruk period, more than the other contemporary large settlements,
859:
and the dating of their emergence (if they are considered locals of the region) or their arrival (if they are thought to have migrated) in lower Mesopotamia. There is no agreement on the archaeological evidence for a migration, or on whether the earliest form of writing already reflects a specific
692:
From the middle of the 4th millennium, it transitions to the best-known period, "Late Uruk", which continues until around 3200 or 3100 BC. It is in fact in this period that the features which are generally seen as most characteristic of the civilization of the Uruk period occur: high technological
2615:
Other analyses have revealed the existence of a collective cult in the Sumerian cities of the Jemdet Nasr period, focused on the cult of the goddess Inanna and her sanctuary at Uruk, who thus had a preeminent position. The gods seem to be associated with specific cities - as was characteristic of
2376:
Writing appeared very early in the Middle Uruk period, and then developed further in the Late Uruk and Jemdet Nasr periods. The first clay tablets inscribed with a reed stylus are found in Uruk IV (nearly 2000 tablets were found in the Eanna quarter) and some are found also in Susa II, consisting
2275:
The Uruk period, particularly in its late phase, is characterized by the explosion of "symbolic technology": signs, images, symbolic designs and abstract numbers are used in order to manage efficiently a more complex human society. The appearance of institutions and households with some important
2226:
and not an agglomeration that developed passively from village to city. The planners of this period were thus capable of creating a complete urban plan and thus had an idea of what a city was, including its internal organisation and principal monuments. Urbanisation is not found everywhere in the
2111:
vase of Uruk and in many administrative texts which mention the transport of goods to be used in rituals. In fact, according to the Mesopotamian ideology known in the following period, human beings had been created by the gods in order to serve them and the goodwill of the latter was necessary to
1985:
and projections which were to be a characteristic feature of Mesopotamian architecture thereafter. The layout of the buildings was also novel, since they did not continue the tripartite plan inherited from the Ubayd period: buildings on the Eanna at this time had labyrinthine plans with elongated
1452:
of an area, which constitutes the more extreme colonization hypothesis? Or was it perhaps some sort of an infiltration by groups of Urukean or southern Mesopotamian people trying to farm suitable lands â perhaps even by some refugees fleeing growing political oppression and overcrowding at Uruk?
1175:
valley is particularly important. Level V of this site belongs to the Uruk period. Remains have been uncovered of an ovoid wall, enclosing several buildings organised around a central court, with a large structure to the north which might be a public building. The material culture has some traits
2498:
in Sumerian, so the sign for 'arrow' could be used to indicate the sound ). At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, the fundamental principles of Mesopotamian writingâthe association of logograms and phonogramsâhad been put in place. Writing was then able to record grammatical elements of the
2167:
Research into the causes of the emergence of these political structures has not produced any theory which is widely accepted. Research into explanations is heavily influenced by evolutionist frameworks and is in fact more interested in the period before the appearance of the state, which was the
2291:
developed in the Late Uruk period and contributed to the development of a bureaucracy, but only in the context of the large institutions. Many texts seem to indicate the existence of training in the production of managerial texts for apprentice scribes, who could also use lexical lists to learn
2032:
by the end of the period. This development came with other major changes: the appearance of the first cities and of administrative systems capable of organising diverse activities. The causes and means by which these developments occurred and their relationship to one another are the subject of
1972:
were also found). New types of decoration came into use, like the use of painted pottery cones to make mosaics, which are characteristic of the Eanna in Uruk, semi-engaged columns, and fastening studs. Two standardised forms of molded mud-brick appear in these buildings from Uruk: little square
1298:
was an important urban centre from the 5th millennium BC, one of the largest of the Uruk period, since it covered over 110 hectares at its height. Some residences from the period have been uncovered, along with pottery typical of Uruk, but what has received the most attention is a succession of
2206:
In the Late Uruk period, the urban site of Uruk far exceeded all others. Its surface area, the scale of its monuments and the importance of the administrative tools unearthed there indicate that it was a key centre of power. It is often therefore referred to as the 'first city', but it was the
1541:
Algaze's theory, like other alternative models, has been criticised, particularly because a solid model remains difficult to demonstrate while the Uruk civilization remains poorly known in Lower Mesopotamia aside from the two monumental complexes that have been excavated at Uruk itself. We are
2544:
in human form. Additionally, real and fantastic animals were always present on seals, often as the principle subject of the scene. A very widespread motif is that of the 'cycle' representing a series of animals in continuous line, exploiting the new possibilities offered by the cylinder seal.
1655:
The 4th millennium BC saw the appearance of new tools which had a substantial impact on the societies that used them, especially in the economic sphere. Some of them, although known in the preceding period, only came into use on a large scale at this time. The use of these inventions produced
1561:
to emphasise their differentiation according to the cultural regions and sites in question. P. Butterlin has proposed that the links tying southern Mesopotamia to its neighbours in this period should be seen as a 'world culture' rather than an economic 'world system', in which the Uruk region
2348:
The developments that society experienced in the Uruk period had an impact in the mental and symbolic realm which manifested as a number of different phenomena. First, although the appearance of writing was undoubtedly connected to the managerial needs of the first state, it led to profound
918:
The most remarkable constructions are located in the sector called the Eanna (after the temple which was located there in subsequent periods and possibly already at this stage). After the 'Limestone Temple' of level V, a programme of construction hitherto unparalleled was begun in level IV.
812:
Lower Mesopotamia is the core of the Uruk period culture and the region seems to have been the cultural centre of the time because this is where the principal monuments are found and the most obvious traces of an urban society with state institutions developing in the second half of the 4th
1998:
was invented. Towards the end of the Uruk period, cylinder seals depict sleds, which had hitherto been the most commonly depicted form of land transport, less and less. They begin to show the first vehicles that appear to be on wheels, but it is not certain that they actually depict wheels
1687:âa wooden plough pulled by an animal (ass or ox)âtowards the end of the 4th millennium BC, which enabled the production of long furrows in the earth. This made the agricultural work in the sowing season much simpler than previously, when this work had to be done by hand with tools like the
4038:, Warminster, 2002, pp. 207â235. Otherwise, this region was more marked by Egyptian influence in this period, cf. C. Nicolle, "Aux marges du Levant Sud : quelques considĂ©rations sur l'expansion "Ă©gyptienne" dans la seconde moitiĂ© du IVe millĂ©naire," J.-M. Durand and A. Jacquet (ed.),
688:
The Uruk period is traditionally divided into many phases. The first two are "Old Uruk" (levels XIIâIX), then "Middle Uruk" (VIIIâVI). These first two phases are poorly known, and their chronological limits are poorly defined; many different chronological systems are found in scholarship.
2062:
in the 24th century BC as the first true state and considers Late Uruk to have known only "city-states" (which are not complete states in his view). Regardless, the institution of state-like political structures is concomitant with several other phenomena of the Uruk period.
2010:
The domestication of the donkey was also an advance of considerable importance, because they were more useful than the wheel as a means of transport in mountainous regions and for long-distance travel, before the spoked wheel was invented. The donkey enabled the system of
1146:
of Susa I and Susa II have a very rich iconography, uniquely emphasising scenes of everyday life, although there is also some kind of local potentate which P. Amiet sees as a 'proto-royal figure,' preceding the 'priest-kings' of Late Uruk. These cylinder seals, as well as
706:, after the archaeological site of that name. Its exact nature is highly debated, and it is difficult to clearly distinguish its traits from those of the Uruk culture, so some scholars refer to it as the "Final Uruk" period instead. It lasted from around 3000 to 2950 BC.
693:
development, the development of important urban agglomerations with imposing monumental structures (the most characteristic of these is Level IV of Eanna), the appearance of state institutions, and the expansion of the Uruk civilization throughout the whole Near East.
2027:
The 4th millennium BC saw a new stage in the political development of Near Eastern society after the Neolithic: political power grew stronger, more organised, more centralised, and more visible in the use of space and in art, culminating in the development of a true
2328:, whether or not it derived from accounting practices, represented a new management tool which made it possible to note information more precisely and for a longer-term. The development of these administrative practices necessitated the development of a system of
2207:
outcome of a process that began many centuries earlier and is largely attested outside Lower Mesopotamia (aside from the monumental aspect of Eridu). The emergence of important proto-urban centres began at the beginning of the 4th millennium BC in southwest Iran (
1047:('Uruk Mound'), covering only 10 hectares. This site was surrounded by a wall which has been only partially revealed and several buildings have been brought to light, including a platform which supported a building, only traces of which remain. As for the site of
2018:
For transport at the local and regional level in Lower Mesopotamia, boats made from reeds and wood were crucial, on account of the importance of the rivers for connecting places and because they were capable of carrying much larger loads than land transport.
1176:
which are shared with that of Late Uruk and Susa II. Level V of Godin Tepe could be interpreted as an establishment of merchants from Susa and/or lower Mesopotamia, interested in the location of the site on commercial routes, especially those linked to the
998:
Outside Uruk, few sites in southern Mesopotamia have yielded levels contemporary with the Uruk period. Soundages carried out on the sites of most of the key cities of Mesopotamia in the historic period have revealed that they were occupied in this period
2349:
intellectual changes. Art also reflected a society more heavily shaped by political power, and religious cults grew more impressive and spectacular than previously. The development of religious thought in this period remains very poorly understood.
1811:
in the course of the 4th millennium, which was developed in two stages: first a slow wheel and then a rapid one. As a result of this it was no longer necessary to shape ceramics with the hands alone and the shaping process was more rapid. Potters'
776:), but there is no conclusive proof of this. In Lower Mesopotamia, the researchers identify this as the Jemdet Nasr period, which sees a shift to more concentrated habitation, undoubtedly accompanied by a reorganisation of power; in southwestern
1614:(circa 3500-3200 BCE). Influences can be seen in the visual arts of Egypt, in imported products, and also in the possible transfer of writing from Mesopotamia to Egypt, and generated "deep-seated" parallels in the early stages of both cultures.
2536:
this period and a means for diffusing symbolic messages, as a result of the possibility of representing more complex scenes than on stamp seals, since they could be rolled out indefinitely, creating a narration with more dynamism than stamps.
1947:
district of Uruk during the Late Uruk period, which show an explosion of architectural innovations in the course of a series of constructions which were unprecedented in their scale and methods. The builders perfected the use of molded
1260:
colony, Sheikh Hassan, on the middle Euphrates. It is possible that these sites were part of a state implanted in the region by people from south Mesopotamia and were developed in order to take advantage of important commercial routes.
1562:
provided a model to its neighbours, each of which took up more adaptable elements in their own way and retained some local traits essentially unchanged. This is intended to explain the different degrees of influence or acculturation.
2312:
are perhaps the same type as the tokens found on sites in the Near East for the next few thousand years, whose function remains uncertain. It is thought that notches would be placed on the surface of the clay balls containing the
2421:, lexicographic works of a scholarly type, which compile signs according to different themes (lists of crafts, metals, pots, cereals, toponyms, etc.) and are characteristic of Mesopotamian civilization. A remarkable example is a
2303:
The Uruk period also saw the development of what seem to be accounting tools: tokens and clay envelopes containing tokens. These are clay balls on which a cylinder seal has been rolled, which contain tokens (also referred to as
2485:
could be used to represent ideas ('arrow' and 'life' were pronounced the same way in Sumerian, so the sign for 'arrow' could be used to indicate 'life', which would otherwise be difficult to represent pictorially). Thus, some
2151:
But there is no proof that these institutions played a role in the supervision of the majority of the population in the process of centralising production. The economy rested on a group of domains (or 'houses' / 'households',
1635:, writing, the city, and the state. There is new progress in the development of state-societies, such that specialists see fit to label them as 'complex' (in comparison with earlier societies which are said to be 'simple').
701:
This phase of "Late Uruk" is followed by another phase (level III of Eanna) in which the Uruk civilization declined and a number of distinct local cultures developed throughout the Near East. This is generally known as the
2340:(base 10) or even a mixed system called 'bisexagesimal', all of which makes it more difficult to understand the texts. The system for counting time was also developed by the scribes of institutions in the Late Uruk period.
2136:
any case, both institutions were dominant in the later periods of Lower Mesopotamia's history. Only two names relating to these institutions and their personnel have been deciphered: a large authority indicated by the sign
1678:
In the agricultural sphere, several important innovations were made between the end of the Ubayd period and the Uruk period, which have been referred to in total as the 'Second Agricultural Revolution' (the first being the
1447:
The main issue here is how to interpret the word âexpansionâ. Nobody really doubts that, for many centuries, there was a significant cultural influence of Uruk in the wide areas north and east of it. But was it really a
684:
quarter at Uruk. The most ancient levels of these sondages (XIXâXIII) belong to the end of the Ubaid period (Ubaid V, 4200â3900 or 3700 BC); pottery characteristic of the Uruk period begins to appear in levels XIV/XIII.
1910:
objects. The metal objects found in the sites of the 4th millennium BC are thus above all made with copper, and some alloys appear towards the end of the period, the most common being that of copper and arsenic
1235:
region, during the salvage campaigns preceding the construction of hydroelectric dams in the area. It is largely as a result of the findings of these excavations that ideas of an "Uruk expansion" have arisen.
2429:, which is known from the 3rd millennium BC), in which various different types of craftsmen are listed (potters, weavers, carpenters, etc.), indicating the numerous types of specialist workers in late Uruk.
9821:
2548:
Sculpture followed the style and themes of seals. Small statues were made representing gods or 'priest-kings.' The artists of Uruk created many remarkable works, represented above all by the works in the
2461:
the 'numero-ideographic tablets'). The signs then began to take on a larger number of values, making it possible to record administrative operations more precisely (approximately 3200â2900 BC, Englund's
2393:
in the context in which they were produced and used; this makes it difficult to identify them. Their interpretation is equally problematic, on account of their archaic character. The writing is not yet
3685:
Sheikh Hassan is now partly submerged; the other 3 sites are completely submerged as a result of the modern dam construction. Three of these sites can be seen on the map in this section of the article.
3885:
4990:, pp. 117â122 foregrounds the fact that the model of urbanism in northern Mesopotamia proved less durable than that of the south, since it declined at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC.
3642:
Konstantine Pitskhelauri, "Uruk Migrants in the Caucasus", Pitskhelauri, Konstantine. "Uruk migrants in the Caucasus." Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences, vol. 6, no. 2, 2012
4961:
21 (1950) pp. 3â17. The legacy of this fundamental article is discussed in M. E. Smith, "V. Gordon Childe and the Urban Revolution: a historical perspective on a revolution in urban studies,"
1578:
regions neighbouring Lower Mesopotamia did not wait for the Urukians in order to begin an advanced process of increasing social complexity or urbanisation, as the example of the large site of
1490:. They had the most developed state structures and were thus able to develop long-distance commercial links, exercise influence over their neighbours, and perhaps engage in military conquest.
1303:
tablets showing some unique features in comparison to those of southern Mesopotamia, which indicates that there was a distinct local tradition of writing. A little to the east of Tell Brak is
3635:
5463:
1851:
1831:
1055:) that the most important building has been brought to light, which contained a substantial cache of administrative documentsâmore than 200 tablets with impressions of cylinder seals.
2281:
5195:
2377:
solely of numeric signs. For the Jemdet Nasr period, there is more evidence from more sites: the majority come from Uruk III (around 3000 tablets), but also Jemdet Nasr, Tell Uqair,
990:
2810:
4219:
On the details and range of changes in this foundational period in Mesopotamia in relation to other civilizations, see especially the contributions in M. Lamberg-Karlovsky (ed.),
2410:
1460:
trading posts, which was done during an Old Assyrian period. These types of strategies did not involve the state authorities, as such, but was done by commercial trading houses.
1428:
in the 1970s, they were identified as colonies or trading posts of the Uruk civilisation settled far from their own lands. Indeed these two sites, along with the smaller site of
1879:
1638:
Scholarship is therefore interested in this period as a crucial step in the evolution of societyâa long and cumulative process whose roots could be seen at the beginning of the
5334:, pp. 214â215 proposes a later date for the appearance of Sumerian signs; for the most complete presentation of his ideas, see H. J. Nissen, P. Damerow and R. K. Englund,
2164:
in lower Mesopotamia indicated that the production was distributed between different households of different sizes, wealth, and power, with the large institutions at the top.
1999:
themselves. In any case, the wheel spread extremely rapidly and enabled the creation of vehicles that enabled much easier transport of much larger loads. There were certainly
904:
Anu/ White Temple ziggurat at Uruk. The original pyramidal structure, the "Anu Ziggurat" dates to around 4000 BCE, and the White Temple was built on top of it circa 3500 BCE.
12439:
1763:, these were notably in the institutional framework, which led to changes in agricultural practice with the introduction of pasturage for these animals in the fields, as
4324:
The 'secondary products revolution' of A. Sherratt "Plough and pastoralism: aspects of the secondary products revolution," in I. Hodder, G. Isaac and N. Hammond (ed.),
915:
and it may have had a population of between 25,000 and 50,000 people. The architectural profile of the site consists of two monumental groups located 500 metres apart.
832:
for their wool. Although it lacked mineral resources and was located in an arid area, it had undeniable geographic and environmental advantages: it consisted of a vast
1986:
halls of pillars within a rectangular building. The architects and artisans who worked on these sites this had the opportunity to display a high level of creativity.
1404:
has also revealed pottery influenced by that of Uruk. But in this region, the Urukian influence becomes increasingly ephemeral, as one gets further from Mesopotamia.
6907:
1051:, which has given its name to the period of transition from the Uruk period to the Early Dynastic period, it is divided into two main tells and it is on the second (
1432:, feature no significant preexisting occupation, and are in fact all located in the same geographical area at a significant river ford along the Middle Euphrates.
1503:
8354:
2432:
The causes and course of the origins of writing are disputed. The dominant theory has them derive from more ancient accounting practices, notably those of the
1585:
Indeed, at Tell Brak, we find that this city developed as an urban center slightly earlier than the better known cities of southern Mesopotamia, such as Uruk.
2604:(the Sky), seems to appear in some texts, but it is not certain because the sign that indicates him (a star) can also indicate divinities in a general sense (
3881:
1867:
2914:
5811:
1902:
also seems to have developed further in this period, but very few objects survive. The preceding Ubayd period marked the beginning of what is known as the
1558:
1429:
2858:
1382:
12468:
4915:
3807:, Chicago (1993, revised edition in 2005) and revised in Id., "The Prehistory of Imperialism: The case of Uruk Period Mesopotamia," M. S. Rothman (ed.),
2413:
over the following 20 years that substantial progress was made. Alongside the administrative texts, were discovered from the beginning of writing, some
1643:
from the angle of 'complexity' in analysing the appearance of early states, an expanding social hierarchy, intensification of long-distance trade, etc.
761:
Some other chronological proposals have also been put forward, such as by the ARCANE team (Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East).
12738:
8483:
8359:
6404:
4360:, pp. 150â153. P. Charvat, "Lambs of the Gods. The Beginnings of the Wool Economy in Proto-Cuneiform Texts," in C. Breniquet et C. Michel (dir.),
2332:
which varied depending on what they were to measure (animals, workers, wool, grain, tools, pottery, surfaces, etc.). They are very diverse: some use a
3914:
1545:
Other explanations avoid political and economic factors in order to focus on the Uruk expansion as a long term cultural phenomenon, using concepts of
13236:
3312:, pp. 27â29. S. Lloyd, F. Safar and H. Frankfort, "Tell Uqair: Excavations by the Iraq Government Directorate of Antiquities in 1940 and 1941,"
5102:
On this evolution, notably demonstrated by the stratigraphy of Elam, see in particular A. Le Brun and F. Vallat, "Les débuts de l'écriture à Suse,"
3537:
45/2 (1986) pp. 125â137; D. Stronach, "Village to Metropolis: Nineveh and the Beginnings of Urbanism in Northern Mesopotamia," in S. Mazzoni (ed.),
2456:
complex operations and of creating an archive. From this point of view, the pre-writing system which developed around 3400â3200 BC functioned as an
12352:
8776:
5605:
5601:
2589:), because these buildings were seen as the earthly residence of the god. Religious personnel ('priests') appear in some texts like lists of jobs.
2557:, a sculpted female head with realistic proportions, which was discovered in a damaged state, but was probably originally part of a complete body.
855:
The ethnic composition of this region in the Uruk period cannot be determined with certainty. It is connected to the problem of the origins of the
11115:
8398:
4034:
G. Philip, "Contacts between the 'Uruk' world and the Levant during the fourth millennium BC: evidence and interpretation," J. N. Postgate (ed.),
3633:
8214:
5467:
5199:
4929:
2440:, the tokens were first reported on the clay envelopes, then on clay tablets and this led to the creation of the first written signs, which were
2406:
1626:
Modern clay impression of a cylinder seal with monstrous lions and lion-headed eagles, Mesopotamia, Uruk Period (4100 BCâ3000 BC). Louvre Museum.
4909:
4878:
4649:
4620:
3325:
Summary of the excavations of this level, by S. Pollock, M. Pope and C. Coursey, "Household Production at the Uruk Mound, Abu Salabikh, Iraq,"
1416:
The 'Uruk expansion': sites representing the 'centre' and 'periphery'. Tell Sheikh Hassan settlement can be seen on this map to the upper left.
1308:
5761:. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis. Fribourg et Göttingen: UniversitĂ€tsverlag Freiburg Schweiz and Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht. pp. 15â233. ENG.
9154:
8875:
8786:
8475:
8190:
8132:
8128:
6900:
5707:
2402:
8432:
8428:
8136:
5437:
E. Rova, "Animali ed ibridni nel repertorio iconografico della glittica del periodico di Uruk," E. Cingano, A. Ghersetti, L. Milano (ed.),
2624:
Near the end of the 4th millennium, small settlements in the Uruk heartland were abandoned whilst the urban center increased in size. The
1395:
11841:
8879:
8686:
8257:
8220:
8186:
7761:
7757:
7090:
6806:
6399:
5363:
2806:
927:
name from white plates that covered its walls. At its base, a building with a labyrinthine plan, called the 'Stone building', was built.
4539:, pp. 160â161, 241â244 ; followed by J.-L. Huot, "Vers lâapparition de lâĂtat en MĂ©sopotamie. Bilan des recherches rĂ©centes,"
4198:
844:, since its hinterland seems to have reinforced Uruk itself to the detriment of its neighbours (notably the region to the north, around
11485:
8044:
7888:
7753:
7749:
7030:
6580:
2218:
Examples of urbanism in this period are still rare, and in Lower Mesopotamia, the only residential area which has been excavated is at
6630:
3402:
Y. Majidzadeh, "Sialk III and the Pottery Sequence at Tepe Ghabristan: The Coherence of the Cultures of the Central Iranian Plateau,"
2255:
12356:
8772:
8768:
8682:
8479:
7236:
2198:
religious centres, others by their role as hubs for long-distance trade, but the most widespread theory is that developed largely by
2015:
that would dominate trade in the Near East for the following millennia, but this system is not actually attested in the Uruk period.
576:
5493:
On this goddess in documents of the Uruk period, see the works of K. Szarzynska, "Offerings for the goddess Inana in archaic Uruk,"
4944:
G. Emberling, "Urban Social Transformations and the Problem of the 'First City': New Research from Mesopotamia," M. L. Smith (ed.),
4362:
Wool Economy in the Ancient Near East and the Aegean ? From the Beginnings of Sheep Husbandry to Institutional Textile Industry
2140:, at Uruk, which possessed an administrator in chief, a messenger, some workers, etc.; and another authority indicated by the signs
1981:). These were used in large public buildings, especially in Uruk. The creation of smaller bricks enabled the creation of decorative
1952:
as a building material and the use of more solid terracotta bricks became widespread. They also began to waterproof the bricks with
796:
begins around the start of the 3rd millennium BC, during which this region again exerts considerable influence over its neighbours.
13281:
12728:
8883:
8140:
6893:
6455:
5804:
650:
Similar portrait of a probable Uruk King-Priest with a brimmed round hat and large beard, excavated in Uruk and dated to 3300 BC.
6016:
4566:, Berlin, 1993; P. Steinkeller, « Archaic City Seals and the Question of Early Babylonian Unity », in T. Abusch (ed.),
3389:
H. Weiss and T. Cuyler Young Jr., "Merchants of Susa: Godin V and plateau-lowland relations in the late Fourth Millennium B.C.,"
1079:
in this period, and Egypt whose exact relations with the Uruk culture were distant and are the object of debate, as well as the
13251:
8286:
8040:
8020:
5757:
Englund, Robert K. (1998). "Texts from the Late Uruk Period". In Bauer, Joseph; Englund, Robert K.; Krebernik, Manfred (eds.).
2286:
7993:
7702:
5344:
1707:
The Uruk period also saw important developments in the realm of pastoralism. First of all, it is in this period that the wild
12044:
11995:
11948:
11918:
5230:
4823:
4763:
4736:
4511:
4491:
4458:
4383:
4296:
4239:
4156:
3946:
3865:
3783:
3712:
3669:
3241:
3220:
3194:
3183:
3172:
3052:
3032:
2836:
2788:
2058:), is generally accepted in scholarship but has been criticised by some scholars, notably J.D. Forest who prefers to see the
12022:
5254:
1515:
13256:
12480:
12387:
2465:
phase). In this period or even later (at latest around 2800â2700 BC), another type of meaning was recorded by means of the
1436:
river. Together the last three comprised a much larger urban enclave (about 20â40 ha in extent) compared to Sheikh Hassan.
994:
Fragment of a bowl with a frieze of bulls in relief, ca. 3300â2900 B.C. Late UrukâJemdet Nasr periods. Southern Mesopotamia
820:
productive, as a result of an irrigation system which developed in the 4th millennium BC and focused on the cultivation of
3508:
1700:
irrigation channel. According to M. Liverani, these replaced the earlier basins irrigated laboriously by hand. As for the
12382:
10242:
7737:
7589:
7446:
6718:
6146:
5797:
5672:
Une archĂ©ologie des peuples du Proche-Orient: vol. I, Des peuples villageois aux citĂ©s-Ătats (X-III millĂ©naire av. J.-C.)
5326:
For a quick representation of this tradition account, see J. Bottéro, « De l'aide-mémoire à l'écriture », dans
4021:, pp. 151â157. A. H. Joffe, "Egypt and Syro-Mesopotamia in the 4th Millennium: Implications of the New Chronology,"
2499:
language and thus to record complete phrases, a possibility which was not properly exploited until some centuries later.
2176:
793:
5531:
The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume I: From the Beginnings to Old Kingdom Egypt and the Dynasty of Akkad
4264:
M. Paszke, "Date palm and date palm inflorescences in the Late Uruk period (c. 3300 BC): botany and archaic script", in
12733:
12649:
12372:
12337:
10912:
8591:
6620:
1665:
1063:
The sources relating to the Uruk period derive from a group of sites distributed over an immense area, covering all of
817:
534:
4891:
J.-D. Forest, "The State: The Process of State Formation as Seen from Mesopotamia," S. Pollock and R. Bernbeck (ed.),
4392:, pp. 71â72. A. Caubet, "L'apparition de la cĂ©ramique tournĂ©e en Orient," in M. FeugĂšres and J.-C. GĂ©rold (ed.),
1674:
Cylinder seal and impression: cattle herd at the cowshed. White limestone, Mesopotamia, Uruk Period (4100 BCâ3000 BC).
12777:
6841:
5873:
5697:
5651:
5577:
5538:
5039:
4596:
4096:
3088:, pp. 32â52 on the different economic activities of the archaic state and their supposed degree of 'complexity'.
2944:
2890:
2074:
Cylinder seal impression from Uruk, showing a "king-priest" in brimmed hat and long coat feeding the herd of goddess
1779:, which was introduced to Lower Mesopotamia at this time and was a profitable replacement for flax since it provided
9258:
1943:, the developments of the Uruk period were also considerable. This is demonstrated by the structures created in the
12865:
12850:
12446:
12434:
6537:
3300:
Lloyd, S., "Uruk Pottery: A Comparative Study in relation to recent Finds at Eridu", Sumer, vol. 4, pp. 39-51, 1948
769:
5031:
The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference
2882:
The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference
12723:
12709:
12461:
12111:
10906:
4055:, Paris, 2003, pp. 296â301. T. Wilkinson, "Uruk into Egypt : Imports and Imitations," J. N. Postgate (ed.),
2906:
1683:). A first group of developments took place in the field of cereal cultivation, followed by the invention of the
1656:
economic and social changes in combination with the emergence of political structures and administrative states.
529:
209:
13271:
12327:
10979:
10526:
10450:
6864:
6573:
6450:
6434:
2850:
2612:
saw a religion focused on gods linked to the cycle of nature and fertility, but this remains very speculative.
1799:
Pottery from the Late Uruk period: wheel-made pottery at right and bevelled rim bowls at left, Pergamon Museum.
519:
11831:
11811:
11093:
11000:
10985:
10823:
10693:
10494:
10193:
9878:
7262:
6476:
3799:
Debate begun in G. Algaze, "The Uruk Expansion: Cross Cultural Exchange in Early Mesopotamian Civilization,"
3617:
569:
5287:, Leipzig / Berlin, 5 vol. parus. The ancient tablets unearthed at Uruk are online on the site of the CDLI.
1444:
posed some problems in terms of getting the models and parallels to fit the facts revealed by excavations.
13266:
12473:
11632:
11441:
11417:
10817:
9797:
6486:
6221:
4784:, pp. 59â62 on models of socio-economic organisation that have been proposed for the 'archaic states.'
3906:
982:) was found, containing some major artistic works of the period (large cultic vase, cylinder seals, etc.).
604:
349:
4808:, pp. 123â213 is a complete study of all the administrative sectors attested in texts from Late Uruk.
13022:
12787:
12750:
12682:
12451:
11054:
10093:
9892:
9439:
9433:
7680:
7036:
6542:
6424:
6419:
6354:
6030:
1599:
1594:
627:
145:
It was during this period that pottery painting declined as copper started to become popular, along with
1456:
Another hypothesis is perhaps the need to control valuable trading networks, and setting up the type of
13241:
13200:
12875:
12855:
12697:
12687:
12677:
12377:
12367:
12146:
11681:
11537:
11300:
10991:
10801:
10147:
9809:
9777:
9771:
7978:
6547:
6156:
837:
269:
3961:
J. N. Postgate, "Learning the Lessons of the Future: Trade in Prehistory through a Historian's Lens,"
2736:
in Jordan, proto-urban settlement with a masonry gravity dam initially built between 3500 and 3400 BCE
2600:), the great goddess of Uruk whose sanctuary was located in the Eanna. The other great deity of Uruk,
13246:
12827:
12672:
12242:
12037:
11818:
11426:
11312:
11294:
11144:
10806:
10670:
10371:
10186:
9083:
6665:
6566:
6231:
6046:
2103:. He could represent a power of a monarchic type, like that would subsequently exist in Mesopotamia.
1923:
4641:
4612:
4409:, Lyon, 1985, p. 81 ; A. R. Millard, "The Bevelled-Rim Bowls: Their Purpose and Significance,"
3809:
Uruk Mesopotamia and its neighbours : cross-cultural interactions in the era of state formation
3015:
Uruk Mesopotamia and its neighbours : cross-cultural interactions in the era of state formation
1343:
valley in the south east of Anatolia, near the region of the Urukian sites of the middle Euphrates.
957:
12914:
12885:
12529:
11804:
11449:
11446:
11369:
11339:
11282:
11268:
10674:
9658:
9396:
8813:
8597:
7440:
6846:
6186:
5828:
5750:
Les temps proto-urbains de MĂ©sopotamie: Contacts et acculturation Ă l'Ă©poque d'Uruk au Moyen-Orient
5118:
4863:
Demoule, J.-P. (2009). "Naissance des inĂ©galitĂ©s et prĂ©misses de l'Ătat". In Demoule, J.-P. (ed.).
2437:
2087:
2003:
in southern Mesopotamia at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. Their wheels were solid blocks;
562:
374:
157:
9651:
4849:
S. Pollock, M. Pope and C. Coursey, "Household Production at the Uruk Mound, Abu Salabikh, Iraq,"
3803:
Volume 30/5 (1989) pp. 571â608 ; the theory was presented in a more complete fashion in Id.,
3615:âWorld Systems Theory and Alternative Modes of Interaction in the Archaeology of Culture Contact.â
13142:
12890:
12554:
12287:
11464:
11392:
11366:
11342:
11336:
11321:
11233:
11169:
11134:
11078:
11027:
10600:
9077:
8858:
8603:
7911:
7369:
6754:
6748:
6496:
6429:
6323:
6176:
6094:
6089:
2667:
2491:
2181:
2128:
1374:
768:
Some researchers have attempted to explain this final stage as the arrival of new populations of
294:
4588:
3587:
B. Helwing, "Cultural interaction at Hassek HöyĂŒk, Turkey, New evidence from pottery analysis,"
781:
12845:
12704:
12574:
12549:
12419:
12171:
11627:
11617:
11407:
11402:
11397:
11357:
11348:
11291:
11271:
11265:
11259:
11256:
11247:
11175:
11172:
11163:
11063:
11042:
10656:
10430:
10362:
10272:
10016:
10010:
9491:
8946:
8805:
8370:
8151:
7691:
7665:
7625:
7268:
7041:
6728:
6527:
6379:
6138:
3255:
Convenient summary of the buildings in the levels of Uruk belonging to the Late Uruk period in
2723:
2389:
writing in Iran (especially Susa), the second writing system to be developed in the Near East.
2199:
1582:
in Syria shows, which encourages us to imagine the phenomenon from a more 'symmetrical' angle.
884:
502:
404:
304:
11938:
8244:
7273:
5567:
5359:
4144:
4086:
3855:
3767:
3696:
3653:
3210:
2336:(base 60), which would become the universal system in subsequent periods, but others employ a
1691:. The harvest was made easier after the Ubayd period by the widespread adoption of terracotta
13210:
12949:
12817:
12429:
12302:
12281:
12201:
12161:
12052:
11987:
Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History
11908:
11871:
11793:
11670:
11330:
11306:
11262:
11250:
11244:
11241:
11196:
11190:
11166:
11131:
11087:
11075:
11072:
11069:
11057:
11051:
11039:
11033:
10852:
10762:
10759:
10750:
10313:
8390:
6660:
6196:
5766:
5029:
4190:
3936:
3749:
3209:
CrĂŒsemann, Nicola; Ess, Margarete van; Hilgert, Markus; Salje, Beate; Potts, Timothy (2019).
2880:
2503:
2250:
1764:
1487:
1483:
489:
314:
11985:
11837:
7650:
4911:
Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus
2565:
2357:
1964:. Clay was not the sole building material: some structures were built in stone, notably the
1759:
in the production of textiles, had important economic implications. Beyond the expansion of
1387:
1223:
and Susiana and seems to have taken over the Uruk culture's links with the Iranian plateau.
644:
13231:
13044:
12926:
12860:
12822:
12718:
12644:
12639:
12564:
12412:
12030:
11238:
11187:
11096:
11090:
11060:
10662:
10615:
10603:
10427:
10368:
9992:
9886:
9709:
9236:
8384:
7905:
7322:
6874:
6738:
6733:
6610:
6414:
6374:
5853:
4568:
Riches Hidden in Secret Places, Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Memory of Thorkild Jacobsen
2629:
2194:
2012:
1994:
A debated question in the realm of transport is whether it was in the Uruk period that the
1982:
1680:
1471:
1467:
945:
755:
719:
10699:
3376:
G. Johnson and H. Wright, "Regional Perspectives on Southwest Iranian State development,"
2263:
1440:
the archaeologists who studied this period to see this phenomenon as an 'Uruk expansion'.
1101:
634:
at an early date, and the state of Mesopotamian royal iconography during the Uruk period.
8:
12986:
12944:
12870:
12745:
12667:
12196:
12166:
12151:
11743:
11598:
11303:
11253:
11178:
11128:
11081:
11066:
11045:
10744:
10730:
10618:
10551:
10374:
10265:
10207:
9971:
9644:
9484:
9203:
9008:
8825:
8638:
7954:
7165:
6816:
6811:
6501:
6409:
6384:
6191:
6166:
3836:
G. Algaze, "Initial Social Complexity in Southwestern Asia: The Mesopotamian Advantage,"
2414:
2259:
Tablet with proto-cuneiform pictographic characters (end of 4th millennium BC), Uruk III.
1475:
1401:
1215:
In this region, the retreat of the Uruk culture resulted in a particular phenomenon, the
615:
472:
309:
274:
3938:
Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context: Studies in Honor of Irene J. Winter by her Students
2041:
1117:
788:
V in Upper Mesopotamia (which follows the Gawra culture); the "Scarlet Ware" culture in
13117:
13112:
13097:
13059:
13034:
12971:
12832:
12767:
12402:
12211:
12126:
11969:
11783:
11660:
11221:
11160:
11154:
10682:
10646:
10559:
10540:
10436:
10433:
10386:
10352:
10349:
10304:
9995:
9980:
9965:
9641:
9638:
9629:
9388:
8563:
8291:
7564:
7417:
7334:
7137:
6693:
6491:
6460:
6359:
6206:
6123:
4872:
4581:
2397:, but is linear. These texts were misunderstood by their first publisher in the 1930s,
2333:
2276:
economic functions was accompanied by the development of administrative tools and then
1479:
1457:
1291:
1209:
1024:
841:
808:
Location of the main sites in southern Mesopotamia in the Uruk and Jamdet Nasr periods.
789:
703:
670:
444:
379:
334:
229:
123:
87:
12959:
10439:
4674:
Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus
4583:
Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus
3533:
14 (1983) pp. 33â41; G. Algaze, "Habuba on the Tigris: Archaic Nineveh Reconsidered,"
2662:, which improved on Uruk writing systems, and the popularization of myths such as the
2234:
1857:
Vase. Terracotta with red slip, ca. 3500â2900 BC. From Telloh, ancient city of Girsu.
1795:
13186:
13137:
13102:
12939:
12880:
12782:
12692:
12662:
12657:
12524:
12519:
12503:
12392:
12332:
12252:
12247:
12156:
11991:
11944:
11914:
11207:
11181:
11157:
11139:
10939:
10860:
10768:
10637:
10609:
10424:
10392:
10383:
10325:
10322:
10319:
10307:
10295:
10210:
10131:
9983:
9977:
9944:
9938:
9509:
9382:
9246:
9068:
8794:
8393:
8387:
8195:
8163:
7708:
6917:
6836:
6801:
6481:
6338:
6333:
6318:
6253:
6171:
6128:
5848:
5843:
5712:
5693:
5647:
5573:
5534:
5035:
4592:
4152:
4092:
3942:
3861:
3779:
3708:
3665:
3216:
3130:
Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates
2940:
2886:
2663:
2652:
2644:
2609:
2212:
2157:
1808:
1670:
1632:
1611:
1378:
1153:
933:
611:
524:
389:
384:
279:
9371:
5732:
Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization: The Evolution of an Urban Landscape
5497:
87/1 (1993) pp. 7â28 ; Ead., "The Cult of the Goddess Inanna in Archaic Uruk,"
2115:
1602:
seem to have developed from the 4th millennium BCE, starting in the Uruk period for
177:
13029:
12964:
12954:
12628:
12609:
12604:
12599:
12539:
12514:
11867:
11779:
11725:
11656:
11643:
11622:
11587:
11436:
11224:
11193:
11048:
11024:
10792:
10789:
10783:
10738:
10631:
10612:
10606:
10562:
10545:
10389:
10380:
10377:
10301:
10298:
10136:
10021:
9608:
8698:
8632:
8620:
8313:
7860:
7150:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6688:
6625:
6605:
6589:
6394:
6389:
6293:
6288:
6283:
6273:
6268:
6258:
6074:
5931:
5916:
5900:
5895:
5890:
5868:
5741:
The Uruk world system: the dynamics of expansion of early Mesopotamian civilisation
5635:
5340:
4394:
Le tournage des origines Ă l'an Mil, Actes du colloque de Niederbronn, octobre 2003
3771:
3700:
3657:
2728:
2628:
precinct also underwent restructuring. Meanwhile, Uruk's influence declined in the
2398:
2227:
sphere of influence of the Uruk culture; at its extreme northern edge, the site of
1961:
1912:
1822:
1463:
1201:
733:
725:
The king-priest and his acolyte feeding the sacred herd. Uruk period, ca. 3200 BCE.
394:
139:
135:
111:
6885:
3750:
The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State.
2231:
had a palace of notable size but it was not surrounded by any kind of urban area.
1344:
13127:
13092:
12981:
12976:
12895:
12806:
12544:
12397:
12309:
12297:
12221:
12216:
12206:
12141:
12116:
12101:
12088:
12076:
11788:
11774:
11749:
11702:
11665:
11651:
11475:
11324:
11277:
11184:
11149:
11021:
11016:
10944:
10918:
10774:
10649:
10643:
10628:
10621:
10575:
10565:
10398:
10343:
10337:
10334:
10280:
10228:
10064:
9998:
9986:
9974:
9962:
9947:
9926:
9845:
9749:
9746:
9720:
9635:
9614:
9602:
9569:
9563:
9533:
9455:
9265:
8617:
8572:
8526:
8520:
8510:
8300:
7400:
7378:
7145:
6723:
6713:
6328:
6303:
6298:
6278:
6226:
6216:
6211:
6201:
6181:
6151:
6103:
6099:
6069:
5246:
4129:
J. A. Ur, P. Karsgaard and J. Oates, "Early urban development in the Near East,"
3639:
3621:
2695:
2577:
2462:
2369:
2239:
2083:
2059:
1817:
1767:, and in the hilly and mountainous zones around Mesopotamia (following a kind of
1720:
1607:
1569:
1220:
1185:
514:
419:
409:
344:
339:
264:
214:
199:
166:
134:. The late Uruk period (34th to 32nd centuries) saw the gradual emergence of the
11827:
7065:
4473:
La brique et sa mise en Ćuvre en MĂ©sopotamie, Des origines Ă l'Ă©poque achĂ©mĂ©nide
2238:
Reconstruction of part of a house from Habuba Kabira, with its mobile property,
895:
13261:
13107:
13082:
12362:
12292:
11686:
11230:
11123:
11012:
10965:
10926:
10869:
10771:
10707:
10625:
10584:
10578:
10568:
10556:
10340:
10328:
10316:
10236:
10125:
10079:
9989:
9959:
9923:
9787:
9632:
9611:
9605:
9596:
9548:
9518:
9500:
9475:
9463:
9375:
9232:
9103:
8954:
8816:
8810:
8713:
8705:
8641:
8614:
8578:
8411:
8178:
8175:
8076:
7484:
7249:
7155:
7132:
7024:
6670:
6308:
5778:
5640:
3500:
2687:
2648:
2633:
2576:â3000 BC): listing a delivery of cereals for a festival of the goddess Inanna.
2029:
1784:
1352:
1200:, shows no clear evidence of links with the Uruk culture in its Level III, but
509:
449:
434:
354:
5594:
4672:, p. 61; D. P. Hansen, "Art of the Early City-States", in J. Aruz (ed.),
2592:
The best-attested figure in the tablets is the goddess designated by the sign
804:
13276:
13225:
13180:
13132:
13122:
13087:
13039:
13016:
12991:
12755:
12584:
12579:
12456:
12257:
12106:
11981:
11904:
11889:
11761:
11693:
11573:
11218:
11215:
10968:
10962:
10922:
10878:
10786:
10747:
10581:
10520:
10421:
10418:
10346:
10331:
10292:
10289:
10232:
10171:
10053:
9759:
9752:
9729:
9623:
9617:
9581:
9503:
9459:
9416:
9208:
9106:
9100:
9058:
8957:
8760:
8722:
8495:
8381:
8295:
8105:
8056:
7811:
7795:
7488:
7414:
7375:
7349:
7343:
7304:
7245:
7216:
6941:
6778:
6108:
5956:
5863:
5785:. Translated by Zainab Bahrani and Marc Van de Mieroop. London: Equinox. LIV.
4931:
The Looting Of The Iraq Museum Baghdad The Lost Legacy Of Ancient Mesopotamia
2739:
2554:
2523:
2418:
2386:
2297:
2190:
2055:
1886:
1858:
1842:
1837:
Uruk period vase. Terracotta, ca. 3500â2900 BC. From Telloh, ancient city of
1760:
1550:
1421:
1245:
1231:
Several important sites of the Uruk period have been excavated in the Middle
1216:
1143:
740:
651:
635:
619:
424:
399:
204:
146:
8843:
5439:
Animali, Tra zoologia, mito e letteratura nella cultura classica e orientale
3805:
The Uruk World System : The Dynamics of Early Mesopotamian Civilization
2469:
principle: an association of pictograms could indicate actions (for example
2452:(both reeds and clay being very easily accessible in southern Mesopotamia).
1381:
became the dominant material culture on the site. Further west, the site of
13006:
12772:
12569:
12277:
12272:
12262:
12096:
11934:
11731:
11609:
11543:
11461:
11452:
11383:
11309:
11212:
10956:
10857:
10780:
10634:
10590:
10470:
10395:
10355:
10286:
10283:
10277:
10216:
10168:
10156:
10070:
10047:
10040:
9956:
9950:
9920:
9732:
9704:
9686:
9677:
9626:
9419:
9413:
9407:
9312:
9282:
9088:
9000:
8897:
8834:
8782:
8611:
8336:
8271:
8261:
8172:
8123:
8008:
7988:
7984:
7769:
7633:
7493:
7473:
7426:
7385:
7172:
7127:
6976:
6961:
6765:
6113:
5926:
5858:
2733:
2219:
2161:
1940:
1903:
1768:
1712:
1684:
1300:
1181:
1148:
1076:
1044:
1000:
666:
484:
479:
454:
194:
119:
107:
104:
77:
47:
4145:"Deep Pasts Interconnections and Comparative History in the Ancient World"
13190:
13152:
13001:
12837:
12762:
12559:
11746:
11737:
11592:
11546:
11531:
11522:
11516:
11458:
11360:
11318:
11288:
11285:
11227:
11084:
11036:
10947:
10866:
10863:
10846:
10756:
10571:
10514:
10511:
10508:
10483:
10473:
10461:
10310:
10251:
10204:
10180:
10174:
10165:
10159:
10104:
10067:
10050:
10034:
9968:
9953:
9941:
9929:
9900:
9867:
9864:
9726:
9701:
9698:
9692:
9599:
9560:
9557:
9545:
9530:
9527:
9515:
9422:
9410:
9401:
9350:
9344:
9294:
9291:
9279:
9276:
9212:
9189:
9172:
9158:
9149:
8919:
8848:
8838:
8690:
8675:
8669:
8653:
8650:
8553:
8532:
8442:
8405:
8328:
8169:
7959:
7884:
7879:
7872:
7842:
7828:
7791:
7641:
7550:
7465:
7435:
7421:
7190:
7176:
7121:
6986:
6956:
6597:
6532:
6522:
6313:
6245:
6006:
5820:
4407:
Dictionnaire illustré multilingue de la céramique du Proche-Orient ancien
3559:
Tepe Gawra: The Evolution of a Small, Prehistoric Center in Northern Iraq
2715:
2701:
2329:
2208:
1739:
1603:
1425:
1256:
1189:
1157:
1064:
1048:
975:
845:
833:
754:
In 2001, a new chronology was proposed by the members of a colloquium at
552:
367:
115:
37:
8912:
1527:
King-priest with bow fighting enemies, with horned temple to the right.
12267:
11755:
11752:
11734:
11711:
11696:
11690:
11570:
11567:
11525:
11513:
11507:
11492:
11363:
11354:
11351:
11345:
11327:
11297:
11105:
11030:
10971:
10837:
10777:
10640:
10534:
10505:
10502:
10499:
10487:
10479:
10467:
10455:
10201:
10177:
10162:
10098:
10060:
10037:
10031:
9935:
9674:
9506:
9404:
9363:
9353:
9347:
9309:
9306:
9303:
9297:
9285:
9273:
9270:
9240:
9186:
9183:
8996:
8975:
8951:
8927:
8756:
8647:
8644:
8635:
8626:
8545:
8436:
8322:
8277:
8265:
8109:
7947:
7943:
7892:
7713:
7621:
7547:
7543:
7287:
7160:
7110:
7104:
6793:
6703:
6635:
6064:
6059:
2514:
2441:
2277:
2267:
Clay envelope with its accounting tokens, Late Uruk period, from Susa,
2228:
2120:
1899:
1873:
Vase. Terracotta, ca. 3500â2900 BC. From Telloh, ancient city of Girsu.
1780:
1696:
1688:
1391:
1366:
1328:
1193:
1168:
1040:
1028:
459:
429:
414:
242:
187:
9906:
5789:
5569:
Approaching Chaos: Could an Ancient Archetype Save C21st Civilization?
3287:, pp. 133â137 sees these remains as a palatial complex. See also
2193:
at the beginning of the 1950s as an 'urban revolution', linked to the
676:
The traditional chronology is very imprecise and is based on some key
13077:
13049:
12996:
12534:
12226:
12186:
11764:
11707:
11564:
11534:
11528:
11519:
11504:
11498:
11480:
11455:
11333:
11315:
11102:
11099:
10959:
10886:
10872:
10843:
10831:
10753:
10724:
10464:
10458:
10223:
10153:
10110:
10107:
10056:
9839:
9756:
9742:
9739:
9695:
9689:
9671:
9593:
9584:
9554:
9551:
9542:
9524:
9521:
9359:
9356:
9220:
9216:
9192:
9140:
9127:
9097:
8992:
8988:
8866:
8726:
8463:
8458:
8454:
8423:
8340:
8317:
8281:
8166:
8089:
8012:
8004:
7971:
7868:
7852:
7824:
7787:
7656:
7614:
7431:
7310:
7196:
6680:
6369:
6054:
5941:
5878:
3753:
3350:
M.-J. StĂšve, F. Vallat, H. Gasche, C. Jullien et F. Jullien, "Suse,"
2659:
2532:
2490:
appeared. Following the same principle, phonetic signs were created (
2487:
2482:
2394:
2325:
2108:
2079:
1969:
1965:
1949:
1724:
1701:
1639:
1579:
1554:
1340:
1295:
1285:
1273:
1232:
1016:
911:
825:
773:
439:
289:
130:, this period saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia and the
62:
3539:
Nuove Fondazioni nel Vicino Oriente Antico : RealtĂ e Ideologia
2119:
The servants of the first states: porters carrying offerings on the
1573:
Possible Mesopotamia-Egypt trade routes from the 4th millennium BCE.
12594:
12424:
12407:
12181:
12176:
11714:
11540:
11501:
11495:
11372:
10953:
10950:
10895:
10892:
10834:
10765:
10715:
10678:
10531:
10073:
9932:
9914:
9897:
9835:
9762:
9736:
9683:
9665:
9575:
9450:
9341:
9332:
9320:
9288:
9252:
9228:
9178:
9146:
9122:
9094:
9064:
9052:
9045:
9031:
9025:
8960:
8870:
8852:
8764:
8742:
8738:
8623:
8549:
8378:
8332:
8309:
8304:
8235:
8230:
8199:
8016:
7940:
7936:
7929:
7807:
7728:
7573:
7405:
7395:
7390:
7381:
7317:
7300:
7071:
7018:
6773:
6698:
6655:
6645:
6615:
6558:
6506:
6161:
6084:
6079:
5986:
5971:
5966:
5921:
5619:
Art et archéologie : les civilisations du Proche-Orient ancien
3269:
Uruk, Architektur I, Von den AnfĂ€ngen bis zur frĂŒhdynastischen Zeit
2658:
Regardless, Uruk's legacy was preserved through the development of
2449:
2445:
2382:
1304:
1172:
1072:
1032:
327:
299:
284:
11943:. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532â534 (Chronological Tables).
10932:
5773:. L'Univers historique (in French). Paris: Ăditions du Seuil. GLA.
3614:
2385:, Nineveh, Tell Brak, Habuba Kabira, etc. as well as tablets with
2317:, leading to the creation of numerical tablets which served as an
13054:
13011:
12191:
12136:
11767:
11595:
11576:
11561:
11555:
11549:
10883:
10828:
10721:
10718:
10666:
10517:
10259:
10198:
10119:
10113:
9854:
9848:
9620:
9590:
9445:
9335:
9300:
9091:
9034:
8935:
8904:
8608:
8157:
8100:
8029:
7924:
7916:
7781:
7716:
7523:
7520:
7505:
7501:
7313:
7307:
7291:
7169:
6708:
6650:
6263:
5991:
5981:
5946:
5936:
2337:
2000:
1953:
1804:
1742:, showing cattle and a stable. Circa 3300-3000 BC, British Museum
1528:
1412:
1370:
1348:
1324:
1205:
785:
739:
Cylinder-seal of the Uruk period and its impression, c.3100 BCE.
677:
662:
259:
26:
9020:
4053:
Aux origines de l'Ăgypte, Du NĂ©olithique Ă l'Ă©mergence de l'Ătat
3166:
For a summary of the debate on this point, see: J. S. Cooper in
2494:, one sign = one sound). For example, 'arrow' was pronounced as
2251:
Development of "symbolic technology", accounting and bureaucracy
1219:
civilization, which seems to have been centred on the region of
12934:
12589:
11558:
11552:
11510:
11421:
10889:
10840:
10415:
Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")
10213:
10116:
10101:
10085:
9830:
9815:
9680:
9587:
9578:
9512:
9469:
9338:
9329:
9326:
9323:
9224:
9196:
9137:
9028:
8923:
8750:
8629:
8541:
8529:
8160:
8117:
8082:
8063:
8035:
7932:
7864:
7802:
7745:
7697:
7606:
7577:
7533:
7530:
7480:
7410:
7328:
7281:
7231:
7206:
7201:
7180:
6997:
6971:
6946:
6011:
5961:
5883:
4422:
M. MĂŒller-Karpe, "Aspects of early metallurgy in Mesopotamia",
3602:
Alle origini del potere : Arslantepe, la collina dei leoni
2597:
2541:
2268:
2096:
2075:
2046:
1957:
1928:
1907:
1776:
1728:
1708:
1692:
1359:
1320:
1197:
1164:
1080:
1008:
970:
849:
821:
254:
9015:
8567:
8239:
7837:
7832:
7660:
7645:
5315:
Die lexikalischen Listen der Archaischen Texte aus Uruk, ATU 3
5283:), which was begun in 1936 by Adam Falkenstein, in the series
2939:, Iraq Archaeological Reports, vol. 6, Warminster: BSAI,
2321:
before the development of true writing (on which, see below).
1734:
1622:
1311:,Iraq also shows evidence of contacts with lower Mesopotamia.
1268:
13147:
12131:
11758:
11740:
10255:
9861:
9842:
8908:
8819:
8790:
8717:
8449:
8113:
8000:
7919:
7847:
7724:
7720:
7602:
7540:
7536:
7497:
7284:
7226:
7221:
7211:
7184:
6966:
6743:
6640:
6364:
6001:
5996:
5976:
5512:
The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion
3733:
The archaeology of Mesopotamia : Theories and approaches
2625:
2466:
2401:, and it was only through the work of the German researchers
2004:
1995:
1944:
1932:
1838:
1756:
1716:
1546:
1277:
1036:
1020:
1004:
856:
829:
681:
631:
623:
249:
218:
131:
9132:
8094:
5621:. Manuels de l'Ă©cole du Louvre (in French). Paris: RMN. BEN.
4897:
Naissance de l'inégalité : L'invention de la hiérarchie
4895:, Malden and Oxford, 2005, pp. 184â206. See also B. Hayden,
3563:
A propos de Tepe Gawra, Le monde proto-urbain de MĂ©sopotamie
1255:
Habuba Kabira is similar in many ways to the nearby site of
910:
Out of these urban agglomerations, it is Uruk, the period's
142:; it has also been described as the "Protoliterate period".
12342:
12319:
12062:
12056:
10712:
10476:
10403:
10247:
10003:
9114:
8969:
8891:
8732:
8660:
8489:
8375:
8206:
8181:
8069:
8050:
7819:
7777:
7732:
7672:
7610:
7557:
7526:
7455:
7355:
7297:
7294:
7241:
7085:
7077:
7047:
7007:
6991:
6981:
6951:
5951:
5595:
General works on prehistoric and proto-historic Mesopotamia
5002:
R. Vallet, "Habuba Kebira ou la naissance de l'urbanisme,"
4040:
Centre et périphérie, approches nouvelles des Orientalistes
4036:
Artefacts of Complexity: Tracking the Uruk in the Near East
2637:
2519:
2378:
2124:
2078:, symbolized by two rams, framed by reed bundles as on the
2070:
1813:
1772:
1752:
1532:
1139:
1135:
1124:
1108:
1068:
869:
828:
and various other fruits and legumes) and the pasturing of
777:
127:
67:
2036:
1889:
South (Syria), ca. 3400â3200. University of Mainz, Germany
1775:
for linen freed land for the growth of cereals as well as
1152:
have archaeological levels belonging to this period, like
8709:
2601:
2045:
Sculpture of the ritually nude 'Priest-King', Late Uruk,
1968:
quarried about 50 km west of Uruk (where gypsum and
1177:
923:
11878:. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48â49.
5663:
MĂ©sopotamie: L'apparition de l'Ătat, VII-III millĂ©naires
5028:
Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996).
3208:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2090:. A similar king-priest also appears standing on a ship.
1531:
or Uruk period (3800-3100 BCE), found in excavations at
8346:
7002:
5196:"Tablet W 9579,d /VAT 14674 : description on CDLI"
4893:
Archaeologies of the Middle East: critical perspectives
2280:
tools. This was a veritable 'managerial revolution'. A
1226:
1012:
922:
The second monumental sector was attributed to the god
11857:
Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.
5464:"Tablet W 5233,a/VAT 15245 : description on CDLI"
4326:
Pattern of the Past: Studies in honour of David Clarke
3432:
L'Ăąge des Ă©changes inter-iraniens, 3500â1700 av. J.-C.
816:
This is the region of the Near East that was the most
9378:
Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-iliĆĄu
4998:
4996:
4166:
3000:
R. Matthews, "Jemdet Nasr: The Site and the Period,"
2989:
1906:
or 'copper age', with the beginning of production of
661:
The term "Uruk period" was coined at a conference in
8446:
Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter
5759:
Mesopotamien: SpĂ€turuk-Zeit und FrĂŒhdynastische Zeit
5529:
Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, D.T. (2020).
4762:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJoannĂšs_(dir.)2001 (
4510:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJoannĂšs_(dir.)2001 (
4490:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJoannĂšs_(dir.)2001 (
4295:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJoannĂšs_(dir.)2001 (
2677:
1204:
are found all the way out to Tepe Ghabristan in the
6915:
5743:. Chicago; London: The University of Chicago Press.
5683:. Bouquins (in French). Paris: Robert Laffont. DIC.
4457:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJoannĂšs_(ed.)2001 (
4382:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJoannĂšs_(ed.)2001 (
4238:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJoannĂšs_(ed.)2001 (
3739:, pp. 5â14 for a historiography of this issue.
3505:
The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago
1816:were also improved. Pottery was simply coated with
1727:was only domesticated in the 3rd millennium BC, in
985:
8249:(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
5711:
5639:
5610:SupplĂ©ment au Dictionnaire de la Bible fasc. 72â73
5600:
5528:
4993:
4701:
4699:
4697:
4684:
4682:
4580:
3486:I. L. Finkel, "Inscriptions from Tell Brak 1984,"
2203:problem of origin of the state and of inequality.
1086:
4756:, pp. 63â64 ; F. JoannĂšs, "Sacrifice,"
4564:Archaic Seals Impressions from Jemdet Nasr and Ur
2343:
1358:Other sites have been excavated in the region of
13223:
5612:(in French). Letouzey and AnĂ©. col. 77â359. SDB.
5428:, p. 75, refers to a 'humanist revolution.'
5229:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSumer1999â2002 (
4822:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSumer1999â2002 (
4735:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSumer1999â2002 (
3752:Cambridge University Press. p.64. (also see the
3240:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSumer1999â2002 (
3193:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSumer1999â2002 (
3182:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSumer1999â2002 (
3171:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSumer1999â2002 (
3051:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSumer1999â2002 (
3031:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSumer1999â2002 (
2937:Secrets of the dark mound: Jemdet Nasr 1926â1928
5495:Revue d'assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale
5328:MĂ©sopotamie, l'Ăcriture, la Raison et les Dieux
4694:
4679:
2801:
2799:
2787:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFFrankfort1970 (
2742:in Jordan, with a walled city dated to 3400 BCE
2361:Administrative tablet from Uruk, from Uruk IV (
2180:Sumerian dignitary, Uruk, circa 3300-3000 BCE.
5681:Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne
5313:, pp. 251â256. R. Englund and H. Nissen,
4978:, Oxford, 1997, pp. 23â28 and following pages.
4757:
4505:
4485:
4290:
3574:Summary of the campaign and interpretation in
3457:
3455:
2444:, drawings which represent a physical object (
2368:â3200 BC), with signs in a pictographic form.
1977:) and the large bricks used to make terraces (
1771:). The relative decline in the cultivation of
1659:
12038:
6901:
6574:
5805:
5723:
5244:
4749:
4747:
4452:
4377:
4233:
4176:(London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.
2649:decreased temperatures and increased rainfall
1715:as the donkey. It was the first domesticated
1420:After the discovery in Syria of the sites at
570:
11892:. cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS.
11866:
9370:: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk
7963:"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
5734:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ALG.
5718:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. NIS.
5665:(in French). Paris: Paris-Méditerranée. FOR.
5646:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
4587:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2003. p.
3934:
3434:, Réunion des musées nationaux, Paris, 1986.
2984:Jamdat Nasr: period or regional style ?
2835:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLanger1972 (
2796:
2793:, where the first chapter covers the period.
1719:in the region and became the most important
11902:
11119:Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon
6400:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
5499:NIN: Journal of Gender Studies in Antiquity
5480:J.-C. Margueron, "Sanctuaires sémitiques",
5137:
5135:
4948:, Washington and London (2003), pp. 254â268
4778:La MĂ©sopotamie, Portrait d'une civilisation
4184:
4182:
4072:(Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 22.
4070:Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.
3907:"Site officiel du musée du Louvre, Sb 2125"
3853:
3768:"The End of Prehistory and The Uruk Period"
3697:"The End of Prehistory and The Uruk Period"
3654:"The End of Prehistory and The Uruk Period"
3529:D. Collon and J. Reade, "Archaic Nineveh,"
3452:
3442:
3440:
2928:
2436:mentioned above. In the model developed by
2144:, at Jemdet Nasr, which had a high priest (
1973:bricks which were easy to handle (known as
1807:was revolutionised by the invention of the
1067:and the neighbouring regions up to central
589:
12045:
12031:
6908:
6894:
6870:
6860:
6581:
6567:
5812:
5798:
5714:The Early History of the Ancient Near East
5565:
5225:
5114:
5112:
5027:
4877:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
4818:
4744:
4731:
4125:
4123:
4062:
3561:, Philadelphia, 2001; P. Butterlin (ed.),
3414:
3412:
3363:P. Amiet, "Glyptique susienne archaĂŻque,"
3267:, pp. 190â195. See also R. Eichmann,
3236:
3189:
3178:
3167:
3108:
3106:
3047:
3027:
1746:
630:, showing the influence of Mesopotamia on
577:
563:
25:
12353:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party â Iraq Region
11819:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
8415:"King of the four quarters of the world"
5771:Ăcrire Ă Sumer: L'invention du cunĂ©iforme
5747:
5090:
4946:The Social Construction of Ancient Cities
4719:History, Texts and Art in Early Babylonia
4555:
4389:
4376:, p. 59; X. Faivre, "CĂ©ramique," in
4221:The Breakout: The Origins of Civilization
4114:
4110:
4108:
4080:
4078:
4018:
4002:
3990:
3978:
3824:
3474:
3463:Habuba Kebira, eine Stadt vor 5000 Jahren
3418:
3288:
3081:
3079:
2958:
2783:
2619:
1650:
1339:Several sites have been excavated in the
749:
13237:Archaeological cultures of the Near East
12177:Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire
11990:. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5.
5777:
5765:
5634:
5630:. London & New York: Routledge. CHA.
5533:. Oxford University Press. p. 163.
5401:
5389:
5377:
5310:
5212:
5158:
5146:
5132:
5086:
5070:
4837:
4793:
4781:
4753:
4551:
4549:
4484:B. Lyonnet, « Véhicules », in
4349:
4252:
4179:
3966:
3736:
3727:
3725:
3437:
3141:
3112:
3085:
2934:
2770:
2758:
2564:
2513:
2356:
2262:
2254:
2233:
2175:
2114:
2069:
2040:
1922:
1794:
1733:
1669:
1621:
1568:
1411:
1267:
989:
803:
712:Uruk King-priest feeding the sacred herd
11964:
11962:
11960:
11835:
6807:BactriaâMargiana Archaeological Complex
5819:
5756:
5752:(in French). Paris: CNRS Ăditions. BUT.
5678:
5625:
5331:
5306:
5182:
5170:
5142:
5109:
5082:
5054:
4865:La Révolution néolithique dans le monde
4862:
4805:
4451:C. Castel and F. JoannĂšs, "Pierre," in
4357:
4337:
4277:
4197:. Archaeological Institute of America.
4120:
4084:
3993:, pp. 386â390 for the conclusions.
3409:
3338:
3309:
3256:
3154:
3103:
2037:The first states and their institutions
1058:
13224:
11700:
10930:
10728:
8508:
8499:(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)
8403:
7327:
5738:
5729:
5706:
5690:Climate, History, and the Modern World
5660:
5616:
5552:
5550:
5524:
5522:
5520:
5482:Supplément au Dictionnaire de la Bible
5450:
5413:
5066:
5015:
4987:
4957:V. G. Childe, "The Urban Revolution,"
4705:
4688:
4669:
4536:
4524:
4439:
4427:
4373:
4353:
4312:
4308:
4306:
4142:
4105:
4091:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 427.
4075:
3841:
3812:
3811:, Santa Fe, 2001, pp. 27â85; see also
3765:
3694:
3651:
3550:
3352:Supplément au Dictionnaire de la Bible
3284:
3264:
3097:
3076:
3070:
2970:
2878:
2830:
2807:"Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative"
1617:
12912:
12804:
12626:
12501:
12074:
12026:
11980:
11825:
11792:
11787:
11778:
11730:
11669:
11664:
11655:
11650:
11641:
11631:
11626:
11621:
11616:
11607:
11473:
11445:
11440:
11435:
11425:
11416:
11406:
11401:
11390:
11381:
11275:
11010:
10917:
10815:
10805:
10691:
10539:
10448:
10270:
10263:
10221:
10145:
10123:
10091:
10077:
10046:
10030:
9904:
9876:
9852:
9807:
9768:
9713:
9649:
9482:
9467:
9444:
9431:
9394:
9244:
9201:
9075:
9051:
9043:
9006:
8944:
8933:
8903:
8887:
8856:
8823:
8803:
8781:
8748:
8657:
8589:
8577:
8536:
8448:
8440:
8368:
8149:
7903:
7896:
7858:
7785:
7767:
7736:
7689:
7655:
7640:
7632:
7619:
7600:
7588:
7571:
7555:
7518:
7471:
7445:
7367:
7332:
7260:
7084:
7053:
7046:
7035:
7016:
6889:
6562:
5793:
4867:(in French). Paris. pp. 411â426.
4721:, Berlin and Boston, 2017, pp. 82-104
4546:
4201:from the original on 17 February 2013
3935:Cheng, Jack; Feldman, Marian (2007).
3722:
3511:from the original on 14 February 2007
3212:Uruk: First City of the Ancient World
2824:
2651:.Others blame it on the intrusion of
1989:
1334:
696:
13206:
13148:Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)
11957:
11933:
6588:
5687:
5669:
5425:
5125:, 2 vol., Austin, 1992 ; Ead.,
4541:Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales
4188:
4014:
3554:
3446:
3260:
3066:
2982:U. Finkbeiner and W. Röllig, (ed.),
2007:were not invented until c. 2000 BC.
1227:Upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria
799:
13196:
5674:(in French). Paris: Errances. Huot.
5547:
5517:
5484:64Bâ65, Paris, 1991, col. 1119â1147
4504:C. Michel, « Caravane »,
4399:
4303:
4088:A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art
3735:, Routledge, 2003, pp. 93â126. See
3215:. Getty Publications. p. 325.
852:) in the final part of the period.
126:. Named after the Sumerian city of
99:(c. 4000 to 3100 BC; also known as
13:
11913:. Getty Publications. p. 14.
11832:Chronology of the Neolithic period
11484:
11114:
10931:
10913:First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt
10698:
10589:
9905:
9877:
9820:
9650:
9257:
8911:
7272:
6621:List of Paleolithic sites in China
5376:on the Wiki of CDLI. Criticism in
5366:from the original on 3 August 2017
5347:from the original on 3 August 2017
4172:Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul,
2907:"Site officiel du musée du Louvre"
2851:"Site officiel du musée du Louvre"
2502:A more recent theory, defended by
2112:insure the prosperity of society.
2082:. Late Uruk period, 3300-3000 BC.
1885:Uruk period beveled rim bowl from
1666:Agriculture in ancient Mesopotamia
1365:Further to the north, the site of
665:in 1930, along with the preceding
626:. This work of art suggests early
14:
13293:
11489:Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.
9825:Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos
7636:("made the land of Elam submit")
6842:List of Bronze Age sites in China
4642:"Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin"
4613:"Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin"
4570:, Winona Lake, 2002, pp. 249â257.
3965:60/1â2, 2004, pp. 5â26. See also
3756:of the same book at academia.edu)
3557:, pp. 75â78. M. S. Rothman,
1407:
13205:
13195:
13185:
13176:
13175:
12481:2021â2022 Iraqi political crisis
12055:
11974:
11927:
11910:Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins
11896:
11882:
11860:
11851:
11836:
11826:
9131:
9019:
9014:
8842:
8571:
8566:
8397:
8243:
8238:
8093:
7992:
7923:
7836:
7831:
7701:
7664:
7659:
7649:
7644:
7439:
7089:
7076:
7064:
7029:
6869:
6859:
6538:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary
6029:
5559:
5504:
5487:
5474:
5456:
5444:
5431:
5419:
5407:
5395:
5383:
5320:
5300:
5269:
5238:
5218:
5206:
5188:
5176:
5164:
5152:
5096:
5076:
5060:
5048:
5021:
5009:
4981:
4968:
4951:
4938:
4922:
4902:
4885:
4856:
4843:
4831:
4811:
4799:
4787:
4780:, Paris, 1970, pp. 108â122. See
4770:
4724:
4711:
4663:
4634:
4605:
4573:
4174:The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,
2708:
2694:
2680:
1878:
1866:
1850:
1830:
1514:
1502:
1314:
1239:
1192:. Further east, the key site of
1116:
1100:
986:Other sites in Lower Mesopotamia
956:
944:
932:
894:
883:
732:
718:
643:
603:
546:
176:
13282:Archaeological cultures in Iraq
12960:Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects
12383:1979â1980 Shia uprising in Iraq
12373:1974â1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes
12112:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period
10907:Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt
5589:
5257:from the original on 2017-09-20
5034:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 14â15.
4851:American Journal of Archaeology
4652:from the original on 2019-04-02
4623:from the original on 2019-04-02
4558:, pp. 92â94. R. Matthews,
4530:
4518:
4498:
4478:
4465:
4445:
4433:
4416:
4367:
4343:
4331:
4328:, Cambridge, 1981, pp. 261â305.
4318:
4283:
4271:
4258:
4246:
4226:
4213:
4136:
4045:
4028:
4008:
3996:
3984:
3972:
3955:
3928:
3917:from the original on 2020-11-12
3899:
3888:from the original on 2020-07-17
3874:
3857:The Art of Elam CA. 4200â525 BC
3847:
3830:
3818:
3793:
3759:
3742:
3688:
3679:
3645:
3627:
3607:
3594:
3581:
3568:
3544:
3535:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
3523:
3493:
3480:
3468:
3424:
3396:
3383:
3370:
3357:
3344:
3332:
3327:American Journal of Archaeology
3319:
3314:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
3303:
3294:
3278:
3249:
3229:
3202:
3160:
3147:
3135:
3118:
3091:
3060:
3040:
3020:
3007:
2976:
2964:
2952:
2917:from the original on 2020-11-11
2885:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 10â14.
2861:from the original on 2020-11-11
2813:from the original on 2021-04-13
2643:Some blame the collapse on the
2211:, Susa), and especially in the
2171:
1918:
1087:Susiana and the Iranian Plateau
210:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period
12243:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia
11842:Rulers of Ancient Central Asia
10980:Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt
10527:Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt
10451:Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt
9013:"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"
6095:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
6090:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
5357:(extract of the previous) and
4147:. In Northrop, Douglas (ed.).
3188:, col. 149â151; M.-J. Seux in
3017:, Santa Fe, 2001, introduction
2899:
2872:
2843:
2776:
2764:
2752:
2518:Head of a woman discovered at
2344:Intellectual and symbolic life
2123:, a great alabaster vase from
2022:
1755:, which increasingly replaced
1107:Clay envelope and its tokens.
1:
13252:Chalcolithic cultures of Asia
12502:
11812:Muslim conquest of the Levant
11058:Cleopatra II Philometor Soter
11001:Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
10986:Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
10824:Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt
10694:Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
10495:Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt
10194:Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt
6477:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
5874:TigrisâEuphrates river system
5608:, eds. (1999â2002). "Sumer".
4976:The Ancient Mesopotamian City
4396:, Montagnac, 2004, pp. 33â35.
2746:
2647:, which was characterized by
2570:
2569:Accounting tablet, Uruk III (
2362:
1894:
12739:in ISIL-controlled territory
12627:
10361:Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("
7095:(Uruk influence or control)
5661:Forest, Jean-Daniel (1996).
5514:, New Haven, 1976, pp. 23â73
5360:"Proto cuneiform Version II"
5330:, Paris, 1997, pp. 132â166.
4676:, New York, 2003, pp. 22-24.
4646:repository.edition-topoi.org
4617:repository.edition-topoi.org
4149:A Companion to World History
4085:Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014).
3854:Ălvarez-Mon, Javier (2020).
3354:fasc. 73, 2002, col. 409â413
1369:, located in the suburbs of
1263:
963:Sector of An, levels IVâIII.
792:. In Lower Mesopotamia, the
618:, dated circa 3300-3200 BC,
7:
13257:Bronze Age cultures of Asia
12913:
12805:
12650:Council of Representatives
12388:Weapons of mass destruction
12075:
11055:Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
10094:Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
9893:Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
9440:Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt
9434:Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
8694:(Vassals of the Akkadians)
7681:Indus-Mesopotamia relations
7082:(Anonymous "King-priests")
7037:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
6694:Early Neolithic settlements
6543:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary
6425:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
6420:Indus-Mesopotamia relations
5275:Publications in the series
4356:, pp. 77â92. See also
4005:, pp. 232â254, 334â338
3177:, col. 84â91; B. Lafont in
2673:
2560:
2296:course of the Uruk period,
1660:Agriculture and pastoralism
1600:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
1595:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
1138:in the southwest of modern
628:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
10:
13298:
12378:1977 Shia uprising in Iraq
11847:
11682:Sasanian conquest of Egypt
11109:
10992:Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
10876:
10850:
10802:Assyrian conquest of Egypt
10148:Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt
9913:Third Babylonian dynasty (
9810:Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt
9772:Second Intermediate Period
8582:(vassal of the Akkadians)
7970:
7115:Early or legendary kings:
6548:Chicago Hittite Dictionary
5748:Butterlin, Pascal (2003).
5739:Algaze, Guillermo (1993).
5730:Algaze, Guillermo (2008).
5724:Studies on the Uruk period
5628:Mesopotamia Before History
5572:. John Hunt. p. 120.
5338:, Chicago, 1993; see also
4475:, Paris, 1998, pp. 109â114
4364:, Oxford, 2014, pp. 79â93.
4191:"Earliest Egyptian Glyphs"
4017:, pp. 102â104 ;
3860:. Routledge. p. 101.
3766:Algaze, Guillermo (2013).
3695:Algaze, Guillermo (2013).
3652:Algaze, Guillermo (2013).
3132:, Chicago, 1981, pp. 60â81
3002:The Biblical Archaeologist
2879:Cooper, Jerrol S. (1996).
2352:
1790:
1663:
1592:
1283:
1212:further to the southeast.
877:Anu/ White Temple ziggurat
867:
838:Robert McCormick Adams Jr.
525:Ba'athist rule (1968â2003)
520:Republic of Iraq (1958â68)
13171:
13070:
12925:
12921:
12908:
12813:
12800:
12635:
12622:
12510:
12497:
12318:
12235:
12087:
12083:
12070:
11816:
11809:
11802:
11773:
11723:
11720:
11679:
11638:
11604:
11585:
11427:Parthamaspates of Parthia
11413:
11378:
11237:
11205:
10998:
10977:
10904:
10901:
10807:Assyrian conquest of Elam
10800:
10688:
10654:
10588:
10549:
10413:
10402:
10359:
10187:Third Intermediate Period
10002:
9873:
9717:Second Babylonian dynasty
9662:("Old Babylonian Period")
9428:
9380:
9144:
9112:
9084:Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt
9056:
9040:
8987:
8984:
8967:
8889:
8874:
8833:
8800:
8746:
8730:
8704:
8696:
8667:
8592:First Intermediate Period
8586:
8562:
8518:
8503:
8487:
8462:
8453:
8427:
8422:
8234:
8213:
8194:
8185:
8146:
8121:
8104:
8080:
8067:
8062:
8048:
8033:
8024:
7976:
7952:
7877:
7817:
7800:
7765:
7744:
7738:Early Dynastic Period III
7686:
7670:
7598:
7596:
7585:
7512:
7463:
7453:
7364:
7341:
7257:
7188:
7119:
7102:
7099:
7040:
7013:
6940:
6924:
6855:
6792:
6764:
6679:
6596:
6515:
6469:
6443:
6347:
6244:
6137:
6045:
6038:
6027:
5909:
5836:
5827:
5679:JoannĂšs, Francis (2001).
5670:Huot, Jean-Louis (2004).
5566:Lucy Wyatt (2010-01-16).
5441:, Padoue, 2005, pp. 13â32
5277:Archaische Texte aus Uruk
5247:"Elam iii. Proto-Elamite"
4560:Cities, Seals and Writing
4315:, pp. 66â68, 141â142
4289:B. Lafont, "ĂquidĂ©s," in
4151:. John Wiley & Sons.
4042:, Paris, 2009, pp. 29â46.
3840:42/2 (2001) pp. 199â233;
3501:"The Hamoukar Expedition"
1035:). The sacred quarter of
114:period in the history of
83:
73:
61:
53:
43:
33:
24:
12729:in Saddam Hussein's Iraq
12640:Administrative divisions
11805:Muslim conquest of Egypt
11269:Antiochus XIII Asiaticus
11100:Cleopatra VII Philopator
10597:Eight Babylonian Dynasty
9659:First Babylonian dynasty
9397:Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
8901:(vassal of the Gutians)
8598:Seventh Dynasty of Egypt
7590:Early Dynastic Period II
6847:Seima-Turbino phenomenon
5688:Lamb, Hubert H. (1995).
5119:Denise Schmandt-Besserat
4899:, Paris, 2013, pp. 5â53.
4853:100/4 (1996) pp. 683â698
4352:, pp. 36â40 ;
4232:X. Faivre, "Outils," in
4143:Yoffee, Norman (2015) .
4025:41/1 (2000) pp. 113â123.
3329:100/4, 1996, pp. 683â698
3069:, pp. 94â99 ;
2935:Matthews, Roger (2002),
2438:Denise Schmandt-Besserat
2425:(ancestor of the series
2088:Vorderasiatisches Museum
1606:and in the pre-literate
1588:
1123:Clay accounting tokens.
590:Dating and periodization
12288:Mandate for Mesopotamia
12162:First Babylonian Empire
11890:"Rulers of Mesopotamia"
11633:Province of Mesopotamia
11442:Province of Mesopotamia
11418:Province of Mesopotamia
11393:Roman conquest of Egypt
11234:Antigonus II Mattathias
11028:Ptolemy II Philadelphus
10601:Ninurta-kudurri-usur II
9078:Middle Kingdom of Egypt
8604:Eighth Dynasty of Egypt
7912:Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
7447:Early Dynastic Period I
7370:Second Dynasty of Egypt
6755:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
6749:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A
6631:Paleolithic Mesopotamia
5642:Sumer and the Sumerians
5636:Crawford, Harriet E. W.
5093:, pp. 48â51, 77â80
5006:, 22/2 (1997) pp. 45â76
4426:90, 1991, pp. 105-116;
4133:317/5842, (August 2007)
3882:"Louvre Museum Sb 2125"
3541:, Pisa (1994) pp. 88â92
3316:2/2 (1943) pp. 131â158.
3004:55/4 (1992) pp. 196â203
2182:National Museum of Iraq
2129:National Museum of Iraq
1927:Columns decorated with
1747:Crafts and construction
1244:The best known site is
1023:, and further north in
863:
295:First Babylonian Empire
138:and corresponds to the
12447:Insurgency (2011â2013)
12368:IraqiâKurdish conflict
12172:Middle Assyrian Empire
11490:
11272:Philip II Philoromaeus
11266:Antiochus XII Dionysus
11260:Demetrius III Eucaerus
11257:Antiochus XI Epiphanes
11248:Antiochus IX Cyzicenus
11120:
11088:Cleopatra VI Tryphaena
11043:Arsinoe III Philopator
10936:
10704:
10594:
10431:Ninurta-kudurri-usur I
10363:Second Dynasty of Isin
9910:
9883:
9826:
9655:
9538:(Non-dynastic usurpers
9262:
8947:Tenth Dynasty of Egypt
8916:
8806:Ninth Dynasty of Egypt
8371:Sixth Dynasty of Egypt
8152:Fifth Dynasty of Egypt
7979:Second kingdom of Mari
7692:Third Dynasty of Egypt
7626:Dumuzid, the Fisherman
7278:
7269:First Dynasty of Egypt
6865:Archaeological periods
6380:Babylonian mathematics
5767:Glassner, Jean-Jacques
5626:CharvĂĄt, Petr (2002).
5617:Benoit, AgnĂšs (2003).
5245:R. K. Englund (1998).
5127:How Writing Came About
4268:81, 2019, pp. 221-239.
3963:Bibliotheca Orientalis
3531:Baghdader Mitteilungen
2724:History of Mesopotamia
2620:End of the Uruk period
2581:
2527:
2509:
2373:
2326:development of writing
2272:
2260:
2243:
2200:Robert McCormick Adams
2185:
2132:
2091:
2050:
1936:
1800:
1743:
1723:in the Near East (the
1675:
1651:Technology and economy
1627:
1574:
1417:
1281:
1163:Further north, in the
995:
809:
750:Alternative chronology
305:Middle Assyrian Empire
16:Archaeological culture
13272:Archaeology of Kuwait
12734:in post-invasion Iraq
12440:U.S. troop withdrawal
12202:Neo-Babylonian Empire
11876:The Ancient Near East
11794:Byzantine Mesopotamia
11708:Province of Asoristan
11671:Byzantine Mesopotamia
11488:
11481:Province of Asoristan
11263:Philip I Philadelphus
11251:Seleucus VI Epiphanes
11245:Antiochus VIII Grypus
11242:Seleucus V Philometor
11197:Antiochus VII Sidetes
11191:Antiochus VI Dionysus
11118:
11091:Berenice IV Epiphanea
11052:Ptolemy VI Philometor
11040:Ptolemy IV Philopator
11037:Berenice II Euergetis
11034:Ptolemy III Euergetes
10935:
10853:Neo-Babylonian Empire
10763:Marduk-apla-iddina II
10760:Marduk-zakir-shumi II
10751:Marduk-apla-iddina II
10702:
10657:Humban-Tahrid dynasty
10593:
10314:Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur
10004:Middle Elamite period
9909:
9881:
9824:
9654:
9261:
8915:
8670:Third kingdom of Mari
8391:Merenre Nemtyemsaf II
7466:First kingdom of Mari
7276:
7263:Early Dynastic Period
7105:Proto-Dynastic period
6661:South Asian Stone Age
5692:. London: Routledge.
5470:on 25 September 2011.
5251:Encyclopaedia Iranica
5145:, pp. 46â56 and
4934:. 2005. p. viii.
4223:, Cambridge MA, 2000.
3941:. BRILL. p. 48.
3600:M. Frangipane (ed.),
3591:25/1, 1999, pp. 91â99
3490:47, 1985, pp. 187â189
3380:11/2, 1985, pp. 25â30
3013:M. S. Rothman (ed.),
2568:
2517:
2504:Jean-Jacques Glassner
2360:
2266:
2258:
2237:
2179:
2118:
2073:
2044:
1926:
1825:, were hand-moulded.
1798:
1765:convertible husbandry
1737:
1673:
1625:
1572:
1488:competitive advantage
1484:comparative advantage
1415:
1271:
993:
807:
794:Early Dynastic Period
610:Mesopotamian king as
430:Atabegs of Azerbaijan
400:Buyid amirate of Iraq
315:Neo-Babylonian Empire
132:Sumerian civilization
12683:Council of Ministers
12565:Mesopotamian Marshes
11239:Alexander II Zabinas
11103:Ptolemy XV Caesarion
11079:Ptolemy XI Alexander
11061:Ptolemy VIII Physcon
10616:Marduk-zakir-shumi I
10604:Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina
10428:Eulmash-shakin-shumi
10369:Marduk-kabit-ahheshu
9993:Marduk-apla-iddina I
9887:New Kingdom of Egypt
9710:Early Kassite rulers
9004:(Vassals of Ur III)
8985:(Vassals of UR III)
8385:Merenre Nemtyemsaf I
8355:Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II
7906:Old Kingdom of Egypt
6739:Neolithic South Asia
6734:Neolithic Revolution
6611:Japanese Paleolithic
6375:Babylonian astronomy
5854:Mesopotamian Marshes
5783:Uruk: The First City
5089:, pp. 219â223;
5069:, pp. 150â154;
4963:Town Planning Review
4959:Town Planning Review
4023:Current Anthropology
3838:Current Anthropology
3801:Current Anthropology
3365:Revue Assyriologique
2630:northern Mesopotamia
2195:Neolithic Revolution
1681:Neolithic Revolution
1472:Immanuel Wallerstein
1468:World-systems theory
1059:Neighbouring regions
530:Occupation (2003â11)
101:Protoliterate period
13267:Archaeology of Iraq
12945:Mesopotamian Arabic
12751:Freedom of religion
12197:Neo-Assyrian Empire
12167:Old Assyrian Period
12152:Neo-Sumerian Empire
11744:Shapur-i Shahrvaraz
11254:Antiochus X Eusebes
11082:Ptolemy XII Auletes
11073:Ptolemy X Alexander
11067:Ptolemy IX Lathyros
11046:Ptolemy V Epiphanes
10731:Neo-Assyrian Empire
10619:Marduk-balassu-iqbi
10552:Neo-Assyrian Empire
10375:Ninurta-nadin-shumi
10266:Syro-Hittite states
9972:Shagarakti-Shuriash
9645:Ashur-nadin-ahhe II
8639:Neferkare Pepiseneb
8538:Akkadian Governors:
7042:Pre-Dynastic period
6817:Bronze Age Caucasus
6812:Bronze Age Anatolia
6456:Destruction by ISIL
6410:Sumerian literature
6385:Akkadian literature
5821:Ancient Mesopotamia
5336:Archaic Bookkeeping
5309:, pp. 82â106;
5106:8 (1978) pp. 11â59.
4974:M. Van de Mieroop,
4965:80 (2009) pp. 3â29.
4758:JoannĂšs (dir.) 2001
4543:2005/5, pp. 969â973
4506:JoannĂšs (dir.) 2001
4486:JoannĂšs (dir.) 2001
4413:50, 1988, pp. 49â50
4291:JoannĂšs (dir.) 2001
4068:Redford, Donald B.
3553:, pp. 91â103;
3126:Heartland of Cities
2653:East Semitic tribes
2423:List of Professions
1931:, from the archaic
1751:The development of
1618:Society and culture
1476:international trade
1375:KuraâAraxes culture
939:Eanna, levels VIâV.
772:origin (the future
616:Gebel el-Arak Knife
473:Early modern period
310:Neo-Assyrian Empire
275:Neo-Sumerian Empire
103:) existed from the
21:
12876:Telecommunications
12851:Foreign Investment
12788:Wars and conflicts
12724:in pre-Saddam Iraq
12688:Presidency Council
12474:2019â2021 protests
12403:Invasion of Kuwait
12227:Sassanid Asorestan
12222:Parthian Babylonia
12217:Seleucid Babylonia
12212:Achaemenid Assyria
12127:Jemdet Nasr period
11970:Sumerian King List
11784:Palaestina Secunda
11661:Palaestina Secunda
11491:
11222:Alexander Jannaeus
11121:
11111:Hellenistic Period
10937:
10705:
10683:Humban-haltash III
10647:Nabu-shuma-ukin II
10595:
10560:Tukulti-Ninurta II
10541:Kingdom of Samaria
10437:Mar-biti-apla-usur
10434:Shirikti-shuqamuna
10404:Neo-Elamite period
10387:Marduk-shapik-zeri
10372:Itti-Marduk-balatu
10353:Tiglath-Pileser II
10350:Ashur-resh-ishi II
10305:Enlil-kudurri-usur
9996:Zababa-shuma-iddin
9981:Kadashman-Harbe II
9966:Kadashman-Enlil II
9911:
9884:
9827:
9656:
9642:Ashur-rim-nisheshu
9639:Ashur-bel-nisheshu
9630:Ashur-nadin-ahhe I
9389:Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
9263:
8917:
8292:Lugal-kinishe-dudu
7673:Old Elamite period
7565:Mesh-ki-ang-gasher
7418:Sekhemib-Perenmaat
7335:Jemdet Nasr period
7279:
6704:Trialetian culture
6492:Mesopotamian myths
5501:1 (2000) pp. 63â74
5453:, pp. 212â213
5404:, pp. 231â239
5185:, pp. 121â127
5173:, pp. 111â120
5161:, pp. 246â250
5149:, pp. 87â112.
5104:Cahiers de la DAFI
5085:, pp. 43â45;
5057:, pp. 106â111
5018:, pp. 154â157
4840:, pp. 231â238
4796:, pp. 238â250
4760:, pp. 743â744
4708:, pp. 208â211
4691:, pp. 196â197
4488:, pp. 905â906
4453:JoannĂšs (ed.) 2001
4378:JoannĂšs (ed.) 2001
4340:, pp. 143â150
4293:, pp. 299â300
4280:, pp. 181â213
4234:JoannĂšs (ed.) 2001
4189:Mitchell, Larkin.
4051:B. Midant-Reynes,
3981:, pp. 131â137
3911:cartelfr.louvre.fr
3776:The Sumerian World
3748:D. T. Potts 2016,
3731:e.g. R. Matthews,
3705:The Sumerian World
3662:The Sumerian World
3638:2023-03-26 at the
3620:2022-06-15 at the
3613:Gil Stein (1998),
3477:, pp. 347â357
3421:, pp. 139â150
3393:10 (1975) pp. 1â17
3263:, pp. 79â89,
3259:, pp. 32â41,
3235:P. Michalowski in
3073:, pp. 175â204
2961:, pp. 286â297
2911:cartelfr.louvre.fr
2855:cartelfr.louvre.fr
2782:As for example in
2582:
2528:
2374:
2334:sexagesimal system
2273:
2261:
2244:
2186:
2133:
2092:
2051:
2033:extensive debate.
1990:Means of transport
1937:
1803:The production of
1801:
1744:
1676:
1628:
1575:
1559:cultural emulation
1480:Greek colonisation
1450:political takeover
1430:Tell Sheikh Hassan
1418:
1335:Southeast Anatolia
1282:
1134:The region around
996:
842:urban macrocephaly
810:
704:Jemdet Nasr period
697:Jemdet Nasr period
671:Jemdet Nasr period
445:Jalairid Sultanate
380:Rashidun Caliphate
355:Sasanian Asorestan
345:Parthian Babylonia
340:Seleucid Babylonia
335:Achaemenid Assyria
230:Jemdet Nasr Period
124:Jemdet Nasr period
88:Jemdet Nasr period
34:Geographical range
19:
13242:4th millennium BC
13219:
13218:
13167:
13166:
13163:
13162:
13153:Mandaean New Year
12904:
12903:
12796:
12795:
12778:Political parties
12673:Foreign relations
12618:
12617:
12525:Lower Mesopotamia
12520:Upper Mesopotamia
12493:
12492:
12489:
12488:
12253:Abbasid Caliphate
12248:Umayyad Caliphate
12157:Isin-Larsa period
12020:
12019:
12014:
12013:
12010:
12009:
11997:978-1-62564-606-4
11982:Unger, Merrill F.
11950:978-0-14-193825-7
11920:978-1-60606-649-2
11687:Province of Egypt
11618:Province of Egypt
11398:Province of Egypt
11140:Antigonid dynasty
10940:Achaemenid Empire
10861:Nebuchadnezzar II
10769:Ashur-nadin-shumi
10638:Nabu-shuma-ishkun
10610:Nabu-shuma-ukin I
10425:Kashshu-nadin-ahi
10393:Marduk-ahhe-eriba
10384:Marduk-nadin-ahhe
10326:Asharid-apal-Ekur
10323:Tiglath-Pileser I
10320:Ashur-resh-ishi I
10308:Ninurta-apal-Ekur
10296:Tukulti-Ninurta I
10243:Kingdom of Israel
10211:Osorkon the Elder
10132:Shutrukid dynasty
10017:Igehalkid dynasty
9984:Adad-shuma-iddina
9978:Enlil-nadin-shumi
9945:Kadashman-Enlil I
9939:Kadashman-harbe I
9383:Sukkalmah dynasty
9247:Isin-Larsa period
9069:Shimashki Dynasty
8795:Puzur-Inshushinak
8394:Netjerkare Siptah
8164:Neferirkare Kakai
7709:Egyptian pyramids
6918:Ancient Near East
6883:
6882:
6837:Bronze Age Levant
6802:Andronovo culture
6709:Nemrikian culture
6556:
6555:
6507:Ziggurat (Temple)
6482:Sumerian religion
6240:
6239:
6187:Middle Babylonian
6129:Kish civilization
6025:
6024:
5849:Lower Mesopotamia
5844:Upper Mesopotamia
5708:Nissen, Hans-Jörg
5392:note pp. 180â215.
5380:, pp. 69â86.
5341:"Proto cuneiform"
4776:A. L. Oppenheim,
4158:978-1-118-30547-8
3969:, pp. 40â44.
3948:978-90-474-2085-9
3867:978-1-000-03485-1
3844:, pp. 40â63.
3827:, pp. 98â107
3815:, pp. 68â73.
3785:978-1-136-21912-2
3772:Crawford, Harriet
3714:978-1-136-21912-2
3701:Crawford, Harriet
3671:978-1-136-21912-2
3658:Crawford, Harriet
3291:, pp. 41â48.
3222:978-1-60606-444-3
2986:, Wiesbaden, 1986
2664:Epic of Gilgamesh
2645:Piora Oscillation
2610:Thorkild Jacobsen
2607:
2595:
2588:
2497:
2155:
2147:
2143:
2139:
1823:beveled rim bowls
1612:Prehistoric Egypt
1379:southern Caucasus
1202:beveled rim bowls
1094:Accounting tokens
1071:and southeastern
800:Lower Mesopotamia
612:Master of Animals
587:
586:
390:Abbasid Caliphate
385:Umayyad Caliphate
350:Roman Mesopotamia
280:Isin-Larsa period
93:
92:
13289:
13247:1930s neologisms
13209:
13208:
13199:
13198:
13189:
13179:
13178:
12923:
12922:
12910:
12909:
12841:
12802:
12801:
12653:
12624:
12623:
12610:Sinjar Mountains
12600:Zagros Mountains
12540:Hamrin Mountains
12499:
12498:
12462:Mosul liberation
12435:Iraqi insurgency
12357:National Command
12346:
12182:Simurrum culture
12085:
12084:
12072:
12071:
12061:
12060:
12059:
12047:
12040:
12033:
12024:
12023:
12002:
12001:
11978:
11972:
11966:
11955:
11954:
11931:
11925:
11924:
11903:Thomas, Ariane;
11900:
11894:
11893:
11886:
11880:
11879:
11864:
11858:
11855:
11840:
11830:
11780:Palaestina Prima
11726:Byzantine Empire
11657:Palaestina Prima
11644:Byzantine Empire
11623:Syria Palaestina
11588:Palmyrene Empire
11574:Bahram VI Chobin
11437:Syria Palaestina
11225:Salome Alexandra
11208:Kingdom of Judea
11194:Diodotus Tryphon
11049:Cleopatra I Syra
11025:Ptolemy Keraunos
10793:Ashur-uballit II
10790:Sin-shumu-lishir
10784:Ashur-etil-ilani
10739:Sargonid dynasty
10632:Marduk-apla-usur
10613:Nabu-apla-iddina
10607:Shamash-mudammiq
10563:Ashurnasirpal II
10546:Kingdom of Judah
10390:Adad-apla-iddina
10381:Enlil-nadin-apli
10378:Nebuchadnezzar I
10302:Ashur-nirari III
10299:Ashur-nadin-apli
10137:Shutruk-Nakhunte
10022:Untash-Napirisha
10011:Kidinuid dynasty
9609:Shamshi-Adad III
9317:Dynasty of Larsa
9135:
9023:
9018:
8846:
8699:Shar-Kali-Sharri
8633:Neferkare Tereru
8621:Neferkare Khendu
8575:
8570:
8401:
8360:Kiku-siwe-tempti
8247:
8242:
8097:
8026:Kish III dynasty
7996:
7927:
7840:
7835:
7740:(2600â2340 BCE)
7705:
7668:
7663:
7653:
7648:
7592:(2700â2600 BCE)
7449:(2900â2700 BCE)
7443:
7360:(3100â2700 BCE)
7339:(3100â2900 BCE)
7093:
7080:
7068:
7044:(4000â2900 BCE)
7033:
6932:
6931:
6928:
6927:
6910:
6903:
6896:
6887:
6886:
6873:
6872:
6863:
6862:
6832:Bronze Age Korea
6827:Bronze Age India
6822:Bronze Age China
6699:Khiamian culture
6689:Fertile Crescent
6626:Natufian culture
6606:Dmanisi hominins
6590:Prehistoric Asia
6583:
6576:
6569:
6560:
6559:
6405:Sumerian cuisine
6395:Warfare in Sumer
6390:Economy of Sumer
6043:
6042:
6033:
5917:Fertile Crescent
5901:Sinjar Mountains
5896:Hamrin Mountains
5891:Zagros Mountains
5869:Taurus Mountains
5834:
5833:
5814:
5807:
5800:
5791:
5790:
5786:
5774:
5762:
5753:
5744:
5735:
5719:
5717:
5703:
5684:
5675:
5666:
5657:
5645:
5631:
5622:
5613:
5584:
5583:
5563:
5557:
5554:
5545:
5544:
5526:
5515:
5508:
5502:
5491:
5485:
5478:
5472:
5471:
5466:. Archived from
5460:
5454:
5448:
5442:
5435:
5429:
5423:
5417:
5411:
5405:
5399:
5393:
5387:
5381:
5375:
5373:
5371:
5356:
5354:
5352:
5324:
5318:
5304:
5298:
5297:
5292:. Archived from
5273:
5267:
5265:
5263:
5262:
5242:
5236:
5234:
5222:
5216:
5215:, pp. 45â68
5210:
5204:
5203:
5198:. Archived from
5192:
5186:
5180:
5174:
5168:
5162:
5156:
5150:
5139:
5130:
5116:
5107:
5100:
5094:
5080:
5074:
5073:, pp. 53â57
5064:
5058:
5052:
5046:
5045:
5025:
5019:
5013:
5007:
5000:
4991:
4985:
4979:
4972:
4966:
4955:
4949:
4942:
4936:
4935:
4926:
4920:
4919:
4906:
4900:
4889:
4883:
4882:
4876:
4868:
4860:
4854:
4847:
4841:
4835:
4829:
4827:
4815:
4809:
4803:
4797:
4791:
4785:
4774:
4768:
4767:
4751:
4742:
4740:
4728:
4722:
4717:P. Steinkeller,
4715:
4709:
4703:
4692:
4686:
4677:
4667:
4661:
4660:
4658:
4657:
4638:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4628:
4609:
4603:
4602:
4586:
4577:
4571:
4553:
4544:
4534:
4528:
4527:, pp. 50â62
4522:
4516:
4515:
4502:
4496:
4495:
4482:
4476:
4469:
4463:
4462:
4449:
4443:
4437:
4431:
4430:, pp. 74â77
4420:
4414:
4403:
4397:
4387:
4371:
4365:
4347:
4341:
4335:
4329:
4322:
4316:
4310:
4301:
4300:
4287:
4281:
4275:
4269:
4262:
4256:
4255:, pp. 15â19
4250:
4244:
4243:
4230:
4224:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4206:
4186:
4177:
4170:
4164:
4162:
4140:
4134:
4127:
4118:
4117:, pp. 66â70
4112:
4103:
4102:
4082:
4073:
4066:
4060:
4049:
4043:
4032:
4026:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3976:
3970:
3959:
3953:
3952:
3932:
3926:
3925:
3923:
3922:
3903:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3878:
3872:
3871:
3851:
3845:
3834:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3797:
3791:
3789:
3763:
3757:
3746:
3740:
3729:
3720:
3718:
3692:
3686:
3683:
3677:
3675:
3649:
3643:
3631:
3625:
3611:
3605:
3598:
3592:
3585:
3579:
3572:
3566:
3565:, Turnhout, 2009
3548:
3542:
3527:
3521:
3520:
3518:
3516:
3497:
3491:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3466:
3461:E. Strommenger,
3459:
3450:
3449:, pp. 89â93
3444:
3435:
3428:
3422:
3416:
3407:
3406:19 (1981) p. 146
3400:
3394:
3387:
3381:
3374:
3368:
3367:51, 1957, p. 127
3361:
3355:
3348:
3342:
3341:, pp. 24â27
3336:
3330:
3323:
3317:
3307:
3301:
3298:
3292:
3282:
3276:
3275:14, Mainz, 2007.
3253:
3247:
3245:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3206:
3200:
3198:
3187:
3176:
3164:
3158:
3157:, pp. 73â81
3151:
3145:
3144:, pp. 66â68
3139:
3133:
3122:
3116:
3115:, pp. 19â25
3110:
3101:
3100:, pp. 40â61
3095:
3089:
3083:
3074:
3064:
3058:
3056:
3044:
3038:
3036:
3024:
3018:
3011:
3005:
2998:
2987:
2980:
2974:
2973:, pp. 57â58
2968:
2962:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2932:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2922:
2903:
2897:
2896:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2867:
2866:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2828:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2803:
2794:
2792:
2780:
2774:
2768:
2762:
2756:
2729:History of Sumer
2718:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2704:
2699:
2698:
2690:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2605:
2596:, Inanna (later
2593:
2586:
2575:
2572:
2495:
2399:Adam Falkenstein
2367:
2364:
2290:
2153:
2145:
2141:
2137:
1913:arsenical bronze
1882:
1870:
1854:
1834:
1535:. Louvre Museum.
1518:
1506:
1496:Susa King-priest
1474:and theories of
1464:Guillermo Algaze
1424:(see above) and
1399:
1120:
1104:
960:
951:Eanna, level IV.
948:
936:
898:
887:
824:(along with the
736:
722:
647:
607:
597:Uruk King-Priest
579:
572:
565:
551:
550:
549:
375:Islamic conquest
180:
170:
152:
151:
140:Early Bronze Age
136:cuneiform script
112:Early Bronze Age
29:
22:
18:
13297:
13296:
13292:
13291:
13290:
13288:
13287:
13286:
13222:
13221:
13220:
13215:
13159:
13143:Public holidays
13066:
12917:
12900:
12839:
12809:
12792:
12651:
12631:
12614:
12545:Iraqi Kurdistan
12535:Euphrates river
12506:
12485:
12452:War (2014â2017)
12398:Operation Opera
12344:
12314:
12310:Arab Federation
12298:Kingdom of Iraq
12231:
12207:Fall of Babylon
12142:Akkadian Empire
12117:Samarra culture
12102:Hassuna culture
12079:
12066:
12054:
12053:
12051:
12021:
12016:
12015:
12006:
12005:
11998:
11979:
11975:
11967:
11958:
11951:
11932:
11928:
11921:
11901:
11897:
11888:
11887:
11883:
11865:
11861:
11856:
11852:
11789:Byzantine Syria
11775:Byzantine Egypt
11750:Farrukh Hormizd
11710:
11706:
11703:Sasanian Empire
11689:
11685:
11666:Byzantine Syria
11652:Byzantine Egypt
11591:
11483:
11479:
11476:Sasanian Empire
11396:
11301:Mithridates III
11281:
11278:Parthian Empire
11211:
11150:Seleucid Empire
11147:
11137:
11113:
11022:Ptolemy I Soter
11020:
11017:Ptolemaic Egypt
10989:
10983:
10943:
10925:
10921:
10919:Kings of Byblos
10910:
10882:
10856:
10827:
10821:
10795:
10775:Mushezib-Marduk
10745:Tiglath-Pileser
10743:
10734:
10711:
10697:
10681:
10677:
10673:
10669:
10665:
10661:
10660:
10652:
10650:Nabu-mukin-zeri
10644:Nabu-nadin-zeri
10629:Marduk-bel-zeri
10622:Baba-aha-iddina
10599:
10576:Adad-nirari III
10566:Shalmaneser III
10555:
10544:
10543:
10530:
10524:
10523:
10521:Menkheperre Ini
10498:
10491:
10490:
10454:
10440:NabĂ»-mukin-apli
10417:
10406:(1100â540 BCE)
10399:Nabu-shum-libur
10367:
10344:Ashur-nirari IV
10338:Ashurnasirpal I
10335:Shamshi-Adad IV
10281:Ashur-uballit I
10276:
10258:
10254:
10250:
10246:
10240:
10239:
10235:
10231:
10229:Kings of Byblos
10227:
10197:
10190:
10184:
10183:
10152:
10151:
10135:
10129:
10097:
10084:
10083:
10065:Neferneferuaten
10025:
10024:
10020:
10014:
10008:
10007:(1500â1100 BCE)
9999:Enlil-nadin-ahi
9987:Adad-shuma-usur
9975:Kashtiliashu IV
9963:Kadashman-Turgu
9948:Burnaburiash II
9927:Kashtiliash III
9919:
9896:
9890:
9860:
9859:(1600â1260 BCE)
9858:
9828:
9819:
9813:
9801:
9795:
9791:
9785:
9781:
9775:
9755:
9750:Peshgaldaramesh
9745:
9735:
9725:
9721:Sealand Dynasty
9718:
9715:
9714:
9708:
9707:
9670:
9663:
9661:
9636:Ashur-nirari II
9615:Puzur-Ashur III
9603:Shamshi-Adad II
9574:
9572:
9570:Adaside dynasty
9567:
9566:
9541:
9539:
9537:
9536:
9499:
9497:
9495:
9488:
9479:
9473:
9462:
9458:
9456:Kings of Byblos
9454:
9448:
9437:
9400:
9387:
9386:
9368:Uruk VI dynasty
9366:
9315:
9266:Dynasty of Isin
9256:
9250:
9239:
9235:
9231:
9227:
9223:
9219:
9215:
9211:
9207:
9182:
9176:
9169:
9165:
9164:
9163:
9161:
9157:
9153:
9136:
9130:
9126:
9120:
9117:
9087:
9081:
9063:
9024:
9012:
9003:
8999:
8995:
8991:
8974:
8964:
8950:
8934:
8926:
8922:
8918:
8907:
8900:
8896:
8882:
8878:
8869:
8865:
8864:
8862:
8851:
8847:
8841:
8837:
8828:(2150â2000 BCE)
8809:
8793:
8789:
8785:
8779:
8775:
8771:
8767:
8763:
8759:
8755:
8741:
8737:
8725:
8721:
8697:
8693:
8689:
8685:
8681:
8680:
8678:
8673:
8663:
8618:Djedkare Shemai
8607:
8601:
8595:
8581:
8552:
8548:
8544:
8540:
8527:Sargon of Akkad
8525:
8524:
8521:Akkadian Empire
8513:(2340â2150 BCE)
8511:Akkadian Period
8498:
8494:
8482:
8478:
8457:
8445:
8435:
8431:
8414:
8410:
8396:
8374:
8353:
8351:
8339:
8335:
8331:
8320:
8316:
8312:
8303:
8294:
8280:
8276:
8264:
8260:
8248:
8219:
8216:
8210:
8198:
8189:
8156:
8155:
8139:
8135:
8131:
8127:
8116:
8112:
8108:
8099:
8098:
8092:
8088:
8087:
8075:
8074:
8058:
8055:
8043:
8039:
8028:
8019:
8015:
8011:
8007:
8003:
7999:
7998:
7997:
7991:
7987:
7983:
7982:
7974:(2500-539 BCE)
7962:
7958:
7928:
7922:
7915:
7909:
7891:
7887:
7883:
7871:
7867:
7863:
7851:
7845:
7841:
7827:
7823:
7813:
7810:
7806:
7794:
7790:
7780:
7776:
7774:
7760:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7712:
7706:
7700:
7696:
7695:
7679:
7678:
7677:(2700â1500 BCE)
7676:
7624:
7613:
7576:("conqueror of
7562:
7546:
7539:
7529:
7515:
7496:
7492:
7487:
7478:
7469:
7461:
7458:
7438:
7374:
7373:
7359:
7353:
7347:
7338:
7280:
7266:
7253:
7194:
7125:
7114:
7108:
7094:
7088:
7081:
7075:
7069:
7063:
7062:
7061:(4000â3100 BCE)
7060:
7054:
7028:
7022:
6994:
6975:
6965:
6938:
6936:
6920:
6914:
6884:
6879:
6851:
6788:
6760:
6729:Neolithic Korea
6724:Neolithic Tibet
6719:Neolithic China
6714:Zarzian culture
6675:
6592:
6587:
6557:
6552:
6511:
6465:
6439:
6348:Culture/society
6343:
6236:
6232:Muslim conquest
6202:Fall of Babylon
6133:
6034:
6021:
5905:
5823:
5818:
5779:Liverani, Mario
5726:
5700:
5654:
5606:Quesnel, Michel
5602:Briend, Jacques
5597:
5592:
5587:
5580:
5564:
5560:
5555:
5548:
5541:
5527:
5518:
5509:
5505:
5492:
5488:
5479:
5475:
5462:
5461:
5457:
5449:
5445:
5436:
5432:
5424:
5420:
5412:
5408:
5400:
5396:
5388:
5384:
5369:
5367:
5358:
5350:
5348:
5339:
5325:
5321:
5317:, Berlin, 1993.
5305:
5301:
5288:
5274:
5270:
5260:
5258:
5243:
5239:
5228:
5226:Sumer 1999â2002
5223:
5219:
5211:
5207:
5194:
5193:
5189:
5181:
5177:
5169:
5165:
5157:
5153:
5141:Discussions in
5140:
5133:
5117:
5110:
5101:
5097:
5081:
5077:
5065:
5061:
5053:
5049:
5042:
5026:
5022:
5014:
5010:
5001:
4994:
4986:
4982:
4973:
4969:
4956:
4952:
4943:
4939:
4928:
4927:
4923:
4908:
4907:
4903:
4890:
4886:
4870:
4869:
4861:
4857:
4848:
4844:
4836:
4832:
4821:
4819:Sumer 1999â2002
4816:
4812:
4804:
4800:
4792:
4788:
4775:
4771:
4761:
4752:
4745:
4734:
4732:Sumer 1999â2002
4729:
4725:
4716:
4712:
4704:
4695:
4687:
4680:
4668:
4664:
4655:
4653:
4640:
4639:
4635:
4626:
4624:
4611:
4610:
4606:
4599:
4579:
4578:
4574:
4554:
4547:
4535:
4531:
4523:
4519:
4509:
4503:
4499:
4489:
4483:
4479:
4470:
4466:
4456:
4450:
4446:
4438:
4434:
4421:
4417:
4404:
4400:
4381:
4372:
4368:
4348:
4344:
4336:
4332:
4323:
4319:
4311:
4304:
4294:
4288:
4284:
4276:
4272:
4263:
4259:
4251:
4247:
4237:
4231:
4227:
4218:
4214:
4204:
4202:
4187:
4180:
4171:
4167:
4159:
4141:
4137:
4128:
4121:
4113:
4106:
4099:
4083:
4076:
4067:
4063:
4050:
4046:
4033:
4029:
4013:
4009:
4001:
3997:
3989:
3985:
3977:
3973:
3960:
3956:
3949:
3933:
3929:
3920:
3918:
3905:
3904:
3900:
3891:
3889:
3880:
3879:
3875:
3868:
3852:
3848:
3835:
3831:
3823:
3819:
3798:
3794:
3786:
3764:
3760:
3747:
3743:
3730:
3723:
3715:
3693:
3689:
3684:
3680:
3672:
3650:
3646:
3640:Wayback Machine
3632:
3628:
3622:Wayback Machine
3612:
3608:
3599:
3595:
3586:
3582:
3573:
3569:
3549:
3545:
3528:
3524:
3514:
3512:
3499:
3498:
3494:
3485:
3481:
3473:
3469:
3465:, Mayence, 1980
3460:
3453:
3445:
3438:
3429:
3425:
3417:
3410:
3401:
3397:
3388:
3384:
3375:
3371:
3362:
3358:
3349:
3345:
3337:
3333:
3324:
3320:
3308:
3304:
3299:
3295:
3283:
3279:
3254:
3250:
3239:
3237:Sumer 1999â2002
3234:
3230:
3223:
3207:
3203:
3192:
3190:Sumer 1999â2002
3181:
3179:Sumer 1999â2002
3170:
3168:Sumer 1999â2002
3165:
3161:
3152:
3148:
3140:
3136:
3124:R. McC. Adams,
3123:
3119:
3111:
3104:
3096:
3092:
3084:
3077:
3065:
3061:
3050:
3048:Sumer 1999â2002
3045:
3041:
3030:
3028:Sumer 1999â2002
3025:
3021:
3012:
3008:
2999:
2990:
2981:
2977:
2969:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2947:
2933:
2929:
2920:
2918:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2893:
2877:
2873:
2864:
2862:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2816:
2814:
2805:
2804:
2797:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2769:
2765:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2714:
2709:
2707:
2700:
2693:
2686:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2622:
2578:Pergamon Museum
2573:
2563:
2512:
2463:Proto-Cuneiform
2370:Pergamon Museum
2365:
2355:
2346:
2284:
2253:
2240:Pergamon Museum
2174:
2084:Pergamon Museum
2060:Empire of Akkad
2039:
2025:
1992:
1935:Pergamon Museum
1921:
1897:
1890:
1883:
1874:
1871:
1862:
1855:
1846:
1835:
1793:
1749:
1721:beast of burden
1668:
1662:
1653:
1620:
1608:Gerzean culture
1597:
1591:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1519:
1511:
1510:
1507:
1498:
1497:
1410:
1385:
1377:centred on the
1337:
1317:
1288:
1266:
1242:
1229:
1186:Iranian Plateau
1132:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1121:
1113:
1112:
1105:
1096:
1095:
1089:
1061:
988:
976:writing tablets
964:
961:
952:
949:
940:
937:
908:
907:
906:
905:
901:
900:
899:
890:
889:
888:
879:
878:
872:
866:
802:
752:
747:
746:
745:
744:
743:
737:
728:
727:
726:
723:
714:
713:
699:
659:
658:
657:
656:
655:
648:
640:
639:
608:
599:
598:
592:
583:
553:Iraq portal
547:
545:
540:
539:
515:Kingdom of Iraq
505:
495:
494:
475:
465:
464:
370:
360:
359:
330:
320:
319:
265:Akkadian Empire
245:
235:
234:
215:Samarra culture
200:Hassuna culture
190:
168:
161:
122:and before the
57:c. 4000â3100 BC
17:
12:
11:
5:
13295:
13285:
13284:
13279:
13274:
13269:
13264:
13259:
13254:
13249:
13244:
13239:
13234:
13217:
13216:
13214:
13213:
13203:
13193:
13183:
13172:
13169:
13168:
13165:
13164:
13161:
13160:
13158:
13157:
13156:
13155:
13150:
13140:
13135:
13130:
13125:
13120:
13115:
13110:
13105:
13100:
13095:
13090:
13085:
13080:
13074:
13072:
13068:
13067:
13065:
13064:
13063:
13062:
13057:
13052:
13047:
13042:
13032:
13027:
13026:
13025:
13020:
13014:
13009:
13004:
12999:
12994:
12989:
12984:
12979:
12969:
12968:
12967:
12962:
12957:
12952:
12947:
12937:
12931:
12929:
12919:
12918:
12906:
12905:
12902:
12901:
12899:
12898:
12893:
12888:
12883:
12881:Transportation
12878:
12873:
12871:Stock Exchange
12868:
12866:Reconstruction
12863:
12858:
12853:
12848:
12846:Infrastructure
12843:
12835:
12830:
12825:
12820:
12814:
12811:
12810:
12798:
12797:
12794:
12793:
12791:
12790:
12785:
12780:
12775:
12770:
12765:
12760:
12759:
12758:
12753:
12748:
12743:
12742:
12741:
12731:
12726:
12716:
12715:
12714:
12713:
12712:
12705:Prime Minister
12702:
12701:
12700:
12690:
12685:
12675:
12670:
12665:
12660:
12655:
12647:
12642:
12636:
12633:
12632:
12620:
12619:
12616:
12615:
12613:
12612:
12607:
12602:
12597:
12592:
12587:
12582:
12577:
12572:
12567:
12562:
12557:
12552:
12547:
12542:
12537:
12532:
12527:
12522:
12517:
12511:
12508:
12507:
12495:
12494:
12491:
12490:
12487:
12486:
12484:
12483:
12478:
12477:
12476:
12466:
12465:
12464:
12459:
12449:
12444:
12443:
12442:
12437:
12432:
12422:
12417:
12416:
12415:
12413:1991 uprisings
12405:
12400:
12395:
12390:
12385:
12380:
12375:
12370:
12365:
12363:Saddam Hussein
12360:
12349:
12348:
12340:
12335:
12330:
12324:
12322:
12316:
12315:
12313:
12312:
12307:
12306:
12305:
12295:
12293:Mandatory Iraq
12290:
12285:
12282:Mamluk dynasty
12275:
12270:
12265:
12260:
12255:
12250:
12245:
12239:
12237:
12233:
12232:
12230:
12229:
12224:
12219:
12214:
12209:
12204:
12199:
12194:
12189:
12184:
12179:
12174:
12169:
12164:
12159:
12154:
12149:
12147:Gutian dynasty
12144:
12139:
12134:
12129:
12124:
12119:
12114:
12109:
12104:
12099:
12093:
12091:
12081:
12080:
12068:
12067:
12050:
12049:
12042:
12035:
12027:
12018:
12017:
12012:
12011:
12008:
12007:
12004:
12003:
11996:
11973:
11956:
11949:
11926:
11919:
11905:Potts, Timothy
11895:
11881:
11859:
11849:
11848:
11845:
11844:
11834:
11823:
11822:
11815:
11808:
11801:
11797:
11796:
11791:
11786:
11777:
11771:
11770:
11729:
11722:
11718:
11717:
11699:
11678:
11674:
11673:
11668:
11663:
11654:
11648:
11647:
11640:
11636:
11635:
11630:
11625:
11620:
11614:
11613:
11606:
11602:
11601:
11584:
11580:
11579:
11472:
11468:
11467:
11444:
11439:
11434:
11430:
11429:
11424:
11415:
11411:
11410:
11405:
11400:
11388:
11387:
11380:
11379:30 BCEâ116 CE
11376:
11375:
11313:Mithridates IV
11295:Mithridates II
11274:
11236:
11231:Aristobulus II
11204:
11200:
11199:
11124:Argead dynasty
11108:
11013:Argead dynasty
11009:
11005:
11004:
10996:
10995:
10975:
10974:
10966:Artaxerxes III
10929:
10927:Kings of Sidon
10916:
10903:
10899:
10898:
10875:
10870:Labashi-Marduk
10849:
10814:
10810:
10809:
10804:
10798:
10797:
10772:Nergal-ushezib
10727:
10708:Black Pharaohs
10690:
10686:
10685:
10653:
10626:Ninurta-apla-X
10587:
10585:Ashur-nirari V
10579:Shalmaneser IV
10569:Shamshi-Adad V
10557:Adad-nirari II
10548:
10538:
10447:
10443:
10442:
10412:
10408:
10407:
10401:
10358:
10341:Shalmaneser II
10329:Ashur-bel-kala
10317:Mutakkil-Nusku
10273:Middle Assyria
10269:
10262:
10237:Kings of Sidon
10220:
10144:
10143:1155â1025 BCE
10140:
10139:
10126:Elamite Empire
10122:
10089:
10088:
10080:Hittite Empire
10076:
10044:
10043:
10028:
10027:
10001:
9990:Meli-Shipak II
9960:Nazi-Maruttash
9924:Burnaburiash I
9903:
9875:
9874:1531â1155 BCE
9871:
9870:
9851:
9806:
9766:
9765:
9712:
9648:
9633:Enlil-Nasir II
9612:Ashur-nirari I
9606:Ishme-Dagan II
9597:Sharma-Adad II
9549:Ashur-apla-idi
9540:1735â1701 BCE)
9519:Ashur-apla-idi
9501:Shamshi-Adad I
9496:1808â1736 BCE)
9481:
9476:Yamhad dynasty
9466:
9464:Kings of Sidon
9443:
9430:
9429:1800â1595 BCE
9426:
9425:
9392:
9391:
9379:
9243:
9233:Puzur-Ashur II
9200:
9143:
9110:
9109:
9104:Mentuhotep III
9073:
9072:
9055:
9050:
9042:
9041:2025-1763 BCE
9038:
9037:
9009:Ur III dynasty
9005:
8986:
8983:
8979:
8978:
8966:
8955:Neferkare VIII
8943:
8939:
8938:
8931:
8930:
8902:
8888:
8886:
8873:
8859:Gutian dynasty
8855:
8831:
8830:
8822:
8817:Nebkaure Khety
8811:Meryibre Khety
8802:
8798:
8797:
8780:
8747:
8745:
8729:
8702:
8701:
8695:
8666:
8656:
8642:Neferkamin Anu
8615:Neferkare Neby
8588:
8584:
8583:
8579:Lugal-ushumgal
8576:
8561:
8557:
8556:
8535:
8516:
8515:
8507:
8505:
8501:
8500:
8486:
8473:
8471:
8467:
8466:
8461:
8452:
8447:
8439:
8426:
8421:
8417:
8416:
8412:Lugalannemundu
8402:
8367:
8363:
8362:
8357:
8343:
8326:
8307:
8298:
8289:
8284:
8268:
8255:
8251:
8250:
8233:
8228:
8224:
8223:
8212:
8203:
8202:
8193:
8184:
8179:Djedkare Isesi
8176:Menkauhor Kaiu
8148:
8144:
8143:
8120:
8103:
8079:
8077:Pabilgagaltuku
8066:
8061:
8047:
8036:Akshak dynasty
8032:
8023:
7975:
7969:
7965:
7964:
7951:
7902:
7898:
7897:
7895:
7876:
7861:Enun-dara-anna
7856:
7855:
7816:
7799:
7784:
7766:
7764:
7742:
7741:
7735:
7688:
7684:
7683:
7669:
7654:
7638:
7637:
7630:
7629:
7618:
7599:
7597:
7594:
7593:
7587:
7583:
7582:
7569:
7568:
7554:
7517:
7510:
7509:
7485:Kullassina-bel
7470:
7462:
7451:
7450:
7444:
7366:
7362:
7361:
7340:
7331:
7326:
7277:Narmer Palette
7259:
7258:3100â2900 BCE
7255:
7254:
7187:
7117:
7116:
7101:
7100:3200â3100 BCE
7097:
7096:
7083:
7051:
7050:
7045:
7039:
7034:
7015:
7014:4000â3200 BCE
7011:
7010:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6989:
6984:
6979:
6969:
6959:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6926:
6925:
6922:
6921:
6916:Rulers of the
6913:
6912:
6905:
6898:
6890:
6881:
6880:
6878:
6877:
6867:
6856:
6853:
6852:
6850:
6849:
6844:
6839:
6834:
6829:
6824:
6819:
6814:
6809:
6804:
6798:
6796:
6790:
6789:
6787:
6786:
6781:
6776:
6770:
6768:
6762:
6761:
6759:
6758:
6752:
6746:
6741:
6736:
6731:
6726:
6721:
6716:
6711:
6706:
6701:
6696:
6691:
6685:
6683:
6677:
6676:
6674:
6673:
6671:Xiaochangliang
6668:
6663:
6658:
6653:
6648:
6643:
6638:
6633:
6628:
6623:
6618:
6613:
6608:
6602:
6600:
6594:
6593:
6586:
6585:
6578:
6571:
6563:
6554:
6553:
6551:
6550:
6545:
6540:
6535:
6530:
6528:Assyriologists
6525:
6519:
6517:
6513:
6512:
6510:
6509:
6504:
6499:
6494:
6489:
6484:
6479:
6473:
6471:
6467:
6466:
6464:
6463:
6458:
6453:
6447:
6445:
6441:
6440:
6438:
6437:
6435:List of rulers
6432:
6427:
6422:
6417:
6412:
6407:
6402:
6397:
6392:
6387:
6382:
6377:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6351:
6349:
6345:
6344:
6342:
6341:
6336:
6331:
6326:
6324:Proto-Armenian
6321:
6316:
6311:
6309:Middle Persian
6306:
6301:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6281:
6276:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6256:
6250:
6248:
6242:
6241:
6238:
6237:
6235:
6234:
6229:
6224:
6219:
6214:
6209:
6204:
6199:
6197:Neo-Babylonian
6194:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6177:Old Babylonian
6174:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6147:Early Dynastic
6143:
6141:
6135:
6134:
6132:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6106:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6051:
6049:
6040:
6036:
6035:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6022:
6020:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5919:
5913:
5911:
5907:
5906:
5904:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5887:
5886:
5881:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5846:
5840:
5838:
5831:
5825:
5824:
5817:
5816:
5809:
5802:
5794:
5788:
5787:
5775:
5763:
5754:
5745:
5736:
5725:
5722:
5721:
5720:
5704:
5698:
5685:
5676:
5667:
5658:
5652:
5632:
5623:
5614:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5585:
5578:
5558:
5546:
5539:
5516:
5503:
5486:
5473:
5455:
5443:
5430:
5418:
5406:
5394:
5382:
5319:
5299:
5296:on 2012-07-10.
5268:
5237:
5235:, col. 141â143
5217:
5205:
5202:on 2012-07-24.
5187:
5175:
5163:
5151:
5131:
5129:, Austin, 1996
5123:Before Writing
5108:
5095:
5091:Butterlin 2003
5075:
5059:
5047:
5040:
5020:
5008:
4992:
4980:
4967:
4950:
4937:
4921:
4901:
4884:
4855:
4842:
4830:
4828:, col. 160â162
4810:
4798:
4786:
4769:
4743:
4741:, col. 134â135
4723:
4710:
4693:
4678:
4662:
4633:
4604:
4597:
4572:
4556:Butterlin 2003
4545:
4529:
4517:
4497:
4477:
4464:
4444:
4432:
4415:
4405:M. Yon (ed.),
4398:
4390:Butterlin 2003
4366:
4342:
4330:
4317:
4302:
4282:
4270:
4257:
4245:
4225:
4212:
4178:
4165:
4157:
4135:
4119:
4115:Butterlin 2003
4104:
4097:
4074:
4061:
4044:
4027:
4019:Butterlin 2003
4007:
4003:Butterlin 2003
3995:
3991:Butterlin 2003
3983:
3979:Butterlin 2003
3971:
3954:
3947:
3927:
3898:
3873:
3866:
3846:
3829:
3825:Butterlin 2003
3817:
3792:
3784:
3758:
3741:
3721:
3713:
3687:
3678:
3670:
3644:
3626:
3606:
3593:
3580:
3567:
3543:
3522:
3492:
3479:
3475:Butterlin 2003
3467:
3451:
3436:
3423:
3419:Butterlin 2003
3408:
3395:
3382:
3369:
3356:
3343:
3331:
3318:
3302:
3293:
3289:Butterlin 2003
3277:
3248:
3228:
3221:
3201:
3199:, col. 339â344
3159:
3146:
3134:
3117:
3102:
3090:
3075:
3059:
3057:, col. 135â137
3039:
3037:, col. 342â343
3026:M.-J. Seux in
3019:
3006:
2988:
2975:
2963:
2959:Butterlin 2003
2951:
2945:
2927:
2898:
2891:
2871:
2842:
2823:
2795:
2784:Frankfort 1970
2775:
2763:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2737:
2731:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2705:
2691:
2688:History portal
2675:
2672:
2632:, the rest of
2621:
2618:
2562:
2559:
2511:
2508:
2411:Robert Englund
2354:
2351:
2345:
2342:
2338:decimal system
2298:cylinder seals
2252:
2249:
2173:
2170:
2038:
2035:
2024:
2021:
1991:
1988:
1920:
1917:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1884:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1865:
1863:
1856:
1849:
1847:
1836:
1829:
1809:potter's wheel
1792:
1789:
1785:Mario Liverani
1748:
1745:
1661:
1658:
1652:
1649:
1633:potter's wheel
1619:
1616:
1593:Main article:
1590:
1587:
1526:
1525:
1521:Reconstitution
1520:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1501:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1492:
1409:
1408:Uruk expansion
1406:
1402:Ăiftlik, NiÄde
1347:, near modern
1336:
1333:
1323:, the site of
1316:
1313:
1284:Main article:
1265:
1262:
1241:
1238:
1228:
1225:
1167:, the site of
1144:cylinder seals
1122:
1115:
1114:
1106:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1060:
1057:
987:
984:
966:
965:
962:
955:
953:
950:
943:
941:
938:
931:
903:
902:
893:
892:
891:
882:
881:
880:
876:
875:
874:
873:
868:Main article:
865:
862:
818:agriculturally
801:
798:
751:
748:
738:
731:
730:
729:
724:
717:
716:
715:
711:
710:
709:
708:
698:
695:
669:and following
649:
642:
641:
609:
602:
601:
600:
596:
595:
594:
593:
591:
588:
585:
584:
582:
581:
574:
567:
559:
556:
555:
542:
541:
538:
537:
535:Recent history
532:
527:
522:
517:
512:
510:Mandatory Iraq
506:
501:
500:
497:
496:
493:
492:
490:Mamluk dynasty
487:
482:
476:
471:
470:
467:
466:
463:
462:
457:
452:
450:Timurid Empire
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
377:
371:
366:
365:
362:
361:
358:
357:
352:
347:
342:
337:
331:
326:
325:
322:
321:
318:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
270:Gutian Dynasty
267:
262:
257:
252:
246:
241:
240:
237:
236:
233:
232:
227:
222:
212:
207:
202:
197:
191:
186:
185:
182:
181:
173:
172:
163:
162:
155:
147:cylinder seals
91:
90:
85:
81:
80:
75:
71:
70:
65:
59:
58:
55:
51:
50:
45:
41:
40:
35:
31:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
13294:
13283:
13280:
13278:
13275:
13273:
13270:
13268:
13265:
13263:
13260:
13258:
13255:
13253:
13250:
13248:
13245:
13243:
13240:
13238:
13235:
13233:
13230:
13229:
13227:
13212:
13204:
13202:
13194:
13192:
13188:
13184:
13182:
13174:
13173:
13170:
13154:
13151:
13149:
13146:
13145:
13144:
13141:
13139:
13136:
13134:
13131:
13129:
13126:
13124:
13121:
13119:
13116:
13114:
13111:
13109:
13106:
13104:
13101:
13099:
13096:
13094:
13091:
13089:
13086:
13084:
13081:
13079:
13076:
13075:
13073:
13069:
13061:
13058:
13056:
13053:
13051:
13048:
13046:
13043:
13041:
13038:
13037:
13036:
13033:
13031:
13028:
13024:
13021:
13018:
13017:Iraqi Turkmen
13015:
13013:
13010:
13008:
13005:
13003:
13000:
12998:
12995:
12993:
12990:
12988:
12985:
12983:
12980:
12978:
12975:
12974:
12973:
12970:
12966:
12963:
12961:
12958:
12956:
12953:
12951:
12948:
12946:
12943:
12942:
12941:
12938:
12936:
12933:
12932:
12930:
12928:
12924:
12920:
12916:
12911:
12907:
12897:
12894:
12892:
12889:
12887:
12884:
12882:
12879:
12877:
12874:
12872:
12869:
12867:
12864:
12862:
12859:
12857:
12854:
12852:
12849:
12847:
12844:
12842:
12836:
12834:
12831:
12829:
12826:
12824:
12821:
12819:
12816:
12815:
12812:
12808:
12803:
12799:
12789:
12786:
12784:
12781:
12779:
12776:
12774:
12771:
12769:
12766:
12764:
12761:
12757:
12754:
12752:
12749:
12747:
12744:
12740:
12737:
12736:
12735:
12732:
12730:
12727:
12725:
12722:
12721:
12720:
12717:
12711:
12708:
12707:
12706:
12703:
12699:
12696:
12695:
12694:
12691:
12689:
12686:
12684:
12681:
12680:
12679:
12676:
12674:
12671:
12669:
12666:
12664:
12661:
12659:
12656:
12654:
12652:(legislative)
12648:
12646:
12643:
12641:
12638:
12637:
12634:
12630:
12625:
12621:
12611:
12608:
12606:
12603:
12601:
12598:
12596:
12593:
12591:
12588:
12586:
12585:Syrian Desert
12583:
12581:
12580:Shatt al-Arab
12578:
12576:
12573:
12571:
12568:
12566:
12563:
12561:
12558:
12556:
12553:
12551:
12548:
12546:
12543:
12541:
12538:
12536:
12533:
12531:
12528:
12526:
12523:
12521:
12518:
12516:
12515:Faw peninsula
12513:
12512:
12509:
12505:
12500:
12496:
12482:
12479:
12475:
12472:
12471:
12470:
12467:
12463:
12460:
12458:
12457:Fall of Mosul
12455:
12454:
12453:
12450:
12448:
12445:
12441:
12438:
12436:
12433:
12431:
12430:U.S. invasion
12428:
12427:
12426:
12423:
12421:
12418:
12414:
12411:
12410:
12409:
12406:
12404:
12401:
12399:
12396:
12394:
12393:IranâIraq War
12391:
12389:
12386:
12384:
12381:
12379:
12376:
12374:
12371:
12369:
12366:
12364:
12361:
12358:
12354:
12351:
12350:
12347:
12341:
12339:
12336:
12334:
12331:
12329:
12326:
12325:
12323:
12321:
12317:
12311:
12308:
12304:
12301:
12300:
12299:
12296:
12294:
12291:
12289:
12286:
12283:
12279:
12276:
12274:
12271:
12269:
12266:
12264:
12261:
12259:
12258:Buyid dynasty
12256:
12254:
12251:
12249:
12246:
12244:
12241:
12240:
12238:
12234:
12228:
12225:
12223:
12220:
12218:
12215:
12213:
12210:
12208:
12205:
12203:
12200:
12198:
12195:
12193:
12190:
12188:
12185:
12183:
12180:
12178:
12175:
12173:
12170:
12168:
12165:
12163:
12160:
12158:
12155:
12153:
12150:
12148:
12145:
12143:
12140:
12138:
12135:
12133:
12130:
12128:
12125:
12123:
12120:
12118:
12115:
12113:
12110:
12108:
12107:Halaf culture
12105:
12103:
12100:
12098:
12095:
12094:
12092:
12090:
12086:
12082:
12078:
12073:
12069:
12064:
12058:
12048:
12043:
12041:
12036:
12034:
12029:
12028:
12025:
11999:
11993:
11989:
11988:
11983:
11977:
11971:
11965:
11963:
11961:
11952:
11946:
11942:
11941:
11936:
11935:Roux, Georges
11930:
11922:
11916:
11912:
11911:
11906:
11899:
11891:
11885:
11877:
11873:
11869:
11863:
11854:
11850:
11846:
11843:
11839:
11833:
11829:
11824:
11821:
11820:
11814:
11813:
11807:
11806:
11799:
11798:
11795:
11790:
11785:
11781:
11776:
11772:
11769:
11766:
11763:
11762:Yazdegerd III
11760:
11757:
11754:
11751:
11748:
11745:
11742:
11739:
11736:
11733:
11728:
11727:
11719:
11716:
11713:
11709:
11705:
11704:
11698:
11695:
11694:Sahralanyozan
11692:
11688:
11683:
11676:
11675:
11672:
11667:
11662:
11658:
11653:
11649:
11646:
11645:
11637:
11634:
11629:
11624:
11619:
11615:
11612:
11611:
11603:
11600:
11597:
11594:
11590:
11589:
11582:
11581:
11578:
11575:
11572:
11569:
11566:
11563:
11560:
11557:
11554:
11551:
11548:
11545:
11542:
11539:
11536:
11533:
11530:
11527:
11524:
11521:
11518:
11515:
11512:
11509:
11506:
11503:
11500:
11497:
11494:
11487:
11482:
11478:
11477:
11470:
11469:
11466:
11463:
11460:
11457:
11454:
11451:
11450:Mithridates V
11448:
11447:Sinatruces II
11443:
11438:
11432:
11431:
11428:
11423:
11419:
11412:
11409:
11404:
11399:
11394:
11389:
11386:
11385:
11377:
11374:
11371:
11370:Artabanus III
11368:
11365:
11362:
11359:
11356:
11353:
11350:
11347:
11344:
11341:
11340:Tiridates III
11338:
11335:
11332:
11329:
11326:
11323:
11320:
11317:
11314:
11311:
11308:
11305:
11302:
11299:
11296:
11293:
11290:
11287:
11284:
11283:Mithridates I
11280:
11279:
11273:
11270:
11267:
11264:
11261:
11258:
11255:
11252:
11249:
11246:
11243:
11240:
11235:
11232:
11229:
11226:
11223:
11220:
11219:Aristobulus I
11217:
11216:John Hyrcanus
11214:
11210:
11209:
11202:
11201:
11198:
11195:
11192:
11189:
11186:
11185:Alexander III
11183:
11180:
11177:
11174:
11171:
11170:Antiochus III
11168:
11165:
11162:
11159:
11156:
11152:
11151:
11146:
11142:
11141:
11136:
11133:
11130:
11129:Alexander III
11126:
11125:
11117:
11112:
11107:
11104:
11101:
11098:
11095:
11092:
11089:
11086:
11083:
11080:
11077:
11074:
11071:
11068:
11065:
11064:Cleopatra III
11062:
11059:
11056:
11053:
11050:
11047:
11044:
11041:
11038:
11035:
11032:
11029:
11026:
11023:
11019:
11018:
11014:
11007:
11006:
11003:
11002:
10997:
10994:
10993:
10988:
10987:
10982:
10981:
10976:
10973:
10970:
10969:Artaxerxes IV
10967:
10964:
10963:Artaxerxes II
10961:
10958:
10955:
10952:
10949:
10946:
10942:
10941:
10934:
10928:
10924:
10923:Kings of Tyre
10920:
10914:
10909:
10908:
10900:
10897:
10894:
10891:
10888:
10885:
10881:
10880:
10879:Median Empire
10874:
10871:
10868:
10865:
10862:
10859:
10855:
10854:
10848:
10845:
10842:
10839:
10836:
10833:
10830:
10826:
10825:
10820:
10819:
10812:
10811:
10808:
10803:
10799:
10796:
10794:
10791:
10788:
10787:Sinsharishkun
10785:
10782:
10779:
10776:
10773:
10770:
10767:
10764:
10761:
10758:
10755:
10752:
10749:
10746:
10742:
10740:
10733:
10732:
10726:
10723:
10720:
10717:
10714:
10709:
10701:
10696:
10695:
10687:
10684:
10680:
10676:
10672:
10668:
10664:
10659:
10658:
10651:
10648:
10645:
10642:
10639:
10636:
10633:
10630:
10627:
10624:(five kings)
10623:
10620:
10617:
10614:
10611:
10608:
10605:
10602:
10598:
10592:
10586:
10583:
10582:Ashur-Dan III
10580:
10577:
10573:
10570:
10567:
10564:
10561:
10558:
10554:
10553:
10547:
10542:
10537:
10536:
10533:
10529:
10528:
10522:
10519:
10516:
10513:
10510:
10507:
10504:
10501:
10497:
10496:
10489:
10486:
10485:
10481:
10478:
10475:
10472:
10469:
10466:
10463:
10460:
10457:
10453:
10452:
10445:
10444:
10441:
10438:
10435:
10432:
10429:
10426:
10423:
10422:Ea-mukin-zeri
10420:
10419:Simbar-shipak
10416:
10411:1025â934 BCE
10410:
10409:
10405:
10400:
10397:
10394:
10391:
10388:
10385:
10382:
10379:
10376:
10373:
10370:
10366:
10364:
10357:
10354:
10351:
10348:
10347:Ashur-rabi II
10345:
10342:
10339:
10336:
10333:
10332:Eriba-Adad II
10330:
10327:
10324:
10321:
10318:
10315:
10312:
10309:
10306:
10303:
10300:
10297:
10294:
10293:Shalmaneser I
10291:
10290:Adad-nirari I
10288:
10285:
10282:
10279:
10275:
10274:
10268:
10267:
10261:
10257:
10253:
10249:
10245:
10244:
10238:
10234:
10233:Kings of Tyre
10230:
10226:
10225:
10219:
10218:
10215:
10212:
10209:
10206:
10203:
10200:
10196:
10195:
10189:
10188:
10182:
10179:
10176:
10173:
10172:Ramesses VIII
10170:
10167:
10164:
10161:
10158:
10155:
10150:
10149:
10142:
10141:
10138:
10134:
10133:
10128:
10127:
10121:
10118:
10115:
10112:
10109:
10106:
10103:
10100:
10096:
10095:
10090:
10087:
10082:
10081:
10075:
10072:
10069:
10066:
10063:
10062:
10058:
10055:
10054:Amenhotep III
10052:
10049:
10045:
10042:
10039:
10036:
10033:
10029:
10026:
10023:
10019:
10018:
10013:
10012:
10005:
10000:
9997:
9994:
9991:
9988:
9985:
9982:
9979:
9976:
9973:
9970:
9967:
9964:
9961:
9958:
9955:
9952:
9949:
9946:
9943:
9940:
9937:
9934:
9931:
9928:
9925:
9922:
9918:
9916:
9908:
9902:
9899:
9895:
9894:
9889:
9888:
9880:
9872:
9869:
9866:
9863:
9857:
9856:
9850:
9847:
9844:
9841:
9838:
9837:
9833:
9832:
9823:
9817:
9812:
9811:
9805:
9804:
9800:
9799:
9794:
9790:
9789:
9784:
9780:
9779:
9774:
9773:
9767:
9764:
9761:
9760:Melamkurkurra
9758:
9754:
9753:Ayadaragalama
9751:
9748:
9744:
9741:
9738:
9734:
9731:
9730:Itti-ili-nibi
9728:
9724:
9722:
9711:
9706:
9703:
9700:
9697:
9694:
9691:
9688:
9685:
9682:
9679:
9676:
9673:
9669:
9667:
9660:
9653:
9647:
9646:
9643:
9640:
9637:
9634:
9631:
9628:
9625:
9624:Ashur-shaduni
9622:
9619:
9618:Enlil-nasir I
9616:
9613:
9610:
9607:
9604:
9601:
9598:
9595:
9592:
9589:
9586:
9583:
9582:Sharma-Adad I
9580:
9577:
9573:1700â722 BCE)
9571:
9565:
9562:
9559:
9556:
9553:
9550:
9547:
9544:
9535:
9532:
9529:
9526:
9523:
9520:
9517:
9514:
9511:
9508:
9505:
9504:Ishme-Dagan I
9502:
9493:
9487:
9486:
9477:
9472:
9471:
9465:
9461:
9460:Kings of Tyre
9457:
9452:
9447:
9442:
9441:
9436:
9435:
9427:
9424:
9421:
9418:
9417:Amenemhat III
9415:
9412:
9409:
9406:
9403:
9399:
9398:
9393:
9390:
9385:
9384:
9377:
9373:
9369:
9365:
9361:
9358:
9355:
9352:
9349:
9346:
9343:
9340:
9337:
9334:
9331:
9328:
9325:
9322:
9318:
9314:
9311:
9308:
9305:
9302:
9299:
9296:
9293:
9290:
9287:
9284:
9281:
9278:
9275:
9272:
9268:
9267:
9260:
9254:
9249:
9248:
9242:
9238:
9234:
9230:
9226:
9222:
9218:
9214:
9210:
9209:Puzur-Ashur I
9206:
9205:
9198:
9194:
9191:
9188:
9185:
9180:
9175:
9174:
9168:
9160:
9156:
9151:
9148:
9142:
9139:
9134:
9129:
9124:
9119:
9116:
9115:Third Eblaite
9111:
9108:
9107:Mentuhotep IV
9105:
9102:
9101:Mentuhotep II
9099:
9096:
9093:
9090:
9086:
9085:
9080:
9079:
9074:
9070:
9066:
9062:
9060:
9054:
9049:
9047:
9039:
9036:
9033:
9030:
9027:
9022:
9017:
9011:
9010:
9002:
8998:
8994:
8990:
8981:
8980:
8977:
8973:
8971:
8965:
8962:
8959:
8958:Wahkare Khety
8956:
8953:
8949:
8948:
8941:
8940:
8937:
8932:
8929:
8925:
8921:
8914:
8910:
8906:
8899:
8895:
8893:
8885:
8881:
8877:
8872:
8868:
8861:
8860:
8854:
8850:
8845:
8840:
8836:
8832:
8829:
8827:
8826:Ur III period
8821:
8818:
8815:
8814:Neferkare VII
8812:
8808:
8807:
8799:
8796:
8792:
8788:
8784:
8778:
8774:
8770:
8766:
8762:
8761:Ur-Ningirsu I
8758:
8754:
8752:
8744:
8740:
8736:
8734:
8728:
8724:
8719:
8715:
8711:
8707:
8703:
8700:
8692:
8688:
8684:
8677:
8672:
8671:
8665:
8662:
8655:
8652:
8649:
8646:
8643:
8640:
8637:
8634:
8631:
8628:
8625:
8622:
8619:
8616:
8613:
8610:
8606:
8605:
8600:
8599:
8594:
8593:
8585:
8580:
8574:
8569:
8565:
8559:
8558:
8555:
8551:
8547:
8543:
8539:
8534:
8531:
8528:
8523:
8522:
8517:
8514:
8512:
8506:
8502:
8497:
8493:
8491:
8485:
8481:
8477:
8474:
8472:
8469:
8468:
8465:
8460:
8456:
8451:
8444:
8438:
8434:
8430:
8425:
8419:
8418:
8413:
8409:
8407:
8400:
8395:
8392:
8389:
8386:
8383:
8380:
8377:
8373:
8372:
8365:
8364:
8361:
8358:
8356:
8350:
8348:
8344:
8342:
8338:
8334:
8330:
8327:
8324:
8319:
8315:
8311:
8308:
8306:
8302:
8299:
8297:
8296:Lugal-kisalsi
8293:
8290:
8288:
8285:
8283:
8279:
8275:
8273:
8269:
8267:
8263:
8259:
8256:
8253:
8252:
8246:
8241:
8237:
8232:
8229:
8226:
8225:
8222:
8218:
8208:
8205:
8204:
8201:
8197:
8192:
8188:
8183:
8180:
8177:
8174:
8171:
8168:
8165:
8162:
8159:
8154:
8153:
8145:
8142:
8138:
8134:
8130:
8126:
8125:
8119:
8115:
8111:
8107:
8102:
8096:
8091:
8086:
8084:
8078:
8073:
8071:
8065:
8060:
8054:
8052:
8046:
8042:
8038:
8037:
8031:
8027:
8022:
8018:
8014:
8010:
8006:
8002:
7995:
7990:
7986:
7981:
7980:
7973:
7967:
7966:
7961:
7957:
7956:
7950:
7949:
7945:
7942:
7939:
7938:
7934:
7931:
7926:
7921:
7918:
7914:
7913:
7908:
7907:
7900:
7899:
7894:
7890:
7886:
7882:
7881:
7875:
7874:
7870:
7866:
7862:
7857:
7854:
7849:
7844:
7839:
7834:
7830:
7826:
7822:
7821:
7815:
7809:
7805:
7804:
7798:
7797:
7793:
7789:
7783:
7779:
7773:
7771:
7763:
7759:
7755:
7751:
7747:
7743:
7739:
7734:
7731:
7730:
7726:
7723:
7722:
7718:
7715:
7710:
7704:
7699:
7694:
7693:
7685:
7682:
7675:
7674:
7667:
7662:
7658:
7652:
7647:
7643:
7639:
7635:
7631:
7628:
7627:
7623:
7617:
7616:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7595:
7591:
7584:
7581:
7579:
7575:
7570:
7567:
7566:
7561:
7559:
7553:
7552:
7549:
7545:
7542:
7538:
7535:
7532:
7528:
7525:
7522:
7516:
7511:
7508:
7507:
7503:
7499:
7495:
7490:
7489:Nangishlishma
7486:
7482:
7477:
7475:
7468:
7467:
7460:
7457:
7456:First Eblaite
7452:
7448:
7442:
7437:
7434:
7433:
7429:
7428:
7424:
7423:
7419:
7416:
7415:Seth-Peribsen
7413:
7412:
7408:
7407:
7403:
7402:
7398:
7397:
7393:
7392:
7388:
7387:
7383:
7380:
7377:
7376:Hotepsekhemwy
7372:
7371:
7363:
7357:
7352:
7351:
7346:
7345:
7344:Proto-Elamite
7337:
7336:
7330:
7325:
7324:
7320:
7319:
7315:
7312:
7309:
7306:
7302:
7299:
7296:
7293:
7289:
7286:
7283:
7275:
7271:
7270:
7265:
7264:
7256:
7252:
7251:
7247:
7246:Double Falcon
7244:
7243:
7239:
7238:
7234:
7233:
7229:
7228:
7224:
7223:
7219:
7218:
7214:
7213:
7209:
7208:
7204:
7203:
7199:
7198:
7193:
7192:
7186:
7182:
7179:
7178:
7174:
7171:
7168:
7167:
7163:
7162:
7158:
7157:
7153:
7152:
7148:
7147:
7143:
7140:
7139:
7135:
7134:
7130:
7129:
7124:
7123:
7118:
7112:
7107:
7106:
7098:
7092:
7087:
7079:
7073:
7067:
7059:
7058:
7052:
7049:
7043:
7038:
7032:
7027:
7026:
7021:
7020:
7012:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6993:
6990:
6988:
6985:
6983:
6980:
6978:
6973:
6970:
6968:
6963:
6960:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6934:
6933:
6930:
6929:
6923:
6919:
6911:
6906:
6904:
6899:
6897:
6892:
6891:
6888:
6876:
6868:
6866:
6858:
6857:
6854:
6848:
6845:
6843:
6840:
6838:
6835:
6833:
6830:
6828:
6825:
6823:
6820:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6799:
6797:
6795:
6791:
6785:
6782:
6780:
6779:Halaf culture
6777:
6775:
6772:
6771:
6769:
6767:
6763:
6757:(Mesopotamia)
6756:
6753:
6751:(Mesopotamia)
6750:
6747:
6745:
6742:
6740:
6737:
6735:
6732:
6730:
6727:
6725:
6722:
6720:
6717:
6715:
6712:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6686:
6684:
6682:
6678:
6672:
6669:
6667:
6664:
6662:
6659:
6657:
6654:
6652:
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6607:
6604:
6603:
6601:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6584:
6579:
6577:
6572:
6570:
6565:
6564:
6561:
6549:
6546:
6544:
6541:
6539:
6536:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6526:
6524:
6521:
6520:
6518:
6514:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6493:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6474:
6472:
6468:
6462:
6459:
6457:
6454:
6452:
6449:
6448:
6446:
6442:
6436:
6433:
6431:
6428:
6426:
6423:
6421:
6418:
6416:
6413:
6411:
6408:
6406:
6403:
6401:
6398:
6396:
6393:
6391:
6388:
6386:
6383:
6381:
6378:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6358:
6356:
6353:
6352:
6350:
6346:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6332:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6320:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6290:
6287:
6285:
6282:
6280:
6277:
6275:
6272:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6262:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6251:
6249:
6247:
6243:
6233:
6230:
6228:
6225:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6175:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6144:
6142:
6140:
6136:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6105:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6052:
6050:
6048:
6044:
6041:
6037:
6032:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5914:
5912:
5908:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5876:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5864:Syrian Desert
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5841:
5839:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5815:
5810:
5808:
5803:
5801:
5796:
5795:
5792:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5760:
5755:
5751:
5746:
5742:
5737:
5733:
5728:
5727:
5716:
5715:
5709:
5705:
5701:
5699:0-415-12735-1
5695:
5691:
5686:
5682:
5677:
5673:
5668:
5664:
5659:
5655:
5653:9780521533386
5649:
5644:
5643:
5637:
5633:
5629:
5624:
5620:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5598:
5581:
5579:9781846942556
5575:
5571:
5570:
5562:
5556:Lamb, p. 128.
5553:
5551:
5542:
5540:9780197521014
5536:
5532:
5525:
5523:
5521:
5513:
5510:T. Jacobsen,
5507:
5500:
5496:
5490:
5483:
5477:
5469:
5465:
5459:
5452:
5447:
5440:
5434:
5427:
5422:
5415:
5410:
5403:
5402:Glassner 2000
5398:
5391:
5390:Glassner 2000
5386:
5379:
5378:Glassner 2000
5365:
5361:
5346:
5342:
5337:
5333:
5329:
5323:
5316:
5312:
5311:Glassner 2000
5308:
5303:
5295:
5291:
5286:
5282:
5278:
5272:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5241:
5232:
5227:
5224:B. Lafont in
5221:
5214:
5213:Glassner 2000
5209:
5201:
5197:
5191:
5184:
5179:
5172:
5167:
5160:
5159:Glassner 2000
5155:
5148:
5147:Glassner 2000
5144:
5138:
5136:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5115:
5113:
5105:
5099:
5092:
5088:
5087:Glassner 2000
5084:
5079:
5072:
5071:Liverani 2006
5068:
5063:
5056:
5051:
5043:
5041:9780931464966
5037:
5033:
5032:
5024:
5017:
5012:
5005:
4999:
4997:
4989:
4984:
4977:
4971:
4964:
4960:
4954:
4947:
4941:
4933:
4932:
4925:
4917:
4913:
4912:
4905:
4898:
4894:
4888:
4880:
4874:
4866:
4859:
4852:
4846:
4839:
4838:Glassner 2000
4834:
4825:
4820:
4817:B. Lafont in
4814:
4807:
4802:
4795:
4794:Glassner 2000
4790:
4783:
4782:Liverani 2006
4779:
4773:
4765:
4759:
4755:
4754:Liverani 2006
4750:
4748:
4738:
4733:
4730:B. Lafont in
4727:
4720:
4714:
4707:
4702:
4700:
4698:
4690:
4685:
4683:
4675:
4671:
4666:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4637:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4608:
4600:
4598:9781588390431
4594:
4590:
4585:
4584:
4576:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4552:
4550:
4542:
4538:
4533:
4526:
4521:
4513:
4508:, p. 159
4507:
4501:
4493:
4487:
4481:
4474:
4468:
4460:
4455:, p. 652
4454:
4448:
4442:, p. 132
4441:
4436:
4429:
4425:
4419:
4412:
4408:
4402:
4395:
4391:
4385:
4380:, p. 171
4379:
4375:
4370:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4350:Liverani 2006
4346:
4339:
4334:
4327:
4321:
4314:
4309:
4307:
4298:
4292:
4286:
4279:
4274:
4267:
4261:
4254:
4253:Liverani 2006
4249:
4241:
4236:, p. 608
4235:
4229:
4222:
4216:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4185:
4183:
4175:
4169:
4160:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4139:
4132:
4126:
4124:
4116:
4111:
4109:
4100:
4098:9781444333503
4094:
4090:
4089:
4081:
4079:
4071:
4065:
4059:, pp. 237â247
4058:
4054:
4048:
4041:
4037:
4031:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4011:
4004:
3999:
3992:
3987:
3980:
3975:
3968:
3967:Liverani 2006
3964:
3958:
3950:
3944:
3940:
3939:
3931:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3902:
3887:
3883:
3877:
3869:
3863:
3859:
3858:
3850:
3843:
3839:
3833:
3826:
3821:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3796:
3787:
3781:
3778:. Routledge.
3777:
3773:
3769:
3762:
3755:
3751:
3745:
3738:
3737:Liverani 2006
3734:
3728:
3726:
3716:
3710:
3707:. Routledge.
3706:
3702:
3698:
3691:
3682:
3673:
3667:
3664:. Routledge.
3663:
3659:
3655:
3648:
3641:
3637:
3634:
3630:
3623:
3619:
3616:
3610:
3604:, Milan, 2004
3603:
3597:
3590:
3584:
3577:
3571:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3547:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3526:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3496:
3489:
3483:
3476:
3471:
3464:
3458:
3456:
3448:
3443:
3441:
3433:
3427:
3420:
3415:
3413:
3405:
3399:
3392:
3386:
3379:
3373:
3366:
3360:
3353:
3347:
3340:
3335:
3328:
3322:
3315:
3311:
3306:
3297:
3290:
3286:
3281:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3252:
3243:
3238:
3232:
3224:
3218:
3214:
3213:
3205:
3196:
3191:
3185:
3180:
3174:
3169:
3163:
3156:
3150:
3143:
3142:Glassner 2000
3138:
3131:
3127:
3121:
3114:
3113:Liverani 2006
3109:
3107:
3099:
3094:
3087:
3086:Liverani 2006
3082:
3080:
3072:
3068:
3063:
3054:
3049:
3046:B. Lafont in
3043:
3034:
3029:
3023:
3016:
3010:
3003:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2985:
2979:
2972:
2967:
2960:
2955:
2948:
2946:0-85668-735-9
2942:
2938:
2931:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2902:
2894:
2892:9780931464966
2888:
2884:
2883:
2875:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2846:
2838:
2832:
2827:
2812:
2808:
2802:
2800:
2790:
2785:
2779:
2772:
2771:Crawford 2004
2767:
2760:
2759:Crawford 2004
2755:
2751:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2706:
2703:
2697:
2692:
2689:
2678:
2671:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2617:
2613:
2611:
2603:
2599:
2590:
2579:
2567:
2558:
2556:
2555:Mask of Warka
2552:
2546:
2543:
2537:
2534:
2525:
2524:Mask of Warka
2521:
2516:
2507:
2505:
2500:
2493:
2489:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2459:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2430:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2419:lexical lists
2416:
2412:
2408:
2407:Peter Damerow
2404:
2400:
2396:
2390:
2388:
2387:proto-Elamite
2384:
2380:
2371:
2359:
2350:
2341:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2311:
2307:
2301:
2299:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2282:scribal class
2279:
2270:
2265:
2257:
2248:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2230:
2225:
2221:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2204:
2201:
2196:
2192:
2191:Gordon Childe
2183:
2178:
2169:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2149:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2113:
2110:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2061:
2057:
2056:Gordon Childe
2048:
2043:
2034:
2031:
2020:
2016:
2014:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1916:
1914:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1888:
1887:Habuba Kabira
1881:
1876:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1859:Louvre Museum
1853:
1848:
1844:
1843:Louvre Museum
1840:
1833:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1824:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1797:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1761:sheep farming
1758:
1754:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1703:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1672:
1667:
1657:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1636:
1634:
1624:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1596:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1551:acculturation
1548:
1543:
1534:
1530:
1517:
1505:
1491:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1459:
1454:
1451:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1422:Habuba Kabira
1414:
1405:
1403:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1363:
1361:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1345:Hacınebi Tepe
1342:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1315:Tell Kuyunjik
1312:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1287:
1279:
1275:
1270:
1261:
1258:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1246:Habuba Kabira
1240:Habuba Kabira
1237:
1234:
1224:
1222:
1221:Tell-e Malyan
1218:
1217:Proto-Elamite
1213:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1184:mines on the
1183:
1179:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1127:, Uruk period
1126:
1119:
1111:, Uruk period
1110:
1103:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
992:
983:
981:
977:
972:
959:
954:
947:
942:
935:
930:
929:
928:
925:
920:
916:
913:
897:
886:
871:
861:
858:
853:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
814:
806:
797:
795:
791:
787:
783:
782:Proto-Elamite
779:
775:
771:
766:
762:
759:
757:
742:
741:Louvre Museum
735:
721:
707:
705:
694:
690:
686:
683:
679:
674:
672:
668:
664:
653:
652:Louvre Museum
646:
637:
636:Louvre Museum
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
606:
580:
575:
573:
568:
566:
561:
560:
558:
557:
554:
544:
543:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
507:
504:
499:
498:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
477:
474:
469:
468:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
425:Seljuk Empire
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
372:
369:
364:
363:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
332:
329:
324:
323:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
247:
244:
239:
238:
231:
228:
226:
223:
220:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
205:Halaf culture
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
192:
189:
184:
183:
179:
175:
174:
171:
165:
164:
159:
154:
153:
150:
148:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
106:
105:protohistoric
102:
98:
89:
86:
82:
79:
76:
72:
69:
66:
64:
60:
56:
52:
49:
46:
42:
39:
36:
32:
28:
23:
13045:Christianity
12927:Demographics
12861:Oil reserves
12856:Oil Industry
12823:Central Bank
12719:Human rights
12645:Constitution
12590:Tigris river
12570:Persian Gulf
12278:Ottoman Iraq
12263:Qara Qoyunlu
12121:
12097:Ubaid period
11986:
11976:
11940:Ancient Iraq
11939:
11929:
11909:
11898:
11884:
11875:
11862:
11853:
11817:
11810:
11803:
11732:Ardashir III
11724:
11701:
11642:
11610:Roman Empire
11608:
11586:
11544:Yazdegerd II
11474:
11465:Artabanus IV
11462:Vologases VI
11453:Vologases IV
11384:Roman Empire
11382:
11367:Vologases II
11343:Artabanus II
11337:Artabanus II
11322:Tiridates II
11310:Phraates III
11276:
11213:Simon Thassi
11206:
11188:Demetrius II
11176:Antiochus IV
11167:Seleucus III
11161:Antiochus II
11148:
11138:
11135:Alexander IV
11122:
11110:
11094:Ptolemy XIII
11076:Berenice III
11070:Cleopatra IV
11011:
11008:331â141 BCE
10999:
10990:
10984:
10978:
10957:Artaxerxes I
10938:
10905:
10902:539â331 BCE
10877:
10858:Nabopolassar
10851:
10822:
10816:
10813:626â539 BCE
10781:Ashurbanipal
10736:
10735:
10729:
10692:
10689:745â609 BCE
10655:
10635:Eriba-Marduk
10596:
10550:
10525:
10493:
10492:
10482:
10471:Shoshenq III
10449:
10446:911â745 BCE
10414:
10396:Marduk-zer-X
10360:
10356:Ashur-dan II
10287:Arik-den-ili
10284:Enlil-nirari
10278:Eriba-Adad I
10271:
10264:
10241:
10222:
10217:Psusennes II
10192:
10191:
10185:
10169:Ramesses VII
10157:Ramesses III
10146:
10130:
10124:
10092:
10078:
10059:
10048:Amenhotep II
10041:Thutmose III
10015:
10009:
10006:
9957:Kurigalzu II
9951:Kara-hardash
9921:Agum-Kakrime
9912:
9891:
9885:
9853:
9836:'Aper-'Anati
9834:
9829:
9808:
9802:
9796:
9792:
9786:
9782:
9776:
9770:
9769:
9733:Damqi-ilishu
9716:
9705:Samsu-Ditana
9687:Sin-muballit
9678:Sin-muballit
9657:
9627:Ashur-rabi I
9492:Shamshi-Adad
9489:
9483:
9468:
9438:
9432:
9420:Amenemhat IV
9414:Senusret III
9408:Amenemhat II
9395:
9381:
9367:
9316:
9313:Damiq-ilishu
9283:Lipit-Eshtar
9264:
9245:
9202:
9170:
9166:
9150:Shakkanakkus
9113:
9089:Mentuhotep I
9082:
9076:
9057:
9044:
9007:
9001:Puzur-Ishtar
8968:
8963:
8945:
8898:Lugalannatum
8890:
8857:
8824:
8804:
8783:Hishep-Ratep
8749:
8731:
8668:
8658:
8612:Neferkare II
8602:
8596:
8590:
8537:
8519:
8509:
8488:
8441:Invasion by
8404:
8369:
8345:
8337:Enannatum II
8301:E-iginimpa'e
8270:
8262:Igrish-Halam
8173:Nyuserre Ini
8150:
8124:Awan dynasty
8122:
8081:
8068:
8049:
8034:
8025:
8009:Ishtup-Ishar
7989:Iku-Shamagan
7985:Ikun-Shamash
7977:
7955:Ur I dynasty
7953:
7946:
7935:
7910:
7904:
7878:
7859:
7818:
7801:
7786:
7768:
7727:
7719:
7690:
7671:
7634:Enmebaragesi
7620:
7601:
7572:
7563:
7556:
7519:
7514:
7494:En-tarah-ana
7479:
7472:
7464:
7454:
7430:
7427:Neferkasokar
7425:
7420:
7409:
7404:
7399:
7394:
7389:
7384:
7368:
7348:
7342:
7333:
7321:
7316:
7267:
7261:
7248:
7240:
7235:
7230:
7225:
7220:
7215:
7210:
7205:
7200:
7195:
7189:
7175:
7164:
7159:
7154:
7149:
7144:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7128:Finger Snail
7126:
7120:
7103:
7072:Anu Ziggurat
7056:
7055:
7023:
7017:
6935:Territories/
6875:Time periods
6783:
6766:Chalcolithic
6430:Royal titles
6355:Architecture
6192:Neo-Assyrian
6118:
6039:(Pre)history
5859:Persian Gulf
5782:
5770:
5758:
5749:
5740:
5731:
5713:
5689:
5680:
5671:
5662:
5641:
5627:
5618:
5609:
5590:Bibliography
5568:
5561:
5530:
5511:
5506:
5498:
5494:
5489:
5481:
5476:
5468:the original
5458:
5446:
5438:
5433:
5421:
5416:, p. 62
5409:
5397:
5385:
5368:. Retrieved
5349:. Retrieved
5335:
5332:Englund 1998
5327:
5322:
5314:
5307:Englund 1998
5302:
5294:the original
5284:
5280:
5276:
5271:
5259:. Retrieved
5250:
5240:
5220:
5208:
5200:the original
5190:
5183:Englund 1998
5178:
5171:Englund 1998
5166:
5154:
5143:Englund 1998
5126:
5122:
5103:
5098:
5083:Englund 1998
5078:
5062:
5055:Englund 1998
5050:
5030:
5023:
5011:
5003:
4983:
4975:
4970:
4962:
4958:
4953:
4945:
4940:
4930:
4924:
4910:
4904:
4896:
4892:
4887:
4864:
4858:
4850:
4845:
4833:
4813:
4806:Englund 1998
4801:
4789:
4777:
4772:
4726:
4718:
4713:
4673:
4665:
4654:. Retrieved
4645:
4636:
4625:. Retrieved
4616:
4607:
4582:
4575:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4540:
4532:
4520:
4500:
4480:
4472:
4471:M. Sauvage,
4467:
4447:
4435:
4423:
4418:
4410:
4406:
4401:
4393:
4369:
4361:
4358:Englund 1998
4345:
4338:Englund 1998
4333:
4325:
4320:
4285:
4278:Englund 1998
4273:
4265:
4260:
4248:
4228:
4220:
4215:
4203:. Retrieved
4194:
4173:
4168:
4148:
4138:
4130:
4087:
4069:
4064:
4056:
4052:
4047:
4039:
4035:
4030:
4022:
4010:
3998:
3986:
3974:
3962:
3957:
3937:
3930:
3919:. Retrieved
3910:
3901:
3890:. Retrieved
3876:
3856:
3849:
3837:
3832:
3820:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3795:
3775:
3761:
3754:1999 edition
3744:
3732:
3704:
3690:
3681:
3661:
3647:
3629:
3624:academia.edu
3609:
3601:
3596:
3588:
3583:
3575:
3570:
3562:
3558:
3546:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3525:
3513:. Retrieved
3504:
3495:
3487:
3482:
3470:
3462:
3431:
3426:
3403:
3398:
3390:
3385:
3377:
3372:
3364:
3359:
3351:
3346:
3339:Englund 1998
3334:
3326:
3321:
3313:
3310:Englund 1998
3305:
3296:
3280:
3272:
3268:
3257:Englund 1998
3251:
3231:
3211:
3204:
3162:
3155:Englund 1998
3149:
3137:
3129:
3125:
3120:
3093:
3062:
3042:
3022:
3014:
3009:
3001:
2983:
2978:
2966:
2954:
2936:
2930:
2919:. Retrieved
2910:
2901:
2881:
2874:
2863:. Retrieved
2854:
2845:
2826:
2815:. Retrieved
2778:
2773:, p. 75
2766:
2761:, p. 69
2754:
2657:
2642:
2623:
2614:
2591:
2583:
2550:
2547:
2538:
2529:
2501:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2458:aide-mémoire
2457:
2454:
2433:
2431:
2426:
2422:
2391:
2381:, Khafadje,
2375:
2347:
2323:
2319:aide-mémoire
2318:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2302:
2294:
2274:
2245:
2223:
2220:Abu Salabikh
2217:
2205:
2187:
2172:Urbanisation
2166:
2162:Abu Salabikh
2150:
2134:
2105:
2100:
2093:
2065:
2052:
2026:
2017:
2009:
1993:
1978:
1974:
1941:architecture
1938:
1919:Architecture
1904:chalcolithic
1898:
1802:
1769:transhumance
1750:
1713:domesticated
1711:was finally
1706:
1677:
1654:
1645:
1637:
1629:
1598:
1584:
1576:
1564:
1544:
1540:
1466:adopted the
1462:
1455:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1419:
1364:
1357:
1338:
1318:
1309:Tell al-Hawa
1301:pictographic
1289:
1254:
1249:
1243:
1230:
1214:
1182:lapis lazuli
1162:
1133:
1077:Persian Gulf
1062:
1052:
1045:Abu Salabikh
997:
979:
967:
921:
917:
909:
854:
815:
811:
780:, it is the
767:
763:
760:
753:
700:
691:
687:
675:
667:Ubaid period
660:
485:Ottoman Iraq
455:Kara Koyunlu
224:
195:Ubaid period
144:
120:Ubaid period
118:, after the
108:Chalcolithic
100:
96:
94:
78:Ubaid period
13232:Uruk period
13201:WikiProject
13002:Marsh Arabs
12987:Circassians
12668:Foreign aid
12560:Mesopotamia
12122:Uruk period
11872:Simpson, W.
11800:639â651 CE
11747:Azarmidokht
11738:Khosrow III
11721:628â641 CE
11677:618â628 CE
11639:395â618 CE
11605:273â395 CE
11593:Vaballathus
11583:270â273 CE
11547:Hormizd III
11532:Yazdegerd I
11523:Ardashir II
11517:Adur Narseh
11471:224â270 CE
11459:Vologases V
11433:117â224 CE
11414:116â117 CE
11361:Vardanes II
11358:Vologases I
11349:Gotarzes II
11319:Phraates IV
11289:Hyspaosines
11228:Hyrcanus II
11203:141â30 BCE
11182:Demetrius I
11179:Antiochus V
11173:Seleucus IV
11164:Seleucus II
11158:Antiochus I
11145:Antigonus I
11097:Ptolemy XIV
11085:Cleopatra V
10867:Neriglissar
10864:Amel-Marduk
10847:Psamtik III
10818:Late Period
10757:Sennacherib
10748:Shalmaneser
10675:Tammaritu I
10572:Shammuramat
10515:Takelot III
10512:Osorkon III
10509:Shoshenq VI
10484:Pedubast II
10474:Shoshenq IV
10462:Shoshenq II
10311:Ashur-dan I
10252:Ish-bosheth
10205:Psusennes I
10181:Ramesses XI
10175:Ramesses IX
10166:Ramesses VI
10160:Ramesses IV
10105:Ramesses II
10068:Tutankhamun
10051:Thutmose IV
10035:Thutmose II
9969:Kudur-Enlil
9954:Nazi-Bugash
9942:Kurigalzu I
9930:Ulamburiash
9901:Amenhotep I
9882:Tutankhamun
9868:Parshatatar
9865:Shuttarna I
9798:Seventeenth
9727:Ilum-ma-ili
9702:Ammi-saduqa
9699:Ammi-ditana
9693:Samsu-iluna
9600:Erishum III
9561:Adad-salulu
9558:Ipqi-Ishtar
9546:Ashur-dugul
9531:Adad-salulu
9528:Ipqi-Ishtar
9516:Ashur-dugul
9485:Old Assyria
9480:(Amorites)
9423:Sobekneferu
9411:Senusret II
9402:Amenemhat I
9374:SĂźn-iribam
9351:Sin-Iqisham
9345:Sin-Iddinam
9295:Erra-imitti
9292:Lipit-Enlil
9280:Ishme-Dagan
9277:Iddin-Dagan
9213:Shalim-ahum
9204:Old Assyria
9190:Yasmah-Adad
9167:Lim Dynasty
9159:Hanun-Dagan
9155:Hitial-Erra
8920:Ur-Ningirsu
8876:Kuda (Uruk)
8849:Ishgum-Addu
8839:Ishtup-Ilum
8691:Ishma-Dagan
8676:Shakkanakku
8654:Neferirkare
8651:Neferkauhor
8554:Ili-ishmani
8533:Manishtushu
8496:Lugalzagesi
8492:III dynasty
8476:Puzur-Nirah
8191:Ishar-Malik
8170:Shepseskare
7960:Mesannepada
7885:Nin-kisalsi
7873:Lugal-kitun
7843:Meskalamdug
7829:Ur-Pabilsag
7642:Aga of Kish
7551:Barsal-nuna
7436:Khasekhemwy
7422:Neferkara I
7401:Weneg-Nebty
7379:Nebra/Raneb
7191:Lower Egypt
7177:Scorpion II
7122:Upper Egypt
7074:, 4000 BCE)
7057:Uruk period
6784:Uruk period
6598:Paleolithic
6533:Hittitology
6523:Assyriology
6444:Archaeology
6314:Old Persian
6124:Jemdet Nasr
5451:Benoit 2003
5414:Benoit 2003
5067:Forest 1996
5016:Forest 1996
4988:Algaze 2008
4706:Benoit 2003
4689:Benoit 2003
4670:Benoit 2003
4537:Forest 1996
4525:Algaze 2008
4440:Forest 1996
4428:Algaze 2008
4424:Archeometry
4374:Benoit 2003
4354:Algaze 2008
4313:Algaze 2008
4205:29 February
4195:Archaeology
3842:Algaze 2008
3813:Algaze 2008
3578:25/1, 1999.
3551:Forest 1996
3285:Forest 1996
3265:Benoit 2003
3098:Algaze 2008
3071:Forest 1996
2971:Benoit 2003
2833:, p. 9
2831:Langer 1972
2716:Iraq portal
2702:Asia portal
2668:Great Flood
2574: 3200
2417:texts, the
2403:Hans Nissen
2366: 3350
2330:measurement
2285: [
2209:Chogha Mish
2023:City-states
1956:and to use
1753:woolworking
1740:Uruk Trough
1604:Mesopotamia
1426:Jebel Aruda
1386: [
1257:Jebel Aruda
1210:Mahtoutabad
1190:Afghanistan
1158:Chogha Mish
1065:Mesopotamia
1049:Jemdet Nasr
503:Modern Iraq
368:Middle Ages
225:Uruk period
167:History of
116:Mesopotamia
97:Uruk period
84:Followed by
74:Preceded by
38:Mesopotamia
20:Uruk period
13226:Categories
13118:Television
13098:Literature
13060:Irreligion
13035:Secularism
12972:Minorities
12840:(currency)
12833:Corruption
12678:Government
12469:Insurgency
12268:Aq Qoyunlu
12089:Chronology
11756:Khosrow IV
11753:Hormizd VI
11735:Shahrbaraz
11712:Khosrow II
11697:Shahrbaraz
11691:Shahrbaraz
11571:Khosrow II
11568:Hormizd IV
11526:Shapur III
11514:Hormizd II
11508:Bahram III
11493:Ardashir I
11364:Pacorus II
11355:Vonones II
11352:Meherdates
11346:Vardanes I
11331:Orodes III
11328:Phraates V
11307:Sinatruces
11155:Seleucus I
11132:Philip III
11106:Arsinoe IV
11031:Arsinoe II
10972:Darius III
10838:Psamtik II
10778:Esarhaddon
10671:Ummanigash
10641:Nabonassar
10535:Bakenranef
10506:Pedubast I
10503:Takelot II
10500:Harsiese A
10488:Osorkon IV
10480:Shoshenq V
10468:Osorkon II
10456:Shoshenq I
10202:Amenemnisu
10178:Ramesses X
10163:Ramesses V
10111:Amenmesses
10099:Ramesses I
10061:Smenkhkare
10038:Hatshepsut
10032:Thutmose I
9936:Karaindash
9675:Sumu-la-El
9507:Mut-Ashkur
9498:(Amorites)
9405:Senusret I
9364:Rim-Sin II
9354:Silli-Adad
9348:Sin-Eribam
9310:Suen-magir
9307:Ur-du-kuga
9304:Iter-pisha
9298:Enlil-bani
9286:Ur-Ninurta
9274:Shu-Ilishu
9271:Ishbi-Erra
9241:Erishum II
9187:Yahdun-Lim
9184:Yaggid-Lim
8997:Tura-Dagan
8976:Utu-hengal
8952:Meryhathor
8928:Nam-mahani
8894:II dynasty
8863:(21 kings)
8757:Puzer-Mama
8753:II dynasty
8735:IV dynasty
8648:Neferkaure
8645:Qakare Ibi
8636:Neferkahor
8627:Neferkamin
8546:Ilshu-rabi
8437:Ishqi-Mari
8433:Ikun-Ishar
8429:Enna-Dagan
8349:II dynasty
8323:Bara-irnun
8278:Puzur-Suen
8274:IV dynasty
8266:Irkab-Damu
8211:(3 kings)
8137:Ukkutahesh
8110:Meskiagnun
8106:A'annepada
8053:II dynasty
7948:Thamphthis
7944:Shepseskaf
7893:Lugal-dalu
7792:Udulkalama
7772:II dynasty
7714:Sekhemkhet
7622:Lugalbanda
7548:Melem-Kish
7544:En-me-nuna
7329:Canaanites
7323:Horus Bird
7288:Neithhotep
7161:Scorpion I
7111:Naqada III
6794:Bronze Age
6636:Peking Man
6497:Divination
6207:Achaemenid
6172:Isin-Larsa
6065:Trialetian
6060:Mousterian
6047:Prehistory
5261:2018-06-03
5004:Paléorient
4914:. p.
4656:2019-04-02
4627:2019-04-02
3921:2020-07-17
3892:2020-07-17
3589:Paléorient
3576:Paléorient
3430:P. Amiet,
3378:Paléorient
3246:, col. 111
2921:2019-04-01
2865:2019-03-31
2817:2020-04-27
2747:References
2551:Sammelfund
2492:phonograms
2442:pictograms
2383:Tell Asmar
2278:accounting
2229:Arslantepe
2121:Warka Vase
1900:Metallurgy
1895:Metallurgy
1781:sesame oil
1697:Irrigation
1664:See also:
1367:Arslantepe
1329:Tepe Gawra
1194:Tepe Sialk
1169:Godin Tepe
1154:Jaffarabad
1041:Tell Uqair
1029:Tell Asmar
1015:, perhaps
980:Sammelfund
460:Aq Qoyunlu
415:Al-Mazeedi
243:Bronze Age
188:Prehistory
48:Copper Age
13138:Squatting
13103:Education
13050:Mandaeism
13019:/Turkoman
12997:Mandaeans
12982:Assyrians
12977:Armenians
12940:Languages
12828:Companies
12783:Judiciary
12693:President
12663:Elections
12658:Democracy
12504:Geography
12420:Sanctions
12338:2003â2011
12333:1968â2003
12328:1958â1968
12187:Babylonia
11868:Hallo, W.
11765:Peroz III
11599:Antiochus
11565:Khosrow I
11535:Shapur IV
11529:Bahram IV
11520:Shapur II
11505:Bahram II
11499:Hormizd I
11456:Osroes II
11334:Vonones I
11316:Orodes II
11292:Artabanus
10960:Darius II
10887:Phraortes
10873:Nabonidus
10844:Ahmose II
10832:Psamtik I
10725:Tanutamun
10574:(regent)
10465:Takelot I
10459:Osorkon I
10224:Phoenicia
10208:Amenemope
10154:Setnakhte
10108:Merneptah
10057:Akhenaten
9840:Sakir-Har
9778:Sixteenth
9757:Akurduana
9743:Gulkishar
9740:Shushushi
9696:Abi-eshuh
9690:Hammurabi
9672:Sumu-abum
9594:Shu-Ninua
9585:Iptar-Sin
9555:Sin-namir
9552:Nasir-Sin
9543:Puzur-Sin
9525:Sin-namir
9522:Nasir-Sin
9376:SĂźn-gÄmil
9372:SĂźn-kÄĆĄid
9360:Rim-Sin I
9357:Warad-Sin
9237:Naram-Sin
9221:Erishum I
9217:Ilu-shuma
9193:Zimri-Lim
9141:Indilimma
9128:Ibbit-Lim
9098:Intef III
9061:invasions
9048:invasions
8993:Ili-Ishar
8989:Iddi-ilum
8982:2100 BCE
8972:V dynasty
8942:2125 BCE
8880:Puzur-ili
8867:La-erabum
8801:2150 BCE
8727:Shu-turul
8720:(3 years)
8687:Shu-Dagan
8587:2200 BCE
8564:Naram-Sin
8560:2250 BCE
8504:2340 BCE
8470:2350 BCE
8464:Luh-ishan
8459:Urukagina
8455:Lugalanda
8424:Isar-Damu
8420:2370 BCE
8366:2380 BCE
8341:Enentarzi
8329:Enannatum
8318:Gishakidu
8282:Ur-Zababa
8258:Adub-Damu
8254:2400 BCE
8227:2425 BCE
8221:Napilhush
8209:invasions
8187:Enar-Damu
8167:Neferefre
8147:2450 BCE
8090:Ur-Nanshe
8085:I dynasty
8072:I dynasty
8013:Ikun-Mari
7972:Phoenicia
7968:2500 BCE
7901:2575 BCE
7869:Melamanna
7853:Akalamdug
7825:A-Imdugud
7788:Ur-Nungal
7775:(5 kings)
7762:Baba-Damu
7758:Ibbi-Damu
7687:2600 BCE
7657:Gilgamesh
7615:Iltasadum
7586:2700 BCE
7560:I dynasty
7513:2800 BCE
7476:I dynasty
7432:Hudjefa I
7365:2900 BCE
7311:Semerkhet
7303:(regent)
7290:(regent)
7197:Hedju Hor
7025:Naqada II
6681:Neolithic
6370:Cuneiform
6246:Languages
6055:Acheulean
5942:Babylonia
5879:Euphrates
5829:Geography
5426:Huot 2004
4873:cite book
4015:Huot 2004
3555:Huot 2004
3447:Huot 2004
3261:Huot 2004
3153:See thus
3067:Huot 2004
2660:cuneiform
2533:Sculpture
2488:ideograms
2483:homophony
2481:), while
2446:logograms
2395:cuneiform
2224:ex nihilo
2109:alabaster
2080:Uruk Vase
1970:sandstone
1966:limestone
1950:mud-brick
1725:dromedary
1702:date palm
1640:Neolithic
1580:Tell Brak
1555:hybridity
1353:Ćanlıurfa
1341:Euphrates
1296:Tell Brak
1286:Tell Brak
1274:Tell Brak
1272:Ruins of
1264:Tell Brak
1233:Euphrates
1017:Shuruppak
912:eponymous
857:Sumerians
826:date palm
774:Akkadians
440:Ilkhanate
405:Marwanids
395:Hamdanids
290:Babylonia
63:Type site
13181:Category
13030:Religion
13007:Persians
12891:Railways
12886:Airlines
12768:Military
12629:Politics
12605:Wildlife
12595:Umm Qasr
12425:Iraq War
12408:Gulf War
12320:Republic
12273:Safavids
12236:638â1958
11984:(2014).
11937:(1992).
11907:(2020).
11874:(1971).
11715:Kavad II
11541:Bahram V
11502:Bahram I
11496:Shapur I
11373:Osroes I
11304:Orodes I
11298:Gotarzes
11286:Phraates
10951:Darius I
10948:Cambyses
10896:Astyages
10893:Cyaxares
10835:Necho II
10766:Bel-ibni
10716:Shebitku
10679:Indabibi
10532:Tefnakht
10074:Horemheb
9933:Agum III
9915:Kassites
9898:Ahmose I
9763:Ea-gamil
9747:DIĆ +U-EN
9737:Ishkibal
9684:Apil-Sin
9666:Amorites
9576:Bel-bani
9451:Biblical
9342:Nur-Adad
9333:Gungunum
9321:Naplanum
9289:Bur-Suen
9253:Amorites
9229:Sargon I
9179:Amorites
9123:Amorites
9095:Intef II
9065:Kindattu
9053:Ibbi-Sin
9032:Amar-Sin
9026:Ur-Nammu
8961:Merykare
8853:Apil-kin
8765:Pirig-me
8743:Ur-gigir
8739:Ur-nigin
8679:dynasty)
8624:Merenhor
8550:Epirmupi
8379:Userkare
8333:Entemena
8310:Ur-Lumma
8305:Meskigal
8236:Eannatum
8231:Kun-Damu
8215:Shushun-
8200:Enakalle
8059:kushanna
8045:Undalulu
8017:Iblul-Il
7941:Menkaure
7937:Bikheris
7930:Djedefre
7889:Me-durba
7814:shaengur
7808:En-hegal
7796:Labashum
7754:Agur-lim
7750:Abur-lim
7729:Qahedjet
7574:Enmerkar
7406:Wadjenes
7396:Horus Sa
7391:Nubnefer
7382:Nynetjer
7356:Susa III
7318:Sneferka
7301:Merneith
7019:Naqada I
6774:Daimabad
6666:Ubeidiya
6656:Solo Man
6646:Sangiran
6616:Java Man
6516:Academia
6470:Religion
6339:Urartian
6334:Sumerian
6319:Parthian
6254:Akkadian
6227:Sasanian
6217:Parthian
6212:Seleucid
6162:Simurrum
6152:Akkadian
6085:Khiamian
6075:Natufian
5987:Simurrum
5972:Kassites
5967:Hittites
5922:Adiabene
5781:(2006).
5769:(2000).
5710:(1988).
5638:(2004).
5364:Archived
5345:Archived
5255:Archived
4650:Archived
4621:Archived
4199:Archived
4057:op. cit.
3915:Archived
3886:Archived
3636:Archived
3618:Archived
3515:17 April
3509:Archived
2915:Archived
2859:Archived
2811:Archived
2674:See also
2666:and the
2561:Religion
2450:reed pen
2415:literary
2158:Sumerian
2142:AB NI+RU
2013:caravans
2001:chariots
1975:Riemchen
1509:Imprints
1305:Hamoukar
1294:valley,
1173:Kangavar
1073:Anatolia
1033:Khafajah
784:period;
756:Santa Fe
678:sondages
480:Safavids
420:Ayyubids
410:Uqaylids
328:Iron Age
300:Kassites
285:Simurrum
158:a series
156:Part of
13211:Commons
13128:Smoking
13093:Culture
13088:Cuisine
13071:General
13055:Yazidis
13012:Solluba
12965:Persian
12955:Kurdish
12950:Aramaic
12915:Society
12896:Tourism
12807:Economy
12555:Islands
12530:Borders
12355: (
12345:present
12280:(incl.
12192:Assyria
12137:Subartu
12077:History
11768:Narsieh
11596:Zenobia
11577:Vistahm
11562:Kavad I
11556:Kavad I
11550:Peroz I
11538:Khosrow
10884:Deioces
10841:Wahibre
10829:Necho I
10722:Taharqa
10719:Shabaka
10703:Taharqa
10667:Teumman
10518:Rudamun
10260:Solomon
10199:Smendes
10120:Twosret
10114:Seti II
9855:Mitanni
9849:Khamudi
9803:Dynasty
9793:Dynasty
9783:Dynasty
9621:Nur-ili
9591:Lullaya
9494:dynasty
9446:Abraham
9336:Abisare
9301:Zambiya
9195:(Queen
9147:Amorite
9118:Kingdom
9092:Intef I
9059:Elamite
9046:Amorite
9035:Shu-Sin
8936:Tirigan
8905:Ur-Baba
8835:NĂ»r-MĂȘr
8773:Lu-gula
8769:Lu-Baba
8683:Ididish
8664:Kingdom
8661:Eblaite
8659:Second
8609:Menkare
8484:Shu-Sin
8480:Ishu-Il
8408:dynasty
8388:Pepi II
8321:(Queen
8207:Elamite
8158:Userkaf
8101:Akurgal
8030:Ku-Baba
7846:(Queen
7782:Mesilim
7717:Sanakht
7707:(First
7524:Zuqaqip
7521:Kalumum
7506:Kalibum
7502:Puannum
7459:Kingdom
7308:Anedjib
7292:Hor-Aha
7237:Nat-Hor
7170:Iry-Hor
7166:Shendjw
7138:Pen-Abu
7086:Susa II
6651:Soanian
6502:Prayers
6487:Deities
6451:Looting
6294:Kassite
6289:Hurrian
6284:Hittite
6274:Elamite
6269:Eblaite
6264:Aramaic
6259:Amorite
6182:Kassite
6157:Gutians
6139:History
6104:Samarra
6100:Hassuna
6070:Zarzian
5992:Subartu
5982:Mitanni
5947:Chaldea
5937:Assyria
5910:Ancient
4131:Science
3774:(ed.).
3703:(ed.).
3660:(ed.).
2522:, the '
2434:calculi
2353:Writing
2315:calculi
2310:calculi
2306:calculi
2213:Jazirah
1954:bitumen
1929:mosaics
1805:pottery
1791:Pottery
1693:sickles
1529:Susa II
1383:Tepecik
1371:Malatya
1349:Birecik
1325:Nineveh
1319:On the
1290:In the
1250:calculi
1208:and at
1206:Elbourz
1196:, near
1188:and in
1171:in the
1053:Mound B
786:Niniveh
770:Semitic
680:in the
663:Baghdad
614:on the
435:Zengids
260:Assyria
13191:Portal
13133:Sports
13108:Health
13083:Cinema
12935:Iraqis
12838:Dinar
12773:Police
12575:Places
12065:topics
11994:
11947:
11917:
11559:Jamasp
11553:Balash
11511:Narseh
11422:Trajan
11420:under
10954:Xerxes
10890:Madyes
10754:Sargon
10214:Siamun
10117:Siptah
10102:Seti I
10086:Ugarit
9831:Semqen
9816:Hyksos
9788:Abydos
9681:Sabium
9588:Bazaya
9579:Libaya
9513:Asinum
9510:Rimush
9470:Yamhad
9362:(...)
9339:Sumuel
9330:Zabaia
9327:Samium
9324:Emisum
9225:Ikunum
9197:Shibtu
9138:Immeya
9029:Shulgi
8924:Ur-gar
8884:Ur-Utu
8751:Lagash
8630:Nikare
8542:Eshpum
8530:Rimush
8382:Pepi I
8217:tarana
8161:Sahure
8141:Hishur
8118:Balulu
8083:Lagash
8064:Mug-si
8057:Ensha-
8005:Sa'umu
7933:Khafre
7917:Snefru
7865:Mes-he
7812:Lugal-
7803:Lagash
7746:Sagisu
7698:Djoser
7607:Tizqar
7578:Aratta
7534:Arwium
7531:Mashda
7481:Jushur
7411:Senedj
7350:period
7282:Narmer
7232:Wazner
7207:Hsekiu
7202:Ny-Hor
7181:Narmer
7151:Canide
7142:Animal
7048:Susa I
6998:Lagash
6972:Akshak
6947:Canaan
6329:Sutean
6304:Median
6299:Luwian
6279:Gutian
6167:Ur III
6080:Nemrik
6017:Cities
6012:Urartu
5962:Hamazi
5957:Gutium
5932:Armani
5884:Tigris
5837:Modern
5696:
5650:
5576:
5537:
5370:13 May
5351:13 May
5290:"Lien"
5038:
4595:
4155:
4095:
3945:
3864:
3782:
3711:
3668:
3219:
2943:
2889:
2606:DINGIR
2598:Ishtar
2542:Inanna
2269:Louvre
2097:Inanna
2076:Inanna
2047:Louvre
2005:spokes
1983:niches
1979:Patzen
1962:mortar
1958:gypsum
1908:copper
1777:sesame
1729:Arabia
1709:onager
1486:and a
1360:Samsat
1321:Tigris
1292:Khabur
1198:Kashan
1165:Zagros
1149:bullae
1081:Levant
1025:Diyala
1009:Nippur
971:Inanna
850:Nippur
822:barley
790:Diyala
620:Abydos
255:Hamazi
160:on the
44:Period
13262:Sumer
13123:Music
13113:Media
13040:Islam
12992:Kurds
12818:Banks
12756:Women
12550:Lakes
12343:2011â
12303:Kings
12132:Sumer
11759:Boran
11741:Boran
11628:Syria
11408:Syria
11403:Judea
10945:Cyrus
10663:Urtak
10256:David
9862:Kirta
9846:Apepi
9843:Khyan
9564:Adasi
9534:Adasi
9162:(...)
8909:Gudea
8871:Si'um
8820:Setut
8791:Khita
8777:Ka-ku
8718:Ilulu
8714:Nanum
8706:Igigi
8450:Ukush
8352:Nanni
8114:Elulu
8001:Ansud
7920:Khufu
7848:Puabi
7725:Khaba
7721:Nebka
7603:Zamug
7541:Balih
7537:Etana
7498:Babum
7285:Menes
7227:Neheb
7222:Thesh
7212:Khayu
7185:Menes
7146:Stork
6977:Akkad
6967:Assur
6942:Egypt
6937:dates
6744:Ohalo
6641:Riwat
6415:Music
6365:Akitu
6222:Roman
6114:Ubaid
6109:Halaf
6007:Tukri
6002:Sumer
5997:Suhum
5977:Media
5927:Akkad
4163:p.159
3790:p.126
3770:. In
3719:p.125
3699:. In
3676:p.125
3656:. In
2740:Pella
2634:Syria
2626:Eanna
2479:drink
2475:water
2467:rebus
2289:]
2146:SANGA
2030:state
1996:wheel
1945:Eanna
1933:Eanna
1839:Girsu
1814:kilns
1757:linen
1717:equid
1589:Egypt
1547:koine
1458:Karum
1400:near
1398:]
1278:Syria
1037:Eridu
1021:Larsa
1005:Girsu
834:delta
830:sheep
682:Eanna
632:Egypt
624:Egypt
250:Sumer
219:Eridu
54:Dates
13277:Uruk
13023:Jews
12746:LGBT
12710:List
12698:List
12063:Iraq
11992:ISBN
11968:Per
11945:ISBN
11915:ISBN
11325:Musa
11015:and
10713:Piye
10477:Pami
10248:Saul
9173:Mari
8970:Uruk
8892:Umma
8787:Helu
8733:Uruk
8723:Dudu
8490:Uruk
8443:Mari
8406:Adab
8376:Teti
8287:Urur
8272:Kish
8182:Unas
8133:Tata
8129:Peli
8070:Umma
8051:Uruk
8041:Unzi
8021:Nizi
7880:Adab
7778:Uhub
7770:Kish
7733:Huni
7611:Ilku
7558:Uruk
7527:Atab
7474:Kish
7314:Qa'a
7298:Djet
7295:Djer
7250:Wash
7242:Mekh
7156:Bull
7133:Fish
7008:Elam
6992:Umma
6987:Adab
6982:Uruk
6962:Kish
6957:Mari
6952:Ebla
6461:Tell
6119:Uruk
5952:Elam
5694:ISBN
5648:ISBN
5574:ISBN
5535:ISBN
5372:2017
5353:2017
5285:ADFU
5231:help
5036:ISBN
4879:link
4824:help
4764:help
4737:help
4593:ISBN
4512:help
4492:help
4459:help
4411:Iraq
4384:help
4297:help
4266:Iraq
4240:help
4207:2012
4153:ISBN
4093:ISBN
3943:ISBN
3862:ISBN
3780:ISBN
3709:ISBN
3666:ISBN
3517:2013
3488:Iraq
3404:Iran
3391:Iran
3273:AUWE
3242:help
3217:ISBN
3195:help
3184:help
3173:help
3053:help
3033:help
2941:ISBN
2887:ISBN
2837:help
2789:help
2734:Jawa
2638:Iran
2636:and
2520:Uruk
2471:head
2427:LĂș.A
2409:and
2379:Umma
2324:The
2125:Uruk
1818:slip
1773:flax
1738:The
1610:for
1557:and
1533:Susa
1180:and
1156:and
1140:Iran
1136:Susa
1125:Susa
1109:Susa
1069:Iran
1031:and
1019:and
1001:Kish
870:Uruk
864:Uruk
848:and
846:Adab
778:Iran
169:Iraq
128:Uruk
95:The
68:Uruk
13078:Art
12763:Law
9171:of
8710:Imi
8196:Ush
7305:Den
7217:Tiu
6360:Art
5281:ATU
4589:481
2640:.
2602:Anu
2594:MĂĆ
2510:Art
2156:in
2138:NUN
1960:as
1939:In
1689:hoe
1685:ard
1470:of
1351:in
1178:tin
924:Anu
110:to
13228::
11959:^
11870:;
11782:,
11659:,
11153::
11143::
11127::
10915:)
10710:")
10706:("
10365:")
10071:Ay
9818:")
9814:("
9723:")
9719:("
9319::
9269::
9199:)
9071:)
8716:,
8712:,
8708:,
8347:Ur
8325:)
8314:Il
7820:Ur
7609:,
7605:,
7580:")
7504:,
7500:,
7483:,
7386:Ba
7183:/
7173:Ka
7003:Ur
5604:;
5549:^
5519:^
5362:.
5343:.
5253:.
5249:.
5134:^
5121:,
5111:^
4995:^
4916:25
4875:}}
4871:{{
4746:^
4696:^
4681:^
4648:.
4644:.
4619:.
4615:.
4591:.
4562:,
4548:^
4388:;
4305:^
4193:.
4181:^
4122:^
4107:^
4077:^
3913:.
3909:.
3884:.
3724:^
3507:.
3503:.
3454:^
3439:^
3411:^
3271:,
3128:,
3105:^
3078:^
2991:^
2913:.
2909:.
2857:.
2853:.
2809:.
2798:^
2670:.
2655:.
2571:c.
2526:'.
2496:TI
2477:=
2473:+
2405:,
2363:c.
2287:fr
2127:,
2101:en
2086:/
1841:.
1695:.
1553:,
1549:,
1396:tr
1394:;
1392:fr
1390:;
1388:de
1276:,
1160:.
1027:,
1013:Ur
1011:,
1007:,
1003:,
622:,
149:.
12359:)
12284:)
12046:e
12039:t
12032:v
12000:.
11953:.
11923:.
11684:)
11680:(
11395:)
11391:(
10911:(
10741:)
10737:(
9917:)
9668:)
9664:(
9568:(
9490:(
9478:)
9474:(
9453:)
9449:(
9255:)
9251:(
9181:)
9177:(
9152:)
9145:(
9125:)
9121:(
9067:(
8674:(
7850:)
7711:)
7491:,
7358:)
7354:(
7113:)
7109:(
7070:(
6974:/
6964:/
6909:e
6902:t
6895:v
6582:e
6575:t
6568:v
6102:/
5813:e
5806:t
5799:v
5702:.
5656:.
5582:.
5543:.
5374:.
5355:.
5279:(
5266:.
5264:.
5233:)
5044:.
4918:.
4881:)
4826:)
4766:)
4739:)
4659:.
4630:.
4601:.
4514:)
4494:)
4461:)
4386:)
4299:)
4242:)
4209:.
4161:.
4101:.
3951:.
3924:.
3895:.
3870:.
3788:.
3717:.
3674:.
3519:.
3244:)
3225:.
3197:)
3186:)
3175:)
3055:)
3035:)
2924:.
2895:.
2868:.
2839:)
2820:.
2791:)
2587:Ă
2580:.
2372:.
2271:.
2242:.
2184:.
2154:Ă
2131:.
2049:.
1911:(
1861:.
1845:.
1280:.
999:(
654:.
638:.
578:e
571:t
564:v
221:)
217:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.