V. Gordon Childe - Knowledge

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development of bronze metallurgy, and in a 1950 paper proposed ten traits that he believed were present in the oldest cities: they were larger than earlier settlements, they contained full-time craft specialists, the surplus was collected together and given to a god or king, they witnessed monumental architecture, there was an unequal distribution of social surplus, writing was invented, the sciences developed, naturalistic art developed, trade with foreign areas increased, and the state organisation was based on residence rather than kinship. Childe believed the Urban Revolution had a negative side, in that it led to increased social stratification into classes and oppression of the majority by a power elite. Not all archaeologists adopted Childe's framework of understanding human societal development as a series of transformational "revolutions"; many believed the term "revolution" was misleading because the processes of agricultural and urban development were gradual transformations.

2058:, his interpretations have been "largely rejected", and many of his conclusions about Neolithic and Bronze Age Europe have been found to be incorrect. Childe himself believed his primary contribution to archaeology was in his interpretative frameworks, an analysis supported by Alison Ravetz and Peter Gathercole. According to Sherratt: "What is of lasting value in his interpretations is the more detailed level of writing, concerned with the recognition of patterns in the material he described. It is these patterns which survive as classic problems of European prehistory, even when his explanations of them are recognised as inappropriate". Childe's theoretical work had been largely ignored in his lifetime, and remained forgotten in the decades after his death, although it would see a resurgence in the late 1990s and early 2000s. It remained best known in Latin America, where Marxism remained a core theoretical current among archaeologists throughout the latter 20th century. 1764:, which rejected diffusionism in favour of unilinear evolutionism. In his view, it "cannot be un-Marxian" to understand the spread of domesticated plants, animals, and ideas through diffusionism. Childe did not publicly air these criticisms of his Soviet colleagues, perhaps so as not to offend communist friends or to provide ammunition for right-wing archaeologists. Instead, he publicly praised the Soviet system of archaeology and heritage management, contrasting it favourably with Britain's because it encouraged collaboration rather than competition between archaeologists. After first visiting the country in 1935, he returned in 1945, 1953, and 1956, befriending many Soviet archaeologists, but shortly before his suicide sent a letter to the Soviet archaeological community saying he was "extremely disappointed" they had methodologically fallen behind Western Europe and North America. 1644:—i.e. "pots, implements, ornaments, burial rites, house forms"—that recur across a given area. He said that in this respect a "culture" was the archaeological equivalent of a "people". Childe's use of the term was non-racial; he considered a "people" to be a social grouping, not a biological race. He opposed the equation of archaeological cultures with biological races—as various nationalists across Europe were doing at the time—and vociferously criticised Nazi uses of archaeology, arguing that the Jewish people were not a distinct biological race but a socio-cultural grouping. In 1935, he suggested that culture worked as a "living functioning organism" and emphasised the adaptive potential of material culture; in this he was influenced by anthropological 1720:. Thus, a Marxist interpretation foregrounds the social context of any technological development or change. Marxist ideas also emphasise the biased nature of scholarship, each scholar having their own entrenched beliefs and class loyalties; Marxism thus argues that intellectuals cannot divorce their scholarly thinking from political action. Green said that Childe accepted "Marxist views on a model of the past" because they offer "a structural analysis of culture in terms of economy, sociology and ideology, and a principle for cultural change through economy". McNairn noted that Marxism was "a major intellectual force in Childe's thought", while Trigger said Childe identified with Marx's theories "both emotionally and intellectually". 1727:"; he criticised many fellow Marxists for treating the socio-political theory as a set of dogmas. Childe's Marxism often differed from the Marxism of his contemporaries, both because he made reference to the original texts of Hegel, Marx, and Engels rather than later interpretations and because he was selective in using their writings. McNairn considered Childe's Marxism "an individual interpretation" that differed from "popular or orthodox" Marxism; Trigger called him a "a creative Marxist thinker"; Gathercole thought that while Childe's "debt to Marx was quite evident", his "attitude to Marxism was at times ambivalent". The Marxist historian 1527:"By far the most important source , especially in the early stages of his career, was the highly developed western European archaeology, which had been established as a scientific discipline for over a century. His research and publications took the form mainly of contributions to the development of that tradition. His thinking was also influenced, however, by ideas derived from Soviet archaeology and American anthropology as well as from more remote disciplines. He had a subsidiary interest in philosophy and politics, and was more concerned than were most archaeologists of his time with justifying the social value of archaeology." 1352:. His lecturing was nevertheless considered poor, as he often mumbled and walked into an adjacent room to find something while continuing to talk. He further confused his students by referring to the socialist states of eastern Europe by their full official titles, and by referring to towns by their Slavonic names rather than the names with which they were better known in English. He was deemed better at giving tutorials and seminars, where he devoted more time to interacting with his students. As Director, Childe was not obliged to excavate, though he did undertake projects at the Orkney Neolithic burial tombs of 1066: 1943:(1947) he commented that "magic is a way of making people believe they are going to get what they want, whereas religion is a system for persuading them that they ought to want what they get". He nevertheless regarded Christianity as being superior over (what he regarded as) primitive religion, commenting that "Christianity as a religion of love surpasses all others in stimulating positive virtue". In a letter written during the 1930s, he said that "only in days of exceptional bad temper do I desire to hurt people's religious convictions". 1401:; Palme Dutt defended the Soviet Union's decision to quash the revolution using military force, but Childe, like many Western socialists, strongly opposed it. The event made Childe abandon faith in the Soviet leadership, but not in socialism or Marxism. He retained a love of the Soviet Union, having visiting on multiple occasions; he was also involved with a CPGB satellite body, the Society for Cultural Relations with the USSR, and served as president of its National History and Archaeology Section from the early 1950s until his death. 384:, gaining his Junior Matriculation in 1909 and Senior Matriculation in 1910. At school he studied ancient history, French, Greek, Latin, geometry, algebra, and trigonometry, achieving good marks in all subjects, but he was bullied because of his physical appearance and unathletic physique. In July 1910 his mother died; his father soon remarried. Childe's relationship with his father was strained, particularly following his mother's death, and they disagreed on religion and politics: the Reverend was a devout Christian and 1920:—did not commit his non-archaeological opinions to print. Many of his political views are therefore evident only through comments made in private correspondence. Renfrew noted that Childe was liberal-minded on social issues, but thought that—although Childe deplored racism—he did not entirely escape the pervasive nineteenth-century view on distinct differences between different races. Trigger similarly observed racist elements in some of Childe's culture-historical writings, including the suggestion that 1348:, but until 1946 relied primarily on volunteer lecturers. Childe's relationship with the conservative Wheeler was strained, for their personalities were very different; Wheeler was an extrovert who pursued the limelight, was an efficient administrator, and was intolerant of others' shortcomings, while Childe lacked administrative skill, and was tolerant of others. Childe was popular among the institute's students, who saw him as a kindly eccentric; they commissioned a bust of Childe from 1877: 1496:

him from working there, awarded him an honorary degree. He travelled around the country for six months, visiting family members and old friends, but was unimpressed by Australian society, believing it reactionary, increasingly suburban, and poorly educated. Looking into Australian prehistory, he found it a profitable field for research, and lectured to archaeological and leftist groups on this and other topics, taking to Australian radio to criticise academic racism towards

1850:. The former emerged in the late 1950s, emphasised the idea that archaeology should be a branch of anthropology, sought the discovery of universal laws about society, and believed that archaeology could ascertain objective information about the past. The latter emerged as a reaction to processualism in the late 1970s, rejecting the idea that archaeology had access to objective information about the past and emphasising the subjectivity of all interpretation. 751:"As the Labour Party, starting with a band of inspired Socialists, degenerated into a vast machine for capturing political power, but did not know how to use that political power except for the profit of individuals; so the will, in all likelihood, become just a gigantic apparatus for the glorification of a few bosses. Such is the history of all Labour organizations in Australia, and that is not because they are Australian, but because they are Labour." 7495: 1484: 2171: 44: 556: 2074:, despite the fact that his approach was "more subtle and nuanced" than theirs. Steward repeatedly misrepresented Childe as a unilinear evolutionist in his writings, perhaps as part of an attempt to distinguish his own "multilinear" evolutionary approach from the ideas of Marx and Engels. In contrast to this American neglect and misrepresentation, Trigger believed it was an American archaeologist, 1585:, but Childe highlighted that many of the world's societies were still effectively Stone Age in their technology. He nevertheless saw it as a useful model for analysing socio-economic development when combined with a Marxist framework. He therefore used technological criteria for dividing up prehistory into three ages, but instead used economic criteria for sub-dividing the Stone Age into the 1904:. He had many friends of both sexes, although he remained "awkward and uncouth, without any social graces". Despite his difficulties in relating to others, he enjoyed interacting and socialising with his students, often inviting them to dine with him. He was shy and often hid his personal feelings. Brothwell suggested that these personality traits may reflect undiagnosed 1310: 2043:"The most original and useful contributions that I may have made to prehistory are certainly not novel data rescued by brilliant excavation from the soil or by patient research from dusty museum cases, nor yet well founded chronological schemes nor freshly defined cultures, but rather interpretative concepts and methods of explanation." 572:'s plans to introduce conscription. The conference had a prominent socialist emphasis; its report argued that the best hope to end international war was the "abolition of the Capitalist System". News of Childe's participation reached the Principal of St Andrew's College, who forced Childe to resign despite much opposition from staff. 883:, this term was adopted by some nineteenth-century philologists to designate the speakers of the 'parent tongue'. It is now applied scientifically only to the Hindus, Iranian peoples and the rulers of Mitanni whose linguistic ancestors spoke closely related dialects and even worshipped common deities. As used by Nazis and 1196:"We find certain types of remains—pots, implements, ornaments, burial rites, house forms—constantly recurring together. Such a complex of regularly associated traits we shall term a 'cultural group' or just a 'culture'. We assume that such a complex is the material expression of what today would be called a people." 1517:, and his name added to a small family plaque in the Crematorium Gardens. Following his death, an "unprecedented" level of tributes and memorials were issued by the archaeological community, all, according to Ruth Tringham, testifying to his status as Europe's "greatest prehistorian and a wonderful human being". 2011:, central London—as well as a tie, which was usually red, a colour chosen to symbolise his socialist beliefs. He regularly wore a black Mackintosh raincoat, often carrying it over his arm or draped over his shoulders like a cape. In summer he frequently wore shorts with socks, sock suspenders, and large boots. 2033:

described his books as "simple, well-written narratives" which became "archaeological canon between the 1930s and early 1960s". By 1956, he was cited as the most translated Australian author in history, having seen his books published in such languages as Chinese, Czech, Dutch, French, German, Hindi,

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The processual archaeologist Colin Renfrew described Childe as "one of the fathers of processual thought" due to his "development of economic and social themes in prehistory", an idea echoed by Faulkner. Trigger argued that Childe's work foreshadowed processual thought in two ways: by emphasising the

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For Childe, the Neolithic Revolution was a period of radical change, in which humans—who were then hunter-gatherers—began cultivating plants and breeding animals for food, allowing for greater control of the food supply and population growth. He believed the Urban Revolution was largely caused by the

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Later in his career, Childe tired of culture-historical archaeology. By the late 1940s he was questioning the utility of "culture" as an archaeological concept and thus the basic validity of the culture-historical approach. McNairn suggested that this was because the term "culture" had become popular

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edition on the last day of his directorship containing contributions from friends and colleagues all over the world, something that touched Childe deeply. Upon his retirement, he told many friends he planned to return to Australia, visit his relatives, and commit suicide; he was terrified of becoming

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in September 1927. Aged 35, Childe became the "only academic prehistorian in a teaching post in Scotland". Many Scottish archaeologists disliked Childe, regarding him as an outsider with no specialism in Scottish prehistory; he wrote to a friend that "I live here in an atmosphere of hatred and envy".

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Writing personal letters to many friends, he sent one to Grimes, requesting that it not be opened until 1968. In it, he described how he feared old age and stated his intention to take his own life, remarking that "life ends best when one is happy and strong". On 19 October 1957, Childe went to the

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Sorting out his affairs, Childe donated most of his library and all of his estate to the institute. After a February 1957 holiday visiting archaeological sites in Gibraltar and Spain, he sailed to Australia, reaching Sydney on his 65th birthday. Here, the University of Sydney, which had once barred

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to study their prehistoric artefact collections; that year he became a member of the Royal Anthropological Institute. In 1925, he became the institute's librarian, one of the only archaeological jobs available in Britain, through which he began cementing connections with scholars across Europe. His

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in reference to all learned modes of behaviour, and not just material culture as Childe had done. By the 1940s, Childe was doubtful as to whether a certain archaeological assemblage or "culture" really reflected a social group who had other unifying traits, such as a shared language. In the 1950s,

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and made the decision to drown himself in a canal should the Nazis conquer Britain. Though opposing fascist Germany and Italy, he also criticised the imperialist, capitalist governments of the United Kingdom and United States: he repeatedly described the latter as being full of "loathsome fascist

2124:, in which she described him as "the most eminent and influential scholar of European prehistory in the twentieth century". Peter Gathercole thought the work of Trigger, McNairn, and Green was "extremely important"; Tringham considered it all part of a "let's-get-to-know-Childe-better" movement. 1735:

his affiliation with Marxism could prove dangerous for him, Childe sought to make his Marxist ideas more palatable to his readership. In his archaeological writings, he sparingly made direct reference to Marx. There is a distinction in his published works from the latter part of his life between

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in 1920 when Labor achieved electoral victory. Working within the Labor Party allowed Childe greater insight into its workings; the deeper his involvement, the more he became critical of Labor, believing that once in political office they betrayed their socialist ideals and moved to a centrist,

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dominant during the nineteenth century. He believed archaeologists who adhered to it placed a greater emphasis on artefacts than on the humans who had made them. Like most archaeologists in Western Europe and the United States at the time, Childe did not regard humans as naturally inventive or

1613:", which it had adopted from anthropology. This was "a major turning point in the history of the discipline", allowing archaeologists to look at the past through a spatial dynamic rather than a temporal one. Childe adopted the concept of "culture" from the German philologist and archaeologist 1081:

Childe's university position meant he was obliged to undertake archaeological excavations, something he loathed and believed he did poorly. Students agreed, but recognised his "genius for interpreting evidence". Unlike many contemporaries, he was scrupulous with writing up and publishing his

361:. Becoming a teacher, in 1871 he married Mary Ellen Latchford, with whom he had five children. They moved to Australia in 1878, where Mary died. On 22 November 1886 Stephen married Harriet Gordon, an Englishwoman from a wealthy background who had moved to Australia as a child. Her father was 1103:. He made an error of interpretation, erroneously attributing the site to the Iron Age. During the excavation, Childe got on particularly well with the locals; for them, he was "every inch the professor" because of his eccentric appearance and habits. In 1932, Childe, collaborating with the 319:

One of the best-known and most widely cited archaeologists of the twentieth century, Childe became known as the "great synthesizer" for his work integrating regional research with a broader picture of Near Eastern and European prehistory. He was also renowned for his emphasis on the role of

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Known as "the Great Synthesizer", Childe is primarily respected for developing a synthesis of European and Near Eastern prehistory at a time when most archaeologists focused on regional sites and sequences. Since his death, this framework has been heavily revised following the discovery of

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as an instrument of social change, a core tenet of Marxist thought. While class struggle was not a factor Childe considered in his archaeological work, he accepted that historians and archaeologists typically interpreted the past through their own class interests, arguing that most of his

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described Childe as occupying "a crucial position in the history" of archaeology. Sherratt also noted that "Childe's output, by any standard, was massive". Over the course of his career, Childe published more than twenty books and around 240 scholarly articles. The archaeologist

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In mid-1956, Childe retired as IOA director a year prematurely. European archaeology had rapidly expanded during the 1950s, leading to increasing specialisation and making the synthesising that Childe was known for increasingly difficult. That year, the institute was moving to

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in Europe, and displayed his increasing adoption of Marxist theory as a means of understanding how society functioned and changed. He believed metal was the first indispensable article of commerce, and that metal-smiths were therefore full-time professionals who lived off the

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Despite his global influence, Childe's work was poorly understood in the United States, where his work on European prehistory never became well known. As a result, in the United States he erroneously gained the reputation of being a Near Eastern specialist and a founder of

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Childe was influenced by Soviet archaeology but remained critical of it, disapproving of how the Soviet government encouraged the country's archaeologists to assume their conclusions before analysing their data. He was also critical of what he saw as the sloppy approach to

2155:. Harris said the book sought to "demonstrate the dynamic qualities of Childe's thought, the breadth and depth of his scholarship, and the continuing relevance of his work to contemporary issues in archaeology". In 1995, another conference collection was published. Titled 836:. Childe later said the book "aimed at distilling from archaeological remains a preliterate substitute for the conventional politico-military history with cultures, instead of statesmen, as actors, and migrations in place of battles". In 1926 he published a successor, 2078:, who did the most to posthumously develop Childe's "most innovative ideas". Childe also had a small following of American archaeologists and anthropologists in the 1940s who wanted to bring back materialist and Marxist ideas into their research after years in which 1223:. In 1933, Childe travelled to Asia, visiting Iraq—a place he thought "great fun"—and India, which he felt was "detestable" due to the hot weather and extreme poverty. Touring archaeological sites in the two countries, he opined that much of what he had written in 2023:

later described him as "probably the best known and most cited archaeologist of the twentieth century", an idea echoed by Bruce Trigger, while Barbara McNairn labelled him "one of the most outstanding and influential figures in the discipline". The archaeologist

640:, which at the time was banned in Australia. In 1921 Storey sent Childe to London to keep the British press updated about developments in New South Wales, but Storey died in December and an ensuing New South Wales election restored a Nationalist government under 7604: 1621:, a Polish archaeologist who had adopted Kossina's ideas and who had a close association with Childe. Trigger expressed the view that while adopting Kossina's basic concept, Childe displayed "no awareness" of the "racist connotations" Kossina had given it. 2007:(1923), a book echoing many of Childe's own feelings about Australia. He was a fan of good quality food and drink, and frequented restaurants. Known for his battered, tatty attire, Childe always wore his wide-brimmed black hat—purchased from a hatter in 568:, joining Sydney's socialist and anti-conscription movement. In Easter 1918 he spoke at the Third Inter-State Peace Conference, an event organised by the Australian Union of Democratic Control for the Avoidance of War, a group opposed to Prime Minister 1736:

those that are explicitly Marxist and those in which Marxist ideas and influences are less obvious. Many of Childe's fellow British archaeologists did not take his adherence to Marxism seriously, regarding it as something which he did for shock value.

527:, a fervent socialist and Marxist. The pair often got drunk and tested each other's knowledge about classical history late at night. With Britain in the midst of World War I, many British-based socialists refused to enlist in the military despite the 984:, whom Childe befriended and encouraged in his research. The trio were elected onto the committee of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia. At Clark's suggestion, in 1935 they used their influence to convert it into a nationwide organisation, the 824:, in which he synthesised the data about European prehistory that he had been exploring for several years. An important work, it was released when there were few professional archaeologists across Europe and most museums focused on their locality; 1858:

who was irrelevant to their search for generalised laws of societal behaviour. In keeping with Marxist thought, Childe did not agree that such generalised laws exist, believing behaviour is not universal but conditioned by socio-economic factors.

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river, recognising it as the natural boundary dividing the Near East from Europe; Childe believed it was via the Danube that new technologies travelled westward. Although Childe had used culture-historical approaches in earlier publications,

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of archaeological interpretation, something in stark contrast to the processualists' insistence that archaeological interpretation could be objective. As a result, Trigger thought Childe to be a "prototypical post-processual archaeologist".

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role of change in societal development, and by adhering to a strictly materialist view of the past. Both of these arose from Childe's Marxism. Despite this connection, most American processualists ignored Childe's work, seeing him as a

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of 1917. Childe introduced his ideas about "revolutions" in a 1935 presidential address to the Prehistoric Society. Presenting this concept as part of his functional-economic interpretation of the three-age system, he argued that a

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Influenced by Marxism, Childe argued that society experienced widescale changes in relatively short periods of time, citing the Industrial Revolution as a modern example. This idea was absent from his earliest work; in studies like

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raincoat on the cliffs, he fell 1000 feet (300 m) to his death. A coroner ruled his death as accidental, but his death was recognised as suicide when his letter to Grimes was published in the 1980s. His remains were cremated at the

1745:'. It is deterministic in as much as it assumes that the historical process is not a mere succession of inexplicable or miraculous happenings, but that all the constituent events are interrelated and form an intelligible pattern." 2159:, it was edited by Peter Gathercole, T. H. Irving, and Gregory Melleuish. Further papers appeared on the subject of Childe in ensuing years, looking at such subjects as his personal correspondences, and final resting place. 1915:

views, being a socialist from his undergraduate days. He sat on the committees of several left-wing groups, although avoided involvement in Marxist intellectual arguments within the Communist Party and—with the exception of

2098:"While he may not have provided answers that modern archaeologists find satisfactory, challenged colleagues of his own and succeeding decades by constructing a vision of archaeology that was as broad as that of other 610:

Realising he would be barred from an academic career by the university authorities, Childe sought employment within the leftist movement. In August 1919, he became private secretary and speech writer to the politician

1434:. This was "Archaeology and Anthropology", which argued that the disciplines of archaeology and anthropology should be used in tandem, an approach that would be widely accepted in the decades following his death. 773:, it reflects Childe's disillusionment with the party, arguing that once elected, its politicians abandoned their socialist ideals in favour of personal comfort. Childe's biographer Sally Green noted that 563:

Childe returned to Australia in August 1917. As a known socialist agitator, he was placed under surveillance by the security services, who intercepted his mail. In 1918 he became senior resident tutor at

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and journeyed across Europe to pursue his research into the continent's prehistory, publishing his findings in academic papers and books. In doing so, he introduced the continental European concept of an

1174:(1928), which assembled information from across Mesopotamia and India, setting a background from which the spread of farming and other technologies into Europe could be understood. This was followed by 1809:, he began to describe social change using the term "revolution", although had yet to fully develop these ideas. At this point, the term "revolution" had gained Marxist associations due to Russia's 953:

At Edinburgh University, Childe focused on research rather than teaching. He was reportedly kind to his students but had difficulty talking to large audiences; many students were confused that his

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philosophy, Marxism emphasises the idea that material things are more important than ideas, and that the social conditions of a given period are the result of the existing material conditions, or

328:, reflecting the influence of Marxist ideas concerning societal development. Although many of his interpretations have since been discredited, he remains widely respected among archaeologists. 1679:... Marxism means a set of dogmas—the words of the master from which as among mediaeval schoolmen, one must deduce truths which the scientist hopes to infer from experiment and observation." 1671:"To me Marxism means effectively a way of approach to and a methodological device for the interpretation of historical and archaeological material and I accept it because and in so far as it 690:, but had not yet openly embraced Marxism. Having earned a good reputation as a prehistorian, he was invited to other parts of Europe to study prehistoric artefacts. In 1922 he travelled to 512:, and the following year produced his B.Litt. thesis, "The Influence of Indo-Europeans in Prehistoric Greece", displaying his interest in combining philological and archaeological evidence. 2038:

and David Pearce considered Childe "probably the most written about" archaeologist in history, commenting that his books were still "required reading" for those in the discipline in 2005.

1325:(IOA) in London. Anxious to return to London, he had kept silent over his disapproval of government policies so he would not be prevented from getting the job. He took up residence in the 7614: 1404:

In April 1956, Childe was awarded the Gold Medal of the Society of Antiquaries for his services to archaeology. He was invited to lecture in the United States on multiple occasions, by

312:. His beliefs resulted in him being legally barred from entering the United States, despite receiving repeated invitations to lecture there. Upon retirement, he returned to Australia's 1954:

in his pocket to trick pickpockets. On one occasion he played a joke on the delegates at a Prehistoric Society conference by lecturing them on a theory that the Neolithic monument of

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in London, co-sponsored by the Institute and the Prehistoric Society, both organisations he had formerly headed. The conference proceedings were published in a 1994 volume edited by

1391:—working alongside the board's chairman Rajani Palme Dutt, his best friend and flatmate from his Oxford days. He authored occasional articles for Palme Dutt's socialist journal, the 1741:"The Marxist view of history and prehistory is admittedly material determinist and materialist. But its determinism does not mean mechanism. The Marxist account is in fact termed ' 539:

was the only conflict they should be concerned with. Dutt was imprisoned for refusing to fight, and Childe campaigned for the release of both him and other socialists and pacifist

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to the detriment of Europe's working class. Returning to Australia in 1917, he was prevented from working in academia because of his socialist activism. Instead, he worked for the

543:. Childe was never required to enlist in the military, most likely due to his poor health and eyesight. His anti-war sentiments concerned the authorities; the intelligence agency 1134:

in Northern Ireland. Together with Wallace Thorneycroft, another Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Childe excavated two vitrified Iron Age forts in Scotland, at

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in Soviet archaeology. As a moderate diffusionist, Childe was heavily critical of the "Marrist" trend in Soviet archaeology, based on the theories of the Georgian philologist

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because they could sell it at a cheaper price, something he believed pivotal in providing knowledge for those he called "the masses". This was followed by two short works,

864:, Childe suggested that although most cultural traits spread from one society to another, it was possible for the same traits to develop independently in different places. 7599: 860:, the idea that cultural developments diffuse from one place to others, rather than being independently developed in many places. In contrast to the hyper-diffusionism of 1420:

barred him from entering the country due to his Marxist beliefs. Whilst working at the institute, Childe continued writing and publishing books dealing with archaeology.

6451: (1995). "The Relationship Between Vere Gordon Childe's Political and Academic Thought—and Practice". In Peter Gathercole; T. H. Irving; Gregory Melleuish (eds.). 1648:. Childe accepted that archaeologists defined "cultures" based on a subjective selection of material criteria; this view was later widely adopted by archaeologists like 7609: 1784:

in his methodology. He also denied Marxism's ability to predict the future development of human society, and—unlike many other Marxists—did not consider humanity's

965:. Founding the Edinburgh League of Prehistorians, he took his more enthusiastic students on excavations and invited guest lecturers to visit. An early proponent of 457:"My Oxford training was in the Classical tradition to which bronzes, terracottas and pottery (at least if painted) were respectable while stone and bone tools were 1709:'s rule. It was during the mid-1930s, around the time of his first visit to the Soviet Union, that Childe began to make explicit reference to Marxism in his work. 1375:'s armouries—as the society's president, believing Wheeler (a professional archaeologist) was a better choice. Childe joined the editorial board of the periodical 1661:

Childe was comparing the role culture-historical archaeology had among prehistorians to the place of the traditional politico-military approach among historians.

1640:(1929), did Childe give "culture" a specifically archaeological definition. In this book, he defined a "culture" as a set of "regularly associated traits" in the 515:

At Oxford he became actively involved with the socialist movement, antagonising the conservative university authorities. Becoming a noted member of the left-wing

448:, with whom he remained in lifelong contact. Ending his studies in 1913, Childe graduated the following year with various honours and prizes, including Professor 373:, west of Sydney. Rev. Childe worked as the minister for St. Thomas' Parish, but proved unpopular, arguing with his congregation and taking unscheduled holidays. 1007:, he was particularly interested in the social role of Soviet archaeology. Returning to Britain, he became a vocal Soviet sympathiser and avidly read the CPGB's 7549: 1705:

and therefore anti-socialist, Ravdonikas's report called for a pro-socialist, Marxist approach to archaeology as part of the academic reforms instituted under

1697:, being the first archaeologist in the West to use Marxist theory in his work. Marxist archaeology emerged in the Soviet Union in 1929, when the archaeologist 1597:

as useless. Informally, he adopted the division of past societies into the framework of "savagery", "barbarism", and "civilisation" that Engels had employed.

345:. He was the only surviving child of the Reverend Stephen Henry Childe (1844–1923) and Harriet Eliza Childe, née Gordon (1853–1910), a middle-class couple of 7659: 1084: 6960:

Richards, Colin (1995). "Vere Gordon Childe at Skara Brae and Rinyo: Research and Redemption". In Peter Gathercole; T. H. Irving; Gregory Melleuish (eds.).

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Through his work, Childe contributed to two of the major theoretical movements in Anglo-American archaeology that developed in the decades after his death,

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Childe spent much time in continental Europe and attended many conferences there, having learned several European languages. In 1935, he first visited the

716:. Childe used this excursion to visit museums in Czechoslovakia and Hungary, bringing them to the attention of British archaeologists in a 1922 article in 1562:

inclined to change; thus, he tended to perceive social change in terms of diffusion and migration rather than internal development or cultural evolution.

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was a rare example that looked at the larger picture across the continent. Its importance was also due to the fact that it introduced the concept of the

1242:(1936). Influenced by Marxist views of history, Childe argued that the usual distinction between (pre-literate) prehistory and (literate) history was a 2084: 1950:, London, at three in the morning for the sheer enjoyment of it, only to be pulled over by a policeman. He loved practical jokes, and allegedly kept a 1541:

The biographer Sally Green noted that Childe's beliefs were "never dogmatic, always idiosyncratic" and "continually changing throughout his life". His

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Oxford University Fabian Society, he was there in 1915 when it changed its name to the Oxford University Socialist Society, following a split from the

7544: 1468:. Subsequent commentators suggested that a core reason for his suicidal desires was a loss of faith in Marxism following the Hungarian Revolution and 257:

at the University of Edinburgh, and then from 1947 to 1957 as the director of the Institute of Archaeology, London. During this period he oversaw the

7554: 2019:

On his death, Childe was praised by his colleague Stuart Piggott as "the greatest prehistorian in Britain and probably the world". The archaeologist

935: 7407:

László, Attila (2009). "The Young Gordon Childe and Transylvanian Archaeology: The Archaeological Correspondence Between Childe and Ferenc László".

7594: 6346:

Evans, Raymond (1995). "'Social Passion': Vere Gordon Childe in Queensland, 1918–19". In Peter Gathercole; T. H. Irving; Gregory Melleuish (eds.).

1946:

Childe was fond of driving cars, enjoying the "feeling of power" he got from them. He often told a story about how he had raced at high speed down

1115: 2116:

appeared, which studied the influences that extended over Childe's archaeological thought; the same year saw the publication of Barbara McNairn's

1029:

to glorify their own conceptions of an Aryan racial heritage. Supportive of the British government's decision to fight the fascist powers in the

616: 226: 1424:(1947) promoted a Marxist view of the past and reaffirmed Childe's belief that prehistory and literate history must be viewed together, whilst 712: 1480:

dismissed this explanation, noting that while Childe was critical of Soviet foreign policy, he never saw the state and Marxism as synonymous.

7378:

Harris, David (2009). "'A new Professor of a Somewhat Obscure Subject': V. Gordon Childe at the London Institute of Archaeology, 1946–1956".

1131: 1038:

hyenas". This did not prevent him from visiting the U.S. In 1936 he addressed a Conference of Arts and Sciences marking the tercentenary of

1473: 2143:, with presentations examining both his scholarly and his socialist work. In May 1992, a conference marking his centenary was held at the 603:. Here, too, his political affiliations became known, and he was subject to an opposition campaign from local conservative groups and the 365:. Gordon Childe was raised alongside five half-siblings at his father's palatial country house, the Chalet Fontenelle, in the township of 7639: 1127: 579:

feared that he would promote socialism to students and fired him. The leftist community condemned this as an infringement of Childe's

7629: 7341:

Goody, Jack (2006). "Gordon Childe, the Urban Revolution, and the Haute Cuisine: An Anthropo-Archaeological View of Modern History".

1924:

had a "superiority in physique", although Childe later disavowed these ideas. In a private letter, Childe wrote to the archaeologist

1911:

Childe believed the study of the past could offer guidance for how humans should act in the present and future. He was known for his

471:

Wishing to continue his education, he gained a £200 Cooper Graduate Scholarship in Classics, allowing him to pay the tuition fees at

7465:

Smith, Michael E. (2009). "V. Gordon Childe and the Urban Revolution: An Historical Perspective on a Revolution in Urban Studies".

2326: 362: 988:, of which Childe was elected president. Membership of the group grew rapidly; in 1935 it had 353 members and by 1938 it had 668. 575:

Staff members secured him work as a tutor in ancient history in the Department of Tutorial Classes, but the university chancellor

6980: 1731:

later described Childe as "the most original English Marxist writer from the days of my youth". Aware that in the context of the

1609:, coming to be seen as one of its "founders and chief exponents". Culture-historical archaeology revolved around the concept of " 1143: 381: 1780:

contemporaries produced studies with an innate bourgeois agenda. Childe further diverged from orthodox Marxism by not employing

739: 7589: 7242:

Tringham, Ruth (1983). "V. Gordon Childe 25 Years After: His Relevance for the Archaeology of the Eighties: A Review Article".

1818:" initiated the Neolithic era, and that other revolutions marked the start of the Bronze and Iron Ages. The following year, in 1453: 2082:

particularism had been dominant within the discipline. In the U.S., his name was also referenced in the 2008 blockbuster film

1970:. He could speak several European languages, having taught himself in early life when he was travelling across the continent. 1701:

published a report titled "For a Soviet History of Material Culture". Criticising the archaeological discipline as inherently

7205: 7111: 7005: 6969: 6950: 6879: 6819: 6762: 6724: 6705: 6686: 6623: 6600: 6577: 6531: 6512: 6460: 6408: 6389: 6355: 918: 641: 7644: 7634: 7539: 7286: 7149: 6800: 6743: 6642: 2268: 1951: 1892:

Childe's biographer Sally Green found no evidence that Childe ever had a serious intimate relationship; she assumed he was

1430: 786: 628: 6753:

Maddock, Kenneth (1995). "Prehistory, Power and Pessimism". In Peter Gathercole; T. H. Irving; Gregory Melleuish (eds.).

1246:

and human society has progressed through a series of technological, economic, and social revolutions. These included the

980:, another influential British archaeologist who succeeded Childe as Edinburgh's Abercromby Professor. Another friend was 914: 254: 2112:

Following his death, several articles examining Childe's impact on archaeology were published. In 1980, Bruce Trigger's

7649: 7564: 7232: 6781: 1383: 1050: 17: 7624: 7073:

Stevenson, Alice (2011). "'Yours (Unusually) Cheerfully, Gordon': Vere Gordon Childe's Letters to R.B.K. Stevenson".

1265:(1940). Childe's pessimism regarding the war's outcome led him to believe that "European civilization—capitalist and 632: 376:

A sickly child, Gordon Childe was educated at home for several years, before receiving a private-school education in

6810:

Mulvaney, John (1994). "'Another University Man Gone Wrong': V. Gordon Childe 1892–1922". In David R. Harris (ed.).

2120:, examining his methodological and theoretical approaches to archaeology. The following year, Sally Green published 1099:. Having uncovered a well-preserved Neolithic village, in 1931 he published the excavation results in a book titled 535:

nations were waging the war for their own interests at the expense of the working classes; these socialists thought

7579: 6870: (1995). "Vere Gordon Childe and the Cold War". In Peter Gathercole; T. H. Irving; Gregory Melleuish (eds.). 6399:

Flannery, Kent V. (1994). "Childe the Evolutionist: A Perspective from Nuclear America". In David R. Harris (ed.).

1364: 1261:

After the outbreak of the Second World War, Childe was unable to travel across Europe, instead focusing on writing

681: 370: 366: 313: 7619: 6653: 1805:

he talked of societal change as "transition" rather than "revolution". In writings from the early 1930s, such as

1162:

Childe continued writing and publishing books on archaeology, beginning with a series of works following on from

665: 637: 424:, at one point arguing that "socialism is desirable". Increasingly interested in socialism, he read the works of 238: 234: 162:(14 April 1892 – 19 October 1957) was an Australian archaeologist who specialised in the study of 6941:

Renfrew, Colin (1994). "Concluding Remarks: Childe and the Study of Culture Process". In David R. Harris (ed.).

6418:

Gathercole, Peter (1971). "'Patterns in Prehistory': An Examination of the Later Thinking of V. Gordon Childe".

2341: 1884:

has been kept in the library of the Institute of Archaeology since 1958. Childe thought it made him look like a

308:

and visited the country on several occasions, although he grew sceptical of Soviet foreign policy following the

7574: 1863:, one of Childe's successors as director of the Institute of Archaeology, highlighted that Childe accepted the 1606: 1321:

In 1946, Childe left Edinburgh to take up the position as director and professor of European prehistory at the

845: 833: 695: 565: 472: 449: 233:. Growing critical of Labor, he wrote an analysis of their policies and joined the radical labour organisation 183: 109: 1570: 284:. In these decades he published prolifically, producing excavation reports, journal articles, and books. With 1772: 624: 620: 596: 433: 377: 2186: 7584: 7569: 7499: 2148: 2144: 1514: 1398: 1322: 309: 175: 2364: 809:

job made him well known in Britain's small archaeological community; he developed a great friendship with

2075: 1997:'s "A Grammarian's Funeral". He was not particularly interested in reading novels, but his favourite was 1505: 1377: 1014: 1009: 508: 93: 1775:—argued that Childe's archaeological work was not truly Marxist because he failed to take into account 1508:, an area of the Blue Mountains where he had grown up. Leaving his hat, spectacles, compass, pipe, and 1337: 1054: 770: 743: 6673:

Irving, T.H. (1995). "On the Work of Labour Governments: Vere Gordon Childe's Plans for Volume Two of

887:

generally, the term 'Aryan' means as little as the words 'Bolshie' and 'Red' in the mouths of crusted

644:'s premiership. Fuller thought Childe's job unnecessary, and in early 1922 terminated his employment. 2687: 2253: 75: 6115:

Childe, V. Gordon (1923). "Schipenitz: A Late Neolithic Station with Painted Pottery in Bukovina".

2136: 2102:, but which also took account of the particular strengths and limitations of archaeological data." 1881: 1855: 1645: 1558: 1554: 1381:, founded by Marxist historians in 1952. During the early 1950s, he also became a board member for 1349: 966: 841: 790: 707: 612: 281: 258: 247: 230: 957:

degree course in archaeology was structured counter-chronologically, dealing with the more recent

559:

From 1919 to 1921, Childe worked for the leftist politician John Storey as his personal assistant.

444:. At university, he became a great friend of fellow undergraduate and future judge and politician 4861: 1742: 1282: 1254:, when society moved from small towns to the first cities, and up to more recent times, when the 910: 888: 782: 592: 588: 540: 358: 293: 171: 408:

at the University of Sydney in 1911; although focusing on written sources, he first came across

7534: 3813: 2034:

Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Polish, Russian, Spanish, Sweden and Turkish. The archaeologists

1843: 1768: 1757: 1713: 1610: 1497: 1298: 1231:(1935), in which he applied his Marxist-influenced ideas about the economy to his conclusions. 1188: 829: 781:

was emerging as a major player in British politics, threatening the two-party dominance of the

673: 301: 243: 7605:

People associated with the University of Edinburgh School of History, Classics and Archaeology

7436:

Ralston, Ian (2009). "Gordon Childe and Scottish Archaeology: The Edinburgh Years 1927–1946".

6915: 3044: 2356: 1428:(1950) displayed his views on moderate diffusionism. In 1946 he also published a paper in the 969:, he involved his students in his experiments; in 1937 he used this method to investigate the 6996:

Rowlands, Michael (1994). "Childe and the Archaeology of Freedom". In David R. Harris (ed.).

2573: 1712:

Many archaeologists have been profoundly influenced by Marxism's socio-political ideas. As a

1694: 1542: 1417: 1409: 1255: 1034: 943: 668:

library. An active member of London's socialist movement, he associated with leftists at the

576: 409: 206: 6715:

Klein, Leo S. (1994). "Childe and Soviet Archaeology: A Romance". In David R. Harris (ed.).

1269:

alike—was irrevocably headed for a Dark Age". In this state of mind he produced a sequel to

856:, Childe avoided mention of the book. In these works, Childe accepted a moderate version of 7654: 7529: 7306: 7278: 7272: 2832: 2588: 2035: 1815: 1698: 1368: 1247: 1150:(1936–37). In 1938, he and Walter Grant oversaw excavations at the Neolithic settlement of 861: 849: 723: 652:

Unable to find an academic job in Australia, Childe remained in Britain, renting a room in

476: 321: 210: 202: 105: 7494: 2238: 1723:

Childe said he used Marxist ideas when interpreting the past "because and in so far as it

8: 7139: 6317:

Díaz-Andreu, Margarita (2009). "Childe and the International Congresses of Archaeology".

1936: 985: 413: 385: 346: 304:

as an interpretative framework for archaeological data. He became a sympathiser with the

187: 148: 6366: 3861: 3299: 2176: 1250:, when hunter-gatherers began settling in permanent farming communities, through to the 1065: 777:

was of particular significance at the time because it was published just as the British

498:

and Arthur Evans, the latter being Childe's supervisor. In 1915, he published his first

7453: 7424: 7395: 7366: 7358: 7329: 7259: 7221: 7180: 7090: 7061: 7028: 6902: 6854: 6846: 6491: 6435: 6334: 6305: 6257: 6224: 6216: 6149: 6132: 6103: 6074: 6057:

Brothwell, Don (2009). "Childe, His Student, and Archaeological Science: An Epilogue".

6045: 6016: 5987: 2055: 2020: 1986: 1925: 1847: 1810: 1785: 1717: 1039: 947: 735: 491: 445: 163: 6274: 6212: 5024: 1636:(1928)—but in none of these does he define what he means by "culture". Only later, in 1573:. This system rested upon an evolutionary chronology that divided prehistory into the 490:. At Queen's, Childe was entered for a diploma in classical archaeology followed by a 7457: 7428: 7399: 7370: 7282: 7228: 7201: 7145: 7107: 7094: 7001: 6965: 6946: 6875: 6858: 6815: 6796: 6777: 6758: 6739: 6720: 6701: 6682: 6638: 6619: 6596: 6573: 6527: 6508: 6495: 6456: 6404: 6385: 6379: 6351: 6338: 6309: 6261: 6183: 6107: 6078: 6020: 4900: 3383: 2888: 1912: 1905: 1789: 1685: 1624:

Childe's adherence to the culture-historical model is apparent in three of his books—

1469: 1277:(1942), an account of human history from the Palaeolithic through to the fall of the 1046: 810: 778: 727: 524: 354: 261:

of archaeological sites in Scotland and Northern Ireland, focusing on the society of

7333: 6228: 4001: 1618: 547:

opening a file on him, his mail was intercepted, and he was kept under observation.

320:

revolutionary technological and economic developments in human society, such as the

296:

in 1934, becoming its first president. Remaining a committed socialist, he embraced

7512: 7474: 7445: 7416: 7387: 7350: 7321: 7251: 7176: 7172: 7082: 7057: 7053: 7020: 7015:

Sherratt, Andrew (1989). "V. Gordon Childe: Archaeology and Intellectual History".

6927: 6894: 6838: 6554: 6483: 6427: 6326: 6297: 6249: 6208: 6124: 6095: 6066: 6037: 6008: 5979: 3777: 3725: 3331: 2387: 2063: 2003: 1823: 1641: 1566: 1565:

During the decades in which Childe was working, most archaeologists adhered to the

1405: 1345: 1341: 1314: 1251: 1030: 600: 480: 429: 421: 325: 6988: 6431: 3533: 3351: 6164: 3103: 3068: 2968: 2025: 1994: 1978: 1974: 1967: 1827: 1657: 1614: 1372: 1326: 1243: 1139: 1123: 1107: 1043: 1004: 931: 814: 722:. After returning to London, in 1922 Childe became a private secretary for three 218: 5457: 2852: 1187:

was his first publication to provide a specific definition of the concept of an

832:

into Britain from continental scholarship, thereby aiding in the development of

7255: 2375:

New Light on the Most Ancient East: The Oriental Prelude to European Prehistory

2099: 2067: 1998: 1776: 1393: 1220: 1154:; their investigation ceased during the Second World War, but resumed in 1946. 1104: 1096: 977: 970: 686: 661: 657: 595:, Queensland, in October 1918, Childe took up employment teaching Latin at the 584: 536: 520: 499: 441: 285: 273: 182:. He wrote twenty-six books during his career. Initially an early proponent of 167: 7354: 7104:

Creating Prehistory: Druids, Ley Hunters and Archaeologists in Pre-War Britain

7086: 6559: 6542: 6301: 6253: 6012: 5056: 3881: 1896:

because she found no evidence of same-sex attraction. Conversely, his student

1451:, a fresh start in the new surroundings. To commemorate his achievements, the 820:

In 1925, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co published Childe's second book,

793:. Childe planned a sequel expanding on his ideas, but it was never published. 738:. Supplementing this income, Childe worked as a translator for the publishers 494:

degree, although he never completed the former. While there, he studied under

250:

demarcates a distinct cultural group—to the British archaeological community.

7523: 7449: 7420: 7391: 7325: 7271:

Ucko, Peter (1990). "Foreword". In Peter Gathercole; David Lowenthal (eds.).

7024: 6842: 6487: 6330: 6187: 6099: 6070: 2682: 2008: 1897: 1761: 1728: 1706: 1649: 1533: 1477: 1444: 1286: 1013:, although was heavily critical of certain Soviet policies, particularly the 981: 718: 289: 122: 7196: (1994). "Childe's Relevance to the 1990s". In David R. Harris (ed.). 2139:'s Australian Studies Centre organised a centenary conference for Childe in 1973:

Childe's other hobbies included walking in the British hillsides, attending

1792:

inevitable, instead opining that society could fossilize or become extinct.

6829:

Pearce, William J. (1988). "Vere Gordon Childe and American Anthropology".

4089: 2691:. No. 15, 187. New South Wales, Australia. 29 November 1886. p. 1 2441: 2071: 1929: 1893: 1876: 1864: 1586: 1550: 1488: 1413: 1278: 1119: 1018: 992: 962: 857: 580: 569: 495: 417: 305: 6736:

Inside the Neolithic Mind: Consciousness, Cosmos and the Realm of the Gods

4160: 4045: 2328:

The Forest Cultures of Northern Europe: A Study in Evolution and Diffusion

1837: 7307:"Priest-Kings or Puritans? Childe and Willing Subordination in the Indus" 4920: 3649: 2128: 2030: 1990: 1921: 1885: 1459: 1448: 1147: 950:, he moved into the semi-residential Hotel de Vere on Eglinton Crescent. 926:

He nevertheless made friends in Edinburgh, including archaeologists like

884: 532: 503: 487: 300:, and—rejecting culture-historical approaches—used Marxist ideas such as 222: 127: 7478: 7184: 7065: 6906: 6220: 6049: 5991: 5152: 3283: 1088:

and, unusually, ensuring that he acknowledged the help of every digger.

7503: 7362: 6850: 6136: 6028:

Beilharz, Peter (1991). "The Vere Gordon Childe Centenary Conference".

4542: 4204: 3609: 2940: 2298: 2283: 2079: 1982: 1959: 1947: 1939:

based in superstition that served the interests of dominant elites. In

1901: 1860: 1781: 1594: 1578: 1509: 1215: 1092: 1070: 853: 731: 699: 653: 437: 269: 143: 7263: 7044: (1990). "Gordon Childe: Paradigms and Patterns in Prehistory". 7032: 6635:

Bloody Old Britain: O.G.S. Crawford and the Archaeology of Modern Life

6439: 5923: 5548: 3745: 3267: 2908: 2351:

Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (London)

2336:

Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (London)

976:

Childe regularly travelled to London to visit friends, among whom was

6898: 6041: 5983: 5685: 2801: 1955: 1822:, he combined these Bronze and Iron Age Revolutions into a singular " 1702: 1590: 1574: 1357: 1330: 1266: 1026: 1021:. His socialist convictions led to an early denunciation of European 996: 922: 669: 516: 425: 393: 262: 214: 6932: 6128: 5883: 5783: 4695: 3505: 3139: 3016: 3000: 946:, becoming godfather to Darwin's youngest son. Initially lodging at 805: 6503:

Gathercole, Peter; Irving, T. H.; Melleuish, Gregory, eds. (1995).

5725: 5633: 4558: 4280: 4117: 3973: 3833: 3797: 3761: 3553: 3227: 2924: 2561:

Piecing Together the Past: The Interpretation of Archeological Data

2226:

How Labour Governs: A Study of Workers' Representation in Australia

2140: 1732: 1582: 1353: 1191:, revolutionising the theoretical approach of British archaeology. 1111: 958: 797: 703: 458: 405: 350: 277: 198: 5657: 5112: 4984: 4296: 4188: 4073: 3897: 2872: 2270:

The Most Ancient East: The Oriental Prelude to European Prehistory

1483: 879:"Because the early Hindus and Persians did really call themselves 769:. Examining the Australian Labor Party and its connections to the 5588: 5513: 4586: 4526: 1546: 1238:(1935), Childe produced one of the defining books of his career, 1170:

by compiling and synthesising data from across Europe. First was

1135: 1022: 872: 389: 297: 6677:". In Peter Gathercole; T. H. Irving; Gregory Melleuish (eds.). 3569: 2643: 2127:

In July 1986, a colloquium devoted to Childe's work was held in

1966:

chieftain. Some audience members failed to realise he was being

917:, a new position established in the bequest of the prehistorian 852:; with the ensuing racial use of the term "Aryan" by the German 43: 3123: 2761: 1605:

In the early part of his career, Childe was a proponent of the

1465: 1179: 1074: 1000: 921:. Although sad to leave London, Childe took the job, moving to 691: 342: 265: 194: 179: 71: 7198: