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a variety of soil types containing silts and clays often covered by a layer of interwoven fibrous roots and dead leaves. The soil types present tend to relate to the local soil types and hydrology of the pool. Finer soils such as clay, silt, and muck are more common in perched situations, whereas pools which are more connected to the water table have more coarse soils like sand or gravel. Soils in vernal pools often reflect their inundated conditions, leading to low chroma horizons, mottling, and anoxic decay. They can develop hydric soils which are typical of flooded areas, including accumulations of organic matter, but this may not happen in drier areas. In some cases there is a hard pan layer which causes the retention of water in the pools. The hardpan clay basin accumulates water due to the small particle size and therefore reduced porosity. This permits flooding and development of vernal pools.
112:, where they are difficult to identify because of the forest canopy. Most pools are dry for at least part of the year, and fill with the winter rains, spring snowmelts and rising water tables. Some pools may remain at least partially filled with water over the course of a year or more, but all vernal pools dry up periodically. Typically, though, a vernal pool has three phases each year: it is inundated in the winter (inundated phase) with the vernal pool holding onto the water from 10–65 days, it dries slowly during the spring (flowering phase), and it dries completely during the summer (dry phase). Vernal pools favor native species because many non-native species cannot tolerate the extreme seasonal changes in environmental conditions.
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construction of a replacement habitat to "mitigate" their impacts. This concept is difficult to apply to vernal pools, which represent a tremendous habitat value—but are difficult to successfully replicate using construction methods (as mentioned above). Thus, it has been very controversial to apply mitigation strategies to vernal pool systems due to the obvious risks inherent in trying to reconstruct this kind of habitat. Some agencies, however, are now requiring two replacements for every vernal pool that is destroyed to compensate for the lower quality of human-made habitat.
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of vernal pools means that the water is allowed to slowly evaporate instead of draining. This is a key factor in the development of vernal pool plant communities as it keeps the soil at the water's edge just wet enough for vernal plant communities to flourish while those closer to the center of the pool are more inundated, leading to zonation of plant communities as the water level recedes. This clay layer also allows pools to exist long enough to prevent upland species from developing, while existing for just enough time to prevent aquatic plant species from taking over.
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in the season are more likely to be found at slightly higher elevations than later flowering species. Many vernal pool plants have buried seeds which accumulate in the soil. Different species are suited to different moisture levels, and as water evaporates from the edges of a pool, distinctive zonation of species can be seen. Most pools receive annual deposition of tree leaves, which are critical to maintaining local life due to leaf detritus.
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414:. Vernal pool basin habitats favor annual plants with some uniquely adapted perennials which suffer extensive mortality resembling annual reproduction. Annuals comprise approximately 80 percent of vernal pool flora. Listed below are some genera of the approximately one hundred vascular plant species associated with California vernal pool habitats. A typical pool will include only 15 to 25 species.
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in the family
Branchinectidae. It takes about 30 hours for them to start to hatch in water and it takes 50 days for them to mature. In springtime, the eggs hatch and they can go dormant. There are different types of fairy shrimp in different vernal pools because the pools can act like islands because
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Vernal pools are so called because they are often, though not necessarily, at their maximum depth in the spring ("vernal" meaning of, relating to, or occurring in the spring). There are many local names for such pools, depending upon the part of the world in which they occur. Vernal pools may form in
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Some vernal pools have an underlying impermeable clay layer (also known as a hardpan) that reduces water percolation. The impermeable layer is hydrophobic and it prevents water from draining into lower soil layers, allowing vernal pools to become inundated for a very long period of time. This feature
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Many of the amphibians that breed only in vernal pools spend most of their lives in the uplands within hundreds of feet of the vernal pool. Eggs are laid in the vernal pool, then the juveniles leave the pool two or three months later, not to return until the following spring to breed. Therefore, the
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species and endemic species adapted to unique environmental conditions. These conditions include moisture gradients, salinity gradients, and reduced levels of competition. Microtopographical gradients also contribute to species distribution in vernal pool communities, where plants that flower sooner
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Vernal pools can form anywhere that a depression fills with rainwater, leading to low nutrients and low levels of dissolved salts. They are underlain with an impermeable layer of claypan, hardpan, or volcanic rock allowing for water retention. In many instances they contain grasslands that form over
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remaining vernal pools being lost in the short interval from 1995–2005. The major threats to vernal pool habitats in the
Central Valley are agriculture, urbanization, changes in hydrology, climate change, and improperly managed grazing by livestock. They are sensitive to climate and land-use change.
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Vernal pools harbor a distinct assemblage of flora and fauna that, in some cases, aren't found anywhere else on the planet. Despite this fact, about 90% of vernal pool ecosystems in
California have been destroyed. Disturbingly, much of this destruction has occurred in recent years, with about 13% of
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Vernal pools are prime habitats to be targeted for restoration work due to their value as hotspots of biodiversity as well as recent history of extensive destruction and degradation. However, there have been varying rates of success attributed to various restoration efforts. Several hypotheses have
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Despite being dry at times, vernal pools teem with life when filled, serving as critical breeding grounds for many amphibian and invertebrate species. The most obvious inhabitants are various species of breeding frogs and toads. Some salamanders also utilize vernal pools for reproduction, but the
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There has been a fair amount of controversy surrounding the practice of mitigation, which is the destruction of protected or endangered species and habitats, such as vernal pools, on the condition that whatever entity (business, land manager, etc.) is destroying the habitat will undertake the
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are unable to withstand the period of flooding. Many wetland plants are unable to withstand the period of desiccation. Therefore, vernal pools are a distinctive habitat that provides a refuge from both terrestrial and fully aquatic plants. When dissolved carbon dioxide is depleted by daytime
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Some authorities restrict the definition of vernal pools to exclude seasonal wetlands that have defined inlet and outlet channels. The justification is that such seasonal wetlands tend to be qualitatively different from isolated vernal pools; this is because they are fed by larger
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so that firstly, inflow contributes higher concentrations of dissolved minerals. Secondly, flow patterns increase the periodic scouring and silting effect of flows through or simply into the wetland. Thirdly, longer distance inflow and outflow make for less strictly
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Vernal pools are a type of wetland. They can be surrounded by many communities/species including deciduous forest, grassland, lodgepole pine forest, blue oak woodland, sagebrush steppe, succulent coastal scrub and prairie. These pools are characteristic of
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and prairie potholes are usually much larger, but still are otherwise similar in many respects, with high water in wet periods, followed by dry conditions. Some exclude desert playas from the definition of vernal pools because their larger
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Results: Research suggest that the last two details (Hypothesis 2 & 3) are crucial in determining the habitat value of man-made vernal pools. In general, most constructed pools were too steep and did not have wide enough edges.
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Vernal pools can serve as a temporary habitat for migrating birds, especially in
California. The rich invertebrate population in these pools provide food for ducks, herons, egrets, plovers and many other species.
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crustacean prey which utilize the same strategy to survive dry periods. Some killifish mature in only three to six weeks in order to make the most use of temporary pools before they disappear.
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Vernal pool flowers, with different species occurring in zones related to soil moisture and temperature gradients formed as the pool dries out. Sacramento
National Wildlife Refuge, Calif.
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Pinceel, Tom; Berghen, Birgit Vanden; Buschke, Falko; Waterkeyn, Aline; Nerantzoulis, Ivan da Costa; Rodrigues, Mery; Thoré, Eli; Burrough, Rick; Worth, Ellery; Brendonck, Luc (2021).
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are. As a result, most pools have been converted into residential zones, roads, and industrial parks. That is why most extant pools occur on protected or private land such as
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favoring different species. Playas may be inundated less frequently than vernal pools, and inundation typically coincides with colder weather unfavorable for plant growth.
698:. They hatch when rains replenish the water of the pool, and no stage of the animals' life cycle leaves the pool, except when eggs are accidentally transported by animal
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702:, wind, or rarely, by flood. Such animal populations may be very old indeed, when the conditions for seasonal vernal waters are stable enough. As an extreme example,
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usually devoid of fish, and thus allow the safe development of natal amphibian and insect species unable to withstand competition or predation by fish. Certain
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of
California. Vernal pool basins are often characteristics of Mediterranean climates, but occur in many other ecosystems, such as forested areas of the
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Ecology, Conservation and
Management of Vernal Pool Ecosystems. Proceedings from a 1996 Conference. Sacramento, CA: California Native Plant Society
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1944:
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848:"Detection of Potential Vernal Pools on the Canadian Shield (Ontario) Using Object-Based Image Analysis in Combination with Machine Learning"
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In vernal pools, flowering occurs simultaneously because of the seasonality of favorable conditions. Vernal pool ecosystems may include both
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Certain plant species are also associated with vernal pools, although the particular species depend upon the ecological region. The flora of
1190:"Anostraca (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) from Socotra Island: A new Branchipodopsis and its relationship with its African and Asian congeners"
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upland areas surrounding a vernal pool are critical for the survival of these species. In
California and New York state, the endangered
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40:, are seasonal pools of water that provide habitat for distinctive plants and animals. They are considered to be a distinctive type of
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710:, which is exceedingly remote for what it is, a continental fragment of Gondwana, is believed to have been isolated since the
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populations and plants. Low dissolved mineral concentrations of smaller vernal pool basins may be characterized as
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Some other species, notably
Anostraca, fairy shrimp and their relatives, lay eggs capable of entering a state of
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vernal pools, for example, are different from those of
Californian vernal pools, and they have characteristic
1969:
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651:) is dependent on vernal pools to breed as described above. A few other obligate vernal pool species are the
1979:
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Vernal pool with clay hardpan bottom, Vina Plains Nature Conservancy Preserve, California, United States
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basins in areas with high evaporation rates produce higher concentrations of dissolved minerals, with
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1164:"Vernal pools: Rains bring to life mini-ecosystem of button celery, Otay Mesa mint and fairy shrimp"
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While vernal pools can be devoid of fish, in some habitats such as African Savannah vernal pools,
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Silveira, Joseph G. "Avian uses of vernal pools and implications for conservation practice." In
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Bauder, Ellen T.; Belk, Denton; Ferrer, Wayne T. Jr. (1998). Witham, Carol W. (ed.).
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Bauder, Ellen T.; Belk, Denton; Ferrer, Wayne T. Jr. (1998). Witham, Carol W. (ed.).
953:
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Bauder, Ellen T.; Belk, Denton; Ferrer, Wayne T. Jr. (1998). Witham, Carol W. (ed.).
892:
867:
406:
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1050:"California Tiger Salamander - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts"
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may, due to their ability of their eggs to survive desiccation, co-exist with their
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and rocky plains or basins. While many vernal pools are only a few meters in width,
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1004:"Co-occurrence of large branchiopods and killifish in African savannah ponds"
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are more common. Some vernal pool inhabitants are becoming threatened due to
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Vernal pools are often threatened by development in the same way that other
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Barbour, Michael; Keeler-Wolf, Todd; Schoenherr, Allan A. (July 17, 2007).
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Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife - To Certify Vernal Pools
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1911:
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597:, a highly endangered plant, is found exclusively in vernal pools in the
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Some of the species within vernal pools are endangered. Fairy shrimp are
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to decisively define a vernal pool. Other indicator species, at least in
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2009:
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602:
530:
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467:
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298: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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89:
53:
1403:
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Van Damme, Kay; Dumont, Henri J.; Weekers, Peter H. H. (May 9, 2004).
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Hypothesis 3: Constructed pools have steeper slopes than natural ones.
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adults may visit the pool only briefly. Other notable inhabitants are
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Hypothesis 2: Edges of constructed pools narrower than natural ones.
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California Vernal Pools - A collection of information and resources
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is correspondingly isolated genetically as well as geographically.
593:, and endemic species occur in vernal pool areas. For example, the
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Upland plants commonly found at vernal pools in California include
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Ecology, Conservation, and Management of Vernal Pool Ecosystems
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Ecology, Conservation, and Management of Vernal Pool Ecosystems
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Ecology, Conservation, and Management of Vernal Pool Ecosystems
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photosynthesis, vernal pool species like Howell's quillwort (
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Hogan, C. Michael (July 31, 2010). Monosson, Emily (ed.).
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During most years, a vernal pool basin will experience
1187:
760:
739: – Small, ephemeral lake in expanding clay soils
891:. University of California Press. pp. 394–424.
846:
Luymes, Nick; Chow-Fraser, Patricia (July 4, 2021).
751: – Interface between land and a river or stream
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forest, but they are more typically associated with
84:. Note the one inhabited by cacti in the background.
71:
888:Terrestrial Vegetation of California, 3rd Edition
845:
2605:
1228:Sacramento Splash - Vernal Pools of Mather Field
1132:
1116:National Council for Science and the Environment
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911:
100:. These conditions are commonly associated with
745: – Relatively small body of standing water
1860:A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia
2130:
2116:
1945:Bangladesh Haor and Wetland Development Board
1870:Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type
1273:
340:Hypothesis 1: Constructed pools are too deep.
946:Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation
16:Seasonal pools of water that provide habitat
1162:Brennan, Deborah Sullivan (April 1, 2019).
410:) collect carbon dioxide nocturnally using
2123:
2109:
1280:
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1079:California Department of Fish and Wildlife
610:, which is found in limited parts of the
314:Learn how and when to remove this message
631:
376:
75:
20:
1161:
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1965:Meadowview Biological Research Station
1897:Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands
1085:from the original on February 22, 2018
68:, but occur in many other ecosystems.
2104:
1261:
1103:
944:Keddy, Paul A. (September 13, 2010).
943:
92:from rain/precipitation, followed by
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937:
296:adding citations to reliable sources
267:
1960:Irish Peatland Conservation Council
13:
852:Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing
636:Vernal pool in northern California
257:. One of these inhabitants is the
14:
2635:
1221:
934:
249:species. In some northern areas,
80:An inundated rock vernal pool on
72:Generation and annual development
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2085:
2084:
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782:
770:
272:
1456:Flooded grasslands and savannas
1253:Ontario Vernal Pool Association
1204:
1181:
1155:
1139:California Native Plant Society
1126:
1097:
979:California Native Plant Society
918:California Native Plant Society
283:needs additional citations for
263:
1067:
1042:
995:
966:
905:
878:
839:
814:
614:. A third example is the herb
330:
193:, the latter often used as an
1:
1980:Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust
1970:Society of Wetland Scientists
864:10.1080/07038992.2021.1900717
807:
601:area. Another example is the
555:, yellow and bright lavender
354:
1595:Peatland, mire, and quagmire
1287:
1054:Sacramento Fish and Wildlife
412:Crassulacean acid metabolism
259:California Tiger Salamander.
7:
1865:National Wetlands Inventory
1075:"California's Vernal Pools"
822:"California's Vernal Pools"
725:
336:attempted to explain this:
10:
2640:
1950:Delta Waterfowl Foundation
950:Cambridge University Press
757: – A forested wetland
706:on the main island of the
511:false Venus' looking glass
418:Cosmopolitan aquatic flora
177:
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2428:
2390:
2319:
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2142:
2068:
1992:
1937:
1887:
1878:
1850:
1819:
1766:
1738:
1698:
1302:
1295:
622:Sonoma County, California
2302:Waste stabilization pond
1929:Wetland indicator status
732:California native plants
716:Branchipodopsis relictus
704:Branchipodopsis relictus
668:Ambystoma jeffersonianum
627:
551:, several sweet-scented
372:
363:
1640:Freshwater swamp forest
1243:Vernal Pool Association
1168:San Diego Union-Tribune
673:blue-spotted salamander
483:Vernal pool specialists
48:fish lineages (such as
1975:Wetlands International
1746:List of wetland plants
1248:Jepson Prairie Reserve
952:. pp. 48–52, 65.
663:Jefferson's salamander
637:
612:San Francisco Bay Area
382:
232:they are so isolated.
209:, and some species of
85:
66:Mediterranean climates
26:
2257:Salt evaporation pond
1620:Salt pannes and pools
1111:Encyclopedia of Earth
635:
475:Triglochin scilloides
380:
102:Mediterranean climate
79:
24:
2512:Big fish–little pond
2481:Freshwater ecosystem
2415:Puddles on a surface
617:Limnanthes vinculans
292:improve this article
2522:Constructed wetland
2080:Wetlands portal
1711:Constructed wetland
1296:Types and landforms
1141:. pp. 2–3, 5.
948:(Second ed.).
708:Socotra archipelago
688:Ambystoma maculatum
607:Lasthenia conjugens
595:San Diego mesa mint
2405:Coffee ring effect
2212:Infiltration basin
2192:Facultative lagoon
1924:Salt marsh die-off
1842:Salt marsh dieback
1751:List of fen plants
1590:Palustrine wetland
1491:Intertidal wetland
1486:Interdunal wetland
981:. pp. 10–11.
683:spotted salamander
678:Ambystoma laterale
653:marbled salamander
648:Ambystoma tigrinum
638:
591:endangered species
585:A large number of
383:
243:, such as various
98:evapotranspiration
86:
27:
2601:
2600:
2542:Pond of Abundance
2476:Aquatic ecosystem
2098:
2097:
2000:Aquatic ecosystem
1988:
1987:
1907:Ramsar Convention
1734:
1733:
1716:Converted wetland
1658:Peat swamp forest
1521:Inland salt marsh
1214:. pp.92-94. 1998.
1081:. June 17, 2013.
959:978-0-5217-3967-2
898:978-0-520-24955-4
516:pincushion plants
407:Crassula aquatica
404:) and pygmyweed (
324:
323:
316:
195:indicator species
2631:
2314:
2187:Evaporation pond
2125:
2118:
2111:
2102:
2101:
2088:
2087:
2078:
2077:
2076:
2060:Will-o'-the-wisp
1993:Related articles
1885:
1884:
1685:Whitewater river
1635:Coniferous swamp
1516:Freshwater marsh
1409:Clearwater river
1325:Blackwater river
1300:
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1282:
1275:
1268:
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1258:
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1201:
1185:
1179:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1122:on June 8, 2013.
1118:. Archived from
1106:"Abiotic factor"
1101:
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1094:
1092:
1090:
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1064:
1062:
1060:
1046:
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1020:10.1002/ecy.3505
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658:Ambystoma opacum
643:tiger salamander
401:Isoetes howellii
395:perennial plants
319:
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276:
268:
211:mole salamanders
2639:
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2614:Bodies of water
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2603:
2602:
2597:
2490:
2462:
2424:
2386:
2362:Spent fuel pool
2357:Reflecting pool
2327:Anchialine pool
2315:
2306:
2138:
2129:
2099:
2094:
2074:
2072:
2064:
1984:
1955:Ducks Unlimited
1933:
1892:Clean Water Act
1874:
1852:Classifications
1846:
1815:
1762:
1730:
1694:
1645:Mangrove forest
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1194:Fauna of Arabia
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246:Branchipodopsis
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122:drainage basins
110:Canadian Shield
74:
52:) have however
38:ephemeral pools
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11:
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1222:External links
1220:
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1014:(12): e03505.
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858:(4): 519–534.
838:
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801:Earth sciences
791:
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576:national parks
549:yellow pansies
544:
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251:tadpole shrimp
207:spadefoot toad
179:
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147:photosynthesis
145:uptake during
143:carbon dioxide
141:shifts due to
106:Central Valley
82:Enchanted Rock
73:
70:
60:specifically.
32:, also called
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2636:
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2619:Natural pools
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2337:Infinity pool
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2041:
2040:Riparian zone
2038:
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2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
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1938:Organizations
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1675:Várzea forest
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1365:Polygonal bog
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969:
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951:
947:
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938:
929:
927:0-9434-6037-9
923:
920:. p. 1.
919:
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894:
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889:
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773:
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767:
764:
756:
753:
750:
749:Riparian zone
747:
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723:
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568:
566:
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558:
557:monkeyflowers
554:
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539:
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495:calicoflowers
493:
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361:
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345:
342:
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328:
318:
315:
307:
297:
293:
287:
286:
281:This section
279:
275:
270:
269:
261:
260:
256:
252:
248:
247:
242:
238:
237:South African
233:
230:
225:
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204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
187:
175:
173:
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156:
150:
148:
144:
140:
136:
133:, and poorly
132:
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117:
113:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
83:
78:
69:
67:
61:
59:
55:
51:
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39:
35:
31:
23:
19:
2586:Water Lilies
2585:
2580:Water garden
2560:(M C Escher)
2557:
2507:Bakki shower
2381:
2342:Natural pool
2242:Raceway pond
2172:Cooling pond
2162:Ballast pond
2025:List of bogs
1880:Conservation
1811:Ombrotrophic
1755:
1726:Water-meadow
1679:
1650:
1461:Grass valley
1451:Flood-meadow
1414:Cypress dome
1345:Cataract bog
1320:Beach meadow
1211:
1206:
1197:
1193:
1183:
1171:. Retrieved
1167:
1157:
1134:
1128:
1120:the original
1109:
1099:
1087:. Retrieved
1069:
1057:. Retrieved
1053:
1044:
1011:
1007:
997:
974:
968:
945:
913:
907:
887:
880:
855:
851:
841:
829:. Retrieved
825:
816:
720:
715:
703:
696:cryptobiosis
693:
686:
676:
666:
656:
646:
639:
615:
605:
584:
569:
546:
541:Solano grass
536:Orcutt grass
531:Colusa grass
482:
481:
473:
431:water clover
417:
416:
405:
399:
393:Many upland
392:
387:cosmopolitan
384:
367:
358:
349:
334:
325:
310:
301:
290:Please help
285:verification
282:
264:Habitat loss
255:habitat loss
244:
234:
226:
215:
191:fairy shrimp
184:
181:
151:
131:oligotrophic
118:
114:
104:such as the
87:
62:
37:
34:vernal ponds
33:
30:Vernal pools
29:
28:
18:
2532:Hydric soil
2420:Seep puddle
2382:Vernal pool
2367:Stream pool
2352:Plunge pool
2217:Kettle pond
2197:Garden pond
2050:Telmatology
2045:River delta
1912:Ramsar site
1902:Marsh organ
1801:Hydric soil
1680:Vernal pool
1663:Shrub swamp
1531:Tidal marsh
1360:Plateau bog
1350:Coastal bog
1340:Blanket bog
777:Environment
620:endemic to
561:star lilies
526:woollyheads
506:snorkelwort
502:(perennial)
490:stickyseeds
470:(perennial)
468:spikerushes
439:(perennial)
433:(perennial)
427:(perennial)
331:Restoration
229:crustaceans
222:branchiopod
199:New England
137:with rapid
94:desiccation
50:killifishes
2608:Categories
2547:Pond liner
2537:Phytotelma
2468:Ecosystems
2438:Beaver dam
2347:Ocean pool
2332:Brine pool
2297:Waste pond
2272:Solar pond
2010:Bog butter
1706:Bog garden
1699:Artificial
1670:Wet meadow
1536:High marsh
1526:Salt marsh
1429:Fen-meadow
1397:Alder carr
1380:Upland bog
1375:String bog
1370:Raised bog
1200:: 193–209.
808:References
681:) and the
603:wildflower
463:buttercups
453:waterworts
448:succulents
425:quillworts
355:Mitigation
304:April 2021
201:, are the
172:alkalinity
90:inundation
2527:Full pond
2448:Fish pond
2443:Duck pond
2400:Bird bath
2377:Tide pool
2282:Stew pond
2232:Mill pond
2227:Melt pond
1832:Hydrosere
1820:Processes
1806:Marsh gas
1651:Myristica
1541:Low marsh
1355:Kermi bog
1330:Bofedales
1310:Backswamp
1028:1939-9170
872:0703-8992
599:San Diego
458:mousetail
437:pillworts
241:Anostraca
218:killifish
203:wood frog
155:grassland
2624:Wetlands
2458:Koi pond
2287:Tailings
2277:Stepwell
2252:Sag pond
2222:Log pond
2202:Ice pond
2182:Dew pond
2152:Ash pond
2090:Category
2020:Bog-wood
2015:Bog iron
2005:Bog body
1827:Halosere
1779:Histosol
1774:Acrotelm
1757:Sphagnum
1615:Reed bed
1560:Moorland
1439:Rich fen
1434:Poor fen
1289:Wetlands
1173:April 5,
1089:June 14,
1083:Archived
1036:34319594
726:See also
700:phoresis
572:wetlands
168:salinity
135:buffered
56:to this
46:tropical
2588:(Monet)
2552:Ponding
2495:Related
2392:Puddles
2136:puddles
2055:Turbary
2035:Estuary
1610:Pothole
1600:Pocosin
1565:Mudflat
1404:Ciénega
1387:Callows
1303:Natural
1059:June 8,
1008:Ecology
831:June 8,
789:Ecology
763:Portals
712:Miocene
671:), the
580:ranches
553:clovers
186:Daphnia
178:Ecology
127:endemic
58:habitat
54:adapted
42:wetland
2565:Spring
2558:Puddle
2410:Puddle
1625:Slough
1580:Pakihi
1570:Muskeg
1496:Kettle
1466:Guelta
1145:
1034:
1026:
985:
956:
924:
895:
870:
737:Gilgai
578:, and
565:yarrow
563:, and
205:, the
159:playas
2430:Biome
2320:Pools
2144:Ponds
2132:Ponds
1721:Swale
1690:Yaéré
1653:swamp
1630:Swamp
1585:Palsa
1575:Oasis
1555:Misse
1506:Marsh
1476:Igapó
1471:Hamun
1446:Flark
1419:Dambo
1315:Bayou
755:Swamp
628:Fauna
373:Flora
364:Soils
96:from
2593:Well
2292:Tarn
2167:Beel
1917:List
1784:Peat
1739:Life
1605:Pond
1550:Mere
1501:Lagg
1481:Ings
1392:Carr
1175:2019
1143:ISBN
1091:2017
1061:2020
1032:PMID
1024:ISSN
983:ISBN
954:ISBN
922:ISBN
893:ISBN
868:ISSN
833:2020
743:Pond
587:rare
189:and
170:and
1424:Fen
1335:Bog
1016:doi
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