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when an RNA virus replicates in its host cell, changes in their genes are occasionally introduced in error, some of which are lethal. One virus particle can produce millions of progeny viruses in just one cycle of replication, therefore the production of a few "dud" viruses is not a problem. Most mutations are "silent" and do not result in any obvious changes to the progeny viruses, but others confer advantages that increase the fitness of the viruses in the environment. These could be changes to the virus particles that disguise them so they are not identified by the cells of the
257:, still contains traces of ancient evolutionary history that can be studied today. The study of protein FSFs suggests the existence of ancient cellular lineages common to both cells and viruses before the appearance of the 'last universal cellular ancestor' that gave rise to modern cells. Evolutionary pressure to reduce genome and particle size may have eventually reduced viro-cells into modern viruses, whereas other coexisting cellular lineages eventually evolved into modern cells. Furthermore, the long genetic distance between RNA and DNA FSFs suggests that the
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399:, which infected cattle and buffalo; and other viruses of seals, porpoises and dolphins. Although it is not possible to prove which of these rapidly evolving viruses is the earliest, for such a closely related group of viruses to be found in such diverse hosts suggests the possibility that their common ancestor is ancient.
131:. This indicates that some viruses emerged early in the evolution of life, and that they have probably arisen multiple times. It has been suggested that new groups of viruses have repeatedly emerged at all stages of evolution, often through the displacement of ancestral structural and genome replication genes.
483:
synthesis. These processes likely evolved very early. The adaptive features of the enzymes catalyzing these early processes may have been maintained in the phage T4, bacterial, and eukaryotic lineages because they were established well-tested solutions to basic functional problems by the time these
466:
are similar suggesting that phage T4 shares ancestry with both bacteria and eukaryotes and has about equal similarity to each. Phage T4 may have diverged in evolution from a common ancestor of bacteria and eukaryotes or from an early evolved member of either lineage. Most of the phage genes showing
239:
for the origin of viruses was proposed in 2019. According to this hypothesis, the replication modules of viruses originated from the primordial genetic pool, although the long course of their subsequent evolution involved many displacements by replicative genes from their cellular hosts. By contrast,
269:
perspective, it has therefore been proposed that on celestial bodies such as Mars not only cells but also traces of former virions or viroids should be actively searched for: possible findings of traces of virions in the apparent absence of cells could provide support for the virus-first hypothesis.
244:
One of the problems for studying viral origins and evolution is the high rate of viral mutation, particularly the case in RNA retroviruses like HIV/AIDS. A recent study based on comparisons of viral protein folding structures, however, is offering some new evidence. Fold Super
Families (FSFs) are
382:
Through these mechanisms new viruses are constantly emerging and present a continuing challenge in attempts to control the diseases they cause. Most species of viruses are now known to have common ancestors, and although the "virus first" hypothesis has yet to gain full acceptance, there is little
343:
are especially prone to mutations. In host cells there are mechanisms for correcting mistakes when DNA replicates and these kick in whenever cells divide. These important mechanisms prevent potentially lethal mutations from being passed on to offspring. But these mechanisms do not work for RNA and
202:
similar to viroids but has a protein coat derived from hepatitis B virus and cannot produce one of its own. It is, therefore, a defective virus. Although hepatitis delta virus genome may replicate independently once inside a host cell, it requires the help of hepatitis B virus to provide a protein
153:
are living cells that, like viruses, can reproduce only inside host cells. They lend support to this hypothesis, as their dependence on parasitism is likely to have caused the loss of genes that enabled them to survive outside a cell. This is also called the "degeneracy hypothesis", or "reduction
58:
allows viruses to quickly adapt to changes in their host environment. In addition, because viruses typically produce many copies in an infected host, mutated genes can be passed on to many offspring quickly. Although the chance of mutations and evolution can change depending on the type of virus
264:
Definitive exclusion of a hypothesis on the origin of viruses is difficult to make on Earth given the ubiquitous interactions between viruses and cells, and the lack of availability of rocks that are old enough to reveal traces of the earliest viruses on the planet. From an
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the genes encoding major structural proteins evolved from functionally diverse host proteins throughout the evolution of the virosphere. This scenario is distinct from each of the three traditional scenarios but combines features of the Virus-first and Escape hypotheses.
492:
Viruses have been able to continue their infectious existence due to evolution. Their rapid mutation rates and natural selection has given viruses the advantage to continue to spread. One way that viruses have been able to spread is with the evolution of virus
545:, or the harm that the virus does on its host, depends on various factors. In particular, the method of transmission tends to affect how the level of virulence will change over time. Viruses that transmit through
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The evolutionary history of viruses can to some extent be inferred from analysis of contemporary viral genomes. The mutation rates for many viruses have been measured, and application of a
335:
Viruses evolve through changes in their RNA (or DNA), some quite rapidly, and the best adapted mutants quickly outnumber their less fit counterparts. In this sense their evolution is
375:, and is often the cause of new and more virulent strains appearing. Other viruses change more slowly as mutations in their genes gradually accumulate over time, a process known as
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are molecules of RNA that are not classified as viruses because they lack a protein coat. They have characteristics that are common to several viruses and are often called
54:
per round of replication). Although most viral mutations confer no benefit and often even prove deleterious to viruses, the rapid rate of viral mutation combined with
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Many viruses (for example, influenza A virus) can "shuffle" their genes with other viruses when two similar strains infect the same cell. This phenomenon is called
134:
There are three classical hypotheses on the origins of viruses and how they evolved: There are three main hypotheses that aim to explain the origins of viruses:
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194:. Viroids are important pathogens of plants. They do not code for proteins but interact with the host cell and use the host machinery for their replication. The
168:(molecules of DNA that replicate and move around to different positions within the genes of the cell). Once called "jumping genes", transposons are examples of
1051:
La Scola B, Desnues C, Pagnier I, Robert C, Barrassi L, Fournous G, et al. (September 2008). "The virophage as a unique parasite of the giant mimivirus".
430:. Phage T4 is an obligate intracellular parasite that reproduces within the host bacterial cell and its progeny are released when the host is destroyed by
339:. The way viruses reproduce in their host cells makes them particularly susceptible to the genetic changes that help to drive their evolution. The
553:(transmission between members of the same species that don't have a parent-child relationship) will usually evolve to have a higher virulence.
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proteins that show similar folding structures independent of the actual sequence of amino acids, and have been found to show evidence of viral
160:
Some viruses may have evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that "escaped" from the genes of a larger organism. The escaped DNA could have come from
102:
often appear within weeks or months after the beginning of a treatment. One of the main theoretical models applied to viral evolution is the
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Lam TT, Hon CC, Tang JW (February 2010). "Use of phylogenetics in the molecular epidemiology and evolutionary studies of viral infections".
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Viruses are ancient. Studies at the molecular level have revealed relationships between viruses infecting organisms from each of the
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are a valuable source of retrospective evidence about the evolutionary history of viruses, and have given birth to the science of
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This is also called the "virus-first hypothesis" and proposes that viruses may have evolved from complex molecules of protein and
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387:, for example, are a group of closely related, but distinct viruses that infect a broad range of animals. The group includes
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at the same time that cells first appeared on Earth and would have been dependent on cellular life for billions of years.
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549:(transmission to the offspring of the host) will evolve to have lower levels of virulence. Viruses that transmit through
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Krupovic M, Dolja VV, Koonin EV (July 2019). "Origin of viruses: primordial replicators recruiting capsids from hosts".
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fragments forming sedimentary rocks that fossilize plants and animals. However, the genomes of many organisms contain
59:(e.g., double stranded DNA, double stranded RNA, single strand DNA), viruses overall have high chances for mutations.
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442:. These virulent viruses are among the largest, most complex viruses that are known and one of the best studied
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302:(EVEs). These DNA sequences are the remnants of ancient virus genes and genomes that ancestrally 'invaded' the
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218:. These viruses, which are dependent on the presence of other virus species in the host cell, are called "
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doubt that the thousands of species of modern viruses have evolved from less numerous ancient ones. The
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may have new experimental evidence, with a long intermediary period in the evolution of cellular life.
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1450:"Influenza virus antigenic variation, host antibody production and new approach to control epidemics"
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Waterborne transmission- leaving a host, infecting the water, and being consumed in a new host
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Based on the analyses of the evolution of the replicative and structural modules of viruses, a
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homology with bacteria and eukaryotes encode enzymes acting in the ubiquitous processes of
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1850:"Implications of horizontal and vertical pathogen transmission for honey bee epidemiology"
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in 1950. This is sometimes called the "vagrancy hypothesis", or the "escape hypothesis".
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larger cells. Over time, genes not required by their parasitism were lost. The bacteria
127:, suggesting viral proteins that pre-date the divergence of life and thus infecting the
90:). The rapidity of viral mutation also causes problems in the development of successful
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Sit-and-wait-transmission- the virus is living outside a host for long periods of time
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Rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants: virus plagues of large and small ruminants
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Domingo E, EscarmĂs C, Sevilla N, Moya A, Elena SF, Quer J, et al. (June 1996).
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Subfield of evolutionary biology and virology concerned with the evolution of viruses
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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395:, which infects many animals including dogs, cats, bears, weasels and hyaenas;
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as a group of closely related viral strains competing within an environment.
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1956:
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Tsagris EM, MartĂnez de Alba AE, Gozmanova M, Kalantidis K (November 2008).
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Miller ES, Kutter E, Mosig G, Arisaka F, Kunisawa T, RĂĽger W (March 2003).
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Fraile A, GarcĂa-Arenal F (2010). "The
Coevolution of Plants and Viruses".
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Airborne transmission- passed on through the air (brought in by breathing)
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Boutwell CL, Rolland MM, Herbeck JT, Mullins JI, Allen TM (October 2010).
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Droplet transmission- passed on through body fluids (sneezing on someone)
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and could be the origin of some viruses. They were discovered in maize by
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3199:
2928:
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2199:
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767:"Origin of viruses: primordial replicators recruiting capsids from hosts"
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2768:
1161:"The Need for Including Virus Detection Methods in Future Mars Missions"
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species contain hundreds to thousands of sequences derived from ancient
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in the traditional sense, because they are much smaller than the finest
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coat so that it can be transmitted to new cells. In similar manner, the
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1104:"A phylogenomic data-driven exploration of viral origins and evolution"
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314:
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Vector transmission- picked up by a carrier and brought to a new host
222:" and may represent evolutionary intermediates of viroids and viruses.
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The coevolution of plants and viruses: resistance and pathogenicity
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306:
250:
27:
1681:"Bacteriophage T4 genetic homologies with bacteria and eucaryotes"
856:
Collier L, Balows A, Sussman M (1998). Mahy B, Collier LA (eds.).
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2325:
1544:"Emerging, novel, and known influenza virus infections in humans"
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295:
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91:
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435:
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199:
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38:. Viruses have short generation times, and many—in particular
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1386:
431:
35:
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1983:
Sussman M, Topley W, Wilson GK, Collier L, Balows A (1998).
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less effective. Both of these changes occur frequently with
1985:
Topley & Wilson's microbiology and microbial infections
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75:
1337:
1500:
1389:"Viral evolution and escape during acute HIV-1 infection"
858:
353:
79:
2013:"Impact of Infectious Disease on Humans and Our Origins"
1626:
1219:"Paleovirology--modern consequences of ancient viruses"
1217:
Emerman M, Malik HS (February 2010). Virgin SW (ed.).
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1915:
1614:
1602:
1435:
512:
An example would be how viral meningitis is passed on
164:(pieces of naked DNA that can move between cells) or
1936:
1881:
The microbial challenge: a public health perspective
1542:
Tang JW, Shetty N, Lam TT, Hon KL (September 2010).
1322:
1310:
1101:
855:
823:
701:
446:. They have played a key role in the development of
1982:
1963:
1883:. Burlington, Mass: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
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1498:
764:
721:
689:
677:
624:
1678:
945:"The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize"
717:
715:
713:
3420:
1674:
1672:
1541:
1270:Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences
1212:
1210:
885:
710:
363:Phylogenetic tree showing the relationships of
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1331:
851:
849:
847:
845:
819:
817:
815:
813:
811:
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536:The smallpox virus is also an example for this
62:Viral evolution is an important aspect of the
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1847:
1669:
1102:Nasir A, Caetano-Anollés G (September 2015).
1044:
913:
911:
909:
907:
765:Krupovic M, Dolja VV, Koonin EV (July 2019).
118:
1872:
1535:
1492:
1441:
1380:
1261:
1216:
1207:
995:
881:
879:
877:
758:
141:Viruses may have once been small cells that
1916:Barrett TC, Pastoret PP, Taylor WJ (2006).
1822:
1820:
1548:Infectious Disease Clinics of North America
1328:
842:
808:
332:allows dates of divergence to be inferred.
2100:
2086:
1633:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
1267:
942:
904:
636:
618:
391:virus, which infects humans and primates;
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1964:Mahy W, Van Regenmortel MH, eds. (2009).
1704:
1652:
1567:
1475:
1465:
1412:
1355:
1244:
1234:
1135:
1019:
978:
968:
874:
824:Dimmock NJ, Easton AJ, Leppard K (2007).
497:. The virus can find a new host through:
3334:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2107:
1830:. Center for Disease Control. 2017-07-13
1817:
1781:. Center for Disease Control. 2017-12-04
1760:. Center for Disease Control. 2017-10-16
1447:
860:. Virology. Vol. 1 (9th ed.).
358:
277:
30:that is specifically concerned with the
1937:Leppard K, Dimmock N, Easton A (2007).
1878:
1340:"Basic concepts in RNA virus evolution"
438:sequence of phage T4 encodes about 300
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2010:
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886:Mahy WJ, Regenmortel MH, eds. (2009).
828:(6th ed.). Blackwell Publishing.
3097:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
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1966:Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology
1679:Bernstein H, Bernstein C (May 1989).
917:
888:Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology
1615:Barrett, Pastoret & Taylor 2006
1603:Barrett, Pastoret & Taylor 2006
1436:Barrett, Pastoret & Taylor 2006
309:. For example, the genomes of most
226:
13:
2502:Evolutionary developmental biology
2003:
1393:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
1323:Leppard, Dimmock & Easton 2007
1311:Leppard, Dimmock & Easton 2007
702:Leppard, Dimmock & Easton 2007
420:bacteria. It is a double-stranded
14:
3450:
2053:
1754:"Key Facts About Influenza (Flu)"
922:. Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
639:Viruses and the Evolution of Life
528:Poliovirus is an example for this
504:An example is the influenza virus
3406:
3394:
3382:
3356:
3347:
3346:
2073:from the original on 2021-12-12.
1639:(1): 86–156, table of contents.
1021:10.1111/j.1462-5822.2008.01231.x
520:An example is viral encephalitis
402:
3159:Extended evolutionary synthesis
2348:Gene-centered view of evolution
1939:Introduction to Modern Virology
1908:
1841:
1792:
1771:
1746:
1729:"Evolution from a virus's view"
1721:
1697:10.1128/jb.171.5.2265-2270.1989
1620:
1608:
1596:
1591:Mahy & Van Regenmortel 2009
1584:
1429:
1316:
1304:
1152:
1095:
936:
826:Introduction to Modern Virology
690:Mahy & Van Regenmortel 2009
678:Mahy & Van Regenmortel 2009
625:Mahy & Van Regenmortel 2009
574:Evolution of the Sacbrood Virus
487:
3287:Hologenome theory of evolution
3154:History of molecular evolution
2380:Evolutionarily stable strategy
2269:Last universal common ancestor
2061:"Where Did Viruses Come From?"
1806:. National Library of Medicine
1448:Chen J, Deng YM (March 2009).
695:
683:
671:
211:, which infects the protozoan
129:last universal common ancestor
1:
3081:Renaissance and Enlightenment
1645:10.1128/MMBR.67.1.86-156.2003
1511:10.1016/S0065-3527(10)76001-2
610:
3439:Microbial population biology
3292:Missing heritability problem
2919:Gamete differentiation/sexes
1848:Fries I, Camazine S (2001).
1236:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000301
774:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
724:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
273:
233:Chimeric-origins hypothesis:
7:
1357:10.1096/fasebj.10.8.8666162
556:
454:. The numbers of reported
410:(phage T4) is a species of
10:
3455:
2924:Life cycles/nuclear phases
2476:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
2029:10.18778/1898-6773.85.1.07
1159:Janjic A (December 2018).
943:McClintock B (June 1950).
890:. Oxford: Academic Press.
157:Cellular origin hypothesis
119:Three classical hypotheses
113:
66:of viral diseases such as
3342:
3242:
3167:
3071:
2998:
2954:
2809:
2713:
2530:
2489:
2422:Parent–offspring conflict
2358:
2227:Earliest known life forms
2148:
2115:
1629:"Bacteriophage T4 genome"
1560:10.1016/j.idc.2010.04.001
1282:10.3109/10408361003633318
786:10.1038/s41579-019-0205-6
736:10.1038/s41579-019-0205-6
569:Earliest known life forms
462:and between phage T4 and
300:endogenous viral elements
3275:Cultural group selection
3139:The eclipse of Darwinism
3111:On the Origin of Species
3086:Transmutation of species
1758:Seasonal Influenza (Flu)
604:Endothelial Cell Tropism
589:Viral decay acceleration
3280:Dual inheritance theory
3119:History of paleontology
1685:Journal of Bacteriology
551:horizontal transmission
179:Co-evolution hypothesis
170:mobile genetic elements
2968:Punctuated equilibrium
2289:Non-adaptive radiation
2237:Evolutionary arms race
2017:Anthropological Review
1733:evolution.berkeley.edu
1467:10.1186/1743-422X-6-30
1399:(Suppl 2): S309–S314.
1128:10.1126/sciadv.1500527
637:Villarreal LP (2005).
393:canine distemper virus
368:
287:
42:—have relatively high
3260:Evolutionary medicine
3134:Mendelian inheritance
2842:Biological complexity
2830:Programmed cell death
2522:Phenotypic plasticity
2242:Evolutionary pressure
2232:Evidence of evolution
2130:Timeline of evolution
1866:10.1051/apido:2001122
1185:10.1089/ast.2018.1851
1008:Cellular Microbiology
970:10.1073/pnas.36.6.344
920:Understanding Viruses
647:10.1128/9781555817626
547:vertical transmission
458:between phage T4 and
362:
348:or changes that make
281:
198:of humans has an RNA
196:hepatitis delta virus
138:Regressive hypothesis
125:three domains of life
46:(on the order of one
3429:Evolutionary biology
3389:Evolutionary biology
3234:Teleology in biology
3129:Blending inheritance
2507:Genetic assimilation
2370:Artificial selection
2109:Evolutionary biology
584:Viral classification
408:Escherichia virus T4
367:of different species
290:Viruses do not form
286:in the human lineage
259:RNA world hypothesis
24:evolutionary biology
3297:Molecular evolution
3255:Ecological genetics
3124:Transitional fossil
2914:Sexual reproduction
2754:endomembrane system
2683:pollinator-mediated
2639:dolphins and whales
2417:Parental investment
1779:"Meningitis, Viral"
1177:2018AsBio..18.1611J
1120:2015SciA....1E0527N
1073:10.1038/nature07218
1065:2008Natur.455..100L
961:1950PNAS...36..344M
594:Viral phylodynamics
484:lineages diverged.
100:resistant mutations
3270:Cultural evolution
2385:Fisher's principle
2314:Handicap principle
2304:Parallel evolution
2168:Adaptive radiation
1968:. Academic Press.
1879:Krasner R (2014).
599:Viral quasispecies
456:genetic homologies
369:
288:
174:Barbara McClintock
108:viral quasispecies
106:, which defines a
104:quasispecies model
3370:
3369:
2986:Uniformitarianism
2939:Sex-determination
2444:Sexual dimorphism
2439:Natural selection
2343:Unit of selection
2309:Signalling theory
2069:. June 12, 2018.
2011:Gabrić P (2022).
1975:978-0-12-375146-1
1948:978-1-4051-3645-7
1890:978-1-4496-7375-8
1520:978-0-12-374525-5
1171:(12): 1611–1614.
929:978-1-284-02592-7
897:978-0-12-375146-1
835:978-1-4051-3645-7
656:978-1-55581-309-3
452:molecular biology
237:chimeric scenario
205:sputnik virophage
56:natural selection
22:is a subfield of
3446:
3411:
3410:
3399:
3398:
3387:
3386:
3378:
3360:
3350:
3349:
3149:Modern synthesis
2909:Multicellularity
2904:Mosaic evolution
2789:auditory ossicle
2471:Social selection
2454:Flowering plants
2449:Sexual selection
2102:
2095:
2088:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2040:
1998:
1979:
1960:
1933:
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1719:
1718:
1708:
1691:(5): 2265–2270.
1676:
1667:
1666:
1656:
1624:
1618:
1617:, pp. 24–25
1612:
1606:
1600:
1594:
1593:, pp. 70–80
1588:
1582:
1581:
1571:
1539:
1533:
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1496:
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1489:
1479:
1469:
1454:Virology Journal
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1139:
1108:Science Advances
1099:
1093:
1092:
1059:(7209): 100–04.
1048:
1042:
1041:
1023:
999:
993:
992:
982:
972:
940:
934:
933:
918:Shors T (2017).
915:
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681:
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669:
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417:Escherichia coli
253:of a virus, the
227:Later hypotheses
207:is dependent on
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3265:Group selection
3238:
3163:
3067:
2994:
2956:Tempo and modes
2950:
2805:
2709:
2526:
2485:
2361:
2354:
2331:Species complex
2144:
2135:History of life
2111:
2106:
2059:
2056:
2051:
2043:
2041:
2006:
2004:Further reading
2001:
1995:
1976:
1949:
1930:
1911:
1906:
1891:
1877:
1873:
1868:. hal-00891679.
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1735:. December 2007
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1229:(2): e1000301.
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1114:(8): e1500527.
1100:
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1014:(11): 2168–79.
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469:DNA replication
444:model organisms
434:. The complete
405:
385:morbilliviruses
377:antigenic drift
365:morbilliviruses
350:antiviral drugs
330:molecular clock
276:
267:astrobiological
229:
192:subviral agents
121:
116:
96:antiviral drugs
72:influenza virus
20:Viral evolution
17:
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3105:Charles Darwin
3102:
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3043:Non-ecological
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2294:Origin of life
2291:
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2279:Microevolution
2276:
2274:Macroevolution
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2212:Common descent
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2190:Baldwin effect
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2055:
2054:External links
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1860:(3): 199–214.
1840:
1816:
1800:"Encephalitis"
1791:
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1583:
1554:(3): 603–617.
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424:in the family
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48:point mutation
44:mutation rates
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3307:Phylogenetics
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3185:Catastrophism
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955:(6): 344–55.
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440:gene products
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412:bacteriophage
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373:genetic shift
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29:
25:
21:
3319:Polymorphism
3302:Astrobiology
3250:Biogeography
3205:Saltationism
3195:Orthogenesis
3180:Alternatives
3109:
3095:
3028:Cospeciation
3023:Cladogenesis
2972:Saltationism
2929:Mating types
2852:Color vision
2837:Avian flight
2759:mitochondria
2704:
2497:Canalisation
2375:Biodiversity
2120:Introduction
2064:
2042:. Retrieved
2023:(1): 101–6.
2020:
2016:
1984:
1965:
1938:
1922:. Elsevier.
1918:
1909:Bibliography
1880:
1874:
1857:
1853:
1843:
1832:. Retrieved
1808:. Retrieved
1803:
1794:
1783:. Retrieved
1773:
1762:. Retrieved
1757:
1748:
1737:. Retrieved
1732:
1723:
1688:
1684:
1636:
1632:
1622:
1610:
1605:, p. 16
1598:
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1223:PLOS Biology
1222:
1168:
1165:Astrobiology
1164:
1154:
1111:
1107:
1097:
1056:
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1046:
1011:
1007:
997:
952:
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825:
777:
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760:
727:
723:
697:
692:, p. 26
685:
680:, p. 25
673:
638:
632:
627:, p. 24
620:
614:
541:
495:transmission
491:
488:Transmission
425:
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381:
370:
334:
327:
315:retroviruses
289:
284:paleoviruses
263:
254:
243:
236:
232:
214:Acanthamoeba
212:
184:nucleic acid
154:hypothesis".
133:
122:
64:epidemiology
61:
50:or more per
19:
18:
3329:Systematics
3200:Mutationism
3018:Catagenesis
2946:Snake venom
2879:Eusociality
2857:in primates
2847:Cooperation
2775:In animals
2595:butterflies
2568:Cephalopods
2558:Brachiopods
2490:Development
2464:Mate choice
2217:Convergence
2200:Coevolution
2158:Abiogenesis
2038:11089/43149
1276:(1): 5–49.
341:RNA viruses
216:castellanii
166:transposons
143:parasitised
40:RNA viruses
3423:Categories
3190:Lamarckism
3168:Philosophy
3091:David Hume
3053:Peripatric
3048:Parapatric
3033:Ecological
3013:Anagenesis
3008:Allopatric
3000:Speciation
2964:Gradualism
2889:Metabolism
2749:chromosome
2739:Eukaryotes
2517:Modularity
2434:Population
2360:Population
2321:Speciation
2299:Panspermia
2252:Extinction
2247:Exaptation
2222:Divergence
2195:Cladistics
2183:Reciprocal
2163:Adaptation
2044:2023-05-11
1987:. Arnold.
1854:Apidologie
1834:2017-12-05
1828:"Smallpox"
1810:2017-12-05
1785:2017-12-05
1764:2017-12-05
1739:2017-11-27
704:, p.
611:References
481:nucleotide
473:DNA repair
464:eukaryotes
427:Myoviridae
397:rinderpest
311:vertebrate
220:satellites
147:rickettsia
3324:Protocell
3175:Darwinism
3063:Sympatric
2812:processes
2700:Tetrapods
2649:Kangaroos
2575:Dinosaurs
2512:Inversion
2481:Variation
2402:Gene flow
2395:Inclusive
2205:Mutualism
2150:Evolution
1899:794228026
1201:105299840
1193:1531-1074
1038:221581424
1004:"Viroids"
802:256744818
752:169035711
665:755638822
579:RNA virus
564:DNA virus
543:Virulence
422:DNA virus
337:Darwinian
319:sequences
317:. These
296:colloidal
274:Evolution
247:phylogeny
209:mimivirus
151:chlamydia
84:hepatitis
68:influenza
32:evolution
3434:Virology
3352:Category
3227:Vitalism
3222:Theistic
3215:Spandrel
2899:Morality
2894:Monogamy
2769:plastids
2734:Flagella
2690:Reptiles
2671:sea cows
2654:primates
2563:Molluscs
2541:Bacteria
2429:Mutation
2362:genetics
2338:Taxonomy
2284:Mismatch
2264:Homology
2178:Cheating
2173:Altruism
2071:Archived
2066:PBS Eons
1957:65207057
1663:12626685
1578:20674794
1529:20965070
1486:19284639
1423:20846038
1374:20865732
1298:35371362
1290:20367503
1255:20161719
1146:26601271
1081:18690211
1030:18764915
989:15430309
794:31142823
744:31142823
557:See also
460:bacteria
448:virology
307:germline
251:proteome
162:plasmids
92:vaccines
28:virology
3413:Viruses
3401:Science
3375:Portals
3243:Related
3073:History
2934:Meiosis
2869:Empathy
2864:Emotion
2764:nucleus
2705:Viruses
2695:Spiders
2607:Mammals
2590:Insects
2390:Fitness
2326:Species
2125:Outline
1715:2651395
1569:7127320
1477:2666653
1414:2945609
1366:8666162
1246:2817711
1173:Bibcode
1137:4643759
1116:Bibcode
1089:4422249
1061:Bibcode
980:1063197
957:Bibcode
389:measles
292:fossils
188:Viroids
114:Origins
82:), and
36:viruses
3362:Portal
3038:Hybrid
2874:Ethics
2716:organs
2678:Plants
2664:lemurs
2659:humans
2644:horses
2634:hyenas
2622:wolves
2617:canids
2551:origin
1991:
1972:
1955:
1945:
1926:
1897:
1887:
1713:
1706:209897
1703:
1661:
1654:150520
1651:
1576:
1566:
1527:
1517:
1484:
1474:
1460:: 30.
1421:
1411:
1372:
1364:
1296:
1288:
1253:
1243:
1199:
1191:
1144:
1134:
1087:
1079:
1053:Nature
1036:
1028:
987:
977:
926:
894:
864:
832:
800:
792:
750:
742:
663:
653:
436:genome
249:. The
200:genome
86:(e.g.
52:genome
2825:Death
2820:Aging
2799:brain
2585:Fungi
2546:Birds
2459:Fungi
2257:Event
2140:Index
1370:S2CID
1294:S2CID
1197:S2CID
1085:S2CID
1034:S2CID
798:S2CID
770:(PDF)
748:S2CID
432:lysis
98:, as
3312:Tree
2784:hair
2724:Cell
2627:dogs
2612:cats
2602:Life
2580:Fish
2533:taxa
1989:ISBN
1970:ISBN
1953:OCLC
1943:ISBN
1924:ISBN
1895:OCLC
1885:ISBN
1711:PMID
1659:PMID
1574:PMID
1525:PMID
1515:ISBN
1482:PMID
1419:PMID
1362:PMID
1286:PMID
1251:PMID
1189:ISSN
1142:PMID
1077:PMID
1026:PMID
985:PMID
924:ISBN
892:ISBN
862:ISBN
830:ISBN
790:PMID
740:PMID
661:OCLC
651:ISBN
479:and
450:and
304:host
149:and
94:and
76:AIDS
26:and
2810:Of
2779:eye
2729:DNA
2714:Of
2531:Of
2033:hdl
2025:doi
1862:doi
1701:PMC
1693:doi
1689:171
1649:PMC
1641:doi
1564:PMC
1556:doi
1507:doi
1472:PMC
1462:doi
1409:PMC
1401:doi
1397:202
1352:doi
1278:doi
1241:PMC
1231:doi
1181:doi
1132:PMC
1124:doi
1069:doi
1057:455
1016:doi
975:PMC
965:doi
782:doi
732:doi
643:doi
354:HIV
88:HCV
80:HIV
74:),
34:of
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