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found that handwashing interventions reduced the relative risk of diarrhea by approximately 40%. Similarly, handwashing promotion has been found to be associated with a 47% decrease in morbidity. However, a challenge with WASH behavioral intervention studies is an inability to ensure compliance with such interventions, especially when studies rely on self-reporting of disease rates. This prevents researchers from concluding a causal relationship between decreased morbidity and the intervention. For example, researchers may conclude that educating communities about handwashing is effective at reducing disease,but cannot conclude that handwashing reduces disease. Point-of-use water supply and point-of-use water quality interventions also show similar effectiveness to handwashing, with those that include provision of safe storage containers demonstrating increased disease reduction in infants.
720:
25:
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1087:
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quasi-randomized study on historical data from the United States also found that the introduction of clean water technologies in major cities was responsible for close to half the reduction in total mortality and over three-quarters of the reduction in infant mortality. Distributing chlorine products, or other water disinfectants, for use in the home may reduce instances of diarrhea. However, most studies on water quality improvement interventions suffer from residual confounding or poor adherence to the mechanism being studied. For instance, a study conducted in Nepal found that adherence to the use of chlorine tablets or chlorine solution to purify water was as low as 18.5% among program households. A study on a
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2027:
612:
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1303:(RCTs), are expensive, difficult and in many cases not ethical. Causal impact from such studies are thus prone to being biased due to residual confounding. Blind studies of WASH interventions also pose ethical challenges and difficulties associated with implementing new technologies or behavioral changes without participant's knowledge. Moreover, scholars suggest a need for longer-term studies of technology efficacy, greater analysis of sanitation interventions, and studies of combined effects from multiple interventions in order to more sufficiently gauge WASH health outcomes.
45:
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2075:
34:
1368:. It is estimated that 263 million people worldwide spent over 30 minutes per round trip to collect water from an improved source. In sub-Saharan Africa, women and girls carry water containers for an average of three miles each day, spending 40 billion hours per year on water collection (walking to the water source, waiting in line, walking back). The time to collect water can come at the expense of education, income generating activities, cultural and political involvement, and rest and recreation. For example, in low-income areas of
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easily outside of an unclean stall or where no toilets are nearby, and due to the effects of menstruation beginning during puberty. These effects include low participation in the labor market and community activities, adverse biomedical outcomes, psychosocial stress, and poor educational outcomes. Women and girls often bear higher health and social costs associated with water and sanitation insecurity than men and boys, such as higher exposure to water-related disease, discriminatory taboos, and unrealized economic productivity.
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operation. Climate change adaptation policies need to consider the risks from extreme weather events. The required adaptation measures need to consider measures for droughts and those for floods. Adaptation measures for droughts include for example: reduce leakages in a pro-active manner, communicate restrictions on water use to consumers. Adaptation measures for floods include for example: Review the siting of the water and wastewater treatment plants in floodplains, minimize the impact of floodwater on operational equipment.
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the portion of malnutrition that is caused by infectious diseases which are in turn caused by unsafe WASH practices. Based on expert opinions and a literature survey, researchers at WHO arrived at the conclusion that approximately half of all cases of malnutrition (which often leads to stunting) in children under five is associated with repeated diarrhea or intestinal worm infections as a result of unsafe water, inadequate sanitation or insufficient hygiene.
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299:
2222:(NSSS). This is despite the fact that such sanitation systems are prevalent in many countries. NSSS play a vital role in the safe management of fecal sludge and account for approximately half of all existing sanitation provisions. The global methane emissions from NSSS in 2020 was estimated to be 377 Mt CO2e/year or 4.7% of global anthropogenic methane emissions. This is comparable to the greenhouse gas emissions from conventional
2050:) and sanitation systems have been well documented. This has been attributed to financial costs, inadequate technical training for operations and maintenance, poor use of new facilities and taught behaviors, and a lack of community participation and ownership. The poorest populations often cannot afford fees required for operation and maintenance of WASH infrastructure, preventing them from benefitting even when systems do exist.
445:
practice is underpinned by an assumption that untreated groundwater is typically suitable for drinking due to the relative microbiological safety of groundwater compared to surface water; however, chemistry risks are largely disregarded. Chemical contaminants occur widely in groundwaters that are used for drinking but are not regularly monitored. Example priority parameters are fluoride, arsenic, nitrate, or salinity.
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Lingzhi; Ciampi, Luisa; Dalin, Carole; Dasandi, Niheer; Dasgupta, Shouro; Davies, Michael; Dominguez-Salas, Paula; Dubrow, Robert; Ebi, Kristie L; Eckelman, Matthew; Ekins, Paul; Escobar, Luis E; Georgeson, Lucien; Grace, Delia; Graham, Hilary; Gunther, Samuel H; Hartinger, Stella; He, Kehan; Heaviside, Clare; Hess, Jeremy; Hsu, Shih-Che; Jankin, Slava; Jimenez, Marcia P; Kelman, Ilan; et al. (October 2021).
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2697:. Scientists found in 2022 that rising temperatures are increasing the areas where dengue fever, malaria and other mosquito-carried diseases are able to spread. Warmer temperatures are also advancing to higher elevations, allowing mosquitoes to survive in places that were previously in hospitable to them. This risks malaria returning to areas where it was previously eradicated.
909:. These changes in the estimates of death and disease can partly be explained by the progress that has been achieved in some countries in improving access to WASH. For example, several large Asian countries (China, India, Indonesia) have managed to increase the "safely managed sanitation services" in their country from the year 2015 to 2020 by more than 10 percentage points.
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646:. In the context of WASH, handwashing with soap and water is regarded as a top priority in all settings, and has been chosen as an indicator for national and global monitoring of hygiene access. "Basic hygiene facilities" are those were people have a handwashing facility with soap and water available on their premises. Handwashing facilities can consist of a sink with
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all DALYs globally." Of the four health outcomes studied, it was diarrheal disease that had the most striking correlation, namely the highest number of "attributable burden of disease": over 1 million deaths and 55 million DALYs from diarrheal diseases was linked with lack of WASH. Of these deaths, 564,000 deaths were linked to unsafe sanitation in particular.
471:, limited, basic, safely managed. A distinction is made between sanitation facilities that are shared between two or more households (a "limited service") and those that are not shared (a "basic service"). The definition of improved sanitation facilities is: Those facilities designed to hygienically separate excreta from human contact.
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Four important activities to achieve climate resilient WASH services include: First, a risk analysis is performed to look at possible implications of extreme weather events as well as preventive actions. Such preventive actions can include for example elevating the infrastructure to be above expected
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Engineers and planners need to adapt design standards for water and sanitation systems to account for the changing climate conditions. Otherwise these infrastructure systems will be more and more vulnerable in future. The same applies for other key infrastructure systems such as transport, energy and
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It has been estimated, using data from 2012 and 2013, that "wastewater treatment in centralized facilities contributes alone some 3% of global nitrous oxide emissions and 7% of anthropogenic methane emissions". Data from 2023 from centralized sewage treatment plants in the United States indicate that
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Many scholars have attempted to summarize the evidence of WASH interventions from the limited number of high quality studies. Hygiene interventions, in particular those focusing on the promotion of handwashing, appear to be especially effective in reducing morbidity. A meta-analysis of the literature
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become more likely when clean water and toilets are unavailable. In
Bangladesh and India, women rely on old cloths to absorb menstrual blood and use water to clean and reuse them. Without access to clean water and hygiene, these women my experience unnecessary health problems in connection with their
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caused by unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices was estimated by the World Health
Organization in 2008 to lead to 860,000 deaths per year in children under five years of age. The multiple interdependencies between malnutrition and infectious diseases make it very difficult to quantify
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In 2017, the global situation was reported as follows: Only 1 in 4 people in low-income countries had handwashing facilities with soap and water at home; only 14% of people in Sub-Saharan Africa have handwashing facilities. Worldwide, at least 500 million women and girls lack adequate, safe, and
251:
of WASH services. Adaptive capacity in water management systems can help to absorb some of the impacts of climate-related events and increase climate resilience. Stakeholders at various scales, i.e., from small urban utilities to national governments, need to have access to reliable information about
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There is debate in the academic literature about the effectiveness on health outcomes when implementing WASH programs in low- and middle-income countries. Many studies provide poor quality evidence on the causal impact of WASH programs on health outcomes of interest. The nature of WASH interventions
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Reliance on groundwater is increasing in Sub-Saharan Africa as development programs work towards improving water access and strengthening resilience to climate change. In lower-income areas, groundwater supplies are typically installed without water quality treatment infrastructure or services. This
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supply, particularly in dry regions where surface water availability is limited. Globally, more than one-third of the water used originates from underground. In the mid-latitude arid and semi-arid regions lacking sufficient surface water supply from rivers and reservoirs, groundwater is critical for
8566:
Romanello, Marina; McGushin, Alice; Di Napoli, Claudia; Drummond, Paul; Hughes, Nick; Jamart, Louis; Kennard, Harry; Lampard, Pete; Solano
Rodriguez, Baltazar; Arnell, Nigel; Ayeb-Karlsson, Sonja; Belesova, Kristine; Cai, Wenjia; Campbell-Lendrum, Diarmid; Capstick, Stuart; Chambers, Jonathan; Chu,
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Adaptive capacity in water management systems can help to absorb some of the impacts of climate-related events and increase climate resilience. Stakeholders at various scales, i.e. from small urban utilities to national governments, need to have access to reliable information which details regional
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To build climate resilience into water systems, people need to have access to climate information that is appropriate for their local context. Climate information products are useful if they cover a wide range of temporal and spatial scales, and provide information on regional water-related climate
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Scope 3 includes "indirect emissions related to the activity but caused by other organizations". The indirect emissions under Scope 3 are difficult to assess in a standardized way. They include for example emissions from constructing infrastructure, from the manufacture of chemicals that are needed
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The improvement of WASH standards within health facilities needs to be guided by national policies and standards as well as an allocated budget to improve and maintain services. A number of solutions exist that can considerably improve the health and safety of both patients and service providers at
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In 2019, WHO estimated that: "One in four health care facilities lack basic water services, and one in five have no sanitation service – impacting 2.0 and 1.5 billion people, respectively." Furthermore, it is estimated that "health care facilities in low-income countries are at least three times as
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Specific types of water quality improvement projects can have a protective effect on morbidity and mortality. A randomized control trial in India concluded that the provision of chlorine tablets for improving water quality led to a 75% decrease in incidences of cholera among the study population. A
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worldwide. This type of intestinal worm infection is transmitted via worm eggs in feces which in turn contaminate soil in areas where sanitation is poor. An integrated approach to NTDs and WASH benefits both sectors and the communities they are aiming to serve. This is especially true in areas that
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In 2023, WHO summarized the available data with the following key findings: "In 2019, use of safe WASH services could have prevented the loss of at least 1.4 million lives and 74 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) from four health outcomes. This represents 2.5% of all deaths and 2.9% of
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is a partnership that brings together national governments, donors, UN agencies, NGOs and other development partners. They work to improve sustainable access to sanitation and water supply. In 2014, 77 countries had already met the MDG sanitation target, 29 were on track and, 79 were not on-track.
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This figure shows an empowerment framework in the WASH sector. WASH outcomes are both a source and an outcome of empowerment. Such outcomes include improved access to safe drinking water and sanitation, reduction in water-related diseases, healthcare savings, adequate time for engaging in economic
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Changes in the frequency and intensity of climate extremes could compound current challenges as water availability becomes more uncertain, and health risks increase due to contaminated water sources. The effects of climate change can result in a decrease of water availability, an increase of water
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When looking at the emissions from the sanitation and wastewater sector most people focus on treatment systems, particularly treatment plants. This is because treatment plants require considerable energy input and are estimated to account for 3% of global electricity consumption. This makes sense
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Access to WASH services also varies internally within nations depending on socio-economic status, political power, and level of urbanization. In 2004 it was found that urban households are 30% and 135% more likely to have access to improved water sources and sanitation respectively, as compared to
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Adaptation efforts in the WASH sector include for example protection of local water resources (as these resources become source water for drinking water supply) and investigating improvements to the water supply and storage strategy. It might also be necessary to adjust the utility's planning and
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There are three main barriers to improvement of urban services in slum areas: Firstly, insufficient supply, especially of networked services. Secondly, there are usually demand constraints that limit people's access to these services (for example due to low willingness to pay). Thirdly, there are
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while 35% lack access to water and soap for handwashing. The absence of basic WASH amenities compromises the ability to provide routine services and hinders the ability to prevent and control infections. The provision of water in health facilities was the lowest in Africa, where 42% of healthcare
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Methods to improve the situation of WASH infrastructure at schools include on a policy level: broadening the focus of the education sector, establishing a systematic quality assurance system, distributing and using funds wisely. Other practical recommendations include: have a clear and systematic
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WASH in schools, sometimes called SWASH or WinS, significantly reduces hygiene-related disease, increases student attendance and contributes to dignity and gender equality. WASH in schools contributes to healthy, safe and secure school environments. It can also lead to children becoming agents of
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Studies on the effect of sanitation interventions alone on health are rare. When studies do evaluate sanitation measures, they are mostly included as part of a package of different interventions. A pooled analysis of the limited number of studies on sanitation interventions suggest that improving
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and soil-transmitted helminthiases. The plan consists of four strategic objectives: improving awareness of benefits of joint WASH and NTD actions; monitoring WASH and NTD actions to track progress; strengthening evidence of how to deliver effective WASH interventions; and planning, delivering and
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initiative. This work examines the "extent to which countries develop and implement national policies and plans for WASH, conduct regular monitoring, regulate and take corrective action as needed, and coordinate these parallel processes with sufficient financial resources and support from strong
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Climate resilient policies can be useful for allocating water, keeping in mind that less water may be available in future. This requires a good understanding of the current and future hydroclimatic situation. For example, a better understanding of future changes in climate variability leads to a
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The budget allocated by the State for prisons is often insufficient to cover the detainees' needs in terms of food and medical care, let alone upkeep of water and sanitation facilities. Nevertheless, even with limited funds, it is possible to maintain or renovate decaying infrastructure with the
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states that "Measures depriving persons of their freedom must in no way, whatever the circumstances, be made more severe by treatment or material conditions of detention which undermine the dignity and the rights of the individual.".The water supply systems and sanitary facilities in prisons are
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over the amount of water collected, and fights over scarce water supply. A study in India, for example, found that women felt intense fear of sexual violence when accessing water and sanitation services. A similar study in Uganda also found that women reported to feel a danger for their security
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Women and girls are particularly burdened from lack of proper WASH services. Inadequate access to water and sanitation affect women and girls in several ways because of social norms in some cultures that position them as principal household water collectors and managers, the inability to urinate
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An earlier report by World Health
Organization which analyzed data up to 2016 had found higher values: "The WASH-attributable disease burden amounts to 3.3% of global deaths and 4.6% of global DALYs. Among children under 5 years, WASH-attributable deaths represent 13% of deaths and 12% of DALYs.
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There are many barriers that make it difficult to achieve "sanitation for all". These include social, institutional, technical and environmental challenges. Therefore, the problem of providing access to sanitation services cannot be solved by focusing on technology alone. Instead, it requires an
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To put climate resilience into practice and to engage better with politicians, the following guide questions are useful: "resilience of what, to what, for whom, over what time frame, by whom and at what scale?". For example, "resilience of what?" means thinking beyond infrastructure but to also
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plays an important role in reducing gender disparities and related adverse outcomes across all sectors, including the WASH sector. Women's empowerment is particularly crucial in WASH, as prevalent social norms assign the majority of water collection roles to women in many developing countries.
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There are inequalities in access to water, sanitation and hygiene services. Such inequalities are for example related to income level and gender. In 2019 in 24 countries where disaggregated data was available, basic water coverage among the richest wealth quintile was at least twice as high as
1227:
Women tend to face a higher risk of diseases and illness due to limited WASH access. Heavily pregnant women face severe hardship walking to and from a water collection site. The consumption of unclean water leading to infection in the fetus accounts for 15% of deaths for women during pregnancy
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processes are particularly energy intensive (using about 50% of the total energy required for treatment). The amount of energy needed to treat wastewater depends on several factors: wastewater quantity and quality (i.e. how much and how polluted is it), treatment level required which in turn
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The connection between lack of WASH and burden of disease is primarily one of poverty and poor access in developing countries: "the WASH-attributable mortality rates were 42, 30, 4.4 and 3.7 deaths per 100 000 population in low-income, lower-middle income, upper-middle income and high-income
431:
sustaining global ecology and meeting societal needs of drinking water and food production. The demand for groundwater is rapidly increasing with population growth, while climate change is imposing additional stress on water resources and raising the probability of severe drought occurrence.
408:(PoU) can be much worse compared to the quality at the point of collection (PoC). Correct household practices around hygiene, storage, and treatment are therefore important. There are interactions between weather, water source, and management, and these in turn impact drinking water safety.
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Reasons for missing or poorly maintained water and sanitation facilities at schools in developing countries include lacking inter-sectoral collaboration; lacking cooperation between schools, communities and different levels of government; as well as a lack in leadership and accountability.
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where water gathering is considered a main chore. This water work is also largely unpaid household work based on patriarchal gender norms and often related to domestic work, such as laundry, cooking and childcare. Areas that rely on women to primarily collect water include countries in
196:. Chronic diarrhea can have long-term negative effects on children in terms of both physical and cognitive development. Still, collecting precise scientific evidence regarding health outcomes that result from improved access to WASH is difficult due to a range of complicating factors.
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etc.), waterborne diseases (transmitted via viruses or bacteria through water), and food-borne diseases.(spread through pathogens via food) Climate change affects the distribution of these diseases due to the expanding geographic range and seasonality of these diseases and their
881:
Acute respiratory infections was the second largest cause of WASH-attributable burden of disease in 2019, followed by undernutrition and soil-transmitted helminthiases. The latter does not lead to such high death numbers (in comparison) but is fully connected to unsafe WASH; its
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sources. Thirdly, the water utilities ensure that water sources and sanitation services are reliable at all times during the year, also during times of droughts and floods. Finally, the management and service delivery models are strengthened so that they can withstand a crisis.
517:, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations." This target has one indicator: Indicator 6.2.1 is the "Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water".
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include resilience of water resources, local institutions and water users. Another example is that "resilience for whom?" speaks about reducing vulnerability and preventing negative developments: Some top-down interventions that work around power and politics may undermine
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and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all" by 2030. To establish a reference point from which progress toward achieving the SDGs could be monitored, the JMP produced "Progress on
Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines".
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for all". This target has one indicator: Indicator 6.1.1 is the "Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services". In 2017, 844 million people still lacked even a basic drinking water service. In 2019 it was reported that 435 million people used
1101:. In 2011, infectious diarrhea resulted in about 0.7 million deaths in children under five years old and 250 million lost school days. This equates to about 2000 child deaths per day. Children suffering from diarrhea are more vulnerable to become underweight (due to
520:
In 2017, 4.5 billion people did not have toilets at home that can safely manage waste despite improvements in access to sanitation over the past decades. Approximately 600 million people share a toilet or latrine with other households and 892 million people practice
145:(SDG 6). Targets 6.1 and 6.2 aim for equitable and accessible water and sanitation for all. In 2017, it was estimated that 2.3 billion people live without basic sanitation facilities, and 844 million people live without access to safe and clean drinking water. The
8880:
Grasham, Catherine Fallon; Calow, Roger; Casey, Vincent; Charles, Katrina J.; de Wit, Sara; Dyer, Ellen; Fullwood-Thomas, Jess; Hirons, Mark; Hope, Robert; Hoque, Sonia
Ferdous; Jepson, Wendy; Korzenevica, Marina; Murphy, Rebecca; Plastow, John; Ross, Ian (2021).
2472:. Strategic decisions around reducing GHG emissions include: awareness raising and education, governance that supports changing practices, providing economic incentive to conserve water and reduce consumption, and finally choosing low-carbon energy and supplies.
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with available data do not have adequate water facilities and nearly two thirds lack adequate sanitation. Even where facilities exist, they are often in poor condition. Children are able to more fully participate in school when there is improved access to water.
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Solutions exist to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of water and sanitation services. These solutions into three categories which partly overlap: Firstly "reducing water and energy consumption through lean and efficient approaches"; secondly "embracing
3312:
1323:
sanitation has a protective effect on health. A UNICEF funded sanitation intervention (packaged into a broader WASH intervention) was also found to have a protective effect on under-five diarrhea incidence but not on household diarrhea incidence.
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climate and climate change. For example, context-specific climate tools can help national policy makers and sub-national practitioners to make informed decisions to improve climate resilience. A global research program called REACH (led by the
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mobilization strategy, support the education sector to strengthen intersectoral partnerships, establish a constant monitoring system which is located within the education sector, educate the educators and partner with the school management.
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prohibit discrimination on the grounds of "race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, disability or other status". These are all dimensions of inequality in WASH services.
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relevant to specific users; developing metrics for monitoring climate resilience in water systems (this will help to track progress and guide investments for water security); and using new institutional models that improve water security.
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towards school development. This applies to students and their representative clubs, headmaster, teachers and parents. Furthermore, other stakeholders have to be engaged in their direct sphere of influence, such as: community members,
8343:
Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021:
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interventions in order to accelerate elimination of NTDs. The plan aimed to intensify control or eliminate certain NTDs in specific regions by 2020. It refers to the NTD roadmap milestones that included for example eradication of
5120:"The Integrated Behavioural Model for Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: a systematic review of behavioural models and a framework for designing and evaluating behaviour change interventions in infrastructure-restricted settings"
2226:. Therefore, the GHG emissions from the non-sewered sanitation systems are a non-negligible source. India and China contribute extensively to methane emissions of NSSS because of their large populations and NSSS utilization.
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countries, respectively." The regions most affected are in the WHO Africa and South-East Asia regions. Here, between 66 and 76% of the diarrheal disease burden could be prevented if access to safe WASH services was provided.
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2912:(EWI) was developed in 2019 to guide WASH practitioners in measuring and monitoring gender outcomes, empowerment, and inclusivity in WASH-related interventions. National indices and tools also exist to capture changes in
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Numerous studies have shown that improvements in drinking water and sanitation (WASH) lead to decreased risks of diarrhea. Such improvements might include for example use of water filters, provision of high-quality
3728:
334:. The term "improved water source" refers to "piped water on premises (piped household water connection located inside the user's dwelling, plot or yard), and other improved drinking water sources (public taps or
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suggest a need for longer-term studies of technology efficacy, greater analysis of sanitation interventions, and studies of the combined effects of multiple interventions to better analyze WASH health outcomes.
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4680:
Charles, Katrina J.; Howard, Guy; Villalobos Prats, Elena; Gruber, Joshua; Alam, Sadekul; Alamgir, A.S.M.; Baidya, Manish; Flora, Meerjady
Sabrina; Haque, Farhana; Hassan, S.M. Quamrul; Islam, Saiful (2022).
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Occupational safety and health issues for sanitation workers include: diseases related to contact with the excreta; injuries related to the physical effort of extracting and transporting the waste, including
1436:
Gender norms can negatively affect how men and women access water through such behavior expectations along gender lines—for example, when water collection is a woman's chore, men who collect water may face
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include for example finding ways to reduce water loss from water networks and to reduce infiltration of rainwater or groundwater into sewers. Also, incentives can to encourage households and industries to
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was analyzed in 2017 and confirmed that improved sanitation provision in schools was correlated with high female-to-male enrolment ratios, and reduced repetition and drop-out ratios, especially for girls.
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1265:(PPE) and no or minimal formal training. Physical and medical conditions directly associated with sanitation work that is carried out unsafely can include: "headaches, dizziness, fever, fatigue, asthma,
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Women and girls usually bear the responsibility for collecting water, which is often very time-consuming and arduous, and can also be dangerous for them. Women and girls who collect water may also face
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Non-household settings for WASH include the following six types: schools, health care facilities, workplaces (including prisons), temporary use settings, mass gatherings, and dislocated populations.
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Availability of safe water for drinking but also for use in surgery and deliveries, food preparation, bathing and showering: There is a need for improved water pump systems within health facilities.
133:, reducing the burden of collecting drinking water for women, and improving education and health outcomes at schools and health facilities. Access to WASH services is also an important component of
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practices among healthcare staff must be implemented. This requires functional hand washing stations at strategic points of care within the health facilities, i.e. at points of care and at toilets.
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3113:(MDG) Target 7.C, which aimed to "halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation". This has been replaced in 2015 by the
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Scope 2 includes "indirect emissions associated with the energy required by the activity". Companies that deal with water and wastewater services need energy for various processes. They use the
6144:""If there is no water, we cannot feed our children": The far-reaching consequences of water insecurity on infant feeding practices and infant health across 16 low- and middle-income countries"
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and resilience of WASH systems. Still, most national policies on WASH services do not set out how to address climate risks and how to increase the resilience of infrastructure and management.
8995:"UN-Water Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-Water (GLAAS) 2019 Report - National systems to support drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene - Global status report 2019"
858:
The WHO has investigated which proportion of death and disease worldwide can be attributed to insufficient WASH services. In their analysis they focus on the following four health outcomes:
1277:, hepatitis, polio, cryptosporidiosis, schistosomiasis, eye and skin burn and other skin irritation, musculoskeletal disorders (including back pain), puncture wounds and cuts, blunt force".
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often insufficient to meet the needs of the prison population in cases where the number of detainees exceeds a prison's capacity. Overuse of the facilities results in rapid deterioration.
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could have been prevented in 2016 with adequate WASH." An even earlier study from 2002 had estimated even higher values, namely that up to 5 million people die each year from preventable
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in developing countries because "social norms prescribe that it is an area of work that is not suitable for them or that they are incapable of performing well". Nevertheless, a study by
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chlorination program in Guinea-Bissau in 2008 reported that families stopped treating water within their households because of the program which consequently increased their risk of
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necessity, damage to WASH facilities, and increased water contamination from pollutants. Due to these impacts, climate change can "exacerbate many WASH-related risks and diseases".
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for high-income countries, where wastewater treatment is the biggest energy consumer compared to other activities of the water sector. The aeration processes that are used in many
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facilities lack an improved source of water on-site or nearby. The provision of sanitation is lowest in the
Americas with 43% of health care facilities lacking adequate services.
7868:. World Business Council for Sustainable Development, World Resources Institute (Rev. ed.). Geneva, Switzerland: World Business Council for Sustainable Development. 2004.
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Many countries' WASH plans are not supported by the necessary financial and human resources. This hinders their implementation and intended outcomes for WASH service delivery.
2437:. There is another method to reduce the energy requirements for the treatment of raw water to make drinking water out of it: protecting the quality of the source water better.
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habits, with the potential to lead to positive health and education outcomes for children. This has for example been implemented in the "Essential Health Care
Program" by the
1959:
can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant, or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as
8548:
Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022:
8859:
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
8554:
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
8532:
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
6624:
9014:. The UN-Water global analysis and assessment of sanitation and drinking-water (GLAAS) 2022 report. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2022. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
9449:
7321:
559:(FSM), which is the storage, collection, transport, treatment, and safe end use or disposal of fecal sludge. Fecal sludge is defined very broadly as what accumulates in
2777:
is closely connected to climate change. On every continent, governments are now adopting policies for climate resilient economies. International frameworks such as the
3106:
3092:
220:
facilities can improve hygiene. Lack of WASH facilities at schools often prevents female students from attending school, thus reducing their educational achievements.
8350:
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
400:
at specific times throughout the year due to cyclical changes in water quantity or quality. For example, where access to water on-premises is not available, drinking
8000:
Supporting the Shift to Climate Positive Sanitation POLICY BRIEF August 2020 Emissions calculator demonstrates reduced climate impact with container-based sanitation
7293:
7189:
7172:
7155:
7138:
2172:
990:
There are also other diseases where adverse health outcomes are likely to be linked to inadequate WASH but which are not yet quantified. These include for example:
2121:. Another definition is: "The moment an individual’s waste is outsourced to another, it becomes sanitation work." Some organizations use the term specifically for
1654:. WASH in healthcare facilities aids in preventing the spread of infectious diseases as well as protects staff and patients. WASH services in health facilities in
9377:
Cronk, R.; Slaymaker, T.; Bartram, J. (2015). "Monitoring drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene in non-household settings: Priorities for policy and practice".
8568:
653:
In the context of SDG 6, hygiene is included in the indicator for Target 6.2: "Proportion of population using (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water"
6034:
3869:
2905:
Empowerment is largely described in the literature as both a process by which WASH services could be improved as well as the result of improved WASH services.
8830:
9529:
8331:
4652:
3972:
3764:
3637:
2735:
1714:
Waste system management: Proper health care waste management and the safe disposal of excreta and waste water is crucial to preventing the spread of disease.
2093:
chain. This is the definition used in the narrower sense within the WASH sector. More broadly speaking, sanitation workers may also be involved in cleaning
8306:
7959:
Reducing the Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Water and Sanitation Services: Overview of emissions and their potential reduction illustrated by utility know-how
7773:
Carter RC, Tyrrel SF, Howsam P (August 1999). "The Impact and Sustainability of Community Water Supply and Sanitation Programmes in Developing Countries".
5959:"Integration of water, sanitation, and hygiene for the prevention and control of neglected tropical diseases: a rationale for inter-sectoral collaboration"
3269:
1727:
Improving access to hand washing and sanitation facilities in healthcare settings will significantly reduce infection and mortality rates, particularly in
2640:. One mechanism contributing to increased disease transmission is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the insects (or
6008:
9424:
8628:
8446:
2287:
Energy and electricity usage by water and wastewater services under Scope 2 of the carbon accounting method (Indirect emissions associated with energy)
10514:
5741:"Assessing the impact of drinking water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease in low- and middle-income settings: systematic review and meta-regression"
4294:
4078:
3024:
505:
Access to sanitation services is included in Target 6.2 of Sustainable Development Goal 6 which is: "By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable
9466:
1255:; injuries related to cuts from non-fecal waste (e.g. glass or needles) disposed of down the toilet. There are also the general dangers of working in
434:
The anthropogenic effects on groundwater resources are mainly due to groundwater pumping and the indirect effects of irrigation and land use changes.
284:
that uses the first letters of "water, sanitation and hygiene"). WASH consists of access to drinking water services, sanitation services and hygiene.
10504:
7367:
4126:
4121:
3919:
3307:
3297:
3047:
4880:"Water chemistry poses health risks as reliance on groundwater increases: A systematic review of hydrogeochemistry research from Ethiopia and Kenya"
1794:
4017:
3924:
2207:
are all anaerobic treatment processes that emit methane which may or may not be captured (in the case of septic tanks it is usually not captured).
9220:
Facilitation of community organization: an approach to water and sanitation programs in developing countries (WASH Task No 94): prepared for USAID
8460:
8091:"2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Vol. 5. Waste. Chapter 6 Wastewater Treatment and Discharge"
5854:
10769:
3929:
3262:
3184:- an interagency mechanism which "coordinates the efforts of UN entities and international organizations working on water and sanitation issues".
1372:, women carry 44 pound containers of water back to their homes, taking anywhere between an hour and several hours to wait and collect the water.
228:
5814:
6910:
Sommer M, Ferron S, Cavill S, House S (2015). "Violence, gender and WASH: spurring action on a complex, under-documented and sensitive topic".
5314:
3839:
3642:
2728:
5877:"Challenges and opportunities associated with neglected tropical disease and water, sanitation and hygiene intersectoral integration programs"
4419:"'They will listen to women who speak but it ends there': examining empowerment in the context of water and sanitation interventions in Ghana"
2089:(or sanitary worker) is a person responsible for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying the equipment or technology at any step of the
1774:
have lower levels of access to WASH than the rest of the Bengali population. This is due to "structural racial discrimination" in Bangladesh.
1665:, data from 54 countries in low and middle income settings representing 66,101 health facilities show that 38% of health care facilities lack
6654:"Concept mapping: Engaging stakeholders to identify factors that contribute to empowerment in the water and sanitation sector in West Africa"
6099:
Yadav SS, Lal R (February 2018). "Vulnerability of women to climate change in arid and semi-arid regions: The case of India and South Asia".
3071:
6897:"Violence, Gender and WASH: A Practitioner's Toolkit - Making water, sanitation and hygiene safer through improved programming and services"
874:("Good Health and Wellbeing"): Indicator 3.9.2 reports on the "mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, sanitation, and lack of hygiene".
4957:
3302:
2971:
conceptualized empowerment in terms of four major themes: availability of resources, WASH information, social and cultural structures, and
2844:
2139:
3109:(JMP) of WHO and UNICEF has regularly produced estimates of global WASH progress. The JMP was already responsible for monitoring the UN's
2211:
methane emissions are about twice the estimates provided by IPCC in 2019, i.e. 10.9 ± 7.0 compared to 4.3-6.1 MMT (million metric tons) CO
3652:
3469:
3464:
3359:
3125:
Expanding WASH coverage and monitoring in non-household settings such as schools, healthcare facilities, and work places, is included in
9030:
6731:
10554:
9566:
9012:
Strong systems and sound investments: evidence on and key insights into accelerating progress on sanitation, drinking-water and hygiene
6576:"Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) index: development and application to measure WASH service levels in European humanitarian camps"
3977:
3723:
3520:
3474:
2982:
in 1992 included "Women Play a central part in the provision management and safeguarding of water" as one of four principles. In 1996,
2874:
As of 2022, it is becoming more common for countries to include "climate change preparedness approaches" in their national WASH plans.
2424:
to produce energy and valuable products"; and thirdly by "planning to reduce GHG emissions through strategic decisions". The mentioned
1689:
Barriers to providing WASH in health care facilities include: Incomplete standards, inadequate monitoring, disease-specific budgeting,
318:
A "safely managed drinking water service" is "one located on premises, available when needed and free from contamination". The terms '"
6625:
Evaluation of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) within the UNICEF Country Programme of Cooperation Final Report [Internet]
4418:
437:
Groundwater plays a central role in sustaining water supplies and livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa. In some cases, groundwater is an
7688:
7342:
6372:"Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
5697:"The elimination of open defecation and its adverse health effects: a moral imperative for governments and development professionals"
5180:
Velkushanova, Konstantina; Strande, Linda; Ronteltap, Mariska; Koottatep, Thammarat; Brdjanovic, Damir; Buckley, Chris, eds. (2021).
3962:
3530:
3525:
3439:
2668:
2485:
1286:
Global climate change can increase the health risks for some of the infectious diseases mentioned above, see below in the section on
787:). For example, lack of clean water and proper sanitation can result in feces-contaminated drinking water and cause life-threatening
7219:
2498:
and reduced carrying capacity of waters receiving wastewater. The weather and climate-related aspects (variability, seasonality and
893:– which is the most extreme form of "lack of sanitation" – is a major factor in causing various diseases, most notably diarrhea and
719:
6035:
Water Sanitation and Hygiene for accelerating and sustaining progress on Neglected Tropical Diseases. A global strategy 2015 - 2020
5118:
Dreibelbis, Robert; Winch, Peter J; Leontsini, Elli; Hulland, Kristyna RS; Ram, Pavani K; Unicomb, Leanne; Luby, Stephen P (2013).
5051:
Tilley, Elizabeth; Strande, Linda; Lüthi, Christoph; Mosler, Hans-Joachim; Udert, Kai M.; Gebauer, Heiko; Hering, Janet G. (2014).
4088:
4033:
4007:
3982:
3713:
3657:
3567:
3545:
1748:
5816:
Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: Special Focus on Sanitation, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
10587:
10559:
9599:
8974:, Prepared in cooperation with HR Wallingford in 2014, 2017 and 2022, and with the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) in 2014,
4068:
4053:
3992:
3934:
3864:
3682:
3632:
3622:
3535:
3504:
3484:
3389:
9284:
5429:
4816:
4512:
2761:
in general is the ability to recover from, or to mitigate vulnerability to, climate-related shocks such as floods and droughts.
1521:
Lack of WASH facilities can prevent students from attending school, particularly female students. Strong cultural taboos around
10564:
9880:
8854:
8527:
7851:
Lived Realities of Women Sanitation Workers in India: Insights from a Participatory Research Conducted in Three Cities of India
4937:
4083:
4058:
4038:
3997:
3804:
3784:
3759:
3692:
3617:
3557:
3489:
3459:
3449:
3444:
3434:
3414:
3409:
3339:
3009:
3003:
2569:
2283:
influences the type of treatment process that gets selected. The energy efficiency of the treatment process is another factor.
243:. Planning approaches for more reliable and equitable access to WASH include, for example, national WASH plans and monitoring,
9446:
7325:
5549:
2502:
events) have always had an impact on the delivery of sanitation services. But now, extreme weather events, such as floods and
10622:
10529:
8979:
8795:
8373:
8090:
7975:
7725:
7664:
7625:
7272:
7246:
6741:
5827:
5532:
5201:
4628:
4481:
4063:
4043:
4012:
4002:
3957:
3952:
3909:
3879:
3809:
3799:
3677:
3647:
3602:
3592:
3572:
3499:
3494:
3454:
3344:
3046:
From about 2001 onwards, international organizations active in the area of water supply and sanitation advocacy, such as the
2757:) are services that provide access to high quality drinking water during all seasons and even during extreme weather events.
1619:
7957:
7571:
6810:
Keefer N, Bousalis R (January 2015). "How Do You Get Your Water? Structural Violence Pedagogy and Women's Access to Water".
4263:
841:(and related consequences), adverse birth outcomes as well as long-term problems such as school absence, poverty, decreased
62:
WASH consists of water, sanitation and hygiene, photos from top left: A woman pumps water from a handpump in her village in
10612:
9530:"Sustainable Sanitation Alliance members take a closer look at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation's sanitation grants"
8352:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010
4116:
4048:
3987:
3894:
3824:
3697:
3672:
3587:
3562:
3550:
3540:
3479:
3419:
3404:
3394:
3379:
3354:
3174:- UNICEF's declared strategy is "to achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all".
2536:
is low. In that region, it is the poorly managed WASH systems, for example in informal settlements, which make people more
2494:
can have negative impacts on existing sanitation services in several ways, for example by damage and loss of services from
2242:
in the energy mix is, the higher the GHG emissions under Scope 2 will be high too. The processes that need energy include:
1996:
1678:
likely to have no water service as facilities in higher resource settings". This is thought to contribute to the fact that
1566:
to the government at national, state and district levels is helpful to gradually create what is commonly referred to as an
8994:
7297:
7018:
6991:
6896:
6712:
6296:
5522:
5227:
4596:
4470:
4224:
2719:(NbS) can play an important role for climate change adaptation approaches of water and sanitation services. This includes
2506:, are generally increasing in frequency and intensity due to climate change in many regions. They affect the operation of
1452:
In many societies, the task of cleaning toilets falls to women or children, which can increase their exposure to disease.
24:
10569:
10133:
9721:
8731:
McMichael, A.J.; Woodruff, R.E.; Hales, S. (11 March 2006). "Climate change and human health: present and future risks".
7999:
7037:
4878:
Nowicki, Saskia; Birhanu, Behailu; Tanui, Florence; Sule, May N.; Charles, Katrina; Olago, Daniel; Kebede, Seifu (2023).
4111:
4073:
3967:
3627:
3612:
3582:
3577:
3429:
1782:
1594:
685:
130:
7400:
4543:
1379:
and water access are intricately linked. Water gathering and supply to family units remains primarily a woman's task in
463:
Sanitation systems are grouped into several types: The ladder of sanitation services includes (from lowest to highest):
9637:
9242:
4234:
3097:
630:
is a broad concept. "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of
9151:
1125:
connections. Diarrhea can be prevented - and the lives of 525,000 children annually be saved (estimate for 2017) - by
10627:
10153:
9736:
8114:
Cheng, Shikun; Long, Jinyun; Evans, Barbara; Zhan, Zhe; Li, Tianxin; Chen, Cong; Mang, Heinz-Peter; Li, Zifu (2022).
7873:
7692:
5370:
3213:
2582:
Climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of some insects that can carry diseases, for example
6038:
5262:
1243:
1086:
664:
Approximately 40% of the world's population live without basic hand washing facilities with soap and water at home.
8831:"Guest Article: Addressing Climate Change Means Addressing the Global Sanitation Crisis | SDG Knowledge Hub | IISD"
6069:
3205:
1771:
1650:
The provision of adequate water, sanitation and hygiene is an essential part of providing basic health services in
1319:. It was concluded that well chlorination without proper promotion and education led to a false sense of security.
923:
There are at least the following twelve diseases which are more likely to occur when WASH services are inadequate:
870:, and soil-transmitted helminthiases (STHs). These health outcomes are also included as an indicator for achieving
9134:
8549:
8016:
Song, Cuihong; Zhu, Jun-Jie; Willis, John L.; Moore, Daniel P.; Zondlo, Mark A.; Ren, Zhiyong Jason (2023-02-14).
7220:
Raising Even More Clean Hands: Advancing Health, Learning and Equity through WASH in Schools, Joint Call to Action
4327:"Monitoring drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene in non-household settings: Priorities for policy and practice"
2947:
Participation (community engagement, partnerships, and involvement in the design and governance of WASH projects),
10270:
9898:
9875:
8686:
8345:
7749:
6758:
6009:"WHO strengthens focus on water, sanitation and hygiene to accelerate elimination of neglected tropical diseases"
4131:
3209:
2809:
risks. For example, government staff need easy access to climate information to achieve better water management.
2769:. This concept thus influences theory and practice across all sectors globally. This is particularly true in the
2644:) that can carry the diseases. Scientists stated a clear observation in 2022: "The occurrence of climate-related
978:
534:
495:
8946:
Water Security for Climate Resilience Report: A synthesis of research from the Oxford University REACH programme
8556:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1041–1170, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.009.
10725:
10544:
10494:
10306:
10203:
9964:
9865:
9778:
7825:
6713:"Water, sanitation and hygiene - A Pathway to Realizing Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women and Girls"
6012:
5318:
3126:
3114:
3088:
1683:
1480:
1164:
938:
871:
362:
172:
and injuries has been studied in depth. Typical diseases and conditions associated with a lack of WASH include
142:
6964:
5855:
Safer water, better health – Costs, benefits and sustainability of interventions to protect and promote health
2655:
Infectious diseases that are sensitive to climate can be grouped into: vector-borne diseases (transmitted via
1468:
10737:
10377:
10148:
9420:
8666:
8307:"Climate Change Response for Inclusive WASH: A guidance note for Plan International Indonesia, Guidance Note"
3139:(NGO) that works on improving the availability of safe drinking water in some the world's poorest countries.
3136:
2940:
A scoping review of the literature found five key interrelated dimensions of empowerment in the WASH sector:
2782:
2219:
2218:
Current methods for estimating sanitation emissions underestimate the significance of methane emissions from
2079:
1492:
1262:
902:
150:
6053:
Accelerating work to overcome the global impact of Neglected Tropical Diseases. A raodmap for implementation
5053:"Looking beyond Technology: An Integrated Approach to Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Low Income Countries"
2896:
There has been a growing understanding of the role of gender in development in recent decades (often called
10242:
9969:
9473:
8861:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.
8534:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.
5181:
4106:
3142:
3110:
2537:
1229:
1222:
658:
639:
193:
6052:
1856:, with a negative impact on their uses. It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include
1723:
Accessible and clean toilets, separated by gender, in sufficient numbers for staff, patients and visitors.
10389:
10282:
10193:
10006:
9994:
9903:
9592:
8783:
Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and what We Can Do about it
7573:
Improving Access to Urban Services for the Poor: Open Issues and a Framework for a Future Research Agenda
5957:
Freeman MC, Ogden S, Jacobson J, Abbott D, Addiss DG, Amnie AG, et al. (2013-09-26). Liang S (ed.).
5788:
5332:
2797:
2405:
1976:
1603:
1300:
1160:
1106:
1064:
933:
863:
405:
185:
9011:
6204:"Menstrual hygiene in South Asia: a neglected issue for WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) programmes"
5638:"Open defecation and childhood stunting in India: an ecological analysis of new data from 112 districts"
5459:"Open defecation and childhood stunting in India: an ecological analysis of new data from 112 districts"
10459:
10384:
10289:
9825:
7897:
5858:
3159:
2953:(leveraging of human capital, organizational resources, and social capital to solve collective problem)
2917:
1168:
1081:
889:
Most of the diseases resulting from lack of sanitation have a direct relation to poverty. For example,
611:
572:
9256:
4166:
3101:
World map for Indicator 6.2.1a in 2015: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities
2183:
Scope 1 includes "direct emissions resulting directly from the activity". In the WASH sector, this is
10581:
10576:
10444:
10143:
9850:
9808:
9772:
9679:
9110:
8569:"The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: code red for a healthy future"
5833:
4751:"Divergent effects of climate change on future groundwater availability in key mid-latitude aquifers"
4717:
4597:
Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000-2017. Special focus on inequalities
4136:
3059:
2885:
2881:
2847:) is developing and using such climate tools for Kenya, Ethiopia and Bangladesh during 2015 to 2024.
2707:
2533:
2491:
2481:
2251:
2054:
1905:
1662:
1449:
in 2019 has found that the proportion of female water professionals has grown in the past few years.
1176:
704:
331:
232:
138:
7322:
Water, sanitation and hygiene in health care facilities: practical steps to achieve universal access
4815:
Cuthbert MO, Taylor RG, Favreau G, Todd MC, Shamsudduha M, Villholth KG, et al. (August 2019).
2026:
10779:
10419:
10118:
9830:
9726:
8724:
7038:
Raising Even More Clean Hands: Advancing Learning, Health and Participation through WASH in Schools
6419:"The Impact of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Interventions to Control Cholera: A Systematic Review"
5315:
Briefing paper Political economy analysis for water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) service delivery
4295:"Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions to combat childhood diarrhoea in developing countries"
3228:
2925:
2814:
2671:, climate change exacerbates existing inequalities and challenges in managing infectious disease.
2453:
2154:
2021:
1643:
1630:, is at the core of this national program. It has also been successfully implemented in Indonesia.
1380:
1005:
846:
8185:
Dickin, Sarah; Bayoumi, Moustafa; Giné, Ricard; Andersson, Kim; Jiménez, Alejandro (25 May 2020).
1113:. Chronic diarrhea can have a negative effect on child development (both physical and cognitive).
10759:
10690:
10617:
10449:
9080:
7206:
Scaling up group handwashing in schools - Compendium of group washing facilities across the globe
6070:"Poster on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) for accelerating and sustaining progress on NTDs"
5739:
Wolf J, Prüss-Ustün A, Cumming O, Bartram J, Bonjour S, Cairncross S, et al. (August 2014).
4326:
2921:
2766:
2430:
2192:
556:
546:
106:
9194:"Participatory health education: ready for use materials: design and production WASHE programme"
8620:
6525:
Clasen TF, Alexander KT, Sinclair D, Boisson S, Peletz R, Chang HH, et al. (October 2015).
6478:"The role of public health improvements in health advances: the twentieth-century United States"
6037:(Report). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization (WHO). 2015. p. 26. Archived from
4961:
3058:
has since then been broadly adopted as a handy acronym for water, sanitation and hygiene in the
2270:. For example, electrical energy is needed for pumping of sewage and for mechanical aeration in
1542:
change for improving water, sanitation and hygiene practices in their families and communities.
374:
for their drinking water, and 144 million still used surface waters, such as lakes and streams.
10713:
10685:
10464:
10188:
9674:
9585:
9445:
United Nations Children's Fund. UNICEF's engagement in Sanitation and Water for All (2012-07).
8945:
3244:
3192:
2964:
2901:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2445:
1579:
1574:
1420:
1405:
1210:
689:
530:
365:(SDG 6), which states: "By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable
322:" and "unimproved water source" were coined in 2002 as a drinking water monitoring tool by the
307:
244:
8116:"Non-negligible greenhouse gas emissions from non-sewered sanitation systems: A meta-analysis"
7642:
2143:
240:
10774:
10670:
10454:
9989:
9890:
9783:
9632:
8883:"Engaging with the politics of climate resilience towards clean water and sanitation for all"
8777:
4817:"Observed controls on resilience of groundwater to climate variability in sub-Saharan Africa"
4653:"Ethiopia's future is tied to water -- a vital yet threatened resource in a changing climate"
3236:
3155:
2944:
Access to information (knowledge sharing, awareness creation, and information dissemination),
2827:
2608:. Infectious diseases whose transmission is impacted by climate change include, for example,
2126:
1995:. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as
1944:
1938:
1901:
1679:
1666:
1606:
handwashing was part of a system of public health measures encouraged to reduce transmission.
1526:
973:
764:
Health impacts resulting from a lack of safe sanitation systems fall into three categories:
371:
319:
293:
208:
needs to be provided at the household level but also in non-household settings like schools,
125:
services to people. The main purposes of providing access to WASH services include achieving
89:
7656:
5414:
Burden of disease attributable to unsafe drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene, 2019 update
4683:"Infrastructure alone cannot ensure resilience to weather events in drinking water supplies"
4555:
Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
2975:(the ability to define and act on individual or shared goals, and to put them into effect).
1888:
mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources. These are
1573:
Success also hinges on local-level leadership and a genuine collective commitment of school
10645:
10429:
10294:
10260:
10208:
10033:
10028:
9974:
9930:
9820:
9758:
9647:
9642:
9386:
8894:
8198:
8127:
8029:
7782:
7648:
7536:
7051:
6919:
6773:
6587:
6430:
6108:
5649:
5470:
5064:
4999:
4943:. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).
4831:
4762:
4694:
4338:
2897:
2840:
2678:
2609:
2552:
2519:
2255:
2223:
1984:
1655:
1514:
1340:
1197:
1098:
958:
906:
772:
736:
421:
355:
158:
9219:
9193:
8956:
8927:
8272:
8255:
8170:
7262:
7236:
7205:
7078:
5214:
4916:
3154:
Important awards for individuals or organizations working on WASH include for example the
1626:
twice a year, supplemented by washing hands daily with soap and brushing teeth daily with
1375:
In many places of the world, getting and providing water is considered "women's work," so
8:
10764:
10655:
10650:
10424:
10223:
10213:
10048:
9657:
9528:
von Muench E, Spuhler D, Surridge T, Ekane N, Andersson K, Fidan EG, Rosemarin A (2013).
8787:
8781:
3254:
2972:
2665:
2649:
2605:
2279:
2204:
2008:
1913:
1819:
1670:
1126:
918:
780:
699:
Improving access to WASH services can improve health, life expectancy, student learning,
692:, improving education and health outcomes at schools and health facilities, and reducing
468:
458:
44:
9390:
8898:
8256:"Climate Change and Water and Sanitation: Likely Impacts and Emerging Trends for Action"
8202:
8131:
8058:
8033:
8017:
7786:
7540:
6923:
6777:
6591:
6434:
6316:
Cairncross S, Hunt C, Boisson S, Bostoen K, Curtis V, Fung IC, Schmidt WP (April 2010).
6265:
6112:
5653:
5474:
5413:
5360:
5068:
5003:
4835:
4766:
4698:
4342:
3208:
in 2008 helped to increase attention for funding of sanitation in WASH programs of many
3050:
and the International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC) in the Netherlands began to use
2532:
poses increased risks to WASH systems, particular in Sub-Saharan Africa where access to
1806:
institutional constraints that prevent the poor from accessing adequate urban services.
10277:
9860:
9709:
8758:
8713:
8653:
8609:
8285:
8224:
8150:
8115:
8071:
7981:
7891:
7806:
7794:
7552:
7459:
6943:
6827:
6789:
6680:
6653:
6605:
6551:
6526:
6507:
6453:
6418:
6342:
6317:
6234:
6181:
6168:
6143:
5985:
5958:
5939:
5926:
5903:
5876:
5770:
5672:
5637:
5615:
5592:
5567:
5566:
Walker CL, Rudan I, Liu L, Nair H, Theodoratou E, Bhutta ZA, et al. (April 2013).
5493:
5458:
5154:
5119:
5033:
5020:
4987:
4855:
4783:
4750:
3216:
has increased their funding for sanitation projects since 2009, with a strong focus on
2913:
2758:
2621:
2247:
1909:
1892:
discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including
1365:
1252:
1039:
1000:
580:
529:
integrated perspective that includes planning, using economic opportunities (e.g. from
351:
335:
248:
9031:"Understanding empowerment in water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH): a scoping review"
8746:
8587:
7446:
7429:
6390:
5583:
2406:
Indirect emissions related to the activity but caused by other organizations (Scope 3)
2361:
The energy for the use of water by end users (e.g. heating up water) is not included.
696:. Access to WASH services is also an important component of achieving water security.
10439:
10434:
10362:
10311:
10085:
10065:
10053:
10013:
9984:
9952:
9870:
9763:
9731:
9627:
9402:
9334:
9052:
8975:
8944:
Murgatroyd A, Charles KJ, Chautard A, Dyer E, Grasham C, Hope R, et al. (2021).
8912:
8791:
8750:
8705:
8673:
8658:
8613:
8601:
8559:
8379:
8369:
8289:
8277:
8228:
8216:
8155:
8075:
8063:
8045:
7985:
7971:
7956:
Alix, Alexandre; Bellet, Laurent; Trommsdorff, Corinne; Audureau, Iris, eds. (2022).
7879:
7869:
7798:
7731:
7721:
7660:
7621:
7556:
7524:
7505:
7463:
7451:
7268:
7242:
7119:
7098:"Sanitation and water supply in schools and girls' educational progression in Zambia"
6935:
6831:
6793:
6737:
6685:
6609:
6556:
6499:
6458:
6394:
6347:
6226:
6185:
6173:
6124:
5990:
5908:
5823:
5762:
5718:
5677:
5597:
5528:
5498:
5376:
5366:
5197:
5159:
5141:
5100:
5092:
5037:
5025:
4901:
4859:
4847:
4788:
4722:
4624:
4477:
4440:
4354:
4240:
4230:
2950:
2682:
2645:
2158:
2086:
2067:
1921:
1756:
right planning approaches and suitable low-cost water supply and sanitation options.
1441:
for performing perceived women's work. Women are likely to be deterred from entering
1424:
995:
805:
708:
560:
550:
499:
9491:"Water, sanitation and education | Water, Sanitation and Hygiene | UNICEF"
8769:
8762:
7810:
6947:
6511:
6268:
Occupational Safety and Health Branch of the Labour Department, Hong Kong Government
6238:
5774:
5263:"Menstrual Hygiene Management Enables Women and Girls to Reach Their Full Potential"
4896:
4879:
4707:
4682:
3066:
was also used for a while, especially in the emergency response sector such as with
1529:
services in schools, results in girls staying away from school during menstruation.
10789:
10784:
10604:
10357:
10316:
10128:
10103:
9915:
9845:
9689:
9394:
9352:
9096:
9092:
9042:
8902:
8742:
8717:
8695:
8648:
8640:
8591:
8583:
8507:
8497:
8267:
8206:
8145:
8135:
8053:
8037:
7963:
7790:
7652:
7611:
7544:
7495:
7441:
7109:
6927:
6819:
6781:
6675:
6665:
6595:
6546:
6542:
6538:
6489:
6448:
6438:
6386:
6337:
6329:
6218:
6163:
6155:
6120:
6116:
5980:
5970:
5898:
5888:
5752:
5708:
5667:
5657:
5587:
5579:
5488:
5478:
5289:
5187:
5149:
5131:
5082:
5072:
5015:
5007:
4938:"Progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: 2017 update and SDG baselines"
4891:
4839:
4778:
4770:
4712:
4702:
4430:
4346:
4302:
3240:
3217:
2983:
2979:
2818:
2457:
2421:
2389:
Percentage of global electricity consumption used for wastewater treatment plants
2271:
2243:
2229:
2200:
2078:
Sanitation workers carrying out manual pit emptying (in Durban, South Africa) with
2074:
1838:. These important water resources are often at risk of being polluted or overused.
1583:
1053:
809:
110:
75:
74:, Panama; a simple hand washing setup for when there is no running water, shown in
71:
9243:
Advocacy for water, environmental sanitation and hygiene - Thematic overview paper
8700:
8681:
8397:
7525:"Promoting global access to water and sanitation: A supply and demand perspective"
7238:
School Community Manual - Indonesia (formerly Manual for teachers), Fit for School
6823:
5555:(Report). Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security.
4749:
Wu WY, Lo MH, Wada Y, Famiglietti JS, Reager JT, Yeh PJ, et al. (July 2020).
3323:
2411:
in the treatment process and from the management of the by-product sewage sludge.
1814:
10665:
10367:
10170:
10163:
10098:
10038:
9920:
9910:
9840:
9813:
9798:
9753:
9743:
9694:
9490:
9453:
8486:"Climate change and infectious disease: a review of evidence and research trends"
8447:"URBAN FLOOD STORIES PAINT FULLER PICTURE OF CLIMATE RISK IN EAST AFRICAN CITIES"
8332:
Adapting to climate change and fostering a low carbon water and sanitation sector
8140:
6785:
6443:
6371:
6370:
Fewtrell L, Kaufmann RB, Kay D, Enanoria W, Haller L, Colford JM (January 2005).
6203:
5975:
5662:
5483:
5240:
4226:
Progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: 2017 update and SDG baselines
3232:
3118:
3035:. Similarly, in Zambia the term WASHE was used in a report in 1987 and stood for
2778:
2499:
2267:
2122:
2031:
1980:
1956:
1929:
1849:
1843:
1728:
1651:
1642:
A woman is filling a jerrycan with unsafe drinking water at the Boromata well in
1423:). This includes vulnerability to rape when collecting water from distant areas,
1352:
1266:
1205:
953:
890:
700:
693:
616:
522:
514:
464:
378:
236:
209:
9398:
8971:
8816:
7865:
The greenhouse gas protocol : a corporate accounting and reporting standard
6670:
4614:
Hope R, Katuva J, Nyaga C, Koehler J, Charles K, Nowicki S, et al. (2021).
4350:
688:, reducing the burden of collecting drinking water for women, reducing risks of
33:
10352:
10138:
10075:
10060:
10043:
10001:
9803:
9684:
9067:
8907:
8882:
8502:
8485:
8239:
7368:
Water, sanitation and hygiene in health care facilities in Asia and the Pacific
6700:
6600:
6575:
4803:
4774:
4571:
4504:
4455:
3224:
2789:
2774:
2641:
2601:
2589:
2529:
2164:
2118:
2094:
1925:
1623:
1508:
1442:
1438:
1416:
1256:
1185:
1154:
1130:
1122:
1118:
1102:
1057:
1029:
963:
867:
838:
801:
784:
576:
483:
397:
366:
311:
269:
253:
181:
169:
134:
9331:
Transforming our world the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: A/RES/70/1
8544:
8542:
8540:
8211:
8186:
8018:"Methane Emissions from Municipal Wastewater Collection and Treatment Systems"
7717:
Groundwater: Hydrogeochemistry, Environmental Impacts and Management Practices
7548:
7267:. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Philippines.
6870:
6736:. New York, NY, USA: Woman's Environment and Development Organization (WEDO).
6733:
Diverting the flow: a resource guide to gender, rights and water privatization
6222:
5893:
5857:(Report). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from
5696:
5380:
5136:
5087:
5011:
4843:
4615:
4244:
2931:
137:. Universal, affordable, and sustainable access to WASH is a key issue within
10753:
10660:
10539:
10347:
10321:
10198:
10158:
10123:
10113:
10093:
9835:
9793:
9768:
9716:
9704:
9699:
9608:
9552:
9338:
9169:
9056:
9047:
8916:
8383:
8281:
8220:
8049:
7802:
7735:
7123:
7114:
7097:
6939:
6931:
6230:
6128:
5722:
5713:
5333:"Mortality rate attributable to unsafe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)"
5145:
5096:
4444:
4375:
4187:
2625:
2584:
2559:
demand over land, which limits the amount of water to replenish groundwater.
2469:
2434:
2259:
2188:
2004:
1960:
1897:
1853:
1831:
1274:
1180:
1010:
894:
776:
673:
401:
382:
280:
because the impact of deficiencies in each area overlap strongly (WASH is an
216:), temporary use settings, and for dislocated populations. In schools, group
126:
8461:"Africa Water Week 2018: Inclusive urban WASH services under climate change"
8041:
7883:
6759:"Access to Water in a Nairobi Slum: Women's Work and Institutional Learning"
2175:: direct emissions, as well as two types of indirect emissions (see below).
723:
Mortality rate attributable to unsafe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH).
396:
People without access to safe, reliable, domestic water supplies face lower
389:, or rainwater, in each case after collection, treatment, and distribution.
298:
188:. Lack of WASH poses additional health risks for women, for example, during
10680:
10108:
9957:
9947:
9925:
9855:
9748:
9662:
9562:
9406:
8754:
8709:
8662:
8644:
8605:
8537:
8159:
8067:
7509:
7455:
6689:
6574:
Tsesmelis DE, Skondras NA, Khan SY, Kolokytha E, Karavitis CA (June 2020).
6560:
6503:
6462:
6398:
6351:
6278:
6252:
6177:
5994:
5912:
5766:
5681:
5601:
5502:
5163:
5104:
5029:
4905:
4851:
4792:
4726:
4358:
2876:
2793:
2770:
2686:
2613:
2507:
2461:
2263:
2102:
2039:
1823:
1732:
1638:
1522:
1496:
1361:
1201:
1141:
1134:
968:
842:
744:
635:
606:
479:
390:
265:
217:
177:
114:
53:
9222:(Report). Washington DC, USA: USAID/WASH. 1981. WASH Technical Report No 7
8520:
8363:
7967:
7680:
7616:
7599:
6494:
6477:
5192:
4435:
4417:
Dery, Florence; Bisung, Elijah; Dickin, Sarah; Atengdem, Jeremiah (2021).
3178:
includes WASH initiatives in their work with schools in over 30 countries.
1137:
with soap. In 2008 the same figure was estimated as 1.5 million children.
583:
are the people needed for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying a
10675:
10372:
10070:
9979:
9942:
9504:
8972:
Strategic Framework for WASH Climate Resilient Development - 2022 Edition
8596:
8421:
7863:
7500:
7483:
6992:"Why gender matters - A tutorial for water managers - Resources • SuSanA"
6333:
3223:
Awareness raising for the importance of WASH takes place through several
2694:
2633:
2556:
2548:
2544:
2511:
2449:
2239:
2114:
2110:
1992:
1952:
1885:
1877:
1835:
1799:
1708:
1690:
1611:
1393:
1293:
1261:
Many sanitation workers in developing countries work without any form of
1179:(WHO) has a global strategy and action plan to integrate WASH with other
1019:
1015:
752:
643:
568:
564:
487:
427:
417:
386:
9285:"A Guidance for UNHCR Field Operations on Water and Sanitation Services"
8512:
8187:"Sustainable sanitation and gaps in global climate policy and financing"
5416:. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2023. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
2578:
2057:
is a challenge and can contribute to the spread of waterborne diseases.
1472:
School toilets at Shaheed Monumia government secondary school, Tejgaon,
66:, Pakistan; A girl collects clean water from a communal water supply in
10301:
10023:
8733:
8550:
Chapter 7: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities
6297:
Health, Safety and Dignity of Sanitation Workers: An Initial Assessment
6159:
5228:
Health, Safety and Dignity of Sanitation Workers: An Initial Assessment
4572:"Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals. (SDG 6)"
2991:
2865:
Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-Water (GLAAS)
2690:
2629:
2235:
2090:
2043:
1988:
1968:
1917:
1893:
1563:
1446:
1389:
1312:
1024:
681:
588:
584:
506:
491:
454:
273:
154:
118:
9079:
Dickin, Sarah; Bisung, Elijah; Nansi, Juste; Charles, Katrina (2021).
9029:
Dery, Florence; Bisung, Elijah; Dickin, Sarah; Dyer, Michelle (2020).
8858:
8553:
8531:
8349:
8003:
6142:
Schuster RC, Butler MS, Wutich A, Miller JD, Young SL (January 2020).
5757:
5740:
5077:
5052:
2355:
Percentage of global electricity consumption used by the water sector
2246:(e.g. groundwater pumping), drinking water storage, water conveyance,
10399:
10218:
9788:
9669:
7998:
Isabella Montgomery, Kory Russel, Roshni Dave, Lauren Harroff (2020)
7715:
6058:(Report). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization (WHO). 2012.
5179:
4601:
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization
4508:
2562:
2547:, climate change can affect the amounts of soil infiltration, deeper
2465:
1964:
1948:
1881:
1873:
1826:
onto a water-collecting pot (or kalash) to filter water for drinking.
1693:
1485:
817:
813:
647:
339:
189:
85:
4307:
853:
672:
The purposes of providing access to WASH services include achieving
10265:
10018:
9652:
9622:
9287:. Geneva, Switzerland: UNHCR Division of Operational Services. 2008
8254:
Howard, Guy; Calow, Roger; Macdonald, Alan; Bartram, Jamie (2016).
5550:
Dirty Water: Estimated Deaths from Water-Related Diseases 2000–2020
4679:
3181:
3132:
2860:
2656:
2515:
2106:
2047:
2000:
1972:
1627:
1193:
1094:
1077:
983:
948:
928:
859:
821:
788:
343:
303:
173:
9572:
8565:
6291:
6289:
6287:
1747:
buildings are very often overcrowded and dilapidated. A report by
9937:
9158:. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2005.
8817:
Guidance on water supply and sanitation in extreme weather events
8365:
Guidance on Water Supply and Sanitation in Extreme Weather Events
7579:. Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab. p. 5
7324:(Report). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2019. Archived from
7040:(Report). New York: UNICEF, United Nations Children's Fund. 2012.
6622:
6527:"Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea"
6011:. World Health Organization (WHO). 27 August 2015. Archived from
4292:
2674:
2617:
2503:
2196:
2184:
1869:
1770:
coverage among the poorest quintile. For example, in Bangladesh,
1717:
1615:
1412:
1369:
1316:
1270:
1159:
Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions help to prevent many
1110:
1034:
943:
834:
795:
748:
677:
631:
602:
540:
510:
281:
277:
223:
It is difficult to provide safely managed WASH services in urban
197:
146:
122:
67:
9577:
2230:
Indirect emissions associated with the energy required (Scope 2)
2195:. Sanitation services produce about 2–6% of global human-caused
10232:
9306:
7824:
Akhilesh, Abhinav; Mehta, Meera; Juneja, Zara (10 April 2020).
7294:"WHO | Water, sanitation and hygiene in health care facilities"
6318:"Water, sanitation and hygiene for the prevention of diarrhoea"
6284:
6253:
Working with sewage - The health hazards: A guide for employers
5117:
3175:
3171:
2813:
flood levels. Secondly, managers assess the scope for reducing
2593:
2238:
that is available in the country. The higher the proportion of
2125:, whereas others exclude the workers involved in management of
1904:. This form of pollution can lead to many problems. One is the
1889:
1744:
1599:
1546:
1500:
1385:
1376:
1049:
825:
740:
727:
475:
327:
213:
9527:
9333:. United Nations, Division for Sustainable Development. 2015.
6573:
6524:
6416:
2845:
UK Government's Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office
2673:
Mosquito-borne diseases that are sensitive to climate include
1525:, which are present in many societies, coupled with a lack of
771:
The direct impacts include fecal–oral infections (through the
478:, improved sanitation includes the following kind of toilets:
10394:
9556:
9066:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
9062:
8997:. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization (WHO). 2019.
8955:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
8951:
8943:
8926:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
8922:
8238:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
8234:
8169:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
8165:
7955:
7591:
7208:(Report). New York, US; Eschborn, Germany: UNICEF, GIZ. 2016.
6699:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
6695:
5738:
5213:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
5209:
4915:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
4911:
4802:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
4798:
4569:
4454:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
4450:
2968:
2850:
2637:
2495:
1865:
1861:
1473:
1345:
1105:). This makes them more vulnerable to other diseases such as
1044:
735:, fingers, flies, fields, fluids, food), showing pathways of
732:
620:
63:
9467:
UNICEF Strategy for Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene 2016-2030
8828:
7634:
6315:
4988:"Acknowledging and Learning from Different Types of Failure"
3199:
1764:
1281:
882:"population-attributable fraction" is estimated to be 100%.
10520:
Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
8253:
6369:
4960:. Geneva and New York: WHO and UNICEF. 2012. Archived from
4544:"Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017"
2833:
2796:: Carrying out a detailed analysis of climate risk to make
2723:(which can improve infiltration and thus reduce flooding),
2660:
2098:
2060:
1857:
1189:
347:
224:
8184:
6895:
House S, Ferron S, Sommer M, Cavill S, Violence G (2014).
6141:
5956:
4497:
4465:
4463:
3284:
3093:
Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
3019:
was used from the year 1988 onwards as an acronym for the
2371:
Usage breakdown for electricity consumed for water supply
1326:
1200:
as public health problems by 2020, intensified control of
1090:
A child receiving malnutrition treatment in Northern Kenya
714:
9563:
Global Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Home - Healthy Water
9379:
International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health
7754:
Water Currents: Learning from Failures | Globalwaters.org
5852:
4958:"Improved and unimproved water and sanitation facilities"
4814:
4331:
International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health
3188:
1536:
1360:
The lack of accessible, sufficient, clean and affordable
1344:
Women and children collecting water from a water well in
1228:
globally. Illnesses and diseases that can come from poor
1209:
evaluating WASH and NTD programs with involvement of all
575:
solutions) and specifically is not transported through a
393:
seawater is another potential source for drinking water.
9152:"A Gender Perspective on Water Resources and Sanitation"
9078:
9035:
Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development
8879:
8819:. World Health Organization. Regional Office for Europe.
8682:"Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease"
7826:"How can we support sanitation workers during COVID-19?"
7079:
Managing WASH in Schools: Is the Education Sector Ready?
7076:
6623:
Toonen J, Akwataghibe N, Wolmarans L, Wegelin M (2014).
6417:
Taylor DL, Kahawita TM, Cairncross S, Ensink JH (2015).
5527:. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization (WHO).
5050:
4416:
4293:
Waddington H, Snilstveit B, White H, Fewtrell L (2012).
3107:
Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation
1798:
Jerrycans are used to store clean drinking water in the
9472:(Report). New York: UNICEF. August 2016. Archived from
7102:
Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development
6909:
6894:
5701:
Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development
5520:
4877:
4460:
4188:"Goal 6 .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform"
3054:
as an umbrella term for water, sanitation and hygiene.
1602:
with sinks for people of different heights. During the
1287:
555:
Sanitation services would not be complete without safe
9068:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
8957:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
8928:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
8730:
8240:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
8171:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
7264:
Field Guide: Hardware for Group Handwashing in Schools
7083:
A Thematic Discussion Series hosted by GIZ and SuSanA.
6965:"Improving WASH, Reducing Vulnerabilities to Violence"
6701:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
5215:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
4917:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
4804:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
4613:
4456:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1682:
is twice as great in developing countries as it is in
1614:
in schools is an effective strategy for building good
1294:
Effectiveness of WASH interventions on health outcomes
1236:
1071:
361:
Access to drinking water is included in Target 6.1 of
9447:"UNICEF's engagement in Sanitation and Water for All"
9376:
7843:
7430:"Ethnic inequalities in access to WASH in Bangladesh"
4324:
2980:
Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development
2855:
2475:
2015:
1553:
1364:
has adverse impacts specifically related to women in
1167:. Approximately two billion people are infected with
650:, buckets with taps, tippy-taps and portable basins.
634:." Hygiene is can comprise many behaviors, including
252:
the regional climate and any expected changes due to
9081:"Empowerment in water, sanitation and hygiene index"
9028:
8483:
7600:"Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal"
7052:"Puberty Education and Menstrual Hygiene Management"
6729:
5874:
5568:"Global burden of childhood pneumonia and diarrhoea"
4325:
Cronk, Ryan; Slaymaker, Tom; Bartram, Jamie (2015).
4264:"Water, Sanitation & Hygiene: Strategy Overview"
2738:
include measures to improve sanitation and hygiene.
2414:
1947:(also called groundwater contamination) occurs when
1759:
1428:
whilst journeying to toilets particularly at night.
1216:
70:, Uganda; school toilets at an elementary school in
9357:
United Nations Millennium Development Goals website
7823:
7569:
7484:"Global challenges in water, sanitation and health"
7401:"Water, Sanitation, Hygiene and Habitat in Prisons"
7085:(Report). Germany: Sustainable Sanitation Alliance.
6849:
4748:
4617:
Delivering safely-managed water to schools in Kenya
3313:
Responsibilities in Latin America and the Caribbean
2817:and put in place suitable options, e.g. using more
1951:are released to the ground and make their way into
1140:The combination of direct and indirect deaths from
9144:
9140:. Worldbank. 1996. Gender Toolkit Series Number 2.
8113:
8015:
7853:. Participatory Research in Asia, New Delhi, India
7772:
6959:
6957:
5635:
5565:
5456:
4651:Taye, Meron Teferi; Dyer, Ellen (22 August 2019).
4538:
4536:
4534:
4532:
4471:Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
4107:Global Water Security & Sanitation Partnership
3025:United States Agency for International Development
2563:Influence of climate change on waterborne diseases
2376:Water distribution: 20% Seawater desalination: 5%
2340:Proportion of total energy used as thermal energy
2330:Mostly for pumping up groundwater for irrigation.
1822:, Bangladesh: The woman on the right is putting a
1244:Sanitation worker § Occupational safety and health
6279:Confined spaces - A brief guide to working safely
6075:. World Health Organization (WHO). 27 August 2015
5848:
5846:
4127:Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa
4122:Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council
3048:Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council
1335:
854:WASH-attributable burden of diseases and injuries
800:Conditions caused by preceding infection include
377:Drinking water can be sourced from the following
10751:
7951:
7949:
7947:
7945:
7943:
7941:
7939:
7937:
7935:
7933:
7931:
7929:
7927:
7095:
6853:Access to Water, Women's Work and Child Outcomes
5853:Prüss-Üstün A, Bos R, Gore F, Bartram J (2008).
5355:
5353:
2734:Most National Adaptation Plans published by the
2374:Water extraction: 40% Wastewater treatment: 25%
8484:Van de Vuurst, Paige; Escobar, Luis E. (2023).
7925:
7923:
7921:
7919:
7917:
7915:
7913:
7911:
7909:
7907:
7644:Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
7255:
7191:School WASH research: Bangladesh country report
6954:
6197:
6195:
4675:
4673:
4565:
4563:
4529:
2745:
2324:Proportion of total energy used as electricity
2003:. Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to
1967:. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-site
1916:when people use polluted water for drinking or
1852:(or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of
1431:
804:or growth faltering, consequences of stunting (
759:
7640:
7570:Duflo E, Galiani S, Mobarak M (October 2012).
7019:"Women in Water Utilities - Breaking Barriers"
6809:
6201:
5875:Johnston EA, Teague J, Graham JP (June 2015).
5843:
5822:. World Health Organization and UNICEF. 2008.
4376:"Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: Introduction"
2729:green infrastructure for stormwater management
1545:For example, data from over 10,000 schools in
1148:
901:Worldwide, 1.9 million deaths and 123 million
541:Fecal sludge management and sanitation workers
9593:
9353:"Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability"
8775:
7522:
7157:School WASH research: Pakistan country report
6094:
6092:
6090:
5350:
3270:
3162:since 2013, for sanitation entrepreneurship.
2178:
2030:Poorly maintained pit latrine at a school in
1513:More than half of all primary schools in the
314:, Kitgum District, Northern Region of Uganda)
231:quite soon after installation (e.g., leaking
141:and is the focus of the first two targets of
8829:IISD's SDG Knowledge Hub (31 October 2017).
7904:
7597:
7481:
6845:
6843:
6841:
6651:
6537:(10). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: CD004794.
6475:
6192:
5745:Tropical Medicine & International Health
4670:
4570:Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018).
4560:
4503:
2731:, and measures for natural water retention.
2701:
2309:Total energy used by water sector worldwide
2163:Water and sanitation services contribute to
2140:Effects of climate change on the water cycle
2129:(rubbish, trash) sector from its definition.
2007:through poisoning or the spread of disease (
1455:
306:to fill their containers with water (Labuje
9135:"Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation"
8786:. University of California Press. pp.
8629:"Climate Change and Mosquito-Borne Disease"
7077:Dauenhauer K, Schlenk J, Langkau T (2016).
6805:
6803:
6531:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
6365:
6363:
6361:
6295:World Bank, ILO, WaterAid, and WHO (2019).
5734:
5732:
5636:Spears D, Ghosh A, Cumming O (2013-09-16).
5365:. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2018.
5284:
5282:
5226:World Bank, ILO, WaterAid, and WHO (2019).
4985:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4926:
4924:
2990:. Gender-sensitive approaches to water and
2805:better response to their possible impacts.
2538:vulnerable to the effects of climate change
2148:
1720:promotion for patients, visitors and staff.
1633:
798:(conditions caused by preceding infection):
441:water source that was not used previously.
241:impacts of climate change on water security
10555:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
9600:
9586:
9567:Centres for Disease Control and Prevention
9156:Interagency Task Force on Gender and Water
8361:
8260:Annual Review of Environment and Resources
7288:
7286:
7284:
7212:
7198:
7187:
7181:
7174:School WASH research: Nepal country report
7170:
7153:
7140:School WASH research: India country report
7136:
6087:
5688:
5521:Johnston R, Prüss-Ustün A, Wolf J (2019).
5312:
4513:"Water Access, Resources & Sanitation"
3277:
3263:
2851:Approaches for planning and implementation
2736:UN Framework Convention for Climate Change
1620:Department of Education in the Philippines
1299:is such that high quality trials, such as
287:
10515:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
10505:Center for Disease Control and Prevention
9198:WASHE (Water Sanitation Health Education)
9046:
8906:
8699:
8652:
8595:
8511:
8501:
8271:
8210:
8149:
8139:
8057:
7689:Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
7615:
7499:
7445:
7348:(Report). World Health Organization. 2016
7343:Monitoring WASH in Health Care Facilities
7241:. GIZ Fit for School, Philippines. 2014.
7113:
7096:Agol D, Harvey P, Maíllo J (2018-03-01).
6838:
6756:
6723:
6679:
6669:
6599:
6550:
6493:
6452:
6442:
6412:
6410:
6408:
6341:
6167:
5984:
5974:
5902:
5892:
5781:
5756:
5712:
5671:
5661:
5591:
5492:
5482:
5424:
5422:
5191:
5153:
5135:
5086:
5076:
5019:
4895:
4782:
4718:1983/92cc5791-168b-457a-93c7-458890f1bf26
4716:
4706:
4434:
4306:
4173:. Oxford, UK: University of Oxford. 2020.
3200:Awareness raising through observance days
3074:, but has not proven as popular as WASH.
3027:. At that time, the letter "H" stood for
2988:Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation
2486:Effects of climate change on human health
2167:. These emissions are grouped into three
2133:
1809:
1789:
1765:Equitable access to drinking water supply
1484:School toilet at IPH school and college,
1399:
1282:Effects of climate change on health risks
739:. The vertical blue lines show barriers:
8939:
8937:
8935:
8249:
8247:
8109:
8107:
8105:
8103:
7750:"Water Currents: Learning from Failures"
7405:International Committee of the Red Cross
7360:
7147:
6800:
6358:
6311:
6309:
6307:
6305:
6098:
5729:
5279:
4921:
4650:
3250:
3187:
3165:
3096:
2930:
2834:Adaptive capacity for climate resilience
2577:
2073:
2061:Working conditions of sanitation workers
2025:
1813:
1793:
1637:
1593:
1491:
1479:
1467:
1351:
1339:
1085:
726:
718:
610:
297:
10560:Health departments in the United States
9537:Sustainable Sanitation Practice Journal
9240:
9200:. Western Province, Zambia: WASHE. 1987
9024:
9022:
9020:
9006:
9004:
8989:
8987:
8966:
8964:
8875:
8873:
8871:
8869:
8867:
8815:Sinisi, L & Aertgeerts, R. (2011).
8811:
8809:
8807:
8301:
8299:
8180:
8178:
7713:
7695:from the original on September 18, 2021
7657:10.1002/0471238961.1615121205031105.a01
7281:
6730:Sidhu G, Grossman A, Johnson N (2003).
5807:
3021:Water and Sanitation for Health Project
2667:Like other ways climate change affects
2652:has increased (very high confidence)."
2440:Methods that fall into the category of
2199:emissions. Septic tanks, pit latrines,
1987:(fracking) or from over application of
1327:Gender aspects of lack of WASH services
715:Health aspects of lack of WASH services
10770:Water supply and sanitation by country
10752:
10565:Council on Education for Public Health
8776:Epstein, Paul R.; Ferber, Dan (2011).
8679:
8626:
8022:Environmental Science & Technology
7685:Environmental Health Education Program
7423:
7421:
7395:
7393:
7391:
7389:
7316:
7314:
7013:
7011:
6986:
6984:
6850:Koolwal G, Van de Walle D (May 2010).
6750:
6652:Bisung, Elijah; Dickin, Sarah (2019).
6647:
6645:
6616:
6405:
5547:
5516:
5514:
5512:
5419:
5408:
5406:
5404:
5402:
5400:
5398:
5396:
5394:
5392:
5390:
5175:
5173:
5057:Environmental Science & Technology
4981:
4979:
4873:
4871:
4869:
4744:
4742:
4740:
4738:
4736:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4640:
4591:
4589:
4587:
4585:
3285:Water supply and sanitation by country
3077:
3010:history of water supply and sanitation
3004:History of water supply and sanitation
2891:
2570:Climate change and infectious diseases
2446:Reusing water, nutrients and materials
1537:Outcomes from improved WASH at schools
448:
16:Water, sanitation and hygiene services
10623:Professional degrees of public health
10530:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
9581:
9427:from the original on 21 November 2011
8932:
8368:. Geneva: World Health Organization.
8337:
8273:10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085856
8244:
8100:
7477:
7475:
7473:
7335:
7164:
7130:
7072:
7070:
7068:
7032:
7030:
7028:
6322:International Journal of Epidemiology
6302:
5870:
5868:
5457:Spears D, Ghosh A, Cumming O (2013).
4476:(Report). JMP, WHO and UNICEF. 2014.
4412:
4410:
4408:
4406:
4404:
4402:
4400:
4398:
4396:
4320:
4318:
4182:
4180:
4161:
4159:
4157:
4155:
4153:
4151:
3258:
2830:and compromise community resilience.
2604:has increased the occurrence of some
2555:. Also, rising temperature increases
2448:; Low-carbon energy production (e.g.
779:and insect vector diseases (see also
10720:
10613:Bachelor of Science in Public Health
9553:Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH)
9017:
9001:
8984:
8961:
8864:
8804:
8355:
8334:. Sanitation and Water for All (SWA)
8296:
8175:
8088:
7992:
7427:
6476:Cutler D, Miller G (February 2005).
5940:Soil-transmitted helminth infections
5927:Soil-transmitted helminth infections
5694:
4986:Vernon, Naomi; Myers, Jamie (2021).
4370:
4368:
4299:Journal of Development Effectiveness
4288:
4286:
4284:
4258:
4256:
4254:
4219:
4217:
4215:
4213:
4211:
4209:
4207:
4117:Water issues in developing countries
3012:is the topic of a separate article.
2144:Water security § Climate change
1896:. Water pollution may affect either
1783:human rights to water and sanitation
1598:A community handwashing facility in
1589:
1172:are endemic with more than one NTD.
939:Soil-transmitted helminth infections
264:The concept of WASH groups together
10732:
9881:Workers' right to access the toilet
9722:Human right to water and sanitation
9323:
8948:(Report). University of Oxford, UK.
8444:
7606:. Biological Wastewater Treatment.
7418:
7386:
7311:
7021:. Washington, DC: World Bank. 2019.
7008:
6981:
6888:
6642:
5509:
5387:
5362:Guidelines on sanitation and health
5306:
5220:
5170:
4976:
4950:
4866:
4733:
4637:
4582:
4268:Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
4112:Human right to water and sanitation
1920:. Water pollution also reduces the
1237:Health risks for sanitation workers
1072:Diarrhea, malnutrition and stunting
912:
686:human right to water and sanitation
294:Drinking water § Global access
131:human right to water and sanitation
13:
9257:"Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion"
7795:10.1111/j.1747-6593.1999.tb01050.x
7482:Moe CL, Rheingans RD (July 2006).
7470:
7089:
7065:
7025:
5865:
5183:Methods for Faecal Sludge Analysis
4393:
4315:
4177:
4148:
2994:have proven to be cost effective.
2959:Decision-making and inclusiveness.
2956:Leadership and accountability, and
2856:National WASH plans and monitoring
2785:are drivers for such initiatives.
2476:Negative impacts of climate change
2433:and their energy requirements for
2016:Failures of WASH systems over time
1554:Methods to improve WASH in schools
1288:negative impacts of climate change
14:
10801:
10154:Commercial determinants of health
9607:
9573:Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN)
9546:
8633:Environmental Health Perspectives
6757:Crow B, Odaba E (November 2010).
6281:, Health and Safety Executive UK.
6266:Safety Guide for Work in Manholes
6255:, Health and Safety Executive UK.
6148:American Journal of Human Biology
5243:. World Health Organization (WHO)
4365:
4281:
4251:
4204:
4167:"REACH Global Strategy 2020-2024"
3214:Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
3037:Water Sanitation Health Education
2880:in this context means working on
2415:Reducing greenhouse gas emissions
2272:activated sludge treatment plants
2042:systems (including water points,
1760:Challenges in WASH implementation
1217:Additional health risks for women
1097:is primarily transmitted through
1056:) and maternal outcomes (such as
828:(related to hookworm infections).
10731:
10719:
10708:
10707:
9737:National public health institute
9521:
9497:
9483:
9459:
9439:
9413:
9370:
9345:
9299:
9277:
9249:
9234:
9212:
9186:
9162:
9127:
9103:
9072:
9061:
8950:
8921:
8847:
8822:
8477:
8453:
8438:
8414:
8390:
8324:
8233:
8164:
8082:
8009:
7856:
7817:
7766:
7742:
7720:. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
7707:
7673:
7563:
6694:
5963:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
5208:
4910:
4884:Science of the Total Environment
4797:
4687:Science of the Total Environment
4449:
3375:Democratic Republic of the Congo
3322:
3206:International Year of Sanitation
3043:dates back to as early as 1981.
2765:has become the new paradigm for
2751:Climate-resilient water services
2568:This section is an excerpt from
2191:emissions during wastewater and
2123:municipal solid waste collectors
2066:This section is an excerpt from
1937:This section is an excerpt from
1842:This section is an excerpt from
1356:Woman collecting water in Kenya.
1242:This section is an excerpt from
711:and socio-economic development.
703:, and other important issues of
52:
43:
32:
23:
10134:Open-source healthcare software
9876:Sociology of health and illness
9245:(Report). The Netherlands: IRC.
8687:Journal of Applied Microbiology
8398:"Climate change | WASH Matters"
7714:Adelana, Segun Michael (2014).
7516:
7229:
7044:
6903:
6863:
6705:
6567:
6518:
6469:
6379:The Lancet. Infectious Diseases
6271:
6258:
6245:
6135:
6062:
6045:
6027:
6001:
5950:
5932:
5919:
5789:"Diarrhoeal disease Fact sheet"
5629:
5616:"WHO | Diarrhoeal disease"
5608:
5559:
5541:
5450:
5325:
5255:
5233:
5111:
5044:
4897:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166929
4808:
4708:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151876
4607:
4137:World Toilet Organization (WTO)
4132:Sustainable Sanitation Alliance
3082:
2788:Several activities can improve
2534:safely managed basic sanitation
2452:on roofs of utility buildings,
737:fecal–oral disease transmission
496:ventilated improved pit latrine
10495:Caribbean Public Health Agency
10307:Sexually transmitted infection
10204:Statistical hypothesis testing
9965:Occupational safety and health
9866:Sexual and reproductive health
9779:Occupational safety and health
9097:10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105158
8490:Infectious Diseases of Poverty
7830:India Development Review (IDR)
6543:10.1002/14651858.cd004794.pub3
6121:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2017.08.001
5430:"Call to action on sanitation"
5319:Overseas Development Institute
3127:Sustainable Development Goal 6
3115:Sustainable Development Goal 6
3089:Sustainable Development Goal 6
2431:reduce their water consumption
2220:non-sewered sanitation systems
1336:Time required to collect water
1165:soil-transmitted helminthiasis
872:Sustainable Development Goal 3
587:technology at any step of the
426:Groundwater provides critical
411:
363:Sustainable Development Goal 6
235:). Further challenges include
151:non-governmental organizations
143:Sustainable Development Goal 6
1:
10149:Social determinants of health
9423:. WaterAid. 26 October 2011.
9170:"WASH Technical Report No 37"
8747:10.1016/s0140-6736(06)68079-3
8701:10.1046/j.1365-2672.94.s1.5.x
8588:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01787-6
7775:Water and Environment Journal
7598:Von Sperling, Marcos (2007).
7529:Water Resources and Economics
7523:Abellán J, Alonso JA (2022).
7447:10.1016/S2214-109X(22)00232-7
6899:. London, UK: WaterAid/SHARE.
6824:10.1080/00377996.2015.1072793
6391:10.1016/S1473-3099(04)01253-8
6299:. World Bank, Washington, DC.
6202:Mahon T, Fernandes M (2010).
5584:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60222-6
5230:. World Bank, Washington, DC.
4992:Environmental Health Insights
4229:. Geneva: WHO, UNICEF. 2017.
4192:sustainabledevelopment.un.org
4142:
3137:non-governmental organization
3117:(SDG 6), which is to "ensure
2783:Sustainable Development Goals
2763:Climate resilient development
2426:lean and efficient approaches
2080:personal protective equipment
1830:Water supply sources include
1738:
1658:are currently often lacking.
1580:community-based organizations
1463:
1263:personal protective equipment
824:in undernourished children),
259:
10209:Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
9970:Human factors and ergonomics
8141:10.1016/j.envres.2022.113468
7330:Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO
7296:. 2015-03-20. Archived from
6912:Environment and Urbanization
6786:10.1080/02508060.2010.533344
6444:10.1371/journal.pone.0135676
6101:Journal of Arid Environments
5976:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002439
5663:10.1371/journal.pone.0073784
5484:10.1371/journal.pone.0073784
4945:Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO
4623:. UK: University of Oxford.
3143:Sanitation and Water for All
2746:Improving climate resilience
1696:, poor WASH infrastructure.
1527:Menstrual Hygiene Management
1432:Gender norms for occupations
1301:randomized controlled trials
1259:, including lack of oxygen.
1230:menstrual hygiene management
1223:Menstrual hygiene management
1107:acute respiratory infections
864:acute respiratory infections
760:Categories of health impacts
194:menstrual hygiene management
7:
10390:Good manufacturing practice
10194:Randomized controlled trial
9399:10.1016/j.ijheh.2015.03.003
7488:Journal of Water and Health
6671:10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100490
4351:10.1016/j.ijheh.2015.03.003
4100:
3111:Millennium Development Goal
2936:activities for income, etc.
2792:and increase resilience to
2588:, the mosquito that is the
2520:wastewater treatment plants
2456:from wastewater, producing
2224:wastewater treatment plants
1977:wastewater treatment plants
1818:Women at a Village Pond in
1604:COVID-19 pandemic in Rwanda
1161:neglected tropical diseases
1149:Neglected tropical diseases
1065:neglected tropical diseases
979:Protein–energy malnutrition
769:Direct impact (infections):
667:
490:, flush or pour-flush to a
186:neglected tropical diseases
84:For the radio station, see
10:
10806:
10460:Theory of planned behavior
10385:Good agricultural practice
10290:Public health surveillance
10182:epidemiological statistics
9826:Public health intervention
8908:10.1038/s41545-021-00133-2
8503:10.1186/s40249-023-01102-2
8313:. Indonesia. December 2020
7641:Eckenfelder Jr WW (2000).
6601:10.1007/s11269-020-02562-z
6580:Water Resources Management
5524:Safer Water, Better Health
5290:"Handwashing/Hand hygiene"
4775:10.1038/s41467-020-17581-y
3160:Sarphati Sanitation Awards
3086:
3001:
2997:
2918:Gender Empowerment Measure
2727:for wastewater treatment,
2705:
2567:
2479:
2179:Direct emissions (Scope 1)
2152:
2137:
2065:
2053:Contamination of water in
2019:
1936:
1841:
1506:
1503:district, Karnataka, India
1403:
1241:
1220:
1169:soil-transmitted helminths
1152:
1082:Undernutrition in children
1075:
1063:Other diseases, e.g. most
916:
895:intestinal worm infections
707:. It can also assist with
659:managing menstrual hygiene
600:
594:
544:
452:
415:
291:
233:water distribution systems
229:WASH systems can also fail
83:
10703:
10638:
10597:
10582:World Toilet Organization
10577:World Health Organization
10484:
10473:
10410:
10335:
10251:
10179:
10144:Public health informatics
10084:
9889:
9851:Right to rest and leisure
9680:Globalization and disease
9615:
8465:Future Climate For Africa
8212:10.1038/s41545-020-0072-8
7604:Water Intelligence Online
7549:10.1016/j.wre.2022.100194
6264:Labour Department (2006)
6223:10.1080/13552071003600083
5894:10.1186/s12889-015-1838-7
5793:World Health Organization
5313:Kooy M, Harris D (2012).
5137:10.1186/1471-2458-13-1015
5012:10.1177/11786302211018095
4844:10.1038/s41586-019-1441-7
4603:(Report). New York. 2019.
4026:
3945:
3737:
3706:
3513:
3332:
3319:
3290:
3195:celebrations in Indonesia
3149:
3060:international development
2910:Empowerment in WASH Index
2708:Climate change adaptation
2702:Climate change adaptation
2492:effects of climate change
2482:Effects of climate change
1979:, leaking sewers, petrol
1743:In developing countries,
1663:World Health Organization
1456:In non-household settings
1177:World Health Organization
705:international development
494:, pit latrine with slab,
139:international development
10628:Schools of public health
10420:Diffusion of innovations
10119:Health impact assessment
9831:Public health laboratory
9727:Management of depression
9048:10.2166/washdev.2019.077
8855:Summary for Policymakers
8528:Summary for Policymakers
8402:washmatters.wateraid.org
7434:The Lancet Global Health
7428:Alam, Md Zakiul (2022).
7115:10.2166/washdev.2017.032
6932:10.1177/0956247814564528
6211:Gender & Development
5714:10.2166/washdev.2017.027
4633:. REACH Working Paper 8.
2926:Gender Development Index
2868:national institutions."
2815:greenhouse gas emissions
2464:, producing energy from
2165:greenhouse gas emissions
2155:Greenhouse gas emissions
2149:Greenhouse gas emissions
2022:Failures of WASH systems
1975:leachate, effluent from
1644:Central African Republic
1634:In healthcare facilities
1562:The support provided by
1381:less developed countries
1192:by 2020, elimination of
847:antimicrobial resistance
783:, which can contaminate
486:system, connection to a
482:, connection to a piped
212:, workplaces (including
129:gains, implementing the
10691:Social hygiene movement
10618:Doctor of Public Health
10450:Social cognitive theory
10252:Infectious and epidemic
10034:Fecal–oral transmission
8042:10.1021/acs.est.2c04388
7225:(Report). UNICEF. 2012.
6658:SSM - Population Health
2963:A qualitative study in
2922:Gender Inequality Index
2916:at the national level:
2767:sustainable development
2540:than people elsewhere.
2256:treatment of wastewater
2193:sewage sludge treatment
2173:greenhouse gas protocol
1912:. Another is spreading
1610:Supervised daily group
1582:, educations official,
657:private facilities for
557:fecal sludge management
547:Fecal sludge management
288:Drinking water services
149:WASH is used widely by
107:development cooperation
10686:Germ theory of disease
10465:Transtheoretical model
9452:3 January 2015 at the
9111:"The Dublin statement"
8970:UNICEF and GWP (2022)
8645:10.1289/ehp.01109s1141
8120:Environmental Research
7896:: CS1 maint: others (
7188:Tiberghien JE (2016).
7171:Tiberghien JE (2016).
7154:Tiberghien JE (2016).
7137:Tiberghien JE (2016).
6328:(Suppl 1): i193–i205.
4553:. 2017. A/RES/71/313.
3765:Bosnia and Herzegovina
3245:Global Handwashing Day
3196:
3193:Global Handwashing Day
3102:
3039:. An even older USAID
2965:Asutifi North District
2937:
2755:climate-resilient WASH
2725:ecological engineering
2721:ecological restoration
2717:Nature-based solutions
2597:
2454:recovery of waste heat
2258:, water end use (e.g.
2134:Climate change aspects
2082:
2035:
1827:
1810:Polluted water sources
1802:
1790:Urban low income areas
1772:minority ethnic groups
1667:improved water sources
1647:
1607:
1504:
1499:stands at a school in
1489:
1477:
1421:violence against women
1406:Violence against women
1400:Violence against women
1357:
1349:
1091:
934:Respiratory infections
756:
724:
690:violence against women
624:
615:A school girl using a
315:
237:polluted water sources
192:or in connection with
88:. For other uses, see
10570:Public Health Service
10455:Social norms approach
10445:PRECEDE–PROCEED model
9891:Preventive healthcare
9784:Pharmaceutical policy
9633:Chief Medical Officer
8778:"The Mosquito's Bite"
8680:Hunter, P.R. (2003).
8627:Reiter, Paul (2001).
7968:10.2166/9781789063172
7649:John Wiley & Sons
7617:10.2166/9781780402086
6495:10.1353/dem.2005.0002
5193:10.2166/9781780409122
4755:Nature Communications
4436:10.2166/h2oj.2021.100
3251:By country and region
3237:Menstrual Hygiene Day
3191:
3166:United Nations organs
3156:Stockholm Water Prize
3100:
3087:Further information:
3002:Further information:
2934:
2706:Further information:
2610:vector-borne diseases
2581:
2480:Further information:
2171:in the international
2153:Further information:
2138:Further information:
2077:
2029:
2020:Further information:
1945:Groundwater pollution
1939:Groundwater pollution
1817:
1797:
1684:high income countries
1652:healthcare facilities
1641:
1597:
1570:for WASH in schools.
1507:Further information:
1495:
1483:
1471:
1404:Further information:
1355:
1343:
1221:Further information:
1153:Further information:
1089:
1076:Further information:
1052:conditions (see also
1025:Cyanobacterial toxins
974:Japanese encephalitis
917:Further information:
843:economic productivity
820:(related to repeated
730:
722:
614:
320:improved water source
301:
292:Further information:
210:healthcare facilities
90:WASH (disambiguation)
10646:Sara Josephine Baker
10545:Public Health Agency
10430:Health communication
10295:Disease surveillance
10261:Asymptomatic carrier
10243:Statistical software
9931:Preventive nutrition
9759:Medical anthropology
9648:Environmental health
8582:(10311): 1619–1662.
7501:10.2166/wh.2006.0043
5946:(Report). WHO. 2014.
5839:on 12 February 2009.
3688:United Arab Emirates
3204:The United Nation's
2898:gender mainstreaming
2841:University of Oxford
2828:indigenous knowledge
2679:lymphatic filariasis
2553:groundwater recharge
2518:infrastructure, and
2298:Additional comments
2055:distribution systems
2009:water-borne diseases
1985:hydraulic fracturing
1914:water-borne diseases
1656:developing countries
1568:enabling environment
1564:development agencies
1515:developing countries
1488:, Dhaka, Bangladesh)
1198:lymphatic filariasis
1163:(NTDs), for example
959:Lymphatic filariasis
422:groundwater recharge
356:rainwater collection
247:, and improving the
159:developing countries
10656:Carl Rogers Darnall
10651:Samuel Jay Crumbine
10425:Health belief model
10278:Notifiable diseases
10214:Regression analysis
10049:Waterborne diseases
9638:Cultural competence
9391:2015IJHEH.218..694C
8899:2021npjCW...4...42G
8362:Sinisi, L. (2011).
8346:Water Cycle Changes
8203:2020npjCW...3...24D
8132:2022ER....21213468C
8034:2023EnST...57.2248S
7787:1999WaEnJ..13..292C
7541:2022WRE....3800194A
6924:2015EnUrb..27..105S
6778:2010WatIn..35..733C
6766:Water International
6592:2020WatRM..34.2449T
6435:2015PLoSO..1035676T
6113:2018JArEn.149....4Y
5654:2013PLoSO...873784S
5578:(9875): 1405–1416.
5475:2013PLoSO...873784S
5241:"Hygiene: Overview"
5069:2014EnST...48.9965T
5004:2021EnvHI..1510180V
4836:2019Natur.572..230C
4767:2020NatCo..11.3710W
4699:2022ScTEn.81351876C
4343:2015IJHEH.218..694C
4079:Trinidad and Tobago
3870:Republic of Ireland
3212:. For example, the
3158:since 1991 and the
3135:International is a
3078:Society and culture
3041:WASH project report
2902:Women's empowerment
2892:Women's empowerment
2798:climate information
2650:waterborne diseases
2622:tick-borne diseases
2606:infectious diseases
2288:
2280:secondary treatment
2205:anaerobic digesters
1700:health facilities:
1671:improved sanitation
1127:improved sanitation
919:Waterborne diseases
907:waterborne diseases
832:Broader well-being:
781:waterborne diseases
777:helminth infections
684:, implementing the
459:Improved sanitation
449:Sanitation services
302:Women line up at a
245:women's empowerment
10254:disease prevention
10189:Case–control study
9861:Security of person
9710:Health care reform
9479:on 4 October 2017.
9241:de Jong D (2003).
8669:on 24 August 2011.
7962:. IWA Publishing.
7610:. IWA Publishing.
7440:(8): e1086–e1087.
7328:on 18 April 2019.
6334:10.1093/ije/dyq035
6160:10.1002/ajhb.23357
6015:on August 31, 2015
5929:, Fact sheet N°366
5186:. IWA Publishing.
5088:20.500.11850/88743
4517:OurWorldInData.org
3973:Dominican Republic
3308:Sub-Saharan Africa
3197:
3103:
3062:context. The term
2938:
2914:gender disparities
2843:and funded by the
2759:Climate resilience
2598:
2286:
2252:water distribution
2083:
2036:
1922:ecosystem services
1910:aquatic ecosystems
1828:
1803:
1648:
1608:
1505:
1490:
1478:
1366:developing nations
1358:
1350:
1092:
929:Diarrheal diseases
814:cognitive function
757:
725:
625:
581:Sanitation workers
372:unimproved sources
316:
249:climate resilience
10747:
10746:
10699:
10698:
10609:Higher education
10440:Positive deviance
10435:Health psychology
10411:Health behavioral
10338:safety management
10312:Social distancing
10086:Population health
10066:Smoking cessation
10014:Pharmacovigilance
9985:Injury prevention
9953:Infection control
9871:Social psychology
9821:Prisoners' rights
9764:Medical sociology
9732:Public health law
9628:Biological hazard
9085:World Development
8980:978-91-87823-69-5
8797:978-0-520-26909-5
8741:(9513): 859–869.
8375:978-92-890-0259-2
7977:978-1-78906-317-2
7727:978-1-63321-791-1
7691:. July 23, 2013.
7687:. Cambridge, MA:
7681:"Water Pollution"
7666:978-0-471-48494-3
7627:978-1-78040-208-6
7274:978-3-95645-057-0
7248:978-3-95645-250-5
6859:. The World Bank.
6743:978-0-9746651-0-8
5881:BMC Public Health
5829:978-92-806-4313-8
5758:10.1111/tmi.12331
5548:Gleick P (2002).
5534:978-92-4-151689-1
5337:Our World in Data
5203:978-1-78040-912-2
5124:BMC Public Health
5078:10.1021/es501645d
5063:(17): 9965–9970.
4830:(7768): 230–234.
4630:978-1-874370-82-6
4483:978-92-4-151289-3
4097:
4096:
3925:England and Wales
3015:The abbreviation
2951:Capacity building
2683:Rift Valley fever
2458:hydro-electricity
2403:
2402:
2304:Year of estimate
2244:water abstraction
2201:anaerobic lagoons
2159:carbon accounting
2087:sanitation worker
2068:Sanitation worker
1661:According to the
1590:Group handwashing
1584:local authorities
1425:domestic violence
1253:falls from height
1099:fecal–oral routes
806:obstructed labour
731:The "F-diagram" (
709:poverty reduction
676:gains, improving
640:menstrual hygiene
561:onsite sanitation
551:Sanitation worker
500:composting toilet
184:, in addition to
170:burden of disease
111:local governments
105:) is a sector in
10797:
10735:
10734:
10723:
10722:
10711:
10710:
10605:Health education
10482:
10481:
10336:Food hygiene and
10317:Tropical disease
10129:Infant mortality
10104:Community health
9980:Controlled Drugs
9916:Health promotion
9846:Right to housing
9690:Health economics
9602:
9595:
9588:
9579:
9578:
9541:
9540:
9534:
9525:
9519:
9518:
9516:
9515:
9505:"About UN-Water"
9501:
9495:
9494:
9487:
9481:
9480:
9478:
9471:
9463:
9457:
9443:
9437:
9436:
9434:
9432:
9417:
9411:
9410:
9374:
9368:
9367:
9365:
9363:
9349:
9343:
9342:
9327:
9321:
9320:
9318:
9317:
9303:
9297:
9296:
9294:
9292:
9281:
9275:
9274:
9272:
9271:
9261:
9253:
9247:
9246:
9238:
9232:
9231:
9229:
9227:
9216:
9210:
9209:
9207:
9205:
9190:
9184:
9183:
9181:
9180:
9174:
9166:
9160:
9159:
9148:
9142:
9141:
9139:
9131:
9125:
9124:
9122:
9121:
9107:
9101:
9100:
9076:
9070:
9065:
9060:
9050:
9026:
9015:
9008:
8999:
8998:
8991:
8982:
8968:
8959:
8954:
8949:
8941:
8930:
8925:
8920:
8910:
8877:
8862:
8851:
8845:
8844:
8842:
8841:
8826:
8820:
8813:
8802:
8801:
8773:
8767:
8766:
8728:
8722:
8721:
8703:
8677:
8671:
8670:
8665:. Archived from
8656:
8624:
8618:
8617:
8599:
8573:
8563:
8557:
8546:
8535:
8524:
8518:
8517:
8515:
8505:
8481:
8475:
8474:
8472:
8471:
8457:
8451:
8450:
8442:
8436:
8435:
8433:
8432:
8418:
8412:
8411:
8409:
8408:
8394:
8388:
8387:
8359:
8353:
8341:
8335:
8328:
8322:
8321:
8319:
8318:
8303:
8294:
8293:
8275:
8251:
8242:
8237:
8232:
8214:
8182:
8173:
8168:
8163:
8153:
8143:
8126:(Pt D): 113468.
8111:
8098:
8097:
8095:
8086:
8080:
8079:
8061:
8028:(6): 2248–2261.
8013:
8007:
7996:
7990:
7989:
7953:
7902:
7901:
7895:
7887:
7860:
7854:
7847:
7841:
7840:
7838:
7836:
7821:
7815:
7814:
7770:
7764:
7763:
7761:
7760:
7746:
7740:
7739:
7711:
7705:
7704:
7702:
7700:
7677:
7671:
7670:
7638:
7632:
7631:
7619:
7595:
7589:
7588:
7586:
7584:
7578:
7567:
7561:
7560:
7520:
7514:
7513:
7503:
7479:
7468:
7467:
7449:
7425:
7416:
7415:
7413:
7412:
7397:
7384:
7383:
7381:
7379:
7364:
7358:
7357:
7355:
7353:
7347:
7339:
7333:
7332:
7318:
7309:
7308:
7306:
7305:
7290:
7279:
7278:
7259:
7253:
7252:
7233:
7227:
7226:
7224:
7216:
7210:
7209:
7202:
7196:
7195:
7185:
7179:
7178:
7168:
7162:
7161:
7151:
7145:
7144:
7134:
7128:
7127:
7117:
7093:
7087:
7086:
7074:
7063:
7062:
7056:
7048:
7042:
7041:
7034:
7023:
7022:
7015:
7006:
7005:
7003:
7002:
6988:
6979:
6978:
6976:
6975:
6961:
6952:
6951:
6907:
6901:
6900:
6892:
6886:
6885:
6883:
6881:
6867:
6861:
6860:
6858:
6847:
6836:
6835:
6807:
6798:
6797:
6763:
6754:
6748:
6747:
6727:
6721:
6720:
6709:
6703:
6698:
6693:
6683:
6673:
6649:
6640:
6639:
6637:
6635:
6629:
6620:
6614:
6613:
6603:
6586:(8): 2449–2470.
6571:
6565:
6564:
6554:
6522:
6516:
6515:
6497:
6473:
6467:
6466:
6456:
6446:
6414:
6403:
6402:
6376:
6367:
6356:
6355:
6345:
6313:
6300:
6293:
6282:
6275:
6269:
6262:
6256:
6249:
6243:
6242:
6208:
6199:
6190:
6189:
6171:
6139:
6133:
6132:
6096:
6085:
6084:
6082:
6080:
6074:
6066:
6060:
6059:
6057:
6049:
6043:
6042:
6031:
6025:
6024:
6022:
6020:
6005:
5999:
5998:
5988:
5978:
5954:
5948:
5947:
5944:Fact sheet N°366
5936:
5930:
5923:
5917:
5916:
5906:
5896:
5872:
5863:
5862:
5850:
5841:
5840:
5838:
5832:. Archived from
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4657:The Conversation
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3930:Northern Ireland
3729:Papua New Guinea
3327:
3326:
3279:
3272:
3265:
3256:
3255:
3241:World Toilet Day
3218:reuse of excreta
3105:Since 1990, the
2863:carries out the
2819:renewable energy
2742:communications.
2689:, dengue fever,
2543:In terms of the
2442:circular economy
2422:circular economy
2289:
2285:
2268:wastewater reuse
2038:The failures of
1981:filling stations
1928:provided by the
1413:physical assault
1175:Since 2015, the
1054:infant mortality
913:List of diseases
773:fecal–oral route
623:for handwashing.
531:reuse of excreta
513:for all and end
474:With regards to
346:, protected dug
56:
47:
36:
27:
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10799:
10798:
10796:
10795:
10794:
10780:Gender equality
10750:
10749:
10748:
10743:
10695:
10666:Margaret Sanger
10634:
10593:
10477:
10475:
10469:
10412:
10406:
10378:Safety scandals
10337:
10331:
10253:
10247:
10181:
10175:
10171:Social medicine
10164:Race and health
10099:Child mortality
10080:
10039:Open defecation
9921:Human nutrition
9911:Family planning
9899:Behavior change
9885:
9841:Right to health
9754:Maternal health
9744:Health politics
9695:Health literacy
9611:
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9454:Wayback Machine
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9421:"Where we work"
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9313:
9307:"Reports | JMP"
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6717:WaterAid Canada
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5695:Mara D (2017).
5693:
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4576:SDG-Tracker.org
4568:
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4308:10.23846/sr0017
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3941:
3845:North Macedonia
3733:
3702:
3509:
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3321:
3317:
3286:
3283:
3253:
3233:World Water Day
3229:observance days
3202:
3168:
3152:
3095:
3085:
3080:
3006:
3000:
2894:
2858:
2853:
2836:
2779:Paris Agreement
2748:
2710:
2704:
2699:
2698:
2642:disease vectors
2573:
2565:
2500:extreme weather
2488:
2478:
2417:
2408:
2248:water treatment
2232:
2214:
2181:
2161:
2151:
2146:
2136:
2131:
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2071:
2063:
2032:Nyanza Province
2024:
2018:
2013:
2012:
1957:water pollution
1955:. This type of
1942:
1934:
1933:
1850:Water pollution
1847:
1844:Water pollution
1812:
1792:
1767:
1762:
1741:
1680:maternal sepsis
1636:
1592:
1556:
1539:
1511:
1466:
1458:
1443:water utilities
1434:
1419:along the way (
1408:
1402:
1338:
1329:
1296:
1284:
1279:
1278:
1267:gastroenteritis
1257:confined spaces
1247:
1239:
1225:
1219:
1206:schistosomiasis
1188:by 2015 and of
1157:
1151:
1084:
1074:
1069:
1058:maternal deaths
988:
954:Schistosomiasis
921:
915:
891:open defecation
856:
810:low birthweight
762:
717:
701:gender equality
694:water pollution
680:in the case of
670:
617:Veronica Bucket
609:
601:Main articles:
599:
573:container-based
553:
545:Main articles:
543:
537:interventions.
535:behavior change
523:open defecation
515:open defecation
465:open defecation
461:
453:Main articles:
451:
424:
416:Main articles:
414:
296:
290:
262:
92:
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81:
80:
79:
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58:
57:
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10760:Drinking water
10745:
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10633:
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10523:
10522:
10517:
10509:
10508:
10507:
10499:
10498:
10497:
10488:
10486:
10479:
10474:Organizations,
10471:
10470:
10468:
10467:
10462:
10457:
10452:
10447:
10442:
10437:
10432:
10427:
10422:
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10380:
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10360:
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10246:
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10240:
10239:
10238:
10230:
10221:
10216:
10211:
10201:
10196:
10191:
10185:
10183:
10180:Biological and
10177:
10176:
10174:
10173:
10168:
10167:
10166:
10161:
10156:
10146:
10141:
10139:Multimorbidity
10136:
10131:
10126:
10121:
10116:
10111:
10106:
10101:
10096:
10090:
10088:
10082:
10081:
10079:
10078:
10076:Vector control
10073:
10068:
10063:
10061:School hygiene
10058:
10057:
10056:
10051:
10046:
10044:Sanitary sewer
10041:
10036:
10031:
10021:
10016:
10011:
10010:
10009:
10002:Patient safety
9999:
9998:
9997:
9992:
9987:
9982:
9977:
9972:
9962:
9961:
9960:
9955:
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9739:
9734:
9724:
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9714:
9713:
9712:
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9697:
9692:
9687:
9685:Harm reduction
9682:
9677:
9672:
9667:
9666:
9665:
9660:
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9645:
9640:
9635:
9630:
9625:
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9613:
9612:
9605:
9604:
9597:
9590:
9582:
9576:
9575:
9570:
9560:
9548:
9547:External links
9545:
9543:
9542:
9520:
9496:
9482:
9458:
9438:
9412:
9385:(8): 694–703.
9369:
9344:
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9298:
9276:
9248:
9233:
9211:
9185:
9161:
9143:
9126:
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8983:
8960:
8931:
8863:
8846:
8821:
8803:
8796:
8768:
8723:
8672:
8639:(1): 141–161.
8619:
8558:
8536:
8519:
8476:
8452:
8437:
8413:
8389:
8374:
8354:
8336:
8323:
8295:
8266:(1): 253–276.
8243:
8174:
8099:
8081:
8008:
7991:
7976:
7903:
7874:
7855:
7842:
7816:
7781:(4): 292–296.
7765:
7741:
7726:
7706:
7672:
7665:
7633:
7626:
7590:
7562:
7515:
7469:
7417:
7385:
7374:(Report). 2015
7359:
7334:
7310:
7280:
7273:
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7228:
7211:
7197:
7180:
7163:
7146:
7129:
7088:
7064:
7043:
7024:
7007:
6996:www.susana.org
6980:
6953:
6918:(1): 105–116.
6902:
6887:
6862:
6837:
6818:(6): 256–263.
6812:Social Studies
6799:
6772:(6): 733–747.
6749:
6742:
6722:
6704:
6641:
6615:
6566:
6517:
6468:
6404:
6357:
6301:
6283:
6270:
6257:
6244:
6191:
6134:
6086:
6061:
6044:
6041:on 2015-09-25.
6026:
6000:
5949:
5931:
5918:
5864:
5861:on 2011-10-31.
5842:
5828:
5806:
5780:
5751:(8): 928–942.
5728:
5687:
5628:
5607:
5558:
5540:
5533:
5508:
5449:
5437:United Nations
5418:
5386:
5371:
5349:
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5305:
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5232:
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4949:
4920:
4865:
4807:
4732:
4669:
4636:
4629:
4606:
4581:
4559:
4551:United Nations
4528:
4496:
4482:
4459:
4429:(1): 231–243.
4423:H2Open Journal
4392:
4364:
4337:(8): 694–703.
4314:
4280:
4250:
4236:978-9241512893
4235:
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3940:
3939:
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3937:
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3927:
3920:United Kingdom
3917:
3912:
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3780:Czech Republic
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3708:
3704:
3703:
3701:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3548:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3517:
3515:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3336:
3334:
3330:
3329:
3320:
3318:
3316:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3298:European Union
3294:
3292:
3288:
3287:
3282:
3281:
3274:
3267:
3259:
3252:
3249:
3227:international
3225:United Nations
3201:
3198:
3186:
3185:
3179:
3167:
3164:
3151:
3148:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
2999:
2996:
2961:
2960:
2957:
2954:
2948:
2945:
2893:
2890:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2835:
2832:
2790:water security
2775:water security
2747:
2744:
2703:
2700:
2602:climate change
2574:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2530:Climate change
2512:storm drainage
2477:
2474:
2462:micro-turbines
2460:by installing
2416:
2413:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2386:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2372:
2368:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2356:
2352:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2337:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2321:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2306:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2231:
2228:
2212:
2180:
2177:
2150:
2147:
2135:
2132:
2119:public toilets
2072:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2017:
2014:
1943:
1935:
1930:water resource
1926:drinking water
1848:
1840:
1811:
1808:
1791:
1788:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1740:
1737:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1715:
1712:
1705:
1635:
1632:
1624:Mass deworming
1591:
1588:
1555:
1552:
1538:
1535:
1509:School hygiene
1465:
1462:
1457:
1454:
1439:discrimination
1433:
1430:
1417:sexual assault
1401:
1398:
1337:
1334:
1328:
1325:
1295:
1292:
1283:
1280:
1248:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1218:
1215:
1186:dracunculiasis
1155:Mass deworming
1150:
1147:
1131:drinking water
1103:stunted growth
1073:
1070:
1068:
1067:
1061:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1030:Lead poisoning
1027:
1022:
1013:
1008:
1003:
998:
992:
987:
986:
981:
976:
971:
966:
964:Onchocerciasis
961:
956:
951:
946:
941:
936:
931:
925:
914:
911:
868:undernutrition
855:
852:
851:
850:
839:sexual assault
829:
792:
785:drinking water
761:
758:
716:
713:
669:
666:
598:
593:
563:systems (e.g.
542:
539:
450:
447:
413:
410:
398:water security
367:drinking water
289:
286:
270:drinking water
261:
258:
254:climate change
168:-attributable
135:water security
113:that provides
61:
60:
51:
50:
42:
41:
40:
31:
30:
22:
21:
20:
19:
18:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10802:
10791:
10788:
10786:
10783:
10781:
10778:
10776:
10773:
10771:
10768:
10766:
10763:
10761:
10758:
10757:
10755:
10740:
10739:
10730:
10728:
10727:
10718:
10716:
10715:
10706:
10705:
10702:
10692:
10689:
10687:
10684:
10682:
10679:
10677:
10674:
10672:
10669:
10667:
10664:
10662:
10661:Joseph Lister
10659:
10657:
10654:
10652:
10649:
10647:
10644:
10643:
10641:
10637:
10629:
10626:
10624:
10621:
10619:
10616:
10614:
10611:
10610:
10608:
10606:
10603:
10602:
10600:
10596:
10589:
10585:
10583:
10580:
10578:
10575:
10571:
10568:
10566:
10563:
10561:
10558:
10556:
10553:
10552:
10550:
10546:
10543:
10541:
10540:Health Canada
10538:
10537:
10535:
10531:
10528:
10527:
10525:
10521:
10518:
10516:
10513:
10512:
10510:
10506:
10503:
10502:
10500:
10496:
10493:
10492:
10490:
10489:
10487:
10485:Organizations
10483:
10480:
10472:
10466:
10463:
10461:
10458:
10456:
10453:
10451:
10448:
10446:
10443:
10441:
10438:
10436:
10433:
10431:
10428:
10426:
10423:
10421:
10418:
10417:
10415:
10409:
10401:
10398:
10396:
10393:
10392:
10391:
10388:
10386:
10383:
10379:
10376:
10374:
10371:
10369:
10366:
10364:
10361:
10359:
10356:
10354:
10351:
10349:
10346:
10345:
10343:
10342:
10340:
10334:
10328:
10325:
10323:
10322:Vaccine trial
10320:
10318:
10315:
10313:
10310:
10308:
10305:
10303:
10300:
10296:
10293:
10292:
10291:
10288:
10284:
10281:
10280:
10279:
10276:
10272:
10269:
10268:
10267:
10264:
10262:
10259:
10258:
10256:
10250:
10244:
10241:
10237:
10235:
10231:
10229:
10227:
10222:
10220:
10217:
10215:
10212:
10210:
10207:
10206:
10205:
10202:
10200:
10199:Relative risk
10197:
10195:
10192:
10190:
10187:
10186:
10184:
10178:
10172:
10169:
10165:
10162:
10160:
10159:Health equity
10157:
10155:
10152:
10151:
10150:
10147:
10145:
10142:
10140:
10137:
10135:
10132:
10130:
10127:
10125:
10124:Health system
10122:
10120:
10117:
10115:
10114:Global health
10112:
10110:
10107:
10105:
10102:
10100:
10097:
10095:
10094:Biostatistics
10092:
10091:
10089:
10087:
10083:
10077:
10074:
10072:
10069:
10067:
10064:
10062:
10059:
10055:
10052:
10050:
10047:
10045:
10042:
10040:
10037:
10035:
10032:
10030:
10027:
10026:
10025:
10022:
10020:
10017:
10015:
10012:
10008:
10005:
10004:
10003:
10000:
9996:
9993:
9991:
9988:
9986:
9983:
9981:
9978:
9976:
9973:
9971:
9968:
9967:
9966:
9963:
9959:
9956:
9954:
9951:
9949:
9946:
9944:
9941:
9940:
9939:
9936:
9932:
9929:
9927:
9924:
9923:
9922:
9919:
9917:
9914:
9912:
9909:
9905:
9902:
9901:
9900:
9897:
9896:
9894:
9892:
9888:
9882:
9879:
9877:
9874:
9872:
9869:
9867:
9864:
9862:
9859:
9857:
9854:
9852:
9849:
9847:
9844:
9842:
9839:
9837:
9836:Right to food
9834:
9832:
9829:
9827:
9824:
9822:
9819:
9815:
9812:
9810:
9807:
9805:
9802:
9800:
9797:
9795:
9792:
9791:
9790:
9787:
9785:
9782:
9780:
9777:
9774:
9770:
9769:Mental health
9767:
9765:
9762:
9760:
9757:
9755:
9752:
9750:
9747:
9745:
9742:
9738:
9735:
9733:
9730:
9729:
9728:
9725:
9723:
9720:
9718:
9717:Housing First
9715:
9711:
9708:
9706:
9705:Health system
9703:
9702:
9701:
9700:Health policy
9698:
9696:
9693:
9691:
9688:
9686:
9683:
9681:
9678:
9676:
9673:
9671:
9668:
9664:
9661:
9659:
9656:
9655:
9654:
9651:
9649:
9646:
9644:
9641:
9639:
9636:
9634:
9631:
9629:
9626:
9624:
9621:
9620:
9618:
9614:
9610:
9609:Public health
9603:
9598:
9596:
9591:
9589:
9584:
9583:
9580:
9574:
9571:
9568:
9564:
9561:
9558:
9554:
9551:
9550:
9538:
9531:
9524:
9510:
9506:
9500:
9492:
9486:
9475:
9468:
9462:
9455:
9451:
9448:
9442:
9426:
9422:
9416:
9408:
9404:
9400:
9396:
9392:
9388:
9384:
9380:
9373:
9358:
9354:
9348:
9340:
9336:
9332:
9326:
9312:
9308:
9302:
9286:
9280:
9265:
9258:
9252:
9244:
9237:
9221:
9215:
9199:
9195:
9189:
9175:. USAID. 1988
9171:
9165:
9157:
9153:
9147:
9136:
9130:
9116:
9112:
9106:
9098:
9094:
9090:
9086:
9082:
9075:
9069:
9064:
9058:
9054:
9049:
9044:
9040:
9036:
9032:
9025:
9023:
9021:
9013:
9007:
9005:
8996:
8990:
8988:
8981:
8977:
8973:
8967:
8965:
8958:
8953:
8947:
8940:
8938:
8936:
8929:
8924:
8918:
8914:
8909:
8904:
8900:
8896:
8892:
8888:
8884:
8876:
8874:
8872:
8870:
8868:
8860:
8856:
8850:
8836:
8832:
8825:
8818:
8812:
8810:
8808:
8799:
8793:
8789:
8785:
8784:
8779:
8772:
8764:
8760:
8756:
8752:
8748:
8744:
8740:
8736:
8735:
8727:
8719:
8715:
8711:
8707:
8702:
8697:
8693:
8689:
8688:
8683:
8676:
8668:
8664:
8660:
8655:
8650:
8646:
8642:
8638:
8634:
8630:
8623:
8615:
8611:
8607:
8603:
8598:
8597:10278/3746207
8593:
8589:
8585:
8581:
8577:
8570:
8562:
8555:
8551:
8545:
8543:
8541:
8533:
8529:
8523:
8514:
8509:
8504:
8499:
8495:
8491:
8487:
8480:
8466:
8462:
8456:
8448:
8441:
8427:
8423:
8417:
8403:
8399:
8393:
8385:
8381:
8377:
8371:
8367:
8366:
8358:
8351:
8347:
8340:
8333:
8327:
8312:
8308:
8302:
8300:
8291:
8287:
8283:
8279:
8274:
8269:
8265:
8261:
8257:
8250:
8248:
8241:
8236:
8230:
8226:
8222:
8218:
8213:
8208:
8204:
8200:
8196:
8192:
8188:
8181:
8179:
8172:
8167:
8161:
8157:
8152:
8147:
8142:
8137:
8133:
8129:
8125:
8121:
8117:
8110:
8108:
8106:
8104:
8092:
8089:IPCC (2019).
8085:
8077:
8073:
8069:
8065:
8060:
8055:
8051:
8047:
8043:
8039:
8035:
8031:
8027:
8023:
8019:
8012:
8005:
8001:
7995:
7987:
7983:
7979:
7973:
7969:
7965:
7961:
7960:
7952:
7950:
7948:
7946:
7944:
7942:
7940:
7938:
7936:
7934:
7932:
7930:
7928:
7926:
7924:
7922:
7920:
7918:
7916:
7914:
7912:
7910:
7908:
7899:
7893:
7885:
7881:
7877:
7875:1-56973-568-9
7871:
7867:
7866:
7859:
7852:
7849:PRIA (2019):
7846:
7831:
7827:
7820:
7812:
7808:
7804:
7800:
7796:
7792:
7788:
7784:
7780:
7776:
7769:
7755:
7751:
7745:
7737:
7733:
7729:
7723:
7719:
7718:
7710:
7699:September 18,
7694:
7690:
7686:
7682:
7676:
7668:
7662:
7658:
7654:
7650:
7646:
7645:
7637:
7629:
7623:
7618:
7613:
7609:
7605:
7601:
7594:
7575:
7574:
7566:
7558:
7554:
7550:
7546:
7542:
7538:
7534:
7530:
7526:
7519:
7511:
7507:
7502:
7497:
7494:(S1): 41–57.
7493:
7489:
7485:
7478:
7476:
7474:
7465:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7448:
7443:
7439:
7435:
7431:
7424:
7422:
7406:
7402:
7396:
7394:
7392:
7390:
7373:
7369:
7363:
7344:
7338:
7331:
7327:
7323:
7317:
7315:
7300:on 2015-03-20
7299:
7295:
7289:
7287:
7285:
7276:
7270:
7266:
7265:
7258:
7250:
7244:
7240:
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7232:
7221:
7215:
7207:
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7193:
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7184:
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7142:
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7133:
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7121:
7116:
7111:
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7092:
7084:
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7069:
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7047:
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7033:
7031:
7029:
7020:
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6987:
6985:
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6958:
6949:
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6937:
6933:
6929:
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6487:
6483:
6479:
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6464:
6460:
6455:
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6445:
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6413:
6411:
6409:
6400:
6396:
6392:
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6380:
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6364:
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6349:
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6331:
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6319:
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6308:
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6288:
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6274:
6267:
6261:
6254:
6248:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6220:
6217:(1): 99–113.
6216:
6212:
6205:
6198:
6196:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6170:
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6161:
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6154:(1): e23357.
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6065:
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5869:
5860:
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5768:
5764:
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5683:
5679:
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5648:(9): e73784.
5647:
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5515:
5513:
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5469:(9): e73784.
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2595:
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2585:Aedes aegypti
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2005:public health
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675:
674:public health
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380:
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127:public health
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10363:Microbiology
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10109:Epidemiology
10007:Organization
9958:Oral hygiene
9948:Hand washing
9926:Healthy diet
9856:Right to sit
9749:Labor rights
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9508:
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9474:the original
9461:
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9415:
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9360:. Retrieved
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9311:washdata.org
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8526:IPCC, 2022:
8522:
8513:10919/115131
8493:
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8464:
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8426:washdata.org
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7337:
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7302:. Retrieved
7298:the original
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6077:. Retrieved
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6029:
6019:14 September
6017:. Retrieved
6013:the original
6003:
5969:(9): e2439.
5966:
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5952:
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5859:the original
5834:the original
5815:
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5795:. 2 May 2017
5792:
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5270:. Retrieved
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4962:the original
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4426:
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4330:
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4271:. Retrieved
4267:
4225:
4195:. Retrieved
4191:
4170:
3653:Saudi Arabia
3470:South Africa
3465:Sierra Leone
3360:Burkina Faso
3222:
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3141:
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3119:availability
3104:
3083:Global goals
3063:
3055:
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2986:published a
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2877:Preparedness
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2873:
2870:
2864:
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2771:water sector
2762:
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2687:yellow fever
2669:human health
2654:
2614:dengue fever
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2551:, and hence
2542:
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2508:water supply
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2264:desalination
2240:fossil fuels
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2162:
2115:water drains
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2052:
2040:water supply
2037:
1963:rather than
1886:contaminants
1854:water bodies
1829:
1804:
1780:
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1733:child health
1726:
1698:
1691:disempowered
1688:
1676:
1660:
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1609:
1575:stakeholders
1572:
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1523:menstruation
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1362:water supply
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1211:stakeholders
1174:
1158:
1142:malnutrition
1139:
1135:hand washing
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812:), impaired
794:
791:for infants.
768:
763:
698:
671:
663:
655:
652:
644:food hygiene
627:
626:
607:Hand washing
595:
569:septic tanks
565:pit latrines
554:
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504:
480:Flush toilet
473:
462:
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438:
436:
433:
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406:point of use
395:
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350:, protected
323:
317:
266:water supply
263:
222:
205:
203:
178:malnutrition
165:
163:
155:aid agencies
102:
98:
94:
93:
10738:WikiProject
10478:and history
10358:Engineering
10071:Vaccination
9943:Food safety
9539:(17): 4–10.
9115:www.wmo.int
9041:(1): 5–15.
9010:WHO (2022)
8694:: 37S–46S.
8445:Joubert L.
8330:SWA (2020)
7194:. WaterAid.
7177:. WaterAid.
7160:. WaterAid.
7143:. WaterAid.
6969:WASHfunders
6880:21 February
6488:(1): 1–22.
6251:HSE (2011)
5925:WHO (2014)
5707:(1): 1–12.
5412:WHO (2023)
5130:(1): 1015.
4761:(1): 3710.
3978:El Salvador
3905:Switzerland
3840:Netherlands
3724:New Zealand
3707:Australasia
3663:South Korea
3643:Philippines
3521:Afghanistan
3475:South Sudan
3400:Ivory Coast
2924:(GII), and
2695:chikungunya
2634:chikungunya
2557:evaporative
2549:percolation
2545:water cycle
2450:solar power
2127:solid waste
1993:agriculture
1989:fertilizers
1953:groundwater
1906:degradation
1902:groundwater
1878:groundwater
1836:groundwater
1824:sari filter
1800:Philippines
1709:handwashing
1669:, 19% lack
1612:handwashing
1497:Handwashing
1394:Middle East
1392:and in the
1119:piped water
1020:Hepatitis E
1016:Hepatitis A
996:Arsenicosis
753:handwashing
636:handwashing
492:pit latrine
418:groundwater
412:Groundwater
391:Desalinated
387:groundwater
272:services),
268:(access to
218:handwashing
10765:Sanitation
10754:Categories
10491:Caribbean
10368:Processing
10302:Quarantine
10224:Student's
10024:Sanitation
9658:History of
9514:2022-07-11
9431:5 December
9316:2022-07-07
9270:2015-12-17
9179:2015-12-30
9120:2020-02-21
9091:: 105158.
8840:2021-02-04
8734:The Lancet
8576:The Lancet
8470:2020-11-25
8431:2020-11-25
8407:2020-11-25
8317:2021-05-13
8006:and WSSCC.
7759:2022-07-12
7535:: 100194.
7411:2022-08-02
7304:2022-07-06
7001:2022-07-06
6974:2021-05-13
6664:: 100490.
6482:Demography
5799:29 October
5622:2014-03-10
5381:1104819635
5317:(Report).
5299:2021-05-13
5272:2018-12-01
5267:World Bank
5247:29 January
4890:: 166929.
4693:: 151876.
4245:1010983346
4197:2017-11-17
4143:References
3963:Costa Rica
3719:East Timor
3608:Kyrgyzstan
3598:Kazakhstan
3531:Bangladesh
3526:Azerbaijan
3440:Mozambique
2992:sanitation
2886:adaptation
2882:mitigation
2691:Zika virus
2646:food-borne
2630:zika fever
2292:Parameter
2236:energy mix
2091:sanitation
1969:sanitation
1949:pollutants
1918:irrigation
1894:stormwater
1874:reservoirs
1739:In prisons
1464:In schools
1447:World Bank
1390:South Asia
1313:water well
745:safe water
682:sanitation
589:sanitation
585:sanitation
507:sanitation
469:unimproved
455:Sanitation
439:additional
428:freshwater
340:tube wells
336:standpipes
274:sanitation
260:Components
204:Access to
119:sanitation
109:or within
78:, Namibia.
10671:John Snow
10598:Education
10588:Full list
10476:education
10400:ISO 22000
10353:Chemistry
10266:Epidemics
10219:ROC curve
10029:Emergency
9809:Radiation
9789:Pollution
9773:Ministers
9670:Euthenics
9339:973387855
9057:2043-9083
8917:2059-7037
8893:(1): 42.
8614:239046862
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8050:0013-936X
7986:250128707
7892:cite book
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7557:246261266
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7378:3 October
7352:3 October
7124:2043-9083
6940:0956-2478
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6794:153289383
6634:3 October
6610:219318999
6231:1355-2074
6186:209448427
6129:0140-1963
5723:2043-9083
5618:. Who.int
5442:15 August
5146:1471-2458
5097:0013-936X
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4860:199491973
4505:Ritchie H
4445:2616-6518
4089:Venezuela
4034:Argentina
4008:Nicaragua
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3658:Singapore
3638:Palestine
3568:Indonesia
3546:Hong Kong
3291:By region
3231:, namely
2984:Worldbank
2657:mosquitos
2466:biosolids
2444:include:
2312:1400 TWh
2048:boreholes
1971:systems,
1965:pollution
1882:pollution
1707:Improved
1694:workforce
1486:Mohakhali
1233:periods.
1001:Fluorosis
818:pneumonia
648:tap water
344:boreholes
304:bore hole
190:pregnancy
86:WASH (FM)
10714:Category
10413:sciences
10348:Additive
10019:Safe sex
9990:Medicine
9904:Theories
9675:Genomics
9653:Eugenics
9643:Deviance
9623:Auxology
9509:UN-Water
9450:Archived
9425:Archived
9407:25836758
9362:27 April
9291:11 March
9226:11 March
9204:11 March
8763:11220212
8755:16530580
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7835:23 April
7811:16993732
7693:Archived
7510:16493899
7456:35839804
7372:WaterAid
6948:70398487
6875:UN-Water
6871:"Gender"
6690:31993485
6630:(Report)
6561:26488938
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5294:UN-Water
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4852:31391559
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4727:34826465
4662:4 August
4522:22 March
4511:(2018),
4489:22 March
4385:27 April
4359:25836758
4273:27 April
4101:See also
4069:Paraguay
4054:Colombia
3993:Honduras
3935:Scotland
3890:Slovenia
3885:Slovakia
3865:Portugal
3770:Bulgaria
3683:Thailand
3633:Pakistan
3623:Malaysia
3536:Cambodia
3505:Zimbabwe
3485:Tanzania
3390:Ethiopia
3385:Eswatini
3370:Cameroon
3350:Botswana
3182:UN-Water
3133:WaterAid
2861:UN-Water
2781:and the
2773:, since
2664:vectors.
2516:sewerage
2504:droughts
2215:-eq/yr.
2001:fluoride
1973:landfill
1924:such as
1880:. Water
1870:aquifers
1729:maternal
1628:fluoride
1194:trachoma
1129:, clean
1095:Diarrhea
1078:Diarrhea
1050:Neonatal
984:Drowning
949:Trachoma
860:diarrhea
822:diarrhea
802:stunting
796:Sequelae
789:diarrhea
668:Purposes
632:diseases
308:IDP camp
239:and the
198:Scholars
182:stunting
174:diarrhea
10790:Hygiene
10785:Toilets
10726:Commons
10639:History
10536:Canada
10511:Europe
9995:Nursing
9975:Hygiene
9938:Hygiene
9663:Liberal
9616:General
9569:website
9559:website
9387:Bibcode
9264:WHO.int
8895:Bibcode
8718:9338260
8654:1240549
8199:Bibcode
8151:9227720
8128:Bibcode
8030:Bibcode
7783:Bibcode
7583:4 March
7537:Bibcode
7061:. 2014.
6920:Bibcode
6774:Bibcode
6719:. 2019.
6681:6978480
6588:Bibcode
6552:4625648
6454:4540465
6431:Bibcode
6343:2845874
6169:7537364
6109:Bibcode
5986:3784463
5904:4464235
5887:: 547.
5673:3774764
5650:Bibcode
5593:7159282
5494:3774764
5471:Bibcode
5342:5 March
5155:4231350
5065:Bibcode
5021:8186116
5000:Bibcode
4968:15 June
4832:Bibcode
4784:7382464
4763:Bibcode
4695:Bibcode
4509:Roser M
4339:Bibcode
4084:Uruguay
4059:Ecuador
4039:Bolivia
3998:Jamaica
3915:Ukraine
3875:Romania
3820:Iceland
3815:Hungary
3805:Germany
3795:Finland
3790:Estonia
3785:Denmark
3775:Croatia
3760:Belgium
3755:Austria
3750:Armenia
3745:Albania
3693:Vietnam
3618:Lebanon
3558:Georgia
3490:Tunisia
3460:Senegal
3450:Nigeria
3445:Namibia
3435:Morocco
3415:Liberia
3410:Lesotho
3365:Burundi
3340:Algeria
3033:hygiene
3023:of the
2998:History
2928:(GDI).
2920:(GEM),
2675:malaria
2618:malaria
2600:Global
2301:Source
2197:methane
2185:methane
2095:streets
2034:, Kenya
1997:arsenic
1718:Hygiene
1616:hygiene
1370:Nairobi
1317:cholera
1275:typhoid
1271:cholera
1111:malaria
1035:Scabies
944:Malaria
835:Anxiety
749:hygiene
741:toilets
628:Hygiene
603:Hygiene
596:Hygiene
591:chain.
533:), and
511:hygiene
476:toilets
404:at the
352:springs
282:acronym
278:hygiene
214:prisons
147:acronym
123:hygiene
76:Omaruru
72:Boquete
68:Kawempe
10526:India
10501:China
10373:Safety
10054:Worker
9405:
9337:
9266:. 2005
9055:
8978:
8915:
8857:. In:
8794:
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8530:. In:
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4380:UNICEF
4357:
4243:
4233:
4064:Guyana
4044:Brazil
4013:Panama
4003:Mexico
3958:Canada
3953:Belize
3910:Turkey
3900:Sweden
3880:Russia
3860:Poland
3855:Serbia
3850:Norway
3830:Latvia
3810:Greece
3800:France
3738:Europe
3678:Taiwan
3648:Russia
3603:Kuwait
3593:Jordan
3573:Israel
3500:Zambia
3495:Uganda
3455:Rwanda
3425:Malawi
3345:Angola
3333:Africa
3210:donors
3176:UNICEF
3172:UNICEF
3150:Awards
3064:WatSan
3031:, not
3029:health
2973:agency
2693:, and
2594:dengue
2590:vector
2496:floods
2295:Value
2169:scopes
2117:, and
2107:sewers
1890:sewage
1866:oceans
1862:rivers
1820:Matlab
1745:prison
1600:Rwanda
1547:Zambia
1501:Mysore
1386:Africa
1377:gender
1202:dengue
1133:, and
969:Dengue
826:anemia
354:, and
328:UNICEF
312:Kitgum
276:, and
180:, and
121:, and
99:Watsan
10551:U.S.
10395:HACCP
10344:Food
10236:-test
10228:-test
9814:Light
9799:Water
9557:UNHCR
9533:(PDF)
9477:(PDF)
9470:(PDF)
9260:(PDF)
9173:(PDF)
9138:(PDF)
8788:29–61
8759:S2CID
8714:S2CID
8610:S2CID
8572:(PDF)
8422:"JMP"
8348:. In
8286:S2CID
8225:S2CID
8094:(PDF)
8072:S2CID
7982:S2CID
7807:S2CID
7577:(PDF)
7553:S2CID
7460:S2CID
7346:(PDF)
7223:(PDF)
7055:(PDF)
6944:S2CID
6857:(PDF)
6828:S2CID
6790:S2CID
6762:(PDF)
6628:(PDF)
6606:S2CID
6508:S2CID
6375:(PDF)
6235:S2CID
6207:(PDF)
6182:S2CID
6073:(PDF)
6056:(PDF)
5837:(PDF)
5820:(PDF)
5771:S2CID
5553:(PDF)
5433:(PDF)
5034:S2CID
4941:(PDF)
4856:S2CID
4820:(PDF)
4621:(PDF)
4547:(PDF)
4474:(PDF)
4049:Chile
3988:Haiti
3895:Spain
3825:Italy
3698:Yemen
3673:Syria
3588:Japan
3563:India
3551:Macau
3541:China
3480:Sudan
3420:Libya
3405:Kenya
3395:Ghana
3380:Egypt
3355:Benin
3072:UNHCR
2969:Ghana
2661:ticks
2638:Ebola
2612:like
2399:2020
2384:2014
2366:2014
2350:2014
2335:2014
2319:2014
2111:storm
2099:parks
2044:wells
1858:lakes
1474:Dhaka
1346:Niger
1123:sewer
903:DALYs
733:feces
621:Ghana
577:sewer
484:sewer
348:wells
225:slums
115:water
64:Sindh
10327:WASH
10283:List
10271:List
9804:Soil
9433:2011
9403:PMID
9364:2015
9335:OCLC
9293:2016
9228:2016
9206:2016
9053:ISSN
8976:ISBN
8913:ISSN
8835:IISD
8792:ISBN
8751:PMID
8706:PMID
8659:PMID
8602:PMID
8380:OCLC
8370:ISBN
8278:ISSN
8217:ISSN
8156:PMID
8064:PMID
8046:ISSN
8004:CSBA
7972:ISBN
7898:link
7880:OCLC
7870:ISBN
7837:2020
7799:ISSN
7732:OCLC
7722:ISBN
7701:2021
7661:ISBN
7622:ISBN
7585:2020
7506:PMID
7452:PMID
7380:2017
7354:2017
7269:ISBN
7243:ISBN
7120:ISSN
6936:ISSN
6882:2020
6738:ISBN
6686:PMID
6636:2017
6557:PMID
6535:2015
6500:PMID
6459:PMID
6395:PMID
6348:PMID
6227:ISSN
6174:PMID
6125:ISSN
6081:2015
6021:2015
5991:PMID
5909:PMID
5824:ISBN
5801:2020
5763:PMID
5719:ISSN
5678:PMID
5598:PMID
5529:ISBN
5499:PMID
5444:2014
5377:OCLC
5367:ISBN
5344:2020
5249:2020
5198:ISBN
5160:PMID
5142:ISSN
5101:PMID
5093:ISSN
5026:PMID
4970:2015
4902:PMID
4848:PMID
4789:PMID
4723:PMID
4664:2022
4625:ISBN
4524:2018
4491:2018
4478:ISBN
4441:ISSN
4387:2015
4355:PMID
4275:2015
4241:OCLC
4231:ISBN
4074:Peru
3968:Cuba
3628:Oman
3613:Laos
3583:Iraq
3578:Iran
3514:Asia
3430:Mali
3243:and
3091:and
3070:and
3068:IFRC
3056:WASH
3052:WASH
3017:WASH
3008:The
2978:The
2908:The
2753:(or
2648:and
2636:and
2592:for
2514:and
2490:The
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2343:40%
2327:60%
2266:and
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2046:and
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1749:ICRC
1731:and
1415:and
1196:and
1190:yaws
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