1275:
1287:
1263:
1299:
1251:
1421:, a twelfth-century writer, described Ghana's royal city as lying on a riverbank, a river he called the "Nile." This followed the geographic custom of his day, which confused the Niger and Senegal Rivers and believed that they formed a single river often called the "Nile of the Blacks". Whether al-Idrisi was referring to a new and later capital located elsewhere, or whether there was confusion or corruption in his text is unclear. However, he does state that the royal palace he knew was built in 510 AH (1116–1117 AD), suggesting that it was a newer town, rebuilt closer to the river than Koumbi Saleh.
1311:
1406:
1382:
1879:, p. 19: "Mali is the name of an extensive territory lying in the far west to the direction of the Ocean. It was Kaya-Magha who founded the first kingdom in that region. His capital was Ghana, an important town in the country of Baghana. It is said that their kingdom was in existence before the hijra, and that twenty-two kings reigned before it and twenty-two afterwards, making forty four in all. In origin they were white, though we do not know to whom they trace their origin. Their subjects, however, were Wa'kore ."
566:), after which he migrated to a variety of locations in western Sudan, in each place leaving children by different wives. In order to take power he had to kill a serpent deity (named Bida), and then marry his daughters, who became the ancestors of the clans that were dominant in the region at the time. Some traditions state he did a deal with Bida to sacrifice one maiden a year in exchange for rainfall, and other versions add a constant supply of gold. Upon Dinga's death, his two sons Khine and Dyabe contested the
728:
1239:
1110:. As Mali became more powerful, the Ghana's role as an ally declined to that of a submissive state, although he was still accorded prestige as the leader of an ancient and storied state. According to a detailed account of al-'Umari, written around 1340 but based on testimony given to him by the "truthful and trustworthy" shaykh Abu Uthman Sa'id al-Dukkali, Ghana still retained its functions as a sort of kingdom within the empire, its ruler being the only one allowed to bear the title
70:
570:, and Dyabe was victorious, founding Wagadu. In some versions, the fall of Wagadu happens when a nobleman tries to save a maiden, despite her objection, and kills the snake, unleashing its curse and annulling the prior deal. This tale appears to have been a fragment of what once was a much longer narrative, now lost, however the legend of Wagadu continues to have a deep-rooted significance in Soninke culture and history. The tradition of
1035:
2305:
1397:, although there have always been controversies about the location of Ghana's capital and whether Koumbi Saleh is the same town as the one described by al-Bakri. The site was excavated in 1949–50 by Paul Thomassey and Raymond Mauny and by another French team in 1975–81. The remains of Koumbi Saleh are impressive, even if the remains of the royal town, with its large palace and burial mounds, have not been located.
1188:
splendid garments and their hair plaited with gold. The governor of the city sits on the ground before the king and around him are ministers seated likewise. At the door of the pavilion are dogs of excellent pedigree that hardly ever leave the place where the king is, guarding him. Around their necks they wear collars of gold and silver studded with a number of balls of the same metals.
1214:) who surrounded his throne when he gave justice, and these included the sons of the "kings of his country" which we must assume are the same kings that al-Ya'qubi mentioned in his account of nearly 200 years earlier. Al-Bakri's detailed geography of the region shows that in his day, or 1067/1068, Ghana was surrounded by independent kingdoms, and Sila, one of them located on the
1361:, one of which was designated for Friday prayers, and had a full group of scholars, scribes and Islamic jurists. Because the majority of these Muslims were merchants, this part of the city was probably its primary business district. It is likely that these inhabitants were largely black Muslims known as the
1196:
including the
Baxaran of Maghan and the Gbewaa States south of the sahel region. One of the earliest sources to describe Ghana, al-Ya'qubi, writing in 889/90 (276 AH) says that "under his authority are a number of kings" which included Sama and 'Am (?) and so extended at least to the Niger River
1348:
According to al-Bakri, the major part of the city was called El-Ghaba and was the residence of the king. It was protected by a stone wall and functioned as the royal and spiritual capital of the Empire. It contained a sacred grove of trees in which priests lived. It also contained the king's palace,
956:
in 1076–77, but this interpretation has been sharply questioned by modern scholars. Conrad and Fisher (1982) argued that the notion of any
Almoravid military conquest at its core is merely perpetuated folklore, derived from a misinterpretation or naive reliance on Arabic sources. Dierke Lange agrees
756:
Beginning in the mid 20th century as more archeological data became available, scholars began to favor a purely local origin for Ghana. These works bring together archaeology, descriptive geographical sources written between 830 and 1400 AD, the
Tarikhs from the 16th and 17th centuries, and the oral
993:
Al-Idrisi, whose account was written in 1154, has the country fully Muslim by that date. He describes an empire as powerful as it had been in the days of al-Bakri, 75 years earlier. In fact, he describes its capital as "the greatest of all towns of the Sudan with respect to area, the most populous,
960:
Sheryl L. Burkhalter (1992) suggested that there were reasons to believe that there was conflict between the
Almoravids and the empire of Ghana. Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century North African historian who read and cited both al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, reported an ambiguous account of the country's history
1187:
He sits in audience or to hear grievances against officials in a domed pavilion around which stand ten horses covered with gold-embroidered materials. Behind the king stand ten pages holding shields and swords decorated with gold, and on his right are the sons of the kings of his country wearing
1042:
This resurgence did not last, however. By 1203, the Sosso rose against their masters and conquered Ghana. Oral historians link the coming of Islam to the final end of Ghana. When the
Muslims Cisse dynasty came to power they killed Bida, the sacred snake and protector of the kingdom. A seven-year
1174:
Testimony about ancient Ghana depended on how well disposed the king was to foreign travelers, from whom the majority of information on the empire comes. Islamic writers often commented on the social-political stability of the empire based on the seemingly just actions and grandeur of the king.
1158:
played a key role in
Soninke success as well, allowing products and goods to be transported much more efficiently across the Sahara. These contributing factors all helped the empire remain powerful for some time, providing a rich and stable economy based on trading gold, iron, salt and slaves.
1135:
on imports of salt, and two on exports of salt. Other products had fixed dues; al-Bakri mentioned both copper and "other goods." Imports probably included products such as textiles, ornaments and other materials. Many of the hand-crafted leather goods found in present-day
Morocco also had their
1043:
drought ensued, destroying the kingdom and forcing much of the population to flee in search of more hospitable territory. According to much later traditions, from the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Diara Kante took control of Koumbi Saleh and established the
Diarisso dynasty. His son,
957:
but argues that this does not preclude
Almoravid political agitation, claiming that Ghana's demise owed much to the latter. Furthermore, the archaeology of ancient Ghana does not show the signs of rapid change and destruction that would be associated with any Almoravid-era military conquests.
776:
300 BCE. Munsun theorized that, around 700 BCE Libyco-Berbers raiders destroyed this burgeoning state. Their opening of a trade route north, however, eventually changed the economic calculus from raiding to trade, and the native
Soninke reasserted themselves around 300 BCE. This trade and the
1832:, p. 19: "It is disputed as to the tribe to which these kings belonged; some say they were Wa'kore , others say they were Wangara which appears improbable. Others say they were Sanhaja which seems to me most likely ... The nearest to the truth is that they were not black."
696:. The archaeologist and historian Raymond Mauny argues that al-Kati's and al-Saadi's theories were based on the presence (after Ghana's demise) of nomadic Berbers originally from Libya, and the assumption that they were the ruling caste in an earlier age. Earlier accounts such
994:
and with the most extensive trade." This capital may not be the same city as the one described by al-Bakri, however. In this period the ruling dynasty, now thoroughly Islamized, re-established control over many of the former vassals who had become independent, including
926:
Given the scattered nature of the Arabic sources and the ambiguity of the existing archaeological record, it is difficult to determine when and how Ghana declined. With the gradual drying of the Sahel, the all-important epicenters of trade began to most south to the
1335:
in 1067/1068, the capital actually consisted of two cities 10 kilometres (6 mi) apart but "between these two towns are continuous habitations", so that they might be said to have merged into one. The most common identification for this capital is the site of
867:, in a section probably composed around 1580 but citing the chief judge Ida al-Massini who lived somewhat earlier, twenty kings ruled Ghana before the advent of Islam. Al-Sadi purports that approximately 18 through 34 ancient Kaya (kings) ruled before the
3534:
691:
This idea of a foreign origin for Wagadu is generally disregarded by modern scholars. Levtzion and Spaulding, for example, argue that al-Idrisi's testimony should be looked at skeptically due to serious miscalculations in geography and historical
1274:
645:, which the author considered most likely. The author concludes that "the nearest to the truth is that they were not black." This interpretation derived from his opinion that the rulers' genealogies linked them to the Berbers. The
841:
portrays early Ghana as very warlike, with horse-mounted warriors key to increasing its territory and population, although details of their expansion are extremely scarce. Wagadu made its profits from maintaining a monopoly on
1150:. The king claimed as his own all nuggets of gold, and allowed other people to have only 'gold dust'. In addition to the influence exerted by the king in local regions, tribute was received from various tributary states and
797:, on the Niger Bend. This area was historically more fertile than the Tichitt zone, and Lange draws on oral traditions to support his argument, contending that dynastic struggles in the 11th century pushed the capital west.
1732:
977:
Whether the Almoravids conquered Ghana or not, the country certainly did convert to Islam around 1076. This conversion and its accompanying rejection of the earlier, more accommodating Islam may have pushed the
761:(a site associated with the ancestors of the Soninke), which clearly reflected a complex culture that was present by 1600 BC and had architectural and material cultural elements similar to those found at
858:
scattered across West Africa dating to this period, it has been stipulated that relative to Wagadu there were many more simultaneous and preceding kingdoms which have unfortunately been lost to time.
1349:
the grandest structure in the city, surrounded by other "domed buildings". There was also one mosque for visiting Muslim officials. (El-Ghaba, coincidentally or not, means "The Forest" in Arabic.)
1357:
The name of the other section of the city is not recorded. In the vicinity were wells with fresh water, used to grow vegetables. It was inhabited almost entirely by Muslims, who had with twelve
850:
heading south, despite not controlling the gold fields themselves. It is possible that Wagadu's dominance on trade allowed for the gradual consolidation of many smaller polities into a
487:
at some point in the 13th century. Despite its collapse, the empire's influence can be felt in the establishment of numerous urban centers throughout its former territory. In 1957, the
724:, Robert Cornevin and others for being "unacceptable" and "too creative to be useful to historians", particularly in relation to his interpretation of West African genealogies,
1262:
2194:
Kevin McDonald, Robert Vernet, Dorian Fuller and James Woodhouse, "New Light on the Tichitt Tradition" A Preliminary Report on Survey and Excavation at Dhar Nema," pp. 78–80.
1221:
In al-Bakri's time, the rulers of Ghana had begun to incorporate more Muslims into government, including the treasurer, his interpreter, and "the majority of his officials."
1373:. The separate and autonomous towns outside of the main governmental center is a well-known practice used by the Jakhanke tribe of the Mandinka people throughout history.
2962:
Recherches archéologiques sur la capitale de l'empire de Ghana: Etude d'un secteur, d'habitat à Koumbi Saleh, Mauritanie: Campagnes II-III-IV-V (1975–1976)-(1980–1981)
814:
in the Sahel created areas for human habitation and exploitation which had not been habitable for the best part of a millennium, resulting in Wagadu rising out of the
377:
363:
349:
335:
321:
296:
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1310:
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and linked them to North African and Middle Eastern origins. Delafosse produced a convoluted theory of an invasion by "Judeo-Syrians", which he linked to the
649:
further states that "In origin they were white, though we do not know to whom they trace their origin. Their subjects, however, were Wa'kore ." Chronicles by
1250:
460:
It is uncertain among historians when Ghana's ruling dynasty began. The first identifiable mention of the imperial dynasty in written records was made by
3191:
1079:
and acquired all their possessions, both their ancient kingdom and that of Ghana." According to a modern tradition, this resurgence of Mali was led by
5966:
1286:
1208:
The Arabic sources are vague as to how the country was governed. Al-Bakri, far and away the most detailed one, mentions that the king had officials (
2217:
1577:
1298:
935:. This gradually strengthened Ghana's vassals while weakening the core. Awdaghost, at the time a seat of the king, fell to the Almoravids in 1054.
772:
agro-pastoralist chiefdoms that were spread over the western-most portion of the Niger River basin for over a millennium roughly spanning 1300 BCE
1417:
In recent years, the identification of Koumbi Saleh with the 'city of Ghana' described in the sources has been increasingly disputed by scholars.
3642:
558:, although they vary much amongst themselves, the legendary progenitory of the Soninke was a man named Dinga, who came "from the east" (possibly
4793:
5971:
3459:
Conrad, David C.; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1982), "The conquest that never was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. I. The external Arabic sources",
1075:
outnumbered the peoples of the Sudan in their neighborhood and dominated the whole region." He went on to relate that they "vanquished the
461:
1902:
Vicente, Mário; Priehodová, Edita; Diallo, Issa; Podgorná, Eliška; Poloni, Estella S.; Černý, Viktor; Schlebusch, Carina M. (2019-12-02).
4194:
3496:
Conrad, David C.; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1983), "The conquest that never was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. II. The local oral sources",
785:
has shown that, as the desert advanced, the local groups moved southward into the still well-watered areas of what is now northern Mali.
2714:
2326:"Background to the Ghana empire: Archaeological investigations on the transition to statehood in the Dhar Tichitt region (mauritania)"
3301:
1003:
5917:
1904:"Population history and genetic adaptation of the Fulani nomads: inferences from genome-wide data and the lactase persistence trait"
1218:, was "almost a match for the king of Ghana." Sama is the only such entity mentioned as a province, as it was in al-Ya'qubi's day.
882:
in the desert to accept its rule sometime between 970 and 1054. Oral traditions indicate that, at its height, the empire controlled
830:
in the 7th century, the camel had changed the ancient, irregular trade routes into a network running between North Africa and the
1015:
3429:
3013:
Fall, Mamadou (2021). "Les Terroirs Historiques et la Poussée Soninké". In Fall, Mamadou; Fall, Rokhaya; Mane, Mamadou (eds.).
1238:
854:, whose composites stood in varying relations to the core, from fully administered to nominal tribute-paying parity. Based on
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served as major catalysts for the transformative social changes that resulted in the empire's formation. By the time of the
1136:
origins in the empire. al-Bakri also mentioned that Muslims played a central role in commerce and held court appointments.
5652:
969:
in 1394, according to which the power of Ghana waned as that of the "veiled people" grew through the Almoravid movement.
3133:"La Chute De La Dynastie Des Sisse: Considerations Sur La Dislocation De L'Empire Du Ghana A Partir De L'Histoire De Gao"
3054:
1022:. During this period Ghana was fully Islamized, and the judicial system had shifted to something more closely resembling
1106:
in 1235 (a date again assigned arbitrarily by Delafosse), the new rulers of Koumbi Saleh became permanent allies of the
5991:
5798:
4798:
2623:
1102:, rebelled with Kangaba and became part of a loose federation of Mande-speaking states. After Soumaoro's defeat at the
1802:
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1967:
Preserving African Cultural Heritage: Proceedings of the Panafrican Archaeological Association 13th Congress, Dakar
69:
2491:"Listening for Silences in Almoravid History: Another Reading of "The Conquest that Never Was" Camilo Gómez-Rivas
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5424:
4187:
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3383:
Tableau géographique de l'ouest africain au moyen age, d'après les sources écrites, la tradition et l'archéologie
1776:
4586:
3302:"Not quite Venus from the waves: The Almoravid conquest of Ghana in the modern historiography of Western Africa"
1695:
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nobleman living in Spain questioned merchants who visited the empire in the 11th century and wrote of the king:
5981:
4147:
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3941:
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918:
out of the Gajaaga. Two other Soninke groups to the south, the Gaja and the Karo, were dominated by the Wagu.
827:
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3632:
2105:"Tracing History in Dia, in the Inland Niger Delta of Mali -Archaeology, Oral Traditions and Written Sources"
1546:
811:
549:
17:
3799:
3794:
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2964:, British Archaeological Reports 680, Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 41, Oxford: Archaeopress,
5857:
5741:
3843:
3558:(in French), translated by Cuoq, Joseph M., Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
2716:
The Trans-Saharan Book Trade: Manuscript Culture, Arabic Literacy and Intellectual History in Muslim Africa
112:
1047:, succeeded him and forced the people to pay him tribute. The Sosso also managed to annex the neighboring
5986:
5867:
4904:
3784:
2325:
492:
3066:
Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents
1615:
945:. This may have created a succession dispute with Bassi's son Qanamar, providing an opportunity for the
777:
development of ironworking technology were crucial in the formation of the state. Work in Dhar Tichitt,
5996:
4180:
3982:
3848:
3719:
3050:
1331:, gave the name of the empire's capital as "Koumbi". According to the description of the town left by
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4973:
4537:
4043:
3904:
3668:
2140:
Mcintosh, Susan Keech; Mcintosh, Roderick J. (February 1980). "Jenne-Jeno: An Ancient African City".
3556:
Recueil des sources arabes concernant l'Afrique occidentale du VIIIe au XVIe siècle (Bilād al-Sūdān)
2676:
Chu, Daniel and Skinner, Elliot. A Glorious Age in Africa, 1st ed. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965.
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Historian Dierk Lange has argued that the core of Wagadou was not Koumbi Saleh but in fact lay near
6001:
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The earliest proto-polity ancestral to Ghana likely arose from a large collection of ancient proto-
731:
Trade routes of the Western Sahara c. 1000–1500. Goldfields are indicated by light brown shading:
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Posnansky, Merrick (1981). "The societies of Africa south of the Sahara in the Early Iron Age".
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classical to post-classical era western-Sahelian empire based in the modern-day southeast of
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Haut-Sénégal-Niger: Le Pays, les Peuples, les Langues; l'Histoire; les Civilizations. 3 Vols
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Before the Empire of Ghana: Pastoralism and the Origins of Cultural Complexity in the Sahel
1963:"Seeking the Origins of Takrur: Human Settlement in the Middle Senegal Valley 2500-1000 BP"
654:
5676:
3391:
Munson, Patrick J. (1980), "Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana Empire",
531:. This meant the "place of the Wague", the term current in the 19th century for the local
8:
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5156:
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4493:
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1733:"The Conquest That Never Was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. II. The Local Oral Sources"
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The empire was populated by ancient Mande tribes and would come under unity through the
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2065:, Tome I: des origines au XVIe siècle (Paris, 1962), 347-48 (reference to Delafosse in
1938:
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1752:
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1405:
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valley. These "kings" were presumably the rulers of the territorial units often called
441:
1381:
527:(king of gold) was another title for these kings. The Soninke name for the polity was
5810:
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diaspora throughout the region. In 1083, supported by the Almoravids, Ghana attacked
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887:
862:
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571:
356:
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98:
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The earliest discussions of Ghana's origins are found in the Sudanese chronicles of
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3049:. Volume 1 is the Arabic text, Volume 2 is a translation into French. Reprinted by
2849:
2720:
2337:
2223:
2104:
1933:
1915:
1744:
1583:
1103:
641:(a Soninke/Mande group), which the author considered improbable; or that they were
94:
1556:
1434:
822:
to the western Sahara in the 3rd century AD and pressure from the nomadic Saharan
769:
720:". Delafosse's works, meanwhile, have been harshly criticised by scholars such as
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5593:
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African dominion : a new history of empire in early and medieval West Africa
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The fortunes of Africa : a 5000-year history of wealth, greed, and endeavour
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2052:, Vol. 11, African Studies Association, 1984, University of Michigan, pp. 42-51.
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In its last centuries, Ghana increasingly lost control of the gold trade to the
914:. Diabe, supposedly the son of Dinga, is sometimes given credit for driving the
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3256:. Excerpts from Levtzion & Hopkins 1981. Includes an extended introduction.
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1280:
Western necropolis of Koumbi Saleh showing the density of funerary structures
5950:
5932:
5919:
5901:
5788:
5583:
5556:
5529:
5507:
5485:
5252:
5235:
5220:
5064:
5017:
5005:
4931:
4823:
4697:
4692:
4667:
4549:
4319:
4224:
4156:
4111:
4106:
4068:
3729:
3627:
3614:, Dakar: Mémoire de l'Institute Français d'Afrique Noire 23, pp. 359–408
2500:"Law and the Islamization of Morocco under the Almoravids" Camilo Gómez-Rivas
1929:
1268:
Individual burial from the Column Tomb with isolated stele placed at the head
1215:
1007:
932:
874:
Written sources vague as to the empire's maximum extent, though according to
868:
851:
727:
657:
in the 13th noted that rulers of Ghana traced their descent from the clan of
594:
563:
496:
464:
in 830. Further information about the empire was provided by the accounts of
5329:
5309:
3610:
Monteil, Charles (1954), "La légende du Ouagadou et l'origine des Soninke",
3574:
The Negroland revisited: Discovery and invention of the Sudanese middle ages
5793:
5534:
5524:
5490:
5419:
5414:
5131:
5113:
5074:
5069:
5049:
5044:
4916:
4909:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4783:
4721:
4702:
4687:
4623:
4399:
4294:
4244:
4096:
3759:
3102:
Lange, Dierk (1996a), "The Almoravid expansion and the downfall of Ghana",
3061:
1947:
1778:
La première hégémonie peule. Le Fuuta Tooro de Koli Teηella à Almaami Abdul
1453:
1394:
1337:
1230:
1193:
1147:
1076:
1034:
949:
to intervene in the empire, promoting pro-Islam candidates for the throne.
762:
758:
314:
83:
3277:
1166:
and relied on slave raiding and trading as a principal economic activity.
861:
Information about the empire at its height is sparse. According to Kati's
5512:
5497:
5346:
5059:
4968:
4958:
4884:
4532:
4527:
4324:
4314:
4161:
3714:
2928:
1474:
1468:
1163:
1107:
1072:
1068:
942:
938:
928:
831:
782:
614:
484:
446:
238:
173:
2853:
2290:
2274:
952:
A tradition in historiography maintains that Ghana was conquered by the
855:
601:
were Black. These regions, part of the core of Wagadu, remained largely
5539:
5356:
5230:
5190:
5123:
4269:
3517:
3480:
3365:
3328:
3285:
3156:
3132:
1756:
1139:
891:
705:
697:
693:
590:
450:
403:
3412:
3261:
3044:
Tarikh el-fettach par Mahmoūd Kāti et l'un de ses petit fils (2 Vols.)
2842:"Le Tombeau à Colonnes de Koumbi Saleh (Mauritanie – xie-xiie siècle)"
1316:
Burial excavation showing the over-pit system and surface arrangements
1192:
Ghana appears to have had a central core region and was surrounded by
5429:
5200:
5084:
5054:
4835:
4709:
4500:
3576:, Helsinki: Finnish Academy of Science and Letters, pp. 519–23,
1155:
1151:
1091:
assigned an arbitrary but widely accepted date of 1230 to the event.
1006:
and others. Ghana was the master of an extensive trade system in the
879:
778:
709:
701:
662:
650:
582:
4172:
3591:
Mauny, Raymond (1971), "The Western Sudan", in Shinnie, P.L. (ed.),
3509:
3472:
3357:
3320:
3148:
1962:
1748:
1393:
Beginning in the 1920s, French archaeologists excavated the site of
4830:
4613:
4571:
4510:
3779:
2028:"La légende officielle de Soundiata, fondateur de l'Empire manding"
1386:
1332:
1322:
1176:
1128:
983:
875:
713:
658:
475:
After centuries of prosperity, the empire began its decline in the
469:
1978:
1976:
962:
4743:
4672:
4628:
4483:
2032:
Bulletin du Comité d'Études Historiques et Scientifiques de l'AOF
1652:
Willie F. Page; R. Hunt Davis, Jr., eds. (2005), "Ghana Empire",
1358:
1210:
1084:
1056:
1052:
995:
903:
895:
823:
736:
677:
642:
586:
408:
370:
4544:
3653:
2348:
1651:
342:
4576:
4451:
4379:
4349:
4299:
4214:
3739:
3214:
Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John F. P. eds. and trans. (2000),
2072:
2007:
Monteil, Charles (1966). "Fin de siècle à Médine (1898-1899)".
1973:
1901:
1694:
Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. Jr. (9 February 2010).
1656:, vol. 2 (revised ed.), Facts on File, pp. 85–87
1487:
Kambine Diaresso (sometimes also written as Jarisso): 1087–1090
1143:
1023:
1019:
1011:
911:
907:
883:
744:
732:
685:
480:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1127:
Most of the information about the economy of Ghana comes from
716:(1068 CE) all describe the population and rulers of Ghana as "
5210:
4394:
4344:
4304:
4279:
4234:
1437:
ethnic group, with its citizens living in deeply established
1180:
1132:
1112:
1099:
819:
740:
717:
681:
578:
559:
500:
234:
221:
117:
31:
3262:"Un État Soudanais Médiéval Inconnu: Le Royaume de Zāfūn(u)"
3243:
Medieval West Africa: Views from Arab Scholars and Merchants
1697:
Encyclopedia of African American History [3 volumes]
1018:
throughout the region. It also controlled the gold mines of
608:
4229:
3684:
3560:. Reprinted in 1985 with corrections and additional texts,
1665:
1663:
1442:
1256:
Column Tomb with remains of the corner columns still intact
899:
847:
843:
676:, erroneously concluded that Ghana had been founded by the
454:
398:
4420:
2885:
593:
maintain that the earliest occupants of areas such as the
3229:. First published in 1981 by Cambridge University Press,
2860:
2461:
2449:
1119:
Koumbi Saleh was abandoned sometime in the 15th century.
987:
666:
2164:
1660:
902:
to the north. It also had some degree of influence over
751:
523:, and was the title given to the rulers of the kingdom.
2424:
1131:. He noted that merchants had to pay a tax of one gold
3434:
Bulletin de l'Institut Français de l'Afrique Noire (B)
2644:
2642:
2598:
2574:
2564:
2562:
2414:
2412:
2512:
ibn Khaldun in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans.
2473:
2197:
2176:
2152:
2084:
2897:
2813:
al-Ya'qubi in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans.
1988:
1083:, the founder of Mali and ruler of its core area of
472:
when he wrote about the region in the 11th century.
3595:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 66–87,
3568:. Similar to Levtzion and Hopkins, 1981 & 2000.
3344:Mauny, Raymond A. (1954), "The question of Ghana",
2909:
2826:al-Bakri in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans.,
2775:
2663:al-'Umari in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans.
2639:
2586:
2559:
2548:
2546:
2531:
2519:
2409:
1509:
1154:on the empire's periphery. The introduction of the
990:, helping to spread Sunni orthodoxy there as well.
2743:al-Bakri in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans.
2397:
2385:
2373:
2366:al-Bakri in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans.
1675:
1146:worth 42,000 dinars. The main centre of trade was
3240:
3041:Houdas, Octave; Delafosse, Maurice, eds. (1913),
3017:(in French). Dakar: HGS Editions. pp. 14–39.
2508:
2506:
1982:
1576:Gestrich, Nikolas (2019). "The Empire of Ghana".
1244:Central mausoleum in 1951 (left) and 2007 (right)
5948:
3539:(2nd ed.), Leiden: Brill, pp. 1001–2,
3015:Bipolarisation du Senegal du XVIe - XVIIe siécle
2929:"Mande | West African, Mali, Griot | Britannica"
2543:
2139:
1304:Central mausoleum (the qubba) of the Column Tomb
1055:to the south, where the important goldfields of
757:traditions. In 1969 Patrick Munson excavated at
633:offers three different theories: that they were
3213:
3079:. Reprint of the 1999 edition with corrections.
3040:
3008:, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press
1856:
1841:
1813:
1693:
535:, or may have meant 'the land of great herds'.
3427:
3346:Journal of the International African Institute
3216:Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa
3006:The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800
2891:
2503:
2219:Oxford Research Encyclopedias: African history
1526:
1454:Soninke rulers ("Ghanas") of the Cisse dynasty
941:died in 1063, and was succeeded by his nephew
27:Empire in West Africa from c. 200s to c. 1200s
4436:
4188:
3669:
3299:
3026:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
2692:. United States: Public Affairs. p. 73.
2455:
1014:in the 10th century, that exported salt from
5893:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
3300:Masonen, Pekka; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1996),
3127:. Reprinted in Lange 2004, pp. 455–493.
2659:
2657:
1730:
30:Not to be confused with the modern country,
2796:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2713:Krätli, Graziano; Lydon, Ghislaine (2011).
2712:
1726:
1724:
1654:Encyclopedia of African History and Culture
1400:
1098:Soumaba Cisse, at the time a vassal of the
1067:In his brief overview of Sudanese history,
1038:Map of successor states to the Ghana Empire
871:and 24 more kaya (kings) ruled afterward.
4443:
4429:
4195:
4181:
3676:
3662:
3643:Kingdom of Ghana, Primary Source Documents
3385:, Dakar: Institut français d'Afrique Noire
3241:Levtzion, Nehemia; Spaulding, Jay (2003),
3085:Archaeology of Islam in Sub-saharan Africa
3053:in 1964 and 1981. The French text is also
2216:Gestrich, Nikolas (2019). "Ghana Empire".
68:
3628:Ghana Empire - World History Encyclopedia
3087:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2978:
2800:al-Bakri (1067) in Levtzion and Hopkins,
2654:
2629:
2303:
1937:
1919:
1613:
810:Towards the end of the 3rd century AD, a
609:Medieval Arab Writers and a Berber Origin
5967:13th-century disestablishments in Africa
3428:Thomassey, Paul; Mauny, Raymond (1951),
3189:
2959:
2903:
2878:al-Bakri, 1067 in Levtzion and Hopkins,
2866:
2787:
2758:"The Story of Africa- BBC World Service"
2685:
2272:
2215:
2170:
1960:
1876:
1864:
1829:
1731:Conrad, David; Fisher, Humphrey (1983).
1721:
1669:
1575:
1404:
1380:
1033:
726:
538:
5717:
3259:
3060:
3057:from Aluka but requires a subscription.
2604:
2580:
2354:
2006:
74:The Ghana Empire at its greatest extent
14:
5949:
3390:
3130:
3101:
3082:
2479:
2467:
2430:
2330:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
2228:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.396
2203:
2182:
2158:
2090:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1638:al-Kuwarizmi in Levtzion and Hopkins,
1588:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.396
629:). Addressing the rulers' origin, the
4424:
4202:
4176:
3657:
3430:"Campagne de fouilles à Koumbi Saleh"
3380:
3343:
3170:
3021:
3003:
2915:
2839:
2781:
2648:
2616:ibn Khaldun in Levtzion and Hopkins,
2592:
2568:
2537:
2525:
2418:
2250:
2124:
2118:
2096:
2078:
2025:
1994:
1681:
1116:and "who is like a deputy unto him."
805:
752:Modern Archaeology and a Local Origin
5972:8th-century establishments in Africa
3012:
2403:
2391:
2379:
2323:
2253:"The Origins of the Empire of Ghana"
1961:McIntosh, Susan Keech (2017-01-01).
1774:
1609:
1607:
1321:A 17th-century chronicle written in
788:
3175:, Dettelbach, Germany: J. H. Röll,
2552:al-Idrisi in Levtzion and Hopkins,
2317:
2307:General History of Africa: Volume 2
2297:
2279:Canadian Journal of African Studies
2244:
2133:
1888:al-Idrisi in Levtzion and Hopkins,
1763:
1292:Funerary complex of the Column Tomb
1029:
898:, as well as the Awker, Adrar, and
672:French colonial officials, notably
428:
24:
3533:Cornevin, Robert (1965), "Ghana",
3451:
2285:(2). Taylor and Francis: 347–373.
1895:
1850:
1781:. Paris: Karthala. p. 57-60.
1352:
1340:on the rim of the Sahara desert.
972:
543:
25:
6013:
3683:
3621:
2990:Le Pays, les Peuples, les Langues
2102:
1604:
1448:
1062:
623:) and Abd al-Rahman as-Sadi (the
605:until at least the 16th century.
3210:. Reprinted with additions 1980.
2986:(in French), Paris: Émile Larose
1892:, p. 109, and ibn Sa'id, p. 186.
1510:Rulers during Kaniaga occupation
1309:
1297:
1285:
1273:
1261:
1249:
1237:
961:as related to him by 'Uthman, a
375:
361:
347:
333:
319:
294:
280:
3536:Encyclopaedia of Islam Volume 2
3245:, Princeton NJ: Markus Wiener,
3218:, New York, NY: Marcus Weiner,
3173:Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa
2952:
2921:
2872:
2833:
2820:
2807:
2750:
2737:
2706:
2679:
2670:
2610:
2494:
2485:
2436:
2360:
2275:"Reconceptualizing Early Ghana"
2266:
2209:
2188:
2055:
2042:
2019:
2000:
1954:
1882:
1870:
1835:
1823:
1614:Etheredge, Laura (2009-04-14).
1481:
1424:
1224:
828:Muslim conquest of North Africa
661:, either through his protector
3446:. Includes a plan of the site.
3393:The Journal of African History
1687:
1645:
1632:
1569:
1409:The Western Nile according to
1385:The Western Nile according to
1376:
462:Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
13:
1:
3554:Cuoq, Joseph M., ed. (1975),
2048:African Studies Association,
1983:Levtzion & Spaulding 2003
1579:Oxford Research Encyclopedias
1562:
1547:History of the Soninke people
1169:
1010:valley, first established by
921:
550:History of the Soninke people
479:, and would finally become a
248:
244:
211:
60:
56:
5977:Countries in medieval Africa
2342:10.1016/0278-4165(85)90005-4
2251:Abbou, Tahar (August 2020).
1071:related that "the people of
506:
197:1st–3rd century–13th century
113:African traditional religion
7:
4450:
3266:Cahiers d'Études Africaines
3004:Ehret, Christopher (2016),
2114:. Institute of Archaeology.
1857:Houdas & Delafosse 1913
1842:Houdas & Delafosse 1913
1814:Houdas & Delafosse 1913
1540:
1527:Ghanas of Wagadou tributary
1518:Soumaba Cisse as vassal of
1462:(also known as Dinga Cisse)
1343:
1094:This tradition states that
132:
10:
6018:
3720:History of the Mali Empire
3190:Levtzion, Nehemia (1973),
3116:10.1515/islm.1996.73.2.313
2892:Thomassey & Mauny 1951
2081:, pp. 72–74, 508–511.
1228:
1122:
818:. The introduction of the
800:
665:or through his son-in-law
547:
495:, under the leadership of
29:
5992:Political history of Mali
5886:
5838:
5355:
4759:
4458:
4210:
4134:
4077:
4014:
4005:
3973:
3964:
3890:
3881:
3817:
3808:
3695:
3440:: 438–462, archived from
3405:10.1017/s0021853700018685
3260:Lewicki, Tadeusz (1971).
2960:Berthier, Sophie (1997),
2686:Meredith, Martin (2014).
2456:Masonen & Fisher 1996
2112:University College London
1921:10.1186/s12864-019-6296-7
1717:– via Google Books.
1532:Soumaba Cisse as ally of
684:(who actually co-founded
391:
259:
255:
231:
218:
205:
201:
193:
189:
179:
167:
157:
145:
141:
131:
123:
108:
90:
79:
67:
55:
39:
3633:African Kingdoms | Ghana
3083:Insoll, Timothy (2003),
2357:, p. 13 and note 5.
2324:Holl, Augustine (1985).
2273:McIntosh, Susan (2008).
1496:Magan Wagadou: 1120–1130
1445:and family structures.
1401:Contested Identification
890:, Bakhunu, Neema, Soso,
653:in the 11th century and
574:mentions Wagadu's fall.
431:), also known as simply
86:(likely a later capital)
3572:Masonen, Pekka (2000),
3381:Mauny, Raymond (1961),
3022:Gomez, Michael (2018).
2442:For example, Levtzion,
1620:Encyclopedia Britannica
1465:Dyabe Cisse: circa 790s
1365:and are today known as
712:(c. 1036 CE), and
5962:1240 disestablishments
3612:Mélanges Ethnologiques
3193:Ancient Ghana and Mali
3131:Lange, Dierk (1996b).
3047:, Paris: Ernest Leroux
2313:. UNESCO. p. 729.
1515:Diara Kante: 1180–1202
1414:
1390:
1190:
1039:
748:
577:The traditions of the
5982:History of Mauritania
5863:Medieval great powers
3770:2012 Tuareg rebellion
3638:Empires of west Sudan
3278:10.3406/cea.1971.2781
3171:Lange, Dierk (2004),
2988:. Gallica: Volume 1,
2840:Capel, Chloe (2021).
2026:Vidal, Jules (1924).
1493:Bannu Bubu: 1100–1120
1433:tribe of the greater
1408:
1384:
1185:
1037:
986:and may have reached
730:
539:Origin Historiography
220:• Conversion to
91:Common languages
5873:European colonialism
5858:Ancient great powers
3844:Environmental issues
3593:The African Iron age
2069:vol. 1, pp. 256-257)
2063:Histoire de l'Africa
1775:Kane, Oumar (2004).
1142:quotes the use of a
965:of Ghana who took a
233:• Conquered by
5929: /
5868:Modern great powers
3785:Ebola disease event
3650:— BBC World Service
3199:, London: Methuen,
2854:10.4000/remmm.16109
2470:, pp. 122–159.
1863:, translation from
1490:Suleiman: 1090–1100
967:pilgrimage to Mecca
878:, Ghana had forced
503:upon independence.
207:• Established
5987:History of Senegal
4320:Mahdiyya caliphate
3983:Telecommunications
3735:Kénédougou Kingdom
2980:Delafosse, Maurice
2933:www.britannica.com
2129:. pp. 71–103.
2067:Haut-Sénégal-Niger
2061:Cornevin, Robert,
2009:Bulletin de l'IFAN
1415:
1411:Muhammad al-Idrisi
1391:
1040:
852:confederated state
846:heading north and
806:Rise of the Empire
749:
704:(c. 944 CE),
237:/Submitted to the
5997:Sahelian kingdoms
5912:
5911:
5834:
5833:
5799:Polish–Lithuanian
4974:Gurjara-Pratihara
4418:
4417:
4204:Sahelian kingdoms
4170:
4169:
4130:
4129:
4044:Human trafficking
4001:
4000:
3960:
3959:
3937:Political parties
3932:National Assembly
3905:Foreign relations
3877:
3876:
3750:Toucouleur Empire
3710:Pre-Imperial Mali
3602:978-0-19-813158-8
3583:978-951-41-0886-0
3546:978-90-04-07026-4
3498:History in Africa
3461:History in Africa
3309:History in Africa
3252:978-1-55876-305-0
3225:978-1-55876-241-1
3206:978-0-8419-0431-6
3182:978-3-89754-115-3
3137:History in Africa
3094:978-0-521-65702-0
3075:978-90-04-12560-5
3068:, Leiden: Brill,
3033:978-0-691-17742-7
2998:Les Civilisations
2971:978-0-86054-868-3
2869:, pp. 22–26.
2730:978-90-04-18742-9
2699:978-1-61039-459-8
2237:978-0-19-027773-4
2050:History in Africa
1788:978-2-84586-521-1
1737:History in Africa
1707:978-1-85109-774-6
1672:, pp. 16–17.
1597:978-0-19-027773-4
1505:Birama: 1160–1180
1328:Tarikh al-fattash
954:Almoravid dynasty
864:Tarikh al-Fettash
789:Niger Bend Theory
674:Maurice Delafosse
631:Tarikh al-Fattash
620:Tarikh al-Fattash
477:second millennium
417:
416:
387:
386:
383:
382:
357:Pre-imperial Mali
329:Kingdom of Diarra
307:
306:
181:• 1203–1235
169:• 1040–1062
16:(Redirected from
6009:
5944:
5943:
5941:
5940:
5939:
5934:
5933:15.667°N 8.000°W
5930:
5927:
5926:
5925:
5922:
5715:
5714:
5380:Austro-Hungarian
5080:Chagatai Khanate
4445:
4438:
4431:
4422:
4421:
4197:
4190:
4183:
4174:
4173:
4150:
4143:
4012:
4011:
3971:
3970:
3888:
3887:
3815:
3814:
3755:Wassoulou Empire
3678:
3671:
3664:
3655:
3654:
3615:
3605:
3586:
3559:
3549:
3528:
3491:
3445:
3423:
3386:
3376:
3339:
3306:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3255:
3228:
3209:
3198:
3185:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3126:
3097:
3078:
3062:Hunwick, John O.
3048:
3037:
3018:
3009:
2987:
2974:
2943:
2942:
2940:
2939:
2925:
2919:
2913:
2907:
2901:
2895:
2889:
2883:
2876:
2870:
2864:
2858:
2857:
2848:(149): 237–262.
2837:
2831:
2824:
2818:
2811:
2805:
2798:
2785:
2779:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2754:
2748:
2741:
2735:
2734:
2721:Brill Publishers
2710:
2704:
2703:
2683:
2677:
2674:
2668:
2661:
2652:
2646:
2637:
2627:
2621:
2614:
2608:
2602:
2596:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2572:
2566:
2557:
2550:
2541:
2535:
2529:
2523:
2517:
2510:
2501:
2498:
2492:
2489:
2483:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2459:
2453:
2447:
2440:
2434:
2433:, p. 165-6.
2428:
2422:
2416:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2389:
2383:
2377:
2371:
2364:
2358:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2257:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2213:
2207:
2201:
2195:
2192:
2186:
2180:
2174:
2173:, pp. 8–17.
2168:
2162:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2137:
2131:
2130:
2125:MacDonald, K.C.
2122:
2116:
2115:
2109:
2100:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2076:
2070:
2059:
2053:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2023:
2017:
2016:
2004:
1998:
1992:
1986:
1980:
1971:
1970:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1941:
1923:
1899:
1893:
1886:
1880:
1874:
1868:
1854:
1848:
1839:
1833:
1827:
1821:
1811:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1772:
1761:
1760:
1728:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1691:
1685:
1679:
1673:
1667:
1658:
1657:
1649:
1643:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1626:
1611:
1602:
1601:
1573:
1460:Kaya Magan Cissé
1313:
1301:
1289:
1277:
1265:
1253:
1241:
1104:Battle of Kirina
1030:Sosso occupation
931:and west to the
430:
379:
378:
365:
364:
351:
350:
337:
336:
323:
322:
311:
310:
298:
297:
284:
283:
277:
276:
261:
260:
250:
246:
213:
152:Kaya Magan Cissé
72:
62:
58:
37:
36:
21:
6017:
6016:
6012:
6011:
6010:
6008:
6007:
6006:
6002:Spread of Islam
5947:
5946:
5937:
5935:
5931:
5928:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5916:
5915:
5913:
5908:
5897:American Empire
5882:
5878:African empires
5830:
5713:
5405:Central African
5351:
5169:Romano-Germanic
4755:
4489:Middle Assyrian
4462:
4454:
4449:
4419:
4414:
4206:
4201:
4171:
4166:
4153:
4146:
4139:
4126:
4122:Public holidays
4073:
3997:
3956:
3922:Law enforcement
3873:
3804:
3765:Mali Federation
3691:
3682:
3624:
3619:
3609:
3603:
3590:
3584:
3571:
3553:
3547:
3532:
3510:10.2307/3171690
3495:
3473:10.2307/3171598
3458:
3454:
3452:Further reading
3449:
3358:10.2307/1156424
3321:10.2307/3171941
3304:
3290:
3288:
3253:
3226:
3207:
3196:
3183:
3161:
3159:
3149:10.2307/3171939
3095:
3076:
3034:
2972:
2955:
2949:
2947:
2946:
2937:
2935:
2927:
2926:
2922:
2914:
2910:
2902:
2898:
2890:
2886:
2877:
2873:
2865:
2861:
2838:
2834:
2825:
2821:
2812:
2808:
2799:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2766:
2764:
2756:
2755:
2751:
2742:
2738:
2731:
2711:
2707:
2700:
2684:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2662:
2655:
2647:
2640:
2628:
2624:
2615:
2611:
2603:
2599:
2591:
2587:
2579:
2575:
2567:
2560:
2551:
2544:
2536:
2532:
2524:
2520:
2511:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2478:
2474:
2466:
2462:
2454:
2450:
2441:
2437:
2429:
2425:
2417:
2410:
2402:
2398:
2390:
2386:
2378:
2374:
2365:
2361:
2353:
2349:
2322:
2318:
2310:
2302:
2298:
2271:
2267:
2255:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2214:
2210:
2202:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2169:
2165:
2157:
2153:
2138:
2134:
2123:
2119:
2107:
2103:Arazi, Noemie.
2101:
2097:
2089:
2085:
2077:
2073:
2060:
2056:
2047:
2043:
2024:
2020:
2005:
2001:
1993:
1989:
1981:
1974:
1959:
1955:
1900:
1896:
1887:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1855:
1851:
1840:
1836:
1828:
1824:
1812:
1803:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1773:
1764:
1749:10.2307/3171690
1729:
1722:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1692:
1688:
1680:
1676:
1668:
1661:
1650:
1646:
1637:
1633:
1624:
1622:
1612:
1605:
1598:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1552:Islam in Africa
1543:
1529:
1512:
1502:Musa: 1140–1160
1499:Gane: 1130–1140
1484:
1456:
1451:
1427:
1403:
1379:
1355:
1353:Muslim district
1346:
1317:
1314:
1305:
1302:
1293:
1290:
1281:
1278:
1269:
1266:
1257:
1254:
1245:
1242:
1233:
1227:
1172:
1125:
1065:
1032:
975:
973:Ghana Resurgent
924:
816:Tichitt culture
808:
803:
791:
765:in the 1920s.
754:
722:Charles Monteil
647:Tarikh al-Sudan
643:Sanhaja Berbers
626:Tarikh al-Sudan
611:
556:oral traditions
552:
546:
544:Oral traditions
541:
509:
413:
376:
362:
348:
334:
320:
295:
288:Tichitt culture
281:
241:
224:
208:
182:
170:
160:
148:
127:Feudal Monarchy
115:
75:
51:
49:
45:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6015:
6005:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5938:15.667; -8.000
5910:
5909:
5907:
5906:
5905:
5904:
5899:
5890:
5888:
5884:
5883:
5881:
5880:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5855:
5854:
5853:
5842:
5840:
5836:
5835:
5832:
5831:
5829:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5813:
5808:
5807:
5806:
5796:
5791:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5761:
5756:
5751:
5750:
5749:
5744:
5734:
5729:
5723:
5721:
5712:
5711:
5710:
5709:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5679:
5674:
5673:
5672:
5662:
5657:
5656:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5635:
5630:
5629:
5628:
5623:
5613:
5612:
5611:
5606:
5601:
5596:
5591:
5581:
5580:
5579:
5574:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5549:
5548:
5547:
5542:
5537:
5532:
5527:
5517:
5516:
5515:
5510:
5500:
5495:
5494:
5493:
5488:
5478:
5477:
5476:
5471:
5461:
5460:
5459:
5454:
5444:
5439:
5438:
5437:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5407:
5402:
5401:
5400:
5395:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5361:
5359:
5353:
5352:
5350:
5349:
5344:
5339:
5334:
5333:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5292:
5287:
5286:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5250:
5249:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5182:
5181:
5176:
5166:
5165:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5110:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5089:
5088:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5036:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5010:
5009:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4983:
4982:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4940:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4919:
4914:
4913:
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4877:
4876:
4875:
4870:
4860:
4859:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4833:
4828:
4827:
4826:
4816:
4815:
4814:
4809:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4765:
4763:
4761:Post-classical
4757:
4756:
4754:
4753:
4752:
4751:
4741:
4736:
4735:
4734:
4729:
4719:
4718:
4717:
4707:
4706:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4659:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4633:
4632:
4631:
4626:
4616:
4611:
4610:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4568:
4567:
4562:
4560:Middle Kingdom
4557:
4547:
4542:
4541:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4520:
4519:
4518:
4516:Neo-Babylonian
4513:
4508:
4506:Old Babylonian
4498:
4497:
4496:
4491:
4481:
4476:
4470:
4468:
4456:
4455:
4448:
4447:
4440:
4433:
4425:
4416:
4415:
4413:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4335:Mossi kingdoms
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4290:Hausa kingdoms
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4211:
4208:
4207:
4200:
4199:
4192:
4185:
4177:
4168:
4167:
4165:
4164:
4159:
4152:
4151:
4144:
4136:
4135:
4132:
4131:
4128:
4127:
4125:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4083:
4081:
4075:
4074:
4072:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4019:Child marriage
4015:
4009:
4003:
4002:
3999:
3998:
3996:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3974:
3968:
3962:
3961:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3954:
3952:Vice President
3949:
3947:Prime Minister
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3918:
3917:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3891:
3885:
3879:
3878:
3875:
3874:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3854:National parks
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3824:
3818:
3812:
3806:
3805:
3803:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3745:Massina Empire
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3725:Songhai Empire
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3701:
3699:
3693:
3692:
3681:
3680:
3673:
3666:
3658:
3652:
3651:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3623:
3622:External links
3620:
3618:
3617:
3607:
3601:
3588:
3582:
3569:
3551:
3545:
3530:
3493:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3447:
3425:
3399:(4): 457–466,
3388:
3378:
3352:(3): 200–213,
3341:
3297:
3272:(44): 501–25.
3257:
3251:
3238:
3224:
3211:
3205:
3187:
3181:
3168:
3128:
3099:
3093:
3080:
3074:
3058:
3038:
3032:
3019:
3010:
3001:
2976:
2970:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2945:
2944:
2920:
2908:
2896:
2884:
2871:
2859:
2832:
2819:
2806:
2786:
2774:
2749:
2736:
2729:
2705:
2698:
2678:
2669:
2653:
2638:
2630:Delafosse 1912
2622:
2609:
2607:, p. 504.
2597:
2585:
2583:, p. 503.
2573:
2558:
2556:, pp. 109–110.
2542:
2530:
2518:
2502:
2493:
2484:
2482:, p. 230.
2472:
2460:
2448:
2444:Ghana and Mali
2435:
2423:
2408:
2396:
2384:
2372:
2359:
2347:
2316:
2296:
2265:
2260:Vitaminedz.com
2243:
2236:
2208:
2206:, p. 161.
2196:
2187:
2185:, p. 466.
2175:
2163:
2161:, p. 465.
2151:
2132:
2117:
2095:
2093:, p. 458.
2083:
2071:
2054:
2041:
2018:
1999:
1997:, p. 204.
1987:
1972:
1953:
1894:
1881:
1869:
1849:
1834:
1822:
1801:
1787:
1762:
1720:
1706:
1686:
1674:
1659:
1644:
1631:
1603:
1596:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1534:Sundiata Keita
1528:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1520:Soumaoro Kanté
1516:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1463:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1449:List of rulers
1447:
1426:
1423:
1402:
1399:
1378:
1375:
1354:
1351:
1345:
1342:
1319:
1318:
1315:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1236:
1229:Main article:
1226:
1223:
1171:
1168:
1124:
1121:
1081:Sundiata Keita
1064:
1063:Vassal of Mali
1061:
1059:were located.
1045:Soumaoro Kante
1031:
1028:
974:
971:
923:
920:
807:
804:
802:
799:
795:Lake Faguibine
790:
787:
753:
750:
610:
607:
572:Gassire's lute
545:
542:
540:
537:
508:
505:
489:British colony
483:of the rising
415:
414:
412:
411:
406:
401:
395:
393:
389:
388:
385:
384:
381:
380:
373:
367:
366:
359:
353:
352:
345:
339:
338:
331:
325:
324:
317:
308:
305:
304:
299:
291:
290:
285:
273:
272:
267:
257:
256:
253:
252:
242:
232:
229:
228:
225:
219:
216:
215:
209:
206:
203:
202:
199:
198:
195:
194:Historical era
191:
190:
187:
186:
183:
180:
177:
176:
171:
168:
165:
164:
161:
158:
155:
154:
149:
146:
143:
142:
139:
138:
135:
129:
128:
125:
121:
120:
110:
106:
105:
92:
88:
87:
81:
77:
76:
73:
65:
64:
53:
52:
43:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6014:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5954:
5952:
5945:
5942:
5903:
5902:Soviet empire
5900:
5898:
5895:
5894:
5892:
5891:
5889:
5887:Miscellaneous
5885:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5856:
5852:
5849:
5848:
5847:
5844:
5843:
5841:
5837:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5805:
5802:
5801:
5800:
5797:
5795:
5792:
5790:
5787:
5785:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5765:
5762:
5760:
5757:
5755:
5752:
5748:
5745:
5743:
5740:
5739:
5738:
5735:
5733:
5730:
5728:
5725:
5724:
5722:
5720:
5716:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5684:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5671:
5668:
5667:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5640:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5618:
5617:
5614:
5610:
5607:
5605:
5602:
5600:
5597:
5595:
5592:
5590:
5587:
5586:
5585:
5582:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5569:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5528:
5526:
5523:
5522:
5521:
5518:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5505:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5492:
5489:
5487:
5486:German Empire
5484:
5483:
5482:
5479:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5466:
5465:
5462:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5450:
5449:
5448:
5445:
5443:
5440:
5436:
5433:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5412:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5390:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5362:
5360:
5358:
5354:
5348:
5345:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5297:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5255:
5254:
5251:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5228:
5227:
5226:Turco-Persian
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5171:
5170:
5167:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5134:
5133:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5094:
5093:
5090:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5067:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5015:
5014:
5011:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4988:
4987:
4984:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4966:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4924:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4882:
4881:
4878:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4865:
4864:
4861:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4838:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4825:
4822:
4821:
4820:
4817:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4766:
4764:
4762:
4758:
4750:
4747:
4746:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4724:
4723:
4720:
4716:
4713:
4712:
4711:
4708:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4638:
4637:
4634:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4621:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4584:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4525:
4524:
4521:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4503:
4502:
4499:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4486:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4446:
4441:
4439:
4434:
4432:
4427:
4426:
4423:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4212:
4209:
4205:
4198:
4193:
4191:
4186:
4184:
4179:
4178:
4175:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4149:
4145:
4142:
4138:
4137:
4133:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4080:
4076:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4029:Ethnic groups
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4016:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4004:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3975:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3963:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3916:
3913:
3912:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3892:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3880:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3829:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3819:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3807:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3790:2020 protests
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3730:Bamana Empire
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3700:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3679:
3674:
3672:
3667:
3665:
3660:
3659:
3656:
3649:
3648:Ancient Ghana
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3625:
3613:
3608:
3604:
3598:
3594:
3589:
3585:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3567:
3566:2-222-01718-1
3563:
3557:
3552:
3548:
3542:
3538:
3537:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3457:
3456:
3444:on 2011-07-26
3443:
3439:
3436:(in French),
3435:
3431:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3303:
3298:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3268:(in French).
3267:
3263:
3258:
3254:
3248:
3244:
3239:
3236:
3235:0-521-22422-5
3232:
3227:
3221:
3217:
3212:
3208:
3202:
3195:
3194:
3188:
3184:
3178:
3174:
3169:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3139:(in French).
3138:
3134:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3110:(2): 313–51,
3109:
3105:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3077:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3039:
3035:
3029:
3025:
3020:
3016:
3011:
3007:
3002:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2967:
2963:
2958:
2957:
2950:
2934:
2930:
2924:
2918:, p. 33.
2917:
2912:
2905:
2904:Berthier 1997
2900:
2893:
2888:
2881:
2875:
2868:
2867:Levtzion 1973
2863:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2829:
2823:
2816:
2810:
2803:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2784:, p. 44.
2783:
2778:
2763:
2762:www.bbc.co.uk
2759:
2753:
2746:
2740:
2732:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2709:
2701:
2695:
2691:
2690:
2682:
2673:
2666:
2660:
2658:
2651:, p. 41.
2650:
2645:
2643:
2635:
2631:
2626:
2619:
2613:
2606:
2601:
2595:, p. 40.
2594:
2589:
2582:
2577:
2571:, p. 39.
2570:
2565:
2563:
2555:
2549:
2547:
2540:, p. 26.
2539:
2534:
2528:, p. 38.
2527:
2522:
2515:
2509:
2507:
2497:
2488:
2481:
2476:
2469:
2464:
2457:
2452:
2445:
2439:
2432:
2427:
2421:, p. 37.
2420:
2415:
2413:
2406:, p. 26.
2405:
2400:
2394:, p. 32.
2393:
2388:
2382:, p. 28.
2381:
2376:
2369:
2363:
2356:
2351:
2343:
2339:
2336:(2): 73–115.
2335:
2331:
2327:
2320:
2309:
2308:
2300:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2269:
2261:
2254:
2247:
2239:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2220:
2212:
2205:
2200:
2191:
2184:
2179:
2172:
2171:Levtzion 1973
2167:
2160:
2155:
2147:
2143:
2136:
2128:
2121:
2113:
2106:
2099:
2092:
2087:
2080:
2075:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2051:
2045:
2038:(2): 317–328.
2037:
2033:
2029:
2022:
2014:
2010:
2003:
1996:
1991:
1985:, p. 27.
1984:
1979:
1977:
1968:
1964:
1957:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1898:
1891:
1885:
1878:
1877:Levtzion 1973
1873:
1866:
1865:Levtzion 1973
1862:
1858:
1853:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1831:
1830:Levtzion 1973
1826:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1790:
1784:
1780:
1779:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1727:
1725:
1709:
1703:
1699:
1698:
1690:
1684:, p. 31.
1683:
1678:
1671:
1670:Levtzion 1973
1666:
1664:
1655:
1648:
1641:
1635:
1621:
1617:
1610:
1608:
1599:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1535:
1531:
1530:
1521:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1422:
1420:
1412:
1407:
1398:
1396:
1388:
1383:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1341:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1324:
1312:
1307:
1300:
1295:
1288:
1283:
1276:
1271:
1264:
1259:
1252:
1247:
1240:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1216:Senegal River
1213:
1212:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1194:vassal states
1189:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1167:
1165:
1160:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1036:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1008:Senegal river
1005:
1001:
997:
991:
989:
985:
981:
970:
968:
964:
958:
955:
950:
948:
944:
940:
936:
934:
930:
919:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
872:
870:
866:
865:
859:
857:
853:
849:
845:
840:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
798:
796:
786:
784:
780:
775:
771:
766:
764:
760:
746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
725:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
689:
687:
683:
679:
675:
670:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
627:
622:
621:
616:
606:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
575:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
554:According to
551:
536:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
504:
502:
499:named itself
498:
497:Kwame Nkrumah
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
473:
471:
467:
463:
458:
456:
452:
448:
444:
443:
438:
434:
426:
422:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
396:
394:
392:Today part of
390:
374:
372:
369:
368:
360:
358:
355:
354:
346:
344:
341:
340:
332:
330:
327:
326:
318:
316:
313:
312:
309:
303:
302:Djenné-Djenno
300:
293:
292:
289:
286:
279:
278:
275:
274:
271:
268:
266:
263:
262:
258:
254:
247:15th century
243:
240:
236:
230:
226:
223:
217:
210:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
185:Soumaba Cisse
184:
178:
175:
172:
166:
162:
156:
153:
150:
144:
140:
136:
134:
130:
126:
122:
119:
114:
111:
107:
104:
100:
96:
93:
89:
85:
82:
78:
71:
66:
54:
48:
38:
33:
19:
18:Wagadu Empire
5957:Ghana Empire
5914:
5653:Contemporary
5503:Indo-Persian
5491:Nazi Germany
5435:Contemporary
5341:
5337:Vijayanagara
5236:Great Seljuk
5147:Thessalonica
5075:Golden Horde
4715:Carthaginian
4494:Neo-Assyrian
4479:Neo-Sumerian
4274:
4054:Prostitution
4024:Demographics
3910:Human rights
3895:Constitution
3826:
3760:French Sudan
3705:Ghana Empire
3704:
3611:
3592:
3573:
3555:
3535:
3501:
3497:
3464:
3460:
3442:the original
3437:
3433:
3396:
3392:
3382:
3349:
3345:
3312:
3308:
3289:. Retrieved
3269:
3265:
3242:
3215:
3192:
3172:
3160:. Retrieved
3140:
3136:
3107:
3103:
3084:
3065:
3043:
3023:
3014:
3005:
2996:; Volume 3,
2992:; Volume 2,
2983:
2961:
2953:Bibliography
2948:
2936:. Retrieved
2932:
2923:
2911:
2899:
2887:
2882:, pp. 79–80.
2879:
2874:
2862:
2845:
2835:
2830:, pp. 77–83.
2827:
2822:
2814:
2809:
2801:
2777:
2767:13 September
2765:. Retrieved
2761:
2752:
2744:
2739:
2715:
2708:
2688:
2681:
2672:
2664:
2625:
2617:
2612:
2605:Lewicki 1971
2600:
2588:
2581:Lewicki 1971
2576:
2553:
2533:
2521:
2513:
2496:
2487:
2475:
2463:
2451:
2446:, pp. 44–48.
2443:
2438:
2426:
2399:
2387:
2375:
2367:
2362:
2355:Hunwick 2003
2350:
2333:
2329:
2319:
2306:
2299:
2282:
2278:
2268:
2259:
2246:
2218:
2211:
2199:
2190:
2178:
2166:
2154:
2145:
2141:
2135:
2126:
2120:
2111:
2098:
2086:
2074:
2066:
2062:
2057:
2049:
2044:
2035:
2031:
2021:
2012:
2008:
2002:
1990:
1966:
1956:
1911:
1908:BMC Genomics
1907:
1897:
1889:
1884:
1872:
1867:, p. 19
1852:
1837:
1825:
1792:. Retrieved
1777:
1740:
1736:
1713:13 September
1711:. Retrieved
1700:. ABC-CLIO.
1696:
1689:
1677:
1653:
1647:
1639:
1634:
1623:. Retrieved
1578:
1571:
1557:Mande People
1482:Sosso rulers
1428:
1425:Demographics
1416:
1395:Koumbi Saleh
1392:
1356:
1347:
1338:Koumbi Saleh
1326:
1320:
1231:Koumbi Saleh
1225:Koumbi Saleh
1220:
1209:
1207:
1198:
1191:
1186:
1173:
1161:
1148:Koumbi Saleh
1138:
1126:
1118:
1111:
1095:
1093:
1066:
1041:
992:
976:
959:
951:
937:
925:
873:
863:
860:
856:large tumuli
809:
792:
773:
767:
763:Koumbi Saleh
759:Dhar Tichitt
755:
690:
671:
646:
630:
624:
619:
612:
576:
553:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
510:
481:vassal state
474:
459:
453:and western
447:West African
440:
436:
432:
421:Ghana Empire
420:
418:
315:Sosso Empire
270:Succeeded by
269:
264:
159:• 790s
84:Koumbi Saleh
46:
41:Ghana Empire
5936: /
5241:Khwarezmian
5174:Carolingian
4979:Rashtrakuta
4683:Shaishunaga
4582:Hellenistic
4565:New Kingdom
4555:Old Kingdom
4310:Kanem–Bornu
4260:Futa Jallon
3978:Foreign aid
3915:LGBT rights
3715:Mali Empire
3315:: 197–232,
3143:: 155–178.
3051:Maisonneuve
2480:Insoll 2003
2468:Lange 1996a
2431:Lange 1996b
2204:Lange 1996b
2183:Munson 1980
2159:Munson 1980
2142:Archaeology
2091:Munson 1980
2015:(1–2): 166.
2011:. série B.
1536:: 1235–1240
1522:: 1203–1235
1477:: 1062–1076
1475:Tunka Manin
1471:: 1040–1062
1439:patrilineal
1377:Archaeology
1164:Mali Empire
1108:Mali Empire
1069:Ibn Khaldun
943:Tunka Manin
939:Ghana Bassi
929:Niger river
832:Niger River
783:Dhar Walata
615:Mahmud Kati
525:Kaya Maghan
485:Mali Empire
265:Preceded by
239:Mali Empire
174:Ghana Bassi
163:Dyabe Cisse
147:• 700
5951:Categories
5811:Portuguese
5692:Revival Le
5682:Vietnamese
5325:Later Tran
5295:Vietnamese
5191:Singhasari
5179:Holy Roman
4803:Bulgarian
4739:Satavahana
4710:Phoenician
4646:Achaemenid
4607:Indo-Greek
4587:Macedonian
4501:Babylonian
4385:Toucouleur
4285:Great Fulo
4102:Literature
2994:L'Histoire
2938:2024-04-11
2916:Gomez 2018
2782:Gomez 2018
2649:Gomez 2018
2634:291 Vol. 1
2632:, p.
2593:Gomez 2018
2569:Gomez 2018
2538:Gomez 2018
2526:Gomez 2018
2419:Gomez 2018
2148:(1): 8–14.
2079:Mauny 1961
1995:Mauny 1954
1914:(1): 915.
1859:, p.
1844:, p.
1816:, p.
1682:Gomez 2018
1625:2023-07-09
1563:References
1441:/paternal
1170:Government
1140:Ibn Hawqal
947:Almoravids
922:Almoravids
894:, Gijume,
892:Guidimakha
886:, Jafunu,
812:wet period
708:(977 CE),
706:Ibn Hawqal
700:(872 CE),
694:chronology
591:Mauritania
585:Arabs and
548:See also:
493:Gold Coast
451:Mauritania
404:Mauritania
124:Government
5804:Couronian
5442:Ethiopian
5430:Manchukuo
5385:Brazilian
5231:Ghaznavid
5201:Srivijaya
5152:Trebizond
5137:Byzantine
5119:North Sea
5114:Norwegian
5102:Almoravid
5085:Ilkhanate
5055:Majapahit
5028:Muromachi
4937:Solomonic
4922:Ethiopian
4836:Caliphate
4769:Aragonese
4597:Ptolemaic
4405:Wassoulou
4265:Futa Toro
4049:Languages
4034:Education
3993:Transport
3942:President
3900:Elections
3849:Mountains
3810:Geography
3800:2021 coup
3795:2020 coup
3775:2012 coup
3526:162867483
3504:: 53–78,
3489:163009319
3467:: 21–59,
3421:161981607
3374:143619637
3337:162477947
3124:162370098
3104:Der Islam
3055:available
2667:, p. 262.
2620:, p. 333.
2516:, p. 333.
2404:Fall 2021
2392:Fall 2021
2380:Fall 2021
1930:1471-2164
1419:al-Idrisi
1152:chiefdoms
1089:Delafosse
1051:state of
880:Awdaghost
839:tradition
779:Dhar Nema
710:al-Biruni
702:al-Masudi
663:Abi Talib
651:al-Idrisi
583:Hassaniya
521:war chief
511:The word
507:Etymology
251:mid-1200s
109:Religion
63:mid-1200s
5784:Japanese
5747:Scottish
5727:American
5719:Colonial
5648:Imperial
5616:Moroccan
5552:Japanese
5530:Afsharid
5389:Burmese
5375:Austrian
5330:Later Le
5305:Early Le
5290:Venetian
5216:Tiwanaku
5129:Hellenic
5092:Moroccan
5023:Kamakura
5013:Japanese
4996:Saffarid
4949:Georgian
4863:Chalukya
4841:Rashidun
4831:Calakmul
4799:Bruneian
4678:Haryanka
4656:Sasanian
4651:Parthian
4602:Bactrian
4592:Seleucid
4572:Goguryeo
4550:Egyptian
4484:Assyrian
4474:Akkadian
4465:Colonies
4157:Category
4117:Polygamy
4059:Religion
3927:Military
3883:Politics
3869:Wildlife
3839:Communes
3780:Mali War
3689:articles
3291:19 March
3162:22 March
3064:(2003),
2982:(1912),
2817:, p. 21.
2804:, p. 80.
2747:, p. 81.
2370:, p. 73.
2291:40380172
1948:31791255
1794:18 March
1541:See also
1387:al-Bakri
1371:Mandinka
1367:Jakhanke
1344:El-Ghaba
1333:Al-Bakri
1323:Timbuktu
1203:Mandinka
1177:Al-Bakri
1129:al-Bakri
1049:Mandinka
984:Tadmekka
916:Mandinka
876:al-Bakri
714:al-Bakri
659:Muhammad
655:Ibn Said
568:kingship
533:nobility
529:Ouagadou
470:al-Bakri
468:scholar
466:Cordoban
445:, was a
59:100–300–
5921:15°40′N
5851:largest
5846:Empires
5826:Swedish
5821:Spanish
5816:Russian
5779:Italian
5754:Chinese
5742:English
5737:British
5732:Belgian
5707:Vietnam
5697:Tay son
5643:Tsarist
5638:Russian
5633:Ottoman
5599:Dzungar
5594:Khoshut
5567:Mexican
5562:Maratha
5545:Pahlavi
5525:Safavid
5520:Iranian
5447:Haitian
5410:Chinese
5370:Ashanti
5342:Wagadou
5268:Eastern
5263:Western
5246:Timurid
5206:Tibetan
5196:Songhai
5186:Serbian
5107:Almohad
5097:Idrisid
5001:Samanid
4991:Tahirid
4986:Iranian
4964:Kannauj
4944:Genoese
4880:Chinese
4873:Eastern
4868:Western
4856:Fatimid
4851:Abbasid
4846:Umayyad
4819:Burmese
4779:Ayyubid
4774:Angevin
4744:Xianbei
4732:Eastern
4727:Western
4673:Magadha
4636:Iranian
4629:Xiongnu
4614:Hittite
4523:Chinese
4511:Kassite
4460:Ancient
4452:Empires
4375:Songhai
4360:Shilluk
4330:Massina
4220:Bagirmi
4141:Outline
4087:Cuisine
4079:Culture
4064:Slavery
4007:Society
3988:Tourism
3966:Economy
3859:Regions
3828:Cercles
3822:Borders
3697:History
3518:3171690
3481:3171598
3366:1156424
3329:3171941
3286:4391129
3157:3171939
1939:6888939
1757:3171690
1642:, p. 7.
1616:"Ghana"
1431:Soninke
1363:Wangara
1359:mosques
1211:mazalim
1181:Moorish
1123:Economy
1085:Kangaba
1053:Kangaba
1004:Diafunu
996:Kaniaga
980:Wangara
933:Senegal
904:Kaniaga
896:Gajaaga
836:Soninke
824:Sanhaja
801:History
718:negroes
698:Ya'qubi
678:Berbers
639:Wangara
635:Soninke
603:Soninke
587:Berbers
517:warrior
491:of the
437:Ghanata
409:Senegal
371:Gajaaga
214:100–300
99:Malinke
95:Soninke
80:Capital
5924:8°00′W
5789:Mongol
5774:German
5769:French
5759:Danish
5702:Dainam
5677:Tongan
5665:Somali
5660:Sokoto
5626:'Alawi
5604:Kalmyk
5584:Mongol
5577:Second
5557:Korean
5508:Mughal
5498:Indian
5481:German
5474:Second
5464:French
5457:Second
5393:Second
5365:Afghan
5357:Modern
5283:Kyrgyz
5278:Uighur
5273:Second
5253:Turkic
5221:Toltec
5157:Epirus
5142:Nicaea
5065:Mongol
5018:Yamato
4954:Huetar
4812:Second
4749:Rouran
4698:Shunga
4693:Maurya
4668:Kushan
4641:Median
4619:Hunnic
4577:Harsha
4390:Tunjur
4380:Takrur
4370:Sokoto
4355:Sennar
4350:Saloum
4300:Kaarta
4250:Darfur
4240:Dagbon
4225:Bamana
4215:Alodia
4162:Portal
4039:Health
3864:Rivers
3834:Cities
3740:Kaarta
3687:
3599:
3580:
3564:
3543:
3524:
3516:
3487:
3479:
3419:
3413:182004
3411:
3372:
3364:
3335:
3327:
3284:
3249:
3233:
3222:
3203:
3179:
3155:
3122:
3091:
3072:
3030:
2968:
2880:Corpus
2828:Corpus
2815:Corpus
2802:Corpus
2745:Corpus
2727:
2696:
2665:Corpus
2618:Corpus
2554:Corpus
2514:Corpus
2368:Corpus
2289:
2234:
1946:
1936:
1928:
1890:Corpus
1785:
1755:
1704:
1640:Corpus
1594:
1413:(1154)
1389:(1068)
1325:, the
1144:cheque
1024:Sharia
1020:Bambuk
1012:Takrur
1000:Diarra
912:Khasso
910:, and
908:Kaarta
884:Takrur
743:, and
733:Bambuk
688:).
686:Takrur
599:Tagant
515:means
442:Wagadu
425:Arabic
137:
116:Later
50:واغادو
47:Wagadu
5839:Lists
5794:Omani
5764:Dutch
5670:Isaaq
5621:Saadi
5589:Oirat
5572:First
5540:Qajar
5469:First
5452:First
5425:China
5398:Third
5258:First
5211:Tikal
5162:Morea
5132:Roman
5050:Latin
5045:Khmer
5040:Kanem
5006:Buyid
4932:Zagwe
4927:Aksum
4917:Chola
4824:First
4807:First
4794:Bornu
4789:Benin
4784:Aztec
4722:Roman
4703:Gupta
4688:Nanda
4624:White
4400:Wadai
4395:Waalo
4345:Niumi
4340:Niani
4305:Kaabu
4295:Jolof
4280:Gobir
4275:Ghana
4255:Dendi
4235:Cayor
4148:Index
4112:Music
4107:Media
4092:Films
4069:Women
3522:S2CID
3514:JSTOR
3485:S2CID
3477:JSTOR
3417:S2CID
3409:JSTOR
3370:S2CID
3362:JSTOR
3333:S2CID
3325:JSTOR
3305:(PDF)
3282:JSTOR
3197:(PDF)
3153:JSTOR
3120:S2CID
2846:REMMM
2311:(PDF)
2287:JSTOR
2256:(PDF)
2108:(PDF)
1753:JSTOR
1469:Bassi
1443:clans
1435:Mande
1156:camel
1133:dinar
1113:malik
1100:Sosso
1096:Ghana
1016:Awlil
963:faqih
888:Jaara
869:Hijra
820:camel
770:Mande
682:Fulbe
637:; or
617:(the
595:Adrar
579:Moors
564:Egypt
560:Aswan
513:Ghana
501:Ghana
439:, or
433:Ghana
235:Sosso
222:Islam
133:Ghana
118:Islam
103:Mande
32:Ghana
5609:Bogd
5535:Zand
5513:Sikh
5420:Qing
5415:Ming
5347:Wari
5315:Tran
5300:Dinh
5070:Yuan
5060:Mali
4969:Pala
4959:Inca
4910:Yuan
4900:Song
4895:Liao
4890:Tang
4663:Kush
4545:Dʿmt
4410:Wuli
4365:Sine
4325:Mali
4315:Kong
4245:Daju
4230:Baol
4097:Flag
3685:Mali
3597:ISBN
3578:ISBN
3562:ISBN
3541:ISBN
3293:2024
3247:ISBN
3231:ISBN
3220:ISBN
3201:ISBN
3177:ISBN
3164:2024
3089:ISBN
3070:ISBN
3028:ISBN
2966:ISBN
2769:2018
2725:ISBN
2694:ISBN
2232:ISBN
1944:PMID
1926:ISSN
1796:2024
1783:ISBN
1715:2018
1702:ISBN
1592:ISBN
1199:kafu
1179:, a
1077:Susu
1073:Mali
1057:Bure
900:Hodh
848:salt
844:gold
781:and
745:Akan
741:Lobi
737:Bure
597:and
455:Mali
429:غانا
419:The
399:Mali
343:Méma
227:1076
44:غانا
5687:Mac
5124:Oyo
5033:Edo
4905:Jīn
4885:Sui
4538:Jin
4533:Han
4528:Qin
4270:Gao
3506:doi
3469:doi
3401:doi
3354:doi
3317:doi
3274:doi
3145:doi
3112:doi
2850:doi
2338:doi
2224:doi
1934:PMC
1916:doi
1745:doi
1584:doi
1369:or
1201:in
988:Gao
669:.
667:Ali
589:in
519:or
5953::
5320:Ho
5310:Ly
3520:,
3512:,
3502:10
3500:,
3483:,
3475:,
3463:,
3438:13
3432:,
3415:,
3407:,
3397:21
3395:,
3368:,
3360:,
3350:24
3348:,
3331:,
3323:,
3313:23
3311:,
3307:,
3280:.
3270:11
3264:.
3151:.
3141:23
3135:.
3118:,
3108:73
3106:,
2931:.
2844:.
2789:^
2760:.
2723:.
2719:.
2656:^
2641:^
2561:^
2545:^
2505:^
2411:^
2332:.
2328:.
2283:43
2281:.
2277:.
2258:.
2230:.
2222:.
2146:33
2144:.
2110:.
2034:.
2030:.
2013:28
1975:^
1965:.
1942:.
1932:.
1924:.
1912:20
1910:.
1906:.
1861:78
1846:78
1818:76
1804:^
1765:^
1751:.
1743:.
1741:10
1739:.
1735:.
1723:^
1662:^
1618:.
1606:^
1590:.
1582:.
1205:.
1087:.
1026:.
1002:,
998:,
906:,
834:.
739:,
735:,
581:,
562:,
457:.
435:,
427::
249:c.
245:c.
212:c.
101:,
97:,
61:c.
57:c.
4467:)
4463:(
4444:e
4437:t
4430:v
4196:e
4189:t
4182:v
3677:e
3670:t
3663:v
3616:.
3606:.
3587:.
3550:.
3529:.
3508::
3492:.
3471::
3465:9
3424:.
3403::
3387:.
3377:.
3356::
3340:.
3319::
3295:.
3276::
3237:.
3186:.
3166:.
3147::
3114::
3098:.
3036:.
3000:.
2975:.
2941:.
2906:.
2894:.
2856:.
2852::
2771:.
2733:.
2702:.
2636:.
2458:.
2344:.
2340::
2334:4
2293:.
2262:.
2240:.
2226::
2036:8
1969:.
1950:.
1918::
1820:.
1798:.
1759:.
1747::
1628:.
1600:.
1586::
774:–
747:.
423:(
34:.
20:)
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