234:
4815:
1362:
1016:
249:
4779:
1337:(in antibacterial soap and toothpaste) was found in all water types, but detected in higher levels (parts-per-trillion) in reclaimed water than in surface or groundwater. Very few hormones/steroids were detected in samples, and when detected were at very low levels. Haloacetic acids (a disinfection by-product) were found in all types of samples, even groundwater. The largest difference between reclaimed water and the other waters appears to be that reclaimed water has been disinfected and thus has disinfection byproducts (due to chlorine use).
4839:
7070:
6081:
5501:
31:
5491:
776:
communities reuse water to replenish groundwater basins. Others put it into surface water reservoirs. In these instances the reclaimed water is blended with other water supplies and/or sits in storage for a certain amount of time before it is drawn out and gets treated again at a water treatment or distribution system. In some communities, the reused water is put directly into pipelines that go to a water treatment plant or distribution system.
1959:(UF), chlorination) to reduce associated risks and improve the water quality. Since the year 1968 the capital of Namibia, Windhoek, has used reclaimed wastewater as one of their drinking water sources, which nowadays represent about 14% of the city's drinking water production. In 2001, the New Goreangab Reclamation Plant (NGWRP) was built by the City of Windhoek and it started to deliver drinking water in 2002 (about 21,000 m of water per day).
4977:
1272:
7082:
4827:
4803:
5538:
1600:, reuse of water is mentioned as one of the possible measures to achieve the Directive's quality goals. However, this remains a relatively vague recommendation rather than a requirement: Part B of Annex VI refers to reuse as one of the "supplementary measures which Member States within each river basin district may choose to adopt as part of the programme of measures required under Article 11(4)".
1939:. In most localities, water is reused for irrigation. In Windhoek, reclaimed water is also used for potable uses. Windhoek has been using recovered water for fifty years. Approximately 30% of the city's 400 000 residents' present drinking water supply is made up of reclaimed water. A representative example of direct potable reuse is the case of
2045:
supply by 10,000 m per day, approximately one third of the drinking water demand. The process configuration includes the following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, and chlorine disinfection. Provision has been made for powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if required as an additional operational barrier.
1620:
potentially create trade barriers for agricultural goods irrigated with reclaimed water. Once on the common market, the level of safety in the producing member states may be not considered sufficient by the importing countries. The most representative standards on wastewater reuse from
European member states are the following:
1989:, which is called "used water" in Singapore, is treated in conventional advanced wastewater treatment plants that are called reclamation plants in Singapore. The effluent from the reclamation plants is either discharged into the sea or undergoes further microfiltration, reverse osmosis and ultraviolet treatment.
1723:
fire protection; commercial uses such as vehicle washing; industrial reuse such as cooling water, boiler water and process water; environmental and recreational uses such as the creation or restoration of wetlands; as well as agricultural irrigation. In some cases, such as in Irvine Ranch Water
District in
1702:(EPA), but the EPA has developed water reuse guidelines that were most recently updated in 2012. The EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse represents the international standard for best practices in water reuse. The document was developed under a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement between the EPA, the
1695:
assessment of the chemical and microbiological water quality. The $ 30 million study found that the water produced met all health standards and compared favorably with Denver's high quality drinking water. Further, the projected cost was lower than estimates for obtaining distant new water supplies.
2044:
strategy (2009/2010), where final effluents from its
Outeniqua WWTP are treated to a very high quality through UF and disinfection prior to being returned to the main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. This initiative augments the existing
1607:
concerning the reuse of treated wastewater states that "treated wastewater shall be reused whenever appropriate", which some consider not specific enough to promote water reuse as it may leave too much room for interpretation as to what can be considered as an "appropriate" situation to reuse treated
1399:
Reclaimed water can offer a viable and effective alternative to freshwater where freshwater supplies are scarce. Reclaimed water is utilized to maintain or increase lake levels, restore wetlands, and restore river flows during hot weather and droughts, protecting biodiversity. Additionally, reclaimed
1722:
Reuse of reclaimed water is an increasingly common response to water scarcity in many parts of the United States. Reclaimed water is being reused directly for various non-potable uses in the United States, including urban landscape irrigation of parks, school yards, highway medians and golf courses;
1752:
is a trade association in the United States which promotes reuse of water. According to their website, "The WateReuse
Association is the nation's only trade association solely dedicated to advancing laws, policy, funding, and public acceptance of recycled water. WateReuse represents a coalition of
1729:
It was estimated that in 2002 a total of 1.7 billion US gallons (6,400,000 m) per day, or almost 3% of public water supply, were being directly reused. California reused 0.6 and
Florida 0.5 billion US gallons (1,900,000 m) per day respectively. Twenty-five states had regulations
1694:
Denver's Direct
Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project examined the technical, scientific, and public acceptance aspects of DPR from 1979 to 1993. A chronic lifetime whole-animal health effects study on the 1 MGD advanced treatment plant product was conducted in conjunction with a comprehensive
767:
Planned potable reuse is publicly acknowledged as an intentional project to recycle water for drinking water. There are two ways in which potable water can be delivered for reuse – "Indirect
Potable Reuse" (IPR) and "Direct Potable Reuse". Both these forms of reuse are described below, and commonly
715:
developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater in 2006, advocating a ‘multiple-barrier' approach wastewater use, for example by encouraging farmers to adopt various risk-reducing behaviors. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight;
653:
plants if it contains nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. There are benefits of using recycled water for irrigation, including the lower cost compared to some other sources and consistency of supply regardless of season, climatic conditions and associated water restrictions. When
197:
and landscape irrigation, industrial processes, toilet flushing, and groundwater replenishing (EPA, 2004)." A similar description is: "Water Reuse, the use of reclaimed water from treated wastewater, has been a long-established reality in many (semi)arid countries and regions. It helps to alleviate
1328:
A study published in 2009 compared the differences in water quality between reclaimed/recycled water, surface water, and groundwater. Results indicated that reclaimed water, surface water, and groundwater are more similar than dissimilar with regard to constituents. The researchers tested for 244
846:
IPR occurs through the augmentation of drinking water supplies with municipal wastewater treated to a level suitable for IPR followed by an environmental buffer (e.g. rivers, dams, aquifers, etc.) that precedes drinking water treatment. In this case, municipal wastewater passes through a series of
823:
Indirect potable reuse (IPR) means the water is delivered to the consumer indirectly. After it is purified, the reused water blends with other supplies and/or sits a while in some sort of storage, man-made or natural, before it gets delivered to a pipeline that leads to a water treatment plant or
1787:
Australia: National level
Guidelines: Government of Australia (the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, the Environment Protection and Heritage Council, and the Australian Health Ministers Conference (NRMMC-EPHC-AHMC)): Guidelines for water recycling: managing health and environmental
831:
Some municipalities are using and others are investigating IPR of reclaimed water. For example, reclaimed water may be pumped into (subsurface recharge) or percolated down to (surface recharge) groundwater aquifers, pumped out, treated again, and finally used as drinking water. This technique may
1664:
of 1972 mandated elimination of the discharge of untreated waste from municipal and industrial sources to make water safe for fishing and recreation. The US federal government provided billions of dollars in grants for building sewage treatment plants around the country. Modern treatment plants,
2150:
Warsinger, David M.; Chakraborty, Sudip; Tow, Emily W.; Plumlee, Megan H.; Bellona, Christopher; Loutatidou, Savvina; Karimi, Leila; Mikelonis, Anne M.; Achilli, Andrea; Ghassemi, Abbas; Padhye, Lokesh P.; Snyder, Shane A.; Curcio, Stefano; Vecitis, Chad D.; Arafat, Hassan A.; Lienhard, John H.
1889:
from the Tel Aviv metropolitan area is treated and reused as irrigation water for agriculture and public works. In 2012 the Dan Region
Wastewater Treatment Plant was cited as a global model by the United Nations. The plant, known locally as Shafdan, was lauded for its unique method of using the
1348:
in the United States found that the risk of exposure to certain microbial and chemical contaminants from drinking reclaimed water does not appear to be higher than the risk experienced in some current drinking water treatment systems, and may be orders of magnitude lower. This report recommends
1619:
on the water reuse standards of several member states concluded that they differed in their approach. There are important differences among the standards regarding permitted uses, parameters to be monitored, and limit values allowed. This lack of harmonization among water reuse standards could
1395:
Fresh water makes up less than 3% of the world's water resources, and just 1% of that is readily available. Even though fresh water is scarce, just 3% of it is extracted for human consumption. The remaining water is mostly used for agriculture, which uses roughly two-thirds of all fresh water.
867:
Direct potable reuse (DPR) means the reused water is put directly into pipelines that go to a water treatment plant or distribution system. Direct potable reuse may occur with or without "engineered storage" such as underground or above ground tanks. In other words, DPR is the introduction of
775:
The water needs of a community, water sources, public health regulations, costs, and the types of water infrastructure in place— such as distribution systems, man-made reservoirs, or natural groundwater basins— determine if and how reclaimed water can be part of the drinking water supply. Some
771:
Some water agencies reuse highly treated effluent from municipal wastewater or resource recovery plants as a reliable, drought-proof source of drinking water. By using advanced purification processes, they produce water that meets all applicable drinking water standards. System reliability and
1324:
Reclaimed water is considered safe when appropriately used. Reclaimed water planned for use in recharging aquifers or augmenting surface water receives adequate and reliable treatment before mixing with naturally occurring water and undergoing natural restoration processes. Some of this water
1588:
Since 26 June 2023 there is an EU regulation on minimum requirements for water reuse for irrigation purposes. The water quality requirements are divided into four categories depending on what is irrigated and how the irrigation is performed. The water quality parameters included are
1631:
France: Jorf num.0153, 4 July 2014. Order of 2014, related to the use of water from treated urban wastewater for irrigation of crops and green areas (Issuing
Institutions: Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Ministry of Ecology, Energy and
2828:
Bischel, H.N.; J.E. Lawrence; B.J. Halaburka; M.H. Plumlee; A.S. Bawazir; J.P. King; J.E. McCray; V.H. Resh; R.G. Luthy (1 August 2013). "Renewing Urban Streams with Recycled Water for Streamflow Augmentation: Hydrologic, Water Quality, and Ecosystem Services Management".
946:
system. The system costs $ 250 million and has been working since May 2009. The system recycles wastewater and urine back into potable water used for drinking, food preparation, and oxygen generation. This cuts back on the need to frequently resupply the space station.
1980:
and is bottled directly from an advanced water purification facility for educational and celebratory purposes. Though most of the reused water is used for high-tech industry in Singapore, a small amount is returned to reservoirs for drinking water. NEWater is the
97:
standards. Injecting reclaimed water into the water supply distribution system is known as direct potable reuse. Drinking reclaimed water is not typical. Reusing treated municipal wastewater for irrigation is a long-established practice. This is especially so in
1844:, have already committed to adding reclaimed effluent to their dwindling dams. The former has also built a desalination plant to help battle any future water shortages. Brisbane has been seen as a leader in this trend, and other cities and towns will review the
192:
The term "water reuse" is generally used interchangeably with terms such as wastewater reuse, water reclamation, and water recycling. A definition by the USEPA states: "Water reuse is the method of recycling treated wastewater for beneficial purposes, such as
706:
There can be significant health hazards related to using untreated wastewater in agriculture. Municipal wastewater can contain a mixture of chemical and biological pollutants. In low-income countries, there are often high levels of pathogens from excreta. In
73:. There are many types of reuse. It is possible to reuse water in this way in cities or for irrigation in agriculture. Other types of reuse are environmental reuse, industrial reuse, and reuse for drinking water, whether planned or not. Reuse may include
694:
is increasingly using untreated municipal wastewater for irrigation – often in an unsafe manner. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so they are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce
1611:
Despite the lack of common water reuse criteria at the EU level, several member states have issued their own legislative frameworks, regulations, or guidelines for different water reuse applications (e.g. Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, and Spain).
2786:
Lopes, Ana Rita; Becerra-Castro, Cristina; Vaz-Moreira, Ivone; Silva, M. Elisabete F.; Nunes, Olga C.; Manaia, Célia M. (2015). "Irrigation with Treated Wastewater: Potential Impacts on Microbial Function and Diversity in Agricultural Soils".
1340:
A 2005 study found that there had been no instances of illness or disease from either microbial pathogens or chemicals, and the risks of using reclaimed water for irrigation are not measurably different from irrigation using potable water.
1400:
water is utilized for street cleaning, irrigation of urban green spaces, and industrial processes. Reclaimed water has the advantage of being a consistent source of water supply that is unaffected by seasonal droughts and weather changes.
1252:
Psychological barriers, sometimes referred to as the "yuck factor", can also be an impediment to implementation, particularly for direct potable reuse plans. These psychological factors are closely associated with disgust, specifically
790:
with reclaimed water and 13% of a survey group said they would not even sip it. Nonetheless, the main health risk for potable use of reclaimed water is the potential for pharmaceutical and other household chemicals or their derivatives
404:
and promote socioeconomic benefits. It may also lead to reduced application of fertilizers (i.e. conservation of nutrients and reducing the need for artificial fertilizer through soil nutrition by the nutrients existing in the treated
630:
Restricted: The use of reclaimed water for non-potable applications in municipal settings, where public access is controlled or restricted by physical or institutional barriers, such as fencing, advisory signage, or temporal access
1890:
natural filtration qualities of sand to improve the quality of sewage. In 2010, about 400 million cubic metres/year of treated wastewater was reused, primarily in agriculture. This constitutes about 40% of water use in agriculture.
1232:
Low economic viability of water reuse schemes. This may partly be due to costs of water quality monitoring and identification of contaminants. Difficulties in contaminant identification may include the separation of inorganic and
611:
supplies. Most of the uses of water reclamation are non-potable uses such as washing cars, flushing toilets, cooling water for power plants, concrete mixing, artificial lakes, irrigation for golf courses and public parks, and for
1943:(Namibia, New Goreangab Water Reclamation Plant (NGWRP)), where treated wastewater has been blended with drinking water for more than 45 years. It is based on the multiple treatment barriers concept (i.e. pre-ozonation, enhanced
1753:
utilities that recycle water, businesses that support the development of recycled water projects, and consumers of recycled water." The WateReuse Research Foundation was merged into the WateReuse Association on July 11, 2016.
433:
Global treated wastewater reuse is estimated at 40.7 billion m per year, representing approximately 11% of the total domestic and manufacturing wastewater produced. Municipal wastewater reuse is particularly high in the
1047:
There are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from
113:
There are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from
4585:
370:
Water/wastewater reuse, as an alternative water source, can provide significant economic, social and environmental benefits, which are key motivators for implementing such reuse programs. These benefits include:
2666:
Tow, Emily W.; Hartman, Anna Letcher; Jaworowski, Aleksander; Zucker, Ines; Kum, Soyoon; AzadiAghdam, Mojtaba; Blatchley, Ernest R.; Achilli, Andrea; Gu, Han; Urper, Gulsum Melike; Warsinger, David M. (2021).
868:
reclaimed water derived from domestic wastewater after extensive treatment and monitoring to assure that strict water quality requirements are met at all times, directly into a municipal water supply system.
716:
applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw; cleaning vegetables with disinfectant; or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure.
673:
to be eaten raw or for crops which are intended for human consumption to be eaten raw or unprocessed. For processed food crops: crops which are intended for human consumption not to be eaten raw but after
1201:
is plentiful. However, reclaimed water is usually sold to citizens at a cheaper rate to encourage its use. As fresh water supplies become limited from distribution costs, increased population demands, or
394:
and ponds; reduced energy consumption associated with production, treatment, and distribution of water (1.2 to 2.1 kWh/m) compared to using deep groundwater resources, water importation or desalination
1087:
Some water-demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment. One example of this scenario is in the domestic environment where
723:
and pesticides). Irrigation with wastewater can have both positive and negative effects on soil and plants, depending on the composition of the wastewater and on the soil or plant characteristics.
4395:
4318:
3090:
1644:
Spain: RD 1620/2007. The legal framework for the reuse of treated wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Ministry of Health).
313:
In some areas, one driving force is also the implementation of advanced wastewater treatment for the removal of organic micropollutants, which leads to an overall improved water quality.
3812:
2873:
678:(i.e. cooked, industrially processed). It can also be used on crops which are not intended for human consumption (e.g. pastures, forage, fiber, ornamental, seed, forest and turf crops).
180:
Water recycling and reuse is of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments. Municipal wastewater reuse is particularly high in the
1784:
Tunisia: Standard for the use of treated wastewater in agriculture (NT 106-109 of 1989) and list of crops that can be irrigated with treated wastewater (Ministry of Agriculture, 1994).
1206:, the cost ratios will evolve also. The evaluation of reclaimed water needs to consider the entire water supply system, as it may bring important flexibility into the overall system
720:
494:
Food crops not commercially processed; Food crops commercially processed; Pasture for milking animals; Fodder; Fibre; Seed crops; Ornamental flowers; Orchards; Hydroponic culture;
1730:
regarding the use of reclaimed water in 2002. Planned direct reuse of reclaimed water was initiated in 1932 with the construction of a reclaimed water facility at San Francisco's
1628:
control and associated regulations (KDP 772/2003, KDP 269/2005) (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Agriculture, Natural resources and Environment, Water Development Department).
1106:
process steps before it can be used. Steps might include screening, primary settling, biological treatment, tertiary treatment (for example reverse osmosis), and disinfection.
1084:. Reclaimed water providers use multi-barrier treatment processes and constant monitoring to ensure that reclaimed water is safe and treated properly for the intended end use.
264:
allow communities to reuse water for many different purposes. The water is treated differently depending upon the source and use of the water as well as how it gets delivered.
1691:
in 1932. The Water Replenishment District of Southern California was the first groundwater agency to obtain permitted use of recycled water for groundwater recharge in 1962.
1042:
843:
in coastal aquifers. IPR has generally included some type of environmental buffer, but conditions in certain areas have created an urgent need for more direct alternatives.
161:
is plentiful. The costs of water reclamation options might be compared to the costs of alternative options which also achieve similar effects of freshwater savings, namely
2215:"Assessing the potential of a membrane bioreactor and granular activated carbon process for wastewater reuse – A full-scale WWTP operated over one year in Scania, Sweden"
3425:
Pintilie, Loredana; Torres, Carmen M.; Teodosiu, Carmen; Castells, Francesc (December 15, 2016). "Urban wastewater reclamation for industrial reuse: An LCA case study".
3170:
955:
De facto, unacknowledged or unplanned potable reuse refers to situations where reuse of treated wastewater is practiced but is not officially recognized. For example, a
4197:
4055:
4174:
2951:
3376:
1766:
China: China National Reclaimed Water Quality Standard; China National Standard GB/T 18920-2002, GB/T 19923-2005, GB/T 18921-2002, GB 20922-2007 and GB/T 19772-2005.
383:
substitution – keep drinking water for drinking and reclaimed water for non-drinking use such as industry, cleaning, irrigation, domestic uses, and toilet flushing).
1638:
Italy: DM 185/2003. Technical measures for reuse of wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Public Health).
1772:
Japan: National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management: Report of the Microbial Water Quality Project on Treated Sewage and Reclaimed Wastewater (2008).
1635:
Greece: CMD No 145116. Measures, limits and procedures for reuse of treated wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change).
445:
by the United Nations, Target 6.3 states "Halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally by 2030".
1807:
Wastewater reuse (planned or unplanned) is a practice which has been applied throughout human history and is closely connected to the development of sanitation.
1781:
South Africa: The latest revision of the Water Services Act of 1997 relating to grey-water and treated effluent (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 2001).
1679:'s sanitation districts started providing treated wastewater for landscape irrigation in parks and golf courses in 1929. The first reclaimed water facility in
1715:
654:
reclaimed water is used for irrigation in agriculture, the nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) content of the treated wastewater has the benefit of acting as a
327:
are being over-drafted. Reuse will continue to increase as the world's population becomes increasingly urbanized and concentrated near coastlines, where local
3549:
2213:
Takman, Maria; Svahn, Ola; Paul, Catherine; Cimbritz, Michael; Blomqvist, Stefan; Struckmann Poulsen, Jan; Lund Nielsen, Jeppe; Davidsson, Åsa (2023-10-15).
1411:. It also helps to reduce the likelihood of drought as recycling of water reduces the use of fresh water supply from underground sources. For instance, the
836:. This includes slow processes of further multiple purification steps via the layers of earth/sand (absorption) and microflora in the soil (biodegradation).
4446:
1422:
The main potential risks that are associated with reclaimed wastewater reuse for irrigation purposes when the treatment is not adequate are the following:
7048:
3580:
2022:(production of 2,300 m per day). The process configuration based on multi-barrier concept and includes the following treatment processes: sand filtration,
2018:, South Africa's a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) for the production of drinking water was constructed in the end of 2010, as a result of acute
1579:
United Nations Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development (UNW-DPC): Proceedings on the UNWater project "Safe use of wastewater in agriculture" (2013).
4399:
4322:
2003:
719:
Drawbacks or risks often mentioned include the content of potentially harmful substances such as bacteria, heavy metals, or organic pollutants (including
1885:
As of 2010, Israel leads the world in the proportion of water it recycles. Israel treats 80% of its sewage (400 billion liters a year), and 100% of the
6984:
1703:
1412:
3696:
792:
1822:
1116:
A pump station distributes reclaimed water to users around a city. These may include golf courses, agricultural uses, cooling towers, or landfills.
4084:
3113:
1970:
1329:
representative constituents typically found in water. When detected, most constituents were in the parts-per-billion and parts-per-trillion range.
5664:
2463:
839:
IPR or even unplanned potable use of reclaimed wastewater is used in many countries, where the latter is discharged into groundwater to hold back
413:
supplies can be a water-saving measure. When used water is eventually discharged back into natural water sources, it can still have benefits to
7009:
2493:
233:
4615:
6308:
1879:
1699:
994:) discharge their treated sewage ("non-potable water") into the Thames, which supplies water to London downstream. In the United States, the
4345:
4301:
1860:
are already considering building a reclaimed effluent process. Indirect potable reuse (IPR) has been considered for regional communities in
1993:
Water reclaimation was pursued primarily due to geopolitical tensions arising from Singapore’s dependency on water imported from Malaysia.
1901:
1710:. The Guidelines provide a framework for states to develop regulations that incorporate the best practices and address local requirements.
711:, where industrial development is outpacing environmental regulation, there are increasing risks from inorganic and organic chemicals. The
6921:
5604:
1373:
Using reclaimed water for non-potable uses saves potable water for drinking, since less potable water will be used for non-potable uses.
4494:
Rodriguez, Clemencia; Van Buynder, Paul; Lugg, Richard; Blair, Palenque; Devine, Brian; Cook, Angus; Weinstein, Philip (17 March 2009).
4221:
Rodriguez, Clemencia; Van Buynder, Paul; Lugg, Richard; Blair, Palenque; Devine, Brian; Cook, Angus; Weinstein, Philip (17 March 2009).
3009:"ISO 16075-1:2015 – Guidelines for treated wastewater use for irrigation projects – Part 1: The basis of a reuse project for irrigation"
6668:
150:. Some water-demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment.
3342:"A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty"
5970:
1345:
1229:
Full-scale implementation and operation of water reuse schemes still face regulatory, economic, social and institutional challenges.
6118:
2096:
2743:
Moreira da Silva, Manuela; Resende, Flávia C.; Freitas, Bárbara; Aníbal, Jaime; Martins, António; Duarte, Amílcar (January 2022).
316:
Water recycling and reuse is of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments.
1845:
1552:
Groundwater quality degradation by the various reclaimed water contaminants, migrating and accumulating in the soil and aquifers.
1172:
where salt and other minerals are removed from seawater to produce potable water for drinking and irrigation, typically through
6618:
5684:
4421:
4126:
1798:
1641:
Portugal: NP 4434 2005. Reuse of reclaimed urban water for irrigation (Issuing Institutions: Portuguese Institute for Quality).
1349:
adjustments to the federal regulatory framework that could enhance public health protection for both planned and unplanned (or
4547:"Dissolved effluent organic matter: Characteristics and potential implications in wastewater treatment and reuse applications"
3197:"Dissolved effluent organic matter: Characteristics and potential implications in wastewater treatment and reuse applications"
7129:
7037:
5679:
4595:
4059:
3887:
Regulation (EU) 2020/741 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 May 2020 on minimum requirements for water reuse
3625:
3590:
3563:
3241:
2812:
2473:
2131:
1604:
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involve a more formal public process and public consultation program than is the case with de facto or unacknowledged reuse.
5576:
5177:
5147:
1573:
859:, ozone). In ‘indirect' potable reuse applications, the reclaimed wastewater is used directly or mixed with other sources.
2922:
2450:
WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater – Volume IV: Excreta and greywater use in agriculture
2122:
Andersson, K., Rosemarin, A., Lamizana, B., Kvarnström, E., McConville, J., Seidu, R., Dickin, S. and Trimmer, C. (2016).
4871:
3975:
260:
Reclaimed water is water that is used more than one time before it passes back into the natural water cycle. Advances in
553:
impoundments with/without public access (e.g. fishing, boating, bathing); Aesthetic impoundments without public access;
205:
The water that is used as an input to the treatment and reuse processes can be from a variety of sources. Usually it is
7020:
6898:
6818:
6658:
6633:
5965:
4099:
3951:
2418:
1158:
1154:
457:), in artificial recharge of aquifers, in agriculture, and in the rehabilitation of natural ecosystems (for example in
2953:
Resource recovery from waste: business models for energy, nutrient and water reuse in low- and middle-income countries
354:
and wastewater management will require emphasis on actions linked to resource management, such as wastewater reuse or
7159:
6567:
5835:
3855:
2604:
1311:
390:); reduced over-abstraction of surface and groundwater; enhanced environmental protection by restoration of streams,
218:
17:
7154:
6946:
6903:
6143:
5524:
5245:
4545:
Michael-Kordatou, I.; Michael, C.; Duan, X.; He, X.; Dionysiou, D.D.; Mills, M.A.; Fatta-Kassinos, D. (June 2015).
3195:
Michael-Kordatou, I.; Michael, C.; Duan, X.; He, X.; Dionysiou, D.D.; Mills, M.A.; Fatta-Kassinos, D. (June 2015).
1648:
By 2023, a new EU agriculture law may raise water reuse by six times, from 1.7 billion m to 6.6 billion m, and cut
1289:
358:
that will keep valuable resources available for productive uses. This in turn supports human wellbeing and broader
783:
and ultraviolet disinfection are commonly used when reclaimed water will be mixed with the drinking water supply.
6941:
6623:
6552:
6491:
6284:
6176:
5925:
5895:
5865:
5187:
2508:"Direct Potable Reuse: Benefits for Public Water Supplies, Agriculture, the Environment, and Energy Conservation"
1019:
A lavender-colored pipeline carrying non-potable water in a dual piping system in Mountain View, California, U.S.
616:. Where applicable, systems run a dual piping system to keep the recycled water separate from the potable water.
214:
54:
5639:
2393:
851:
and separation processes (e.g. MF, UF and RO), followed by an advanced chemical oxidation process (e.g. UV, UV+H
7139:
6863:
6761:
6296:
5514:
5199:
1293:
442:
486:; Street cleaning; Fire protection systems; Vehicle washing; Toilet flushing; Air conditioners; Dust control.
7107:
7086:
7054:
6931:
6858:
5915:
5739:
5699:
5519:
5509:
5411:
5192:
4723:"Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa"
4699:"Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production"
2745:"Urban Wastewater Reuse for Citrus Irrigation in Algarve, Portugal—Environmental Benefits and Carbon Fluxes"
1403:
The usage of water reclamation decreases the pollution sent to sensitive environments. It can also enhance
6843:
6111:
5220:
5172:
3704:
3139:
2055:
1245:, and others. Full cost recovery from water reuse schemes is difficult. There is a lack of financial water
1234:
1150:
1124:
Rather than treating municipal wastewater for reuse purposes, other options can achieve similar effects of
400:
In agriculture: Irrigation with treated wastewater may contribute to improve production yields, reduce the
3728:
3027:
7164:
6951:
6883:
6259:
5840:
5531:
5106:
2507:
892:
1763:
Canada: "Canadian guidelines for domestic reclaimed water for use in toilet and urinal flushing" (2010).
6653:
6274:
6153:
5980:
5747:
5542:
5127:
5030:
4793:
3886:
2479:
1853:
1593:, BOD5, total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, legionella, and intestinal nematodes (helminth eggs).
1077:
386:
For the environment: Reduced nutrient loads to receiving waters (i.e. rivers, canals and other surface
143:
3327:
6853:
6648:
6486:
6138:
5752:
5091:
4785:
4778:
2369:
1802:
1724:
1597:
1567:
1460:
and accumulation of various unknown constituents that might adversely affect agricultural production;
712:
273:
4447:"Recycling sewage into drinking water is no big deal. They've been doing it in Namibia for 50 years"
3609:
Water Reuse: Potential for Expanding the Nation's Water Supply through Reuse of Municipal Wastewater
335:. Large quantities of freshwater can be saved by municipal wastewater reuse and recycling, reducing
7174:
6786:
6663:
6628:
6377:
6367:
6341:
5669:
5569:
4998:
2126:. Nairobi and Stockholm: United Nations Environment Programme and Stockholm Environment Institute.
1169:
1061:
127:
4698:
4632:
3904:
3837:
3755:"Water reuse from a circular economy perspective and potential risks from an unregulated approach"
2586:
7074:
6848:
6691:
6501:
6473:
6196:
6186:
6104:
5940:
5880:
5807:
5649:
5436:
4946:
4864:
4722:
3551:
A Reconnaissance-Level Quantitative Comparison of Reclaimed Water, Surface Water, and Groundwater
1282:
336:
4373:
1015:
7100:
7093:
6913:
6868:
6823:
6638:
6602:
6592:
6387:
6362:
6346:
6331:
6313:
5797:
5792:
5757:
5476:
5320:
5275:
5132:
5040:
3323:
3278:
2321:"Country-level and gridded estimates of wastewater production, collection, treatment and reuse"
2070:
1527:
1333:(an insect repellant) and caffeine were found in all water types and in virtually all samples.
351:
2124:
Sanitation, Wastewater Management and Sustainability: from Waste Disposal to Resource Recovery
596:
use; Augmentation of surface drinking water supplies; Treatment until drinking water quality.
248:
7169:
6991:
6936:
6893:
6776:
6751:
6716:
6392:
5265:
5260:
5167:
5162:
4901:
4888:
4819:
4470:
3669:
1464:
1450:
1149:– Urban design systems which incorporate rainwater harvesting and reduce runoff are known as
1146:
170:
2969:"Enhancement of a Spent Irrigation Water Recycling Process: A Case Study in a Food Business"
6956:
6926:
6878:
6873:
6796:
6701:
6597:
6420:
6279:
6264:
6239:
6224:
6181:
6006:
5817:
5471:
5461:
5013:
4985:
3766:
3512:
3434:
3208:
3039:
2680:
2332:
2226:
2065:
2037:
1836:, interest in reclaimed effluent options increases. Two major capital cities in Australia,
1142:
1099:
740:
613:
401:
166:
86:
2449:
2319:
Jones, Edward R.; van Vliet, Michelle T. H.; Qadir, Manzoor; Bierkens, Marc F. P. (2021).
2123:
1538:
and their transformation products), etc.) in it and subsequent uptake by plants and crops;
731:
The use of reclaimed water to create, enhance, sustain, or augment water bodies including
8:
7149:
7134:
6888:
6771:
6766:
6511:
6430:
6249:
6229:
6219:
5920:
5905:
5860:
5659:
5562:
5421:
5285:
5235:
5182:
5152:
5142:
5137:
5101:
4993:
4896:
4049:
4047:
3008:
2465:
The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource
1857:
1775:
Jordan: Jordanian technical base n. 893/2006 Jordan water reuse management Plan (policy).
1673:
in addition to primary and secondary treatment, were required to meet certain standards.
1616:
1531:
1173:
1110:
1065:
848:
736:
332:
241:
131:
106:
allows water to remain an alternative water source for human activities. This can reduce
3770:
3516:
3438:
3253:
3212:
3043:
2684:
2336:
2230:
1361:
699:
with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use
6833:
6828:
6463:
6425:
6382:
6301:
6046:
6011:
5955:
5875:
5850:
5619:
5599:
5504:
5494:
5365:
5344:
5310:
5255:
5157:
5020:
4906:
4857:
4843:
4522:
4495:
4249:
4222:
4056:"Overview of Water Reuse Technology: Pricing Considerations Related To Reclaimed Water"
3071:
2722:
2709:
2668:
2487:
2185:
2168:
2152:
2060:
1928:
1676:
1670:
1576:(UNEP): "Guidelines for municipal wastewater reuse in the Mediterranean region" (2005).
1254:
1181:
1027:
network that keeps reclaimed water pipes completely separate from potable water pipes.
983:
808:
708:
687:
276:
has recognized the following principal driving forces for municipal wastewater reuse:
4422:"Namibia: Windhoek has been producing drinking water from its wastewater for 50 years"
4396:"Arid Israel recycles waste water on grand scale - Agricultural Commodities - Reuters"
4044:
2461:
1738:
network that keeps reclaimed water pipes completely separate from potable water pipes.
7042:
7025:
6996:
6791:
6675:
6481:
6234:
6171:
6085:
5870:
5767:
5614:
5490:
5305:
5295:
5240:
5065:
5055:
5003:
4941:
4680:
4654:
4652:
4633:"Microbiological Risk Assessment of the Water Reclamation Plant in Windhoek, Namibia"
4591:
4566:
4527:
4293:
4254:
4078:
3851:
3794:
3621:
3586:
3559:
3530:
3501:"The psychology of recycled water: Factors predicting disgust and willingness to use"
3450:
3341:
3224:
3075:
3063:
3055:
2990:
2808:
2791:. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 44. Springer. pp. 105–128.
2726:
2714:
2696:
2600:
2469:
2350:
2296:
2252:
2244:
2190:
2172:
2127:
2031:
1778:
Mexico: Mexican Standard NOM-001-ECOL-1996 governing wastewater reuse in Agriculture.
1416:
1135:
reuse systems – at a household level, treated or untreated greywater may be used for
995:
885:
877:
4214:
4130:
3051:
2320:
2239:
2214:
772:
frequent monitoring and testing are imperative to their meeting stringent controls.
6966:
6838:
6813:
6706:
6532:
6506:
6458:
6453:
6435:
6372:
6323:
6244:
6214:
6209:
6166:
6001:
5960:
5945:
5845:
5825:
5466:
5456:
5340:
5315:
5215:
5035:
5008:
4956:
4931:
4921:
4916:
4672:
4558:
4517:
4507:
4285:
4244:
4234:
3990:
Denver's Direct Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project Final Report (25 volumes)
3905:"Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation"
3843:
3784:
3774:
3613:
3520:
3481:
3442:
3353:
3216:
3105:
3047:
2980:
2838:
2800:
2792:
2766:
2756:
2704:
2688:
2592:
2340:
2288:
2234:
2180:
2164:
1952:
1731:
1688:
1478:
properties of the soil and contribution to the accumulation of chemical/biological
1103:
1081:
1036:
999:
956:
840:
669:
The irrigation water can be used in different ways on different crops, such as for
659:
641:
577:
565:
340:
324:
261:
253:
147:
103:
39:
4649:
3926:
3446:
3400:
2923:"Water reuse in Europe. Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation"
6801:
6711:
6696:
6527:
6336:
5910:
5624:
5451:
5416:
5360:
5355:
5335:
5096:
5045:
4936:
4926:
4659:
Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (4 September 2015).
4562:
4272:
Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (4 September 2015).
3839:
Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation
3607:
3220:
2588:
Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation
2275:
Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (4 September 2015).
2027:
2023:
1956:
1661:
1570:(WHO): "Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater" (2006).
1519:
1475:
1471:
1177:
1073:
1069:
1057:
780:
735:, aquatic habitats, or stream flow is called "environmental reuse". For example,
700:
696:
675:
531:
483:
387:
376:
139:
135:
123:
4471:"Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions"
4003:
3779:
3754:
3670:"Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions"
2897:
1907:
Reuse of treated wastewater is practiced in Namibia in many urban areas such as
7144:
6726:
6643:
6577:
6572:
6291:
6269:
6204:
6127:
6061:
6041:
6031:
6026:
6016:
5996:
5935:
5830:
5762:
5704:
5689:
5634:
5396:
5290:
5270:
5060:
5025:
4831:
4265:
3644:
2856:
2692:
2019:
1649:
1625:
1546:
1246:
1203:
970:
Unplanned Indirect Potable Use has existed for a long time. Large towns on the
756:
608:
593:
519:
454:
380:
359:
281:
199:
107:
94:
4758:
When the Rivers Run Dry: Water-The Defining Crisis of the Twenty-First Century
4024:
3296:
2827:
2638:
2557:
7123:
7031:
6756:
6741:
6736:
6721:
6542:
6496:
6254:
5719:
5644:
5441:
5431:
5300:
5250:
5111:
5081:
5050:
4961:
4838:
4684:
4297:
3798:
3534:
3454:
3059:
2994:
2700:
2532:
2354:
2345:
2300:
2248:
2176:
2015:
1684:
1535:
1457:
1426:
1238:
1194:
796:
515:
355:
288:
154:
78:
4609:
4607:
4103:
7004:
6402:
6161:
6066:
5950:
5900:
5772:
5729:
5401:
5370:
5230:
4807:
4616:
Treatment of wastewater for re-use in the drinking water system of Windhoek
4570:
4531:
4258:
3789:
3358:
3228:
3067:
2718:
2256:
2194:
1483:
1479:
1165:
1136:
1088:
971:
581:
550:
535:
479:
344:
222:
174:
90:
4512:
4239:
3835:
3109:
2842:
2804:
2584:
627:
applications in municipal settings, where public access is not restricted.
6587:
6582:
6547:
6410:
6056:
6051:
5975:
5930:
5890:
5787:
5694:
5375:
5325:
5225:
4911:
4604:
4152:
3525:
3500:
3377:"Water Scarcity, a driver for water reclamation, reuse and collaboration"
3026:
Ofori, Solomon; Puškáčová, Adéla; Růžičková, Iveta; Wanner, Jiří (2021).
2985:
2968:
2796:
2771:
2011:
1944:
1920:
1735:
1523:
1214:
1210:
1198:
1125:
1024:
932:
825:
691:
624:
546:
503:
499:
495:
422:
410:
302:
294:
increasing environmental pollution from improper wastewater disposal, and
158:
110:. It also eases pressures on groundwater and other natural water bodies.
82:
2761:
2744:
93:, businesses, and industry. It is possible to treat wastewater to reach
6746:
6731:
6557:
6537:
6021:
5885:
5585:
5426:
5380:
5280:
4676:
4289:
3485:
2292:
2153:"A review of polymeric membranes and processes for potable water reuse"
1986:
1932:
1912:
1908:
1680:
1511:
1507:
1495:
1389:
1381:
1366:
1296: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
939:
928:
888:
804:
670:
655:
650:
646:
554:
461:). The main reclaimed water applications in the world are shown below:
328:
298:
237:
206:
194:
74:
30:
967:
which is used as a drinking water supply for another city downstream.
950:
942:
have been able to drink recycled urine due to the introduction of the
27:
Converting wastewater into water that can be reused for other purposes
7015:
6961:
6415:
5855:
5802:
5654:
5350:
4880:
3555:
3499:
Wester, Julia; Timpano, Kiara R.; Çek, Demet; Broad, Kenneth (2016).
3468:
Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (2015).
2075:
1924:
1865:
1833:
1707:
1666:
1446:
1430:
1408:
1334:
1132:
1092:
1053:
991:
960:
924:
812:
414:
306:
240:
water is pumped from this tank which stores effluent received from a
162:
119:
42:
effluent, and finally reclaimed water (after several treatment steps)
4546:
3582:
Irrigation of Parks, Playgrounds, and Schoolyards: Extent and Safety
3196:
2742:
2659:
1271:
923:) are output from the other end. The soil could be used for growing
6808:
5782:
5674:
5609:
5086:
4976:
4661:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse"
4660:
4274:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse"
4273:
4124:
3617:
3470:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse"
3469:
2785:
2277:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse"
2276:
1940:
1936:
1861:
1849:
1841:
1837:
1515:
1499:
1491:
1442:
1434:
1377:
1049:
920:
569:
527:
523:
391:
320:
115:
3847:
2596:
876:
Wastewater reclamation can be especially important in relation to
6781:
6096:
5709:
5406:
4802:
4500:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
4350:
4227:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
1985:
given to ultra-pure water that is produced from reclaimed water.
1977:
1829:
1438:
1404:
1242:
987:
916:
787:
744:
732:
573:
458:
418:
397:
Reduced manufacturing costs of using high quality reclaimed water
4783:
Knowledge's health care articles can be viewed offline with the
4658:
4496:"Indirect Potable Reuse: A Sustainable Water Supply Alternative"
4271:
4223:"Indirect Potable Reuse: A Sustainable Water Supply Alternative"
3467:
3089:
Gerrity, D.; Pecson, B.; Trussell, R.S.; Trussell, R.R. (2013).
2669:"Modeling the energy consumption of potable water reuse schemes"
2274:
6445:
5724:
5714:
3992:. Denver Water and US EPA Cooperative Agreement CS-806821-01-4.
2462:
WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme) (2017).
1947:/dissolved air flotation/rapid sand filtration, and subsequent
1916:
1886:
1503:
1385:
1249:
comparable to already subsidized conventional treatment plants.
979:
975:
908:
800:
795:) to persist in this water. This would be less of a concern if
663:
210:
50:
35:
3424:
2149:
2004:
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa § Wastewater reuse
1734:. Reclaimed water is typically distributed with a color-coded
1716:
Water supply and sanitation in the United States § Water reuse
89:. Reused water also serve various needs in residences such as
5629:
5554:
5446:
5330:
4951:
4751:
Planet Water: Investing in the World’s Most Valuable Resource
4544:
4493:
4346:"UN cites Israeli wastewater treatment plant as global model"
4220:
3585:. Alexandria, VA: The Water Research Foundation. p. 60.
3194:
3088:
3025:
1982:
1948:
1542:
1487:
964:
943:
912:
904:
900:
755:
Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in
453:
Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in
417:, improving streamflow, nourishing plant life and recharging
58:
4849:
4765:
Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization
2857:
Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals
2145:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2318:
1823:
Water supply and sanitation in Australia § Wastewater reuse
1330:
896:
881:
435:
181:
99:
4198:"Reuse of wastewater in agriculture: A guide for planners"
2967:
Garcia-Garcia, Guillermo; Jagtap, Sandeep (January 2021).
2665:
1971:
Water supply and sanitation in Singapore § Reclaimed water
438:, in countries such as the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait and Israel.
184:, in countries such as the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait and Israel.
4175:"State Corporation Commission—Clerk's Information System"
2136:
1392:
garden and agricultural plants when used for irrigation.
1376:
It sometimes contains higher levels of nutrients such as
409:
Reclaiming water for reuse applications instead of using
3645:"Water Recycling and Reuse: The Environmental Benefits/"
3028:"Treated wastewater reuse for irrigation: Pros and cons"
1023:
Non-potable reclaimed water is often distributed with a
6986:
UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)
5777:
4097:
3171:"Pharmaceuticals in the environment: a growing problem"
2898:"Water Recycling and Reuse: The Environmental Benefits"
2212:
1880:
Water supply and sanitation in Israel § Reclaimed water
607:
In rarer cases reclaimed water is also used to augment
4665:
Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology
4278:
Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology
3474:
Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology
2452:. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland
2281:
Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology
1353:
reuse) and increase public confidence in water reuse.
331:
supplies are limited or are available only with large
118:. The following are some of the typical technologies:
4791:
4195:
3903:
Alcalde Sanz, Laura; Gawlik, Bernd (1 January 2014).
3759:
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health
3498:
3098:
Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua
3091:"Potable reuse treatment trains throughout the world"
649:
with recycled municipal wastewater can also serve to
102:
countries. Reusing wastewater as part of sustainable
4307:
from the original on Jul 8, 2024 – via Zenodo.
3647:. US Environment Protection Agency. 23 February 2016
1902:
Water supply and sanitation in Namibia § Water reuse
1415:
instituted a water recycling program to protect the
1325:
eventually becomes part of drinking water supplies.
1095:
from baths and showers with little or no treatment.
3836:European Commission. Joint Research Centre (2014).
2966:
2585:European Commission. Joint Research Centre (2014).
1545:and vegetation in canals carrying wastewater (i.e.
951:
De facto wastewater reuse (unplanned potable reuse)
77:of gardens and agricultural fields or replenishing
3902:
2394:"Water Reuse - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
1864:, NSW, the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and
1413:San Jose/Santa Clara Water Pollution Control Plant
793:environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants
4319:"Arid Israel recycles waste water on grand scale"
3927:"Water Reuse - Environment - European Commission"
3401:"Water Reuse - Environment - European Commission"
1518:), contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) (i.e.
7121:
3279:"Astronauts Drink Recycled Urine, and Celebrate"
1407:, which benefits the wildlife depending on that
703:with urban waste directly to water their crops.
297:increasing recognition of the resource value of
202:by supplementing limited freshwater resources."
4196:Khouri, N; Kalbermatten, J. M.; Bartone, C. R.
3952:"New EU guidelines for agriculture water reuse"
3697:"Competing for Clean Water Has Led to a Crisis"
3339:
2738:
2736:
907:are input into one end of the reactor and pure
7010:Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
4371:
2533:RIPPLE EFFECTS: POPULATION AND COASTAL REGIONS
1561:
681:
61:for a variety of purposes . It is also called
6112:
5570:
4865:
4153:"Increasing Safe and Reliable Water Supplies"
3317:
1769:Israel: Ministry of Health regulation (2005).
1698:Reclaimed water is not regulated by the U.S.
1556:
1220:
824:distribution system. That storage could be a
623:Unrestricted: The use of reclaimed water for
4083:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3813:"NATIONAL WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY"
3258:Scientific American Frontiers – PBS Programs
2949:
2874:"National Water Quality Management Strategy"
2733:
2040:faced water shortages and had decided on an
1976:In Singapore, reclaimed water is branded as
1193:The cost of reclaimed water exceeds that of
1102:, the wastewater must pass through numerous
153:The cost of reclaimed water exceeds that of
3907:. Publications Office of the European Union
2118:
2116:
1225:Barriers to water reclamation may include:
7081:
6119:
6105:
5577:
5563:
4872:
4858:
4127:"Rules and Regulations for Recycled Water"
3752:
2492:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2444:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2041:
2010:In South Africa, the main driver for waste
1615:However, an evaluation carried out by the
1429:of the food chain with microcontaminants,
1209:Reclaimed water systems usually require a
1002:effluent and the source of potable water.
871:
619:Usage types are distinguished as follows:
7021:Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
4521:
4511:
4248:
4238:
4125:The City of San Diego. Water Department.
3788:
3778:
3524:
3357:
2984:
2770:
2760:
2708:
2344:
2238:
2184:
1704:U.S. Agency for International Development
1312:Learn how and when to remove this message
1217:, which adds to the costs of the system.
818:
448:
262:municipal wastewater treatment technology
7049:UN Conference on Sustainable Development
4053:
3547:
2416:
2113:
1727:, it is also used for flushing toilets.
1360:
1356:
1109:Wastewater is generally treated to only
1014:
1005:
938:Aboard the International Space Station,
762:
482:, sporting facilities, private gardens,
247:
232:
221:wastewater) but it could also come from
29:
2945:
2943:
2789:Wastewater Reuse and Current Challenges
2435:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2014:is drought conditions. For example, in
1951:, biological activated carbon/granular
1846:Western Corridor Recycled Water Project
862:
721:pharmaceuticals, personal care products
34:Sequence of reclamation from left: raw
14:
7122:
6619:Corporate environmental responsibility
4583:
3723:
3721:
3691:
3689:
3664:
3662:
3639:
3637:
2855:Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina. "
2367:
1799:History of water supply and sanitation
1119:
1030:
807:or, alternatively, systems that treat
726:
6100:
5558:
4853:
4613:
4343:
3987:
3898:
3896:
3894:
3578:
3371:
3369:
3271:
3168:
3162:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2625:
2623:
2538:(Report). Population Reference Bureau
2530:
2370:"Basic Information about Water Reuse"
2094:
1742:
635:
375:For cities and households: Increased
365:
6992:Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983)
5537:
3137:
3131:
2950:Otoo, Miriam; Drechsel, Pay (2018).
2940:
2307:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2208:
2206:
2204:
1803:Ecological sanitation § History
1706:(USAID), and the global consultancy
1605:Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive
1574:United Nations Environment Programme
1463:Distribution of the indigenous soil
1294:adding citations to reliable sources
1265:
1197:in many regions of the world, where
828:basin or a surface water reservoir.
157:in many regions of the world, where
3976:Federal Water Pollution Control Act
3753:Voulvoulis, Nikolaos (2018-04-01).
3718:
3686:
3659:
3634:
3612:. National Research Council. 2012.
1810:
1624:Cyprus: Law 106 (I) 2002 Water and
1419:area's natural salt water marshes.
1052:. Some common technologies include
786:Many people associate a feeling of
750:
436:Middle East and North Africa region
287:increasing populations and related
182:Middle East and North Africa region
24:
6634:Environmental full-cost accounting
6126:
5966:Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation
4743:
3891:
3558:Research Foundation. p. 141.
3366:
2956:. Oxon, UK: Routledge - Earthscan.
2915:
2620:
2550:
2169:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2018.01.004
1757:
1159:sustainable urban drainage systems
998:serves as both the destination of
323:that are used by over half of the
25:
7186:
6568:Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity
5836:Agricultural wastewater treatment
4771:
4004:"Environmental Protection Agency"
3169:Owens, Brian (19 February 2015).
2831:Environmental Engineering Science
2263:
2201:
1583:
1261:
959:from one city may be discharging
847:treatment steps that encompasses
526:water; Washing aggregate; Making
267:
7080:
7069:
7068:
7038:UN Millennium Declaration (2000)
6080:
6079:
5536:
5500:
5499:
5489:
5246:Extended producer responsibility
4975:
4837:
4825:
4813:
4801:
4777:
4584:Grabow, W. O. K. (26 May 2009).
4372:Melanie lidman (6 August 2010).
3733:education.nationalgeographic.org
3340:Zhang, S.X.; V. Babovic (2012).
3032:Science of the Total Environment
2219:Science of the Total Environment
2095:Tuser, Cristina (May 24, 2022).
2002:This section is an excerpt from
1969:This section is an excerpt from
1900:This section is an excerpt from
1878:This section is an excerpt from
1821:This section is an excerpt from
1714:This section is an excerpt from
1655:
1603:Besides that, Article 12 of the
1270:
6624:Corporate social responsibility
6553:Ocean thermal energy conversion
6492:Community-supported agriculture
6177:Human impact on the environment
5896:Industrial wastewater treatment
5866:Decentralized wastewater system
4715:
4691:
4625:
4577:
4538:
4487:
4463:
4439:
4414:
4388:
4365:
4344:Rinat, Zafrir (June 25, 2012).
4337:
4311:
4189:
4167:
4145:
4118:
4091:
4026:2012 Guidelines for Water Reuse
4017:
3996:
3981:
3968:
3944:
3919:
3880:
3871:
3829:
3805:
3746:
3599:
3572:
3541:
3492:
3461:
3418:
3393:
3333:
3289:
3254:"Scientific American Frontiers"
3246:
3235:
3188:
3082:
3052:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144026
3019:
3001:
2960:
2890:
2866:
2849:
2821:
2779:
2578:
2524:
2500:
2455:
2240:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165185
1996:
1700:Environmental Protection Agency
1281:needs additional citations for
1213:network, often with additional
1157:(LID) in the United States and
1010:
884:announced it had built a human
739:fed by wastewater provide both
85:. This latter is also known as
6864:Socially responsible marketing
5584:
2417:Schiller, Antje (2021-05-06).
2410:
2386:
2361:
2088:
2030:, and permeate disinfected by
1344:A 2012 study conducted by the
602:
443:Sustainable Development Goal 6
343:. Reuse can be an alternative
13:
1:
7055:Sustainable Development Goals
6859:Socially responsible business
5916:Rotating biological contactor
5412:Container-deposit legislation
4879:
4760:. Boston: Beacon Press, 2007.
4098:Irvine Ranch Water District.
4054:LeChevallier, Mark W., Ph.D.
3735:. National Geographic Society
3447:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.209
3427:Journal of Cleaner Production
2531:Creel, Liz (September 2003).
2081:
1161:(SUDS) in the United Kingdom.
187:
49:is the process of converting
7130:Hydrology and urban planning
4587:Water and Health - Volume II
4563:10.1016/j.watres.2015.03.011
3703:. 2010-01-26. Archived from
3297:"Guidelines for water reuse"
3221:10.1016/j.watres.2015.03.011
2639:"Guidelines for water reuse"
2558:"Guidelines for water reuse"
2056:One Water (water management)
1963:
1815:
1151:water-sensitive urban design
779:Modern technologies such as
7:
6884:Sustainability organization
6669:Standards and certification
6260:Social return on investment
5107:Materials recovery facility
3780:10.1016/j.coesh.2018.01.005
3346:Journal of Hydroinformatics
2157:Progress in Polymer Science
2049:
1848:once completed. Goulbourn,
1562:International organizations
1514:), natural chemicals (i.e.
1043:Nutrient Recovery and Reuse
893:International Space Station
682:Risks in agricultural reuse
244:in Haran-Al-Awamied, Syria.
228:
10:
7191:
6309:Systemic change resistance
5981:Wastewater treatment plant
5748:Adsorbable organic halides
4614:Menge, J. (January 2010).
4177:. Commonwealth of Virginia
4155:. WateReuse. 27 March 2015
3175:The Pharmaceutical Journal
2693:10.1016/j.wroa.2021.100126
2001:
1968:
1899:
1894:
1877:
1820:
1796:
1792:
1713:
1557:Guidelines and regulations
1365:Uses of recycled water in
1221:Barriers to implementation
1113:when used for irrigation.
1040:
1034:
639:
7064:
6975:
6912:
6684:
6611:
6520:
6487:Climate-smart agriculture
6472:
6444:
6401:
6355:
6322:
6195:
6152:
6134:
6075:
5989:
5816:
5753:Biochemical oxygen demand
5738:
5592:
5485:
5389:
5208:
5120:
5074:
4984:
4973:
4887:
4767:. New York: Harper, 2010.
3988:Lauer, William C (1993).
3330:, accessed 24 April 2007.
3138:Kean, Sam (Winter 2015).
2368:US EPA, OW (2019-08-13).
2325:Earth System Science Data
1872:
1598:Water Framework Directive
1568:World Health Organization
1346:National Research Council
1111:secondary level treatment
713:World Health Organization
421:, as part of the natural
319:Already, the groundwater
274:World Health Organization
7160:Sustainable technologies
6629:Environmental accounting
6378:Sustainable architecture
6368:Environmental technology
4753:. New York: Wiley, 2009.
4475:European Investment Bank
3974:33 Usc 1251 seq., 1972,
3674:European Investment Bank
3505:Water Resources Research
2861:SDG-Tracker.org, website
2346:10.5194/essd-13-237-2021
2097:"What is potable reuse?"
1188:
1170:energy-intensive process
891:designed for use in the
428:
252:Reclaimed water sign in
7155:Sustainable agriculture
6502:Sustainable agriculture
5941:Sewage sludge treatment
5881:Fecal sludge management
5841:API oil–water separator
5808:Wastewater surveillance
5437:Reverse vending machine
3842:. Publications Office.
2679:. Elsevier BV: 100126.
2591:. Publications Office.
872:Reuse in space stations
832:also be referred to as
576:; Stream augmentation;
337:environmental pollution
57:into water that can be
7045:(Rio+10, Johannesburg)
6914:Sustainable management
6899:Urban drainage systems
6639:Environmental planning
6603:Water recycling shower
6593:Tidal stream generator
6388:Sustainable industries
6347:Sustainable population
6332:Demographic transition
6314:Tragedy of the commons
5798:Total suspended solids
5793:Total dissolved solids
5758:Chemical oxygen demand
5477:Water recycling shower
5321:Reuse of human excreta
5291:Recycling (ecological)
5276:Material flow analysis
4590:. EOLSS Publications.
3978:, Enacted by Congress.
3729:"Freshwater Resources"
3548:Helgeson, Tom (2009).
3359:10.2166/hydro.2011.078
3324:Public Utilities Board
3242:University of Colorado
2071:Water recycling shower
1528:personal care products
1370:
1155:low-impact development
1020:
1000:sewage treatment plant
957:sewage treatment plant
834:groundwater recharging
819:Indirect potable reuse
449:Types and applications
352:sustainable sanitation
257:
245:
43:
40:sewage treatment plant
7140:Recycling by material
6937:Humanistic capitalism
6752:Environmental finance
6393:Sustainable packaging
5665:Industrial wastewater
5266:Interchangeable parts
5261:Industrial metabolism
4786:Medical Knowledge app
4513:10.3390/ijerph6031174
4240:10.3390/ijerph6031174
3956:www.aquatechtrade.com
3579:Crook, James (2005).
3140:"Waste Not, Want Not"
3110:10.2166/aqua.2013.041
2843:10.1089/ees.2012.0201
2398:www.sciencedirect.com
1797:Further information:
1788:risks" Phase 1, 2006.
1750:WateReuse Association
1465:microbial communities
1451:antibiotic resistance
1364:
1357:Environmental aspects
1153:(WSUD) in Australia,
1139:or to water a garden.
1091:can be flushed using
1041:Further information:
1018:
1006:Design considerations
763:Planned potable reuse
747:for flora and fauna.
640:Further information:
592:Aquifer recharge for
251:
236:
55:industrial wastewater
33:
6904:Urban infrastructure
6598:Water heat recycling
6421:Conservation biology
6265:Steady-state economy
6240:Micro-sustainability
6225:Ecological footprint
6182:Planetary boundaries
6007:Groundwater recharge
5472:Water heat recycling
5462:Waste management law
4374:"Wastewater wonders"
3707:on February 19, 2021
3526:10.1002/2015WR018340
3328:Overseas Experiences
2986:10.3390/app112110355
2797:10.1007/698_2015_346
2066:Water heat recycling
1541:Excessive growth of
1290:improve this article
1143:Rainwater harvesting
1100:municipal wastewater
863:Direct potable reuse
741:wastewater treatment
737:constructed wetlands
688:developing countries
658:. This can make the
614:hydraulic fracturing
402:ecological footprint
167:rainwater harvesting
87:groundwater recharge
51:municipal wastewater
7005:Earth Summit (1992)
6659:Metrics and indices
6512:Sustainable fishery
6431:Holocene extinction
6250:Product stewardship
6220:Earth Overshoot Day
5921:Secondary treatment
5906:Membrane bioreactor
5861:Constructed wetland
5660:Infiltration/Inflow
5422:Ethical consumerism
5356:Urban lumberjacking
5286:Product stewardship
5236:Eco-industrial park
4100:"Water Reclamation"
3771:2018COESH...2...32V
3517:2016WRR....52.3212W
3439:2016JCPro.139....1P
3213:2015WatRe..77..213M
3044:2021ScTEn.76044026O
2762:10.3390/su141710715
2685:2021WRX....1300126T
2337:2021ESSD...13..237J
2231:2023ScTEn.89565185T
1858:Victoria, Australia
1617:European Commission
1532:household chemicals
1174:membrane filtration
1147:stormwater recovery
1120:Alternative options
1066:membrane bioreactor
1031:Treatment processes
849:membrane filtration
727:Environmental reuse
333:capital expenditure
242:constructed wetland
171:stormwater recovery
132:membrane bioreactor
7165:Water conservation
6464:Sustainable energy
6426:Endangered species
6383:Sustainable design
6297:Consumer behaviour
6086:Category: Sewerage
6047:Septic drain field
6012:Infiltration basin
5956:Stabilization pond
5876:Facultative lagoon
5740:Quality indicators
5620:Blackwater (waste)
5600:Acid mine drainage
5495:Environment portal
5366:Waste minimisation
5311:Reusable packaging
5256:Industrial ecology
4677:10.1039/C5EW00165J
4451:The World from PRX
4290:10.1039/C5EW00165J
3554:. Alexandria, VA:
3486:10.1039/C5EW00165J
2293:10.1039/C5EW00165J
2061:Water conservation
1743:Trade associations
1677:Los Angeles County
1486:, chemicals (i.e.
1470:Alteration of the
1371:
1255:pathogen avoidance
1235:organic pollutants
1182:steam distillation
1078:advanced oxidation
1021:
636:Agricultural reuse
562:Environmental uses
514:Processing water;
377:water availability
366:Potential benefits
258:
246:
144:advanced oxidation
44:
7117:
7116:
7043:Earth Summit 2002
7026:Lisbon Principles
6998:Our Common Future
6676:Sustainable yield
6482:Civic agriculture
6235:Green consumption
6172:Global governance
6094:
6093:
5871:Extended aeration
5818:Treatment options
5768:Oxygen saturation
5615:Blackwater (coal)
5593:Sources and types
5552:
5551:
5306:Resource recovery
5296:Refill (campaign)
5241:Ecological design
5221:Dematerialization
5031:Fluorescent lamps
4763:Solomon, Steven.
4597:978-1-84826-183-9
4428:. 18 October 2018
4065:on March 18, 2009
3627:978-0-309-25749-7
3592:978-0-9747586-3-3
3565:978-1-934183-12-0
2814:978-3-319-23891-3
2475:978-92-3-100201-4
2132:978-92-807-3488-1
2101:Wastewater Digest
2032:ultraviolet light
1660:In the U.S., the
1417:San Francisco Bay
1322:
1321:
1314:
1062:aerobic treatment
996:Mississippi River
886:waste reclamation
878:human spaceflight
600:
599:
543:Recreational uses
491:Agricultural uses
467:Categories of use
128:aerobic treatment
47:Water reclamation
18:Water reclamation
16:(Redirected from
7182:
7084:
7083:
7072:
7071:
7016:Agenda 21 (1992)
6987:
6952:Natural resource
6839:Organic movement
6814:Impact investing
6533:Hydroelectricity
6507:Sustainable diet
6459:Renewable energy
6454:Carbon footprint
6436:Invasive species
6373:Natural building
6324:World population
6285:Marketing myopia
6245:Over-consumption
6215:Circular economy
6210:Anti-consumerism
6167:Environmentalism
6121:
6114:
6107:
6098:
6097:
6083:
6082:
6002:Evaporation pond
5990:Disposal options
5961:Trickling filter
5946:Sewage treatment
5846:Carbon filtering
5826:Activated sludge
5579:
5572:
5565:
5556:
5555:
5540:
5539:
5503:
5502:
5493:
5467:Waste management
5457:Waste collection
5316:Reuse of bottles
5216:Circular economy
5193:Northern Ireland
4979:
4874:
4867:
4860:
4851:
4850:
4842:
4841:
4830:
4829:
4828:
4818:
4817:
4816:
4806:
4805:
4797:
4781:
4749:Hoffman, Steve.
4737:
4736:
4734:
4732:
4727:
4719:
4713:
4712:
4710:
4708:
4703:
4695:
4689:
4688:
4656:
4647:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4637:
4629:
4623:
4622:
4620:
4611:
4602:
4601:
4581:
4575:
4574:
4542:
4536:
4535:
4525:
4515:
4506:(3): 1174–1203.
4491:
4485:
4484:
4482:
4481:
4467:
4461:
4460:
4458:
4457:
4443:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4433:
4418:
4412:
4411:
4409:
4407:
4398:. Archived from
4392:
4386:
4385:
4383:
4381:
4376:. Jerusalem Post
4369:
4363:
4362:
4360:
4358:
4341:
4335:
4334:
4332:
4330:
4321:. Archived from
4315:
4309:
4308:
4306:
4269:
4263:
4262:
4252:
4242:
4233:(3): 1174–1203.
4218:
4212:
4211:
4209:
4207:
4202:
4193:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4182:
4171:
4165:
4164:
4162:
4160:
4149:
4143:
4142:
4140:
4138:
4129:. Archived from
4122:
4116:
4115:
4113:
4111:
4102:. Archived from
4095:
4089:
4088:
4082:
4074:
4072:
4070:
4064:
4058:. Archived from
4051:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4037:
4031:
4021:
4015:
4014:
4012:
4010:
4000:
3994:
3993:
3985:
3979:
3972:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3962:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3923:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3912:
3900:
3889:
3884:
3878:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3864:
3833:
3827:
3826:
3824:
3822:
3817:
3809:
3803:
3802:
3792:
3782:
3750:
3744:
3743:
3741:
3740:
3725:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3693:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3680:
3666:
3657:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3641:
3632:
3631:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3576:
3570:
3569:
3545:
3539:
3538:
3528:
3511:(4): 3212–3226.
3496:
3490:
3489:
3465:
3459:
3458:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3411:
3397:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3381:
3373:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3337:
3331:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3301:
3293:
3287:
3286:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3250:
3244:
3239:
3233:
3232:
3192:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3155:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3118:
3112:. Archived from
3095:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3023:
3017:
3016:
3015:. 21 March 2018.
3005:
2999:
2998:
2988:
2973:Applied Sciences
2964:
2958:
2957:
2947:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2928:. European Union
2927:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2894:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2878:
2870:
2864:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2825:
2819:
2818:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2764:
2740:
2731:
2730:
2712:
2673:Water Research X
2663:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2652:
2643:
2635:
2618:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2562:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2537:
2528:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2517:
2512:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2491:
2483:
2478:. Archived from
2459:
2453:
2446:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2429:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2404:
2390:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2380:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2348:
2316:
2305:
2304:
2272:
2261:
2260:
2242:
2210:
2199:
2198:
2188:
2147:
2134:
2120:
2111:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2092:
1953:activated carbon
1811:Country examples
1732:Golden Gate Park
1689:Golden Gate Park
1632:Sustainability).
1317:
1310:
1306:
1303:
1297:
1274:
1266:
1104:sewage treatment
1082:activated carbon
1037:Sewage treatment
841:saline intrusion
811:separately from
799:was kept out of
751:Industrial reuse
709:emerging nations
660:reuse of excreta
642:Reuse of excreta
578:Wildlife habitat
566:Aquifer recharge
518:; Recirculating
464:
463:
341:carbon footprint
325:world population
254:Dunedin, Florida
148:activated carbon
104:water management
63:wastewater reuse
21:
7190:
7189:
7185:
7184:
7183:
7181:
7180:
7179:
7175:Water treatment
7120:
7119:
7118:
7113:
7060:
6985:
6977:
6976:Agreements and
6971:
6908:
6712:Climate finance
6680:
6607:
6563:Reclaimed water
6516:
6468:
6440:
6397:
6351:
6337:Family planning
6318:
6191:
6148:
6130:
6125:
6095:
6090:
6071:
6037:Reclaimed water
5985:
5911:Reverse osmosis
5812:
5734:
5700:Reverse osmosis
5625:Boiler blowdown
5588:
5583:
5553:
5548:
5481:
5452:Waste-to-energy
5417:Dumpster diving
5385:
5361:Waste hierarchy
5336:Right to repair
5204:
5173:The Netherlands
5128:Rate by country
5116:
5070:
4980:
4971:
4883:
4878:
4848:
4836:
4826:
4824:
4814:
4812:
4800:
4792:
4790:
4782:
4774:
4746:
4744:Further reading
4741:
4740:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4721:
4720:
4716:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4697:
4696:
4692:
4657:
4650:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4631:
4630:
4626:
4618:
4612:
4605:
4598:
4582:
4578:
4543:
4539:
4492:
4488:
4479:
4477:
4469:
4468:
4464:
4455:
4453:
4445:
4444:
4440:
4431:
4429:
4420:
4419:
4415:
4405:
4403:
4394:
4393:
4389:
4379:
4377:
4370:
4366:
4356:
4354:
4342:
4338:
4328:
4326:
4317:
4316:
4312:
4304:
4270:
4266:
4219:
4215:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4194:
4190:
4180:
4178:
4173:
4172:
4168:
4158:
4156:
4151:
4150:
4146:
4136:
4134:
4133:on May 28, 2009
4123:
4119:
4109:
4107:
4106:on June 4, 2008
4096:
4092:
4076:
4075:
4068:
4066:
4062:
4052:
4045:
4035:
4033:
4029:
4023:
4022:
4018:
4008:
4006:
4002:
4001:
3997:
3986:
3982:
3973:
3969:
3960:
3958:
3950:
3949:
3945:
3935:
3933:
3925:
3924:
3920:
3910:
3908:
3901:
3892:
3885:
3881:
3876:
3872:
3862:
3860:
3858:
3834:
3830:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3811:
3810:
3806:
3751:
3747:
3738:
3736:
3727:
3726:
3719:
3710:
3708:
3695:
3694:
3687:
3678:
3676:
3668:
3667:
3660:
3650:
3648:
3643:
3642:
3635:
3628:
3606:"Water Reuse".
3605:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3577:
3573:
3566:
3546:
3542:
3497:
3493:
3466:
3462:
3423:
3419:
3409:
3407:
3399:
3398:
3394:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3375:
3374:
3367:
3338:
3334:
3322:
3318:
3308:
3306:
3299:
3295:
3294:
3290:
3285:. May 20, 2009.
3277:
3276:
3272:
3262:
3260:
3252:
3251:
3247:
3240:
3236:
3193:
3189:
3179:
3177:
3167:
3163:
3153:
3151:
3136:
3132:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3093:
3087:
3083:
3024:
3020:
3007:
3006:
3002:
2965:
2961:
2948:
2941:
2931:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2920:
2916:
2906:
2904:
2896:
2895:
2891:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2872:
2871:
2867:
2854:
2850:
2826:
2822:
2815:
2784:
2780:
2741:
2734:
2664:
2660:
2650:
2648:
2641:
2637:
2636:
2621:
2611:
2609:
2607:
2583:
2579:
2569:
2567:
2560:
2556:
2555:
2551:
2541:
2539:
2535:
2529:
2525:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2485:
2484:
2476:
2460:
2456:
2447:
2436:
2427:
2425:
2423:Umweltbundesamt
2415:
2411:
2402:
2400:
2392:
2391:
2387:
2378:
2376:
2366:
2362:
2317:
2308:
2273:
2264:
2211:
2202:
2148:
2137:
2121:
2114:
2105:
2103:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2052:
2047:
2046:
2007:
1999:
1991:
1990:
1974:
1966:
1961:
1960:
1957:ultrafiltration
1905:
1897:
1892:
1891:
1883:
1875:
1870:
1869:
1856:, and Regional
1828:When there are
1826:
1818:
1813:
1805:
1795:
1760:
1758:Other countries
1745:
1740:
1739:
1719:
1662:Clean Water Act
1658:
1586:
1564:
1559:
1520:pharmaceuticals
1476:microbiological
1472:physicochemical
1388:which may help
1359:
1318:
1307:
1301:
1298:
1287:
1275:
1264:
1247:pricing systems
1223:
1191:
1178:reverse osmosis
1122:
1098:In the case of
1074:reverse osmosis
1070:forward osmosis
1058:ultrafiltration
1045:
1039:
1033:
1013:
1008:
953:
899:mission. Human
874:
865:
858:
854:
821:
781:reverse osmosis
765:
753:
729:
697:water resources
684:
676:food processing
644:
638:
605:
532:Soil compaction
511:Industrial uses
451:
431:
388:water resources
368:
350:Achieving more
270:
256:, United States
231:
190:
165:reuse systems,
140:reverse osmosis
136:forward osmosis
124:ultrafiltration
91:toilet flushing
71:water recycling
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7188:
7178:
7177:
7172:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7152:
7147:
7142:
7137:
7132:
7115:
7114:
7112:
7111:
7104:
7097:
7090:
7078:
7065:
7062:
7061:
7059:
7058:
7052:
7051:(Rio+20, 2012)
7046:
7040:
7035:
7029:
7023:
7018:
7013:
7007:
7002:
6994:
6989:
6981:
6979:
6973:
6972:
6970:
6969:
6964:
6959:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6929:
6924:
6918:
6916:
6910:
6909:
6907:
6906:
6901:
6896:
6891:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6871:
6866:
6861:
6856:
6851:
6846:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6816:
6811:
6806:
6805:
6804:
6799:
6797:Infrastructure
6794:
6784:
6779:
6774:
6769:
6764:
6759:
6754:
6749:
6744:
6739:
6734:
6729:
6727:Eco-capitalism
6724:
6719:
6714:
6709:
6704:
6699:
6694:
6688:
6686:
6682:
6681:
6679:
6678:
6673:
6672:
6671:
6666:
6661:
6656:
6651:
6644:Sustainability
6641:
6636:
6631:
6626:
6621:
6615:
6613:
6612:Accountability
6609:
6608:
6606:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6580:
6575:
6570:
6565:
6560:
6555:
6550:
6545:
6540:
6535:
6530:
6524:
6522:
6518:
6517:
6515:
6514:
6509:
6504:
6499:
6494:
6489:
6484:
6478:
6476:
6470:
6469:
6467:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6450:
6448:
6442:
6441:
6439:
6438:
6433:
6428:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6407:
6405:
6399:
6398:
6396:
6395:
6390:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6359:
6357:
6353:
6352:
6350:
6349:
6344:
6339:
6334:
6328:
6326:
6320:
6319:
6317:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6305:
6304:
6299:
6289:
6288:
6287:
6282:
6277:
6270:Sustainability
6267:
6262:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6205:Anthropization
6201:
6199:
6193:
6192:
6190:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6158:
6156:
6150:
6149:
6147:
6146:
6141:
6135:
6132:
6131:
6128:Sustainability
6124:
6123:
6116:
6109:
6101:
6092:
6091:
6089:
6088:
6076:
6073:
6072:
6070:
6069:
6064:
6062:Surface runoff
6059:
6054:
6049:
6044:
6042:Sanitary sewer
6039:
6034:
6032:Marine outfall
6029:
6027:Marine dumping
6024:
6019:
6017:Injection well
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5997:Combined sewer
5993:
5991:
5987:
5986:
5984:
5983:
5978:
5973:
5968:
5963:
5958:
5953:
5948:
5943:
5938:
5936:Settling basin
5933:
5928:
5923:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5831:Aerated lagoon
5828:
5822:
5820:
5814:
5813:
5811:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5763:Coliform index
5760:
5755:
5750:
5744:
5742:
5736:
5735:
5733:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5705:Sanitary sewer
5702:
5697:
5692:
5690:Produced water
5687:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5637:
5635:Combined sewer
5632:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5607:
5602:
5596:
5594:
5590:
5589:
5582:
5581:
5574:
5567:
5559:
5550:
5549:
5547:
5546:
5534:
5529:
5528:
5527:
5522:
5517:
5512:
5497:
5486:
5483:
5482:
5480:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5459:
5454:
5449:
5444:
5439:
5434:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5397:Bottle cutting
5393:
5391:
5387:
5386:
5384:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5271:Land recycling
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5212:
5210:
5206:
5205:
5203:
5202:
5197:
5196:
5195:
5188:United Kingdom
5185:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5165:
5160:
5155:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5124:
5122:
5118:
5117:
5115:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5078:
5076:
5072:
5071:
5069:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5017:
5016:
5006:
5001:
4999:Automotive oil
4996:
4990:
4988:
4982:
4981:
4974:
4972:
4970:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4893:
4891:
4885:
4884:
4877:
4876:
4869:
4862:
4854:
4847:
4846:
4834:
4822:
4820:Earth sciences
4810:
4776:
4775:
4773:
4772:External links
4770:
4769:
4768:
4761:
4756:Pearce, Fred.
4754:
4745:
4742:
4739:
4738:
4714:
4690:
4671:(5): 563–580.
4648:
4624:
4603:
4596:
4576:
4551:Water Research
4537:
4486:
4462:
4438:
4413:
4402:on 21 May 2014
4387:
4364:
4336:
4325:on 21 May 2014
4310:
4284:(5): 563–580.
4264:
4213:
4188:
4166:
4144:
4117:
4090:
4043:
4016:
3995:
3980:
3967:
3943:
3918:
3890:
3879:
3870:
3856:
3828:
3804:
3745:
3717:
3685:
3658:
3633:
3626:
3618:10.17226/13303
3598:
3591:
3571:
3564:
3540:
3491:
3480:(5): 563–580.
3460:
3417:
3392:
3365:
3332:
3316:
3288:
3270:
3245:
3234:
3201:Water Research
3187:
3161:
3130:
3119:on 5 July 2016
3104:(6): 321–338.
3081:
3018:
3000:
2959:
2939:
2914:
2889:
2865:
2848:
2837:(8): 455–479.
2820:
2813:
2805:10400.14/23023
2778:
2749:Sustainability
2732:
2658:
2619:
2605:
2577:
2549:
2523:
2499:
2482:on 2017-04-08.
2474:
2454:
2434:
2409:
2385:
2360:
2331:(2): 237–254.
2306:
2287:(5): 563–580.
2262:
2200:
2135:
2112:
2086:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2051:
2048:
2020:water scarcity
2008:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1975:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1906:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1884:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1827:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1794:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1754:
1744:
1741:
1720:
1712:
1665:usually using
1657:
1654:
1646:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1629:
1626:Soil pollution
1585:
1584:European Union
1582:
1581:
1580:
1577:
1571:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1550:
1547:eutrophication
1539:
1536:food additives
1468:
1461:
1454:
1358:
1355:
1320:
1319:
1278:
1276:
1269:
1263:
1262:Health aspects
1260:
1259:
1258:
1250:
1239:microorganisms
1230:
1222:
1219:
1204:climate change
1190:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1162:
1140:
1121:
1118:
1035:Main article:
1032:
1029:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
952:
949:
931:also produces
873:
870:
864:
861:
856:
852:
820:
817:
764:
761:
757:cooling towers
752:
749:
728:
725:
701:water polluted
683:
680:
637:
634:
633:
632:
628:
609:drinking water
604:
601:
598:
597:
594:drinking water
590:
586:
585:
563:
559:
558:
544:
540:
539:
520:cooling towers
512:
508:
507:
492:
488:
487:
478:Irrigation of
476:
472:
471:
468:
455:cooling towers
450:
447:
430:
427:
407:
406:
398:
395:
384:
381:drinking water
367:
364:
360:sustainability
339:and improving
311:
310:
295:
292:
285:
282:water scarcity
269:
268:Driving forces
266:
230:
227:
213:or municipal,
200:water scarcity
189:
186:
173:, or seawater
95:drinking water
53:or sewage and
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7187:
7176:
7173:
7171:
7168:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7151:
7148:
7146:
7143:
7141:
7138:
7136:
7133:
7131:
7128:
7127:
7125:
7110:
7109:
7105:
7103:
7102:
7098:
7096:
7095:
7091:
7089:
7088:
7079:
7077:
7076:
7067:
7066:
7063:
7056:
7053:
7050:
7047:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7033:
7032:Earth Charter
7030:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7017:
7014:
7011:
7008:
7006:
7003:
7001:
6999:
6995:
6993:
6990:
6988:
6983:
6982:
6980:
6974:
6968:
6965:
6963:
6960:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6922:Environmental
6920:
6919:
6917:
6915:
6911:
6905:
6902:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6855:
6854:Refurbishment
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6844:Organizations
6842:
6840:
6837:
6835:
6832:
6830:
6827:
6825:
6822:
6820:
6817:
6815:
6812:
6810:
6807:
6803:
6800:
6798:
6795:
6793:
6790:
6789:
6788:
6785:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6763:
6760:
6758:
6757:Green economy
6755:
6753:
6750:
6748:
6745:
6743:
6742:Eco-socialism
6740:
6738:
6737:Eco-investing
6735:
6733:
6730:
6728:
6725:
6723:
6722:Disinvestment
6720:
6718:
6715:
6713:
6710:
6708:
6705:
6703:
6700:
6698:
6695:
6693:
6690:
6689:
6687:
6683:
6677:
6674:
6670:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6646:
6645:
6642:
6640:
6637:
6635:
6632:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6616:
6614:
6610:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6581:
6579:
6576:
6574:
6571:
6569:
6566:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6556:
6554:
6551:
6549:
6546:
6544:
6543:Marine energy
6541:
6539:
6536:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6526:
6525:
6523:
6519:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6497:Cultured meat
6495:
6493:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6483:
6480:
6479:
6477:
6475:
6471:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6451:
6449:
6447:
6443:
6437:
6434:
6432:
6429:
6427:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6408:
6406:
6404:
6400:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6360:
6358:
6354:
6348:
6345:
6343:
6340:
6338:
6335:
6333:
6330:
6329:
6327:
6325:
6321:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6303:
6300:
6298:
6295:
6294:
6293:
6290:
6286:
6283:
6281:
6278:
6276:
6273:
6272:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6255:Simple living
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6202:
6200:
6198:
6194:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6175:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6159:
6157:
6155:
6151:
6145:
6142:
6140:
6137:
6136:
6133:
6129:
6122:
6117:
6115:
6110:
6108:
6103:
6102:
6099:
6087:
6078:
6077:
6074:
6068:
6065:
6063:
6060:
6058:
6055:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6035:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5994:
5992:
5988:
5982:
5979:
5977:
5974:
5972:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
5947:
5944:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5926:Sedimentation
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5823:
5821:
5819:
5815:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5745:
5743:
5741:
5737:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5720:Sewage sludge
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5645:Cooling water
5643:
5641:
5640:Cooling tower
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5605:Ballast water
5603:
5601:
5598:
5597:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5580:
5575:
5573:
5568:
5566:
5561:
5560:
5557:
5545:
5544:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5526:
5525:organizations
5523:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5507:
5506:
5498:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5487:
5484:
5478:
5475:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5450:
5448:
5445:
5443:
5442:Simple living
5440:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5432:Pallet crafts
5430:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5394:
5392:
5388:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5371:Waste picking
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5346:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5327:
5324:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5301:Repairability
5299:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5252:
5251:Green economy
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5213:
5211:
5207:
5201:
5200:United States
5198:
5194:
5191:
5190:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5119:
5113:
5112:Waste sorting
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5079:
5077:
5073:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5041:Mobile phones
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5015:
5012:
5011:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4991:
4989:
4987:
4983:
4978:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4894:
4892:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4875:
4870:
4868:
4863:
4861:
4856:
4855:
4852:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4833:
4823:
4821:
4811:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4798:
4795:
4788:
4787:
4780:
4766:
4762:
4759:
4755:
4752:
4748:
4747:
4724:
4718:
4700:
4694:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4655:
4653:
4634:
4628:
4617:
4610:
4608:
4599:
4593:
4589:
4588:
4580:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4541:
4533:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4490:
4476:
4472:
4466:
4452:
4448:
4442:
4427:
4423:
4417:
4401:
4397:
4391:
4375:
4368:
4353:
4352:
4347:
4340:
4324:
4320:
4314:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4268:
4260:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4217:
4199:
4192:
4176:
4170:
4154:
4148:
4132:
4128:
4121:
4105:
4101:
4094:
4086:
4080:
4061:
4057:
4050:
4048:
4032:. USEPA. 2012
4028:
4027:
4020:
4005:
3999:
3991:
3984:
3977:
3971:
3957:
3953:
3947:
3932:
3928:
3922:
3906:
3899:
3897:
3895:
3888:
3883:
3874:
3859:
3857:9789279443992
3853:
3849:
3848:10.2788/29234
3845:
3841:
3840:
3832:
3814:
3808:
3800:
3796:
3791:
3790:10044/1/57005
3786:
3781:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3749:
3734:
3730:
3724:
3722:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3692:
3690:
3675:
3671:
3665:
3663:
3646:
3640:
3638:
3629:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3610:
3602:
3594:
3588:
3584:
3583:
3575:
3567:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3552:
3544:
3536:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3495:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3464:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3421:
3406:
3402:
3396:
3378:
3372:
3370:
3360:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3336:
3329:
3325:
3320:
3305:
3298:
3292:
3284:
3280:
3274:
3259:
3255:
3249:
3243:
3238:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3191:
3176:
3172:
3165:
3149:
3145:
3144:Distillations
3141:
3134:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3092:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3022:
3014:
3010:
3004:
2996:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2979:(21): 10355.
2978:
2974:
2970:
2963:
2955:
2954:
2946:
2944:
2924:
2918:
2903:
2899:
2893:
2875:
2869:
2862:
2858:
2852:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2824:
2816:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2782:
2773:
2772:10400.1/18203
2768:
2763:
2758:
2755:(17): 10715.
2754:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2737:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2662:
2647:
2640:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2626:
2624:
2608:
2606:9789279443992
2602:
2598:
2597:10.2788/29234
2594:
2590:
2589:
2581:
2566:
2559:
2553:
2534:
2527:
2509:
2503:
2495:
2489:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2467:
2466:
2458:
2451:
2445:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2424:
2420:
2419:"Water Reuse"
2413:
2399:
2395:
2389:
2375:
2371:
2364:
2356:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2269:
2267:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2196:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2140:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2117:
2102:
2098:
2091:
2087:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2016:Beaufort West
2013:
2005:
1994:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1972:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1903:
1888:
1881:
1868:, Queensland.
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1761:
1751:
1747:
1746:
1737:
1733:
1728:
1726:
1725:Orange County
1717:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1690:
1686:
1685:San Francisco
1683:was built at
1682:
1678:
1674:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1656:United States
1653:
1651:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1630:
1627:
1623:
1622:
1621:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1601:
1599:
1594:
1592:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1551:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1466:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1453:determinants;
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1427:Contamination
1425:
1424:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1368:
1363:
1354:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1338:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1316:
1313:
1305:
1295:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1279:This section
1277:
1273:
1268:
1267:
1256:
1251:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1226:
1218:
1216:
1215:storage tanks
1212:
1207:
1205:
1200:
1196:
1195:potable water
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1137:flush toilets
1134:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1127:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1038:
1028:
1026:
1017:
1003:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
968:
966:
962:
958:
948:
945:
941:
936:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
895:and a crewed
894:
890:
887:
883:
879:
869:
860:
850:
844:
842:
837:
835:
829:
827:
816:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
797:human excreta
794:
789:
784:
782:
777:
773:
769:
760:
758:
748:
746:
742:
738:
734:
724:
722:
717:
714:
710:
704:
702:
698:
693:
689:
679:
677:
672:
667:
665:
662:contained in
661:
657:
652:
648:
643:
629:
626:
622:
621:
620:
617:
615:
610:
595:
591:
588:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
564:
561:
560:
556:
552:
548:
545:
542:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
516:Cooling water
513:
510:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
490:
489:
485:
481:
477:
474:
473:
469:
466:
465:
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6685:Applications
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6403:Biodiversity
6162:Anthropocene
6067:Vacuum sewer
6036:
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5901:Ion exchange
5851:Chlorination
5773:Heavy metals
5730:Urban runoff
5670:Ion exchange
5650:Fecal sludge
5541:
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5231:Durable good
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2026:, two-stage
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1997:South Africa
1992:
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1671:chlorination
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1650:water stress
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1608:wastewater.
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1484:heavy metals
1480:contaminants
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1288:Please help
1283:verification
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6292:Sustainable
6275:Advertising
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6187:Development
6057:Storm drain
6052:Sewage farm
5976:Vermifilter
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5788:Temperature
5695:Return flow
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5515:by material
5376:Wishcycling
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5226:Downcycling
5178:Switzerland
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4962:Cooking oil
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4844:Environment
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3701:Environment
3207:: 213–248.
2859:." (SDG 6)
2374:www.epa.gov
2163:: 209–237.
2012:water reuse
1945:coagulation
1921:Otjiwarongo
1736:dual piping
1524:metabolites
1211:dual piping
1199:fresh water
1025:dual piping
933:electricity
880:. In 1998,
826:groundwater
805:dry toilets
692:agriculture
625:non-potable
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547:Golf course
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500:Greenhouses
496:Aquaculture
423:water cycle
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284:and stress,
280:increasing
159:fresh water
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7150:Sanitation
7135:Irrigation
7124:Categories
6869:Sanitation
6824:Livelihood
6747:Ecovillage
6732:Eco-cities
6649:Accounting
6558:Pico hydro
6538:Hydropower
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6154:Principles
6022:Irrigation
5886:Filtration
5586:Wastewater
5520:by product
5510:by country
5427:Freeganism
5407:Composting
5381:Zero waste
5281:Precycling
5102:Collection
5092:Blue boxes
4994:Appliances
4480:2022-08-29
4456:2022-08-29
4432:2022-08-29
3961:2022-08-29
3877:Article 16
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3038:: 144026.
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2403:2022-05-11
2379:2022-05-11
2225:: 165185.
2106:2022-08-29
2082:References
1987:Wastewater
1983:brand name
1933:Oranjemund
1913:Walvis Bay
1909:Swakopmund
1681:California
1522:and their
1512:herbicides
1508:pesticides
1496:phosphorus
1382:phosphorus
1367:California
1128:savings:
1126:freshwater
940:astronauts
929:bioreactor
927:, and the
925:vegetables
889:bioreactor
809:blackwater
671:food crops
656:fertilizer
647:Irrigation
555:Snowmaking
475:Urban uses
415:ecosystems
411:freshwater
329:freshwater
299:wastewater
238:Irrigation
215:industrial
207:wastewater
188:Definition
75:irrigation
6962:Recycling
6957:Planetary
6947:Materials
6942:Landscape
6927:Fisheries
6894:Transport
6819:Landscape
6802:Marketing
6777:Gardening
6717:Community
6664:Reporting
6528:Footprint
6416:Biosphere
5856:Clarifier
5803:Turbidity
5655:Greywater
5351:Upcycling
5345:Green Dot
5133:Australia
5121:Countries
5087:Blue bags
5075:Apparatus
5021:Computers
5004:Batteries
4897:Aluminium
4889:Materials
4881:Recycling
4685:2053-1419
4621:(Report).
4357:April 17,
4298:2053-1419
4137:March 25,
4110:March 25,
4069:March 25,
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3936:17 August
3911:17 August
3799:2468-5844
3765:: 32–45.
3651:22 August
3556:WateReuse
3535:1944-7973
3455:0959-6526
3410:17 August
3385:17 August
3352:: 13–29.
3283:Space.com
3180:3 January
3076:229341652
3060:0048-9697
2995:2076-3417
2727:244483455
2701:2589-9147
2488:cite book
2468:. Paris.
2355:1866-3508
2301:2053-1419
2249:0048-9697
2177:0079-6700
2076:WateReuse
2036:The town
1964:Singapore
1929:Mariental
1925:Okahandja
1866:Toowoomba
1854:Newcastle
1834:Australia
1816:Australia
1708:CDM Smith
1667:oxidation
1447:helminths
1431:pathogens
1409:ecosystem
1390:fertilize
1335:Triclosan
1302:June 2021
1164:Seawater
1133:Greywater
1093:greywater
1054:ozonation
1050:pathogens
992:Bracknell
961:effluents
813:greywater
803:by using
651:fertilize
484:roadsides
307:greywater
163:greywater
120:Ozonation
116:pathogens
7075:Category
6874:Sourcing
6809:Greening
6702:Business
6578:Security
6573:Scarcity
5783:Salinity
5675:Leachate
5610:Bathroom
5505:Category
5390:See also
5209:Concepts
5168:Mongolia
5163:Malaysia
5066:Vehicles
5056:Textiles
4986:Products
4907:Concrete
4571:25917290
4532:19440440
4380:8 August
4329:12 March
4302:Archived
4259:19440440
4079:cite web
3433:: 1–14.
3263:12 March
3229:25917290
3154:22 March
3068:33341618
2719:34901816
2257:37385512
2195:29937599
2151:(2018).
2050:See also
1941:Windhoek
1937:Windhoek
1862:Goulburn
1850:Canberra
1842:Brisbane
1838:Adelaide
1830:droughts
1516:hormones
1500:chloride
1492:nitrogen
1443:protozoa
1435:bacteria
1405:wetlands
1378:nitrogen
1351:de facto
1243:colloids
921:humanure
745:habitats
733:wetlands
570:Wetlands
528:concrete
524:Washdown
459:wetlands
441:For the
419:aquifers
392:wetlands
347:option.
321:aquifers
229:Overview
211:domestic
108:scarcity
7108:Degrees
7101:Studies
7094:Science
6889:Tourism
6782:Geopark
6772:Finance
6767:Fashion
6342:Control
6230:Ethical
6139:Outline
5710:Septage
5543:Commons
5148:Ireland
5009:Bottles
4942:Plastic
4902:Asphalt
4832:Ecology
4794:Portals
4731:29 July
4707:29 July
4641:29 July
4523:2672392
4406:15 June
4351:Haaretz
4250:2672392
4206:29 July
4181:May 12,
4159:May 13,
3863:29 July
3821:29 July
3767:Bibcode
3513:Bibcode
3435:Bibcode
3309:29 July
3209:Bibcode
3123:29 July
3040:Bibcode
2932:29 July
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2882:29 July
2710:8640112
2681:Bibcode
2651:29 July
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2570:29 July
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2333:Bibcode
2227:Bibcode
2186:6011836
1978:NEWater
1895:Namibia
1793:History
1669:and/or
1652:by 5%.
1596:In the
1439:viruses
1089:toilets
988:Swindon
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911:, pure
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574:Marshes
303:excreta
291:issues,
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5183:Taiwan
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7145:Reuse
7087:Lists
6967:Waste
6879:Space
6787:Green
6521:Water
6280:Brand
6144:Index
5630:Brine
5532:Index
5447:Waste
5331:Reuse
5158:Japan
5097:Codes
5061:Tires
5051:Ships
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5026:Drugs
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4952:Scrap
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4808:Water
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