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attention by calling to them. The male may land and strut around with head and fish held high to attract more attention from potential mates and there may be a suggestive approach by female/s seeking to have the fish fed to them. But at this point, the male will swiftly take flight, closely followed by one or more of his potential mates. The spectacle continues until there remains only one follower. The pair will land together, the male may offer the fish to the female in acceptance of courtship, or he may disapprove of the female and retain the fish for himself. If accepted, the partnership begins. The pair takes to the air together following one another in a magnificent flight display, signifying successful courtship. White-fronted tern are monogamous, so will stay together for the entire breeding season.
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visible. The darkest features are the beak, black cap, eyes, feet and the shadowing on the outermost edge of the wingtips. The long ebony-like bill is slender and comes to a sharp point that dulls in colour at the tip. The crown is jet black, interrupted by a variably narrow white band between forehead and bill. The black cap continues over the crown and finishes at the nape. Inky black round eyes sit within the cap. The legs are stumpy with a deep burgundy black tone. A defining feature of the white-fronted tern is its forked tail, most recognisable when in flight and commonly drawing comparisons with a swallow's tail. In the breeding season, the outermost feathers of the tail lengthen, accentuating the already deep fork.
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hollow. Nests are tightly packed together, sometimes with less than a metre between them. In large breeding colonies there may be hundreds of nests. Laying in breeding colonies is synchronised, with large numbers of females laying on the same day. Some variations occur and are due to the age of the adults, with older birds laying earlier in the season. They will lay 1–2 eggs and on rare occasions, 3. The brown speckled eggs vary in their pale base colour, which can range from green, through blue to brown. The size of an egg is on average 46 × 33 mm. The clutch is cared for by both male and female, with an incubation period of approximately 24 days. Adults will continue to join the colony and lay eggs from
October–January.
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crèche; here they have protection due to the more substantial numbers, while adults are away foraging for food. When a chick is lost to a predator or natural event during the breeding season, more clutches will be laid. Adults are likely to only raise only one chick to fledging, even if two eggs have been laid. Adults will care for their chick for 29-35 days, at which point they become fledged. Through this time, there is substantial growth: wings and body develop to a similar size to those of the adults. The young gain the ability to fly during this time, and they will start to venture out with the adults away from the colony; still being fed by the adults for up to 3 months.
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and some adults migrate across the Tasman Sea, arriving on the south-east coast of
Australia, where they become a common sight from May to November before returning to New Zealand. Over the next two years, there will be moulting phases alongside the breeding adults, first pre-breeding (May–August), first post-breeding (January–August) and second pre-breeding (May–August). They are slowly gaining adult plumage through each moult and by the second pre-breeding moult they appear similar to adults. After two years, they have matured enough to breed. However, it is a rare occurrence and is more common for adults to start breeding at 7 years old.
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when feeding at sea is for shoaling fish, that are being forced to the surface in large groups by kahawai and kingfish. When feeding, they will dive from 3 to 10 m above the surface into the shoal of fish, just entering the water in a very shallow dive. They can feed like this off the coast in huge flocks that are made up of hundreds to thousands of birds. They will feed alongside other birds such as gannets, shearwaters and gulls. When diving for fish, they are highly efficient. Their forked tails and adept flying skills allow for great movement above the water surface.
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Island, they are a familiar sight in the
Marlborough Sounds and along the east coast into Canterbury, Otago and Southland, where they can be seen year-round. Stewart Island also has flocks and breeding pairs throughout the year. Apart from the main coastline of New Zealand they also populate many of the smaller islands, with large numbers of breeding pairs observed on both the Chatham and the Auckland Islands. They seldom head inland, but there have been recordings of them in the Canterbury area, where they travel up the large braided rivers to feed and nest.
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stoats. These same predators will also target the eggs and chicks, while rats and hedgehogs put further pressure on white-fronted tern by going for eggs and chicks exclusively. Despite living and breeding in groups with large numbers that are tightly packed together, it seldom offers them any extra protection from the intruding attackers.
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or rock. Flocks may contain hundreds of breeding pairs that will nest in close proximity to one another. Large numbers of juveniles and some adults migrate to the south-east coast of
Australia and parts of Tasmania in the autumn, with small numbers establishing breeding colonies on Flinders and Cape Barren Islands in the Bass Strait.
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Red-billed gulls and black-backed gulls are the only native species that will prey on white-fronted tern, though they only go for eggs and chicks. They often nest near the white-fronted tern, which may be a contributing factor for this behaviour. Skuas are also well known to attack them in the air as
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As of 2016, the conservation status of white-fronted tern is at risk/in decline. Even with a large population, there is a predicted decline in the coming years. Numbers are falling due to predation by several introduced mammalian species. Adults are attacked and killed by cats, mustelids, ferrets and
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White-fronted terns are carnivorous, fishing mainly in coastal waters. However, on the odd occasion they will head inland a few kilometres, following rivers and creeks to find food. Their diet is predominantly smaller fish such as smelt and pilchards while also including larval fish. Their preference
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The colour of the chicks is highly variable. They can be a combination of greys, browns, whites and blacks with a speckled and fluffy appearance. Chicks will remain in the nest and be brooded by both adults for several days. It can be up to a week before the chicks leave the nest and join others in a
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White-fronted terns have a reputation for being difficult to monitor and study due to their unpredictable nature. It becomes very apparent in the breeding season, as white-fronted terns seldom return to the same breeding sites year after year, making it difficult for a clear indication of numbers and
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After the fledgling phase, there is a partial moult where they gain some of their juvenile plumage. This occurs through March-April and continues till June-July. Most juveniles will stay with their flock along the New
Zealand coastline with no migration. However, in autumn large numbers of juveniles
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They are the most abundant tern in New
Zealand and live along the entire coastline. In the North Island, there are significant populations from Auckland to the Bay of Plenty including the Coromandel Peninsula and they are widespread along the coast from Wellington, up towards Manawatu. In the South
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Courtship begins in early
October when the warmth of spring has arrived and can continue into January, with individuals constantly arriving at various breeding grounds. A male will fly in from sea with a fish delicately held in its bill; it will fly above groups of females and attempt to gain their
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A very dull "crek" is used in courtship when the male is flying above groups, individuals may respond with the same noise. When descending upon intruders, they will let out a continuous "keark". Generally calling between individuals is a high-pitched "siet" used frequently during flight, it will be
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This is the most abundant tern in New
Zealand. It can be observed feeding on shoaling fish along the entire coastline and many of the smaller outlying islands. Breeding occurs from October to January on rocky cliffs, offshore islands and along the coast where pairs will nest on shingle, sand, shell
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Adults can live beyond 18 years of age with a record of one reaching 26 years. Adults will moult twice a year, post-breeding which occurs over 6 months from
January to early August and pre-breeding that starts around May/June, finishing in July/August. Pre-breeding moult is where the adult's black
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Not confined to just main coastal areas, white-fronted terns frequent coastal cliffs, offshore rock-stacks and small islands. White-fronted terns can also be found on human-made structures. as in
Tauranga Harbour, where breeding pairs have taken up residence on disused concrete support structures.
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The black cap of non-breeding adults retreats towards the top of the forehead and above the eyes, while at the same time losing some of its intensity. Immature white-fronted terns are similar but have speckles of white through the cap. Along with a slight coloration on the wings and tail, which
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Shortly after courtship, the pair will choose a spot for their nest. No real effort goes into nest-building, it can be directly onto bare ground or in a rocky area. The nest site may already have a nest-like shape to it, but sometimes small stones can be brought in to furnish the bottom of the
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The white-fronted tern is described as an average-sized bird. Its dimensions are 35–43 cm (14–17 in) in length, with a wingspan between 79 and 82 cm (31 and 32 in); the male weighs on average 130 g (4.6 oz). Females are marginally smaller, but this is difficult to
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Breaking down their monochromatic colouring, the white-fronted tern's lightest features are its all-white body, tail and underwing, with the upper side of the wings a light silvery grey hue. Through the breeding season there can be a faint pink coloration on the breast, but this is not always
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White-fronted terns can be found in a variety of coastal habitats. With large flocks preferring coastal waters, harbours, bays and estuaries where they are content to live on either sand, shell or shingle ground. Occasionally living on the stony banks of Canterbury's braided rivers.
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White-fronted terns are found in New Zealand and Australia. Juveniles will occasionally migrate across to south-east Australia and the Northern parts of Tasmania. Breeding populations in Australia are only observed in the Bass Strait, on Flinders and Cape Barren Islands.
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appear as a brownish cream. The juvenile plumage is very pronounced with flecks of light to dark grey and warm milky browns on the upper side of the wing, back, and mantle. the cap is incomplete and mottled, having dark black markings in front of and behind the eyes.
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with an all-white body including underwing and forked tail, with grey hues on the over the upper side of the wing. In breeding adults a striking black cap covers the head from forehead to nape, leaving a small white strip above the black bill.
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Due to mammalian predators introduced to New Zealand, such as ferrets and stoats, the white-fronted tern has recently been given the New Zealand national conservation status of at risk/in decline.
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Robertson, H.A; Baird, K; Dowding, J.E; Elliott, G.P; Hitchmough, R.A; Miskelly, C.M; McArthur, N; O'Donnell, C.F.J; Sagar, P.M; Scofield, R.P; Taylor, G.A (2017).
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a New Zealand national conservation status of "At risk, declining". While also gaining the regional conservation status of "Regionally Endangered" for the
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they return from the sea with fish. They will intimidate them while flying until they drop the fish and catch it before losing it to the sea.
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Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis
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1098:
Gochfeld, M; Burger, J; Garcia, E (2019). del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo (eds.).
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McLean, I.G; Fleming, A.L (2018). "Successful restoration of an unnatural breeding habitat for white-fronted terns (Sterna striata)".
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324:. Gmelin based his description on the "striated tern" that had been described and illustrated in 1785 by the English ornithologist
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Schuckard, R (2005). "Marlborough Sounds, an important nesting and wintering area for white-fronted terns (Sterna striata)".
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cap will extend further down the forehead, leaving only the small band of white across the top of its bill.
1339:"The influence of age on laying date, clutch size, and egg size of the white-fronted tern, Sterna striata"
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898:. Vol. 3, Snipe to pigeons. Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press. pp. 632–644.
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1007:"Extant types of New Zealand birds from Cook's voyages. Part 1: Historical and type paintings"
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had provided Latham with a drawing of the tern from New Zealand. The drawing had been made by
1703:
974:(in Latin). Vol. 1, Part 2 (13th ed.). Lipsiae : Georg. Emanuel. Beer. p. 609.
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from a specimen collected in 1777 off the southeast coast of New Zealand's North Island on
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A baseline survey of the indigenous bird values of the Wellington region coastline
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994:. Vol. 3, Part 2. London: Printed for Leigh and Sotheby. pp. 358–359.
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comes from the Old English word for a black tern. The specific epithet is from
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McArthur, Nikki; Ray, Samantha; Crowe, Patrick; Bell, Mike (August 2019).
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A recent audit published by the Department of Conservation has given
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831:(Revised and updated ed.). Penguin Random House New Zealand.
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Breeding adult with black cap and white band across top of beak
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Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic Birds
1377:. Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Conservation.
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The Reed field guide to common New Zealand shorebirds
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1063:
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Juvenile white-fronted tern begging parent for food
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735:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22694607A155620380.en
443:determine when observing individuals in the wild.
667:White-fronted tern flapping its wings as it lands
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460:repeated over and over in particular intervals.
607:White-fronted tern flying with fish in its beak
1375:Conservation status of New Zealand birds, 2016
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1073:"Noddies, gulls, terns, skimmers, skuas, auks"
883:Higgins, P.J.; Davies, S.J.J.F., eds. (1996).
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951:White-fronted tern | New Zealand Birds Online
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523:White-fronted tern chick hiding on the ground
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1033:The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names
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556:Flock of white-fronted terns foraging at sea
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829:The Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand
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1265:(3rd ed.). New Zealand: Arun Books.
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1208:A field guide to the birds of New Zealand
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1110:Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive
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1248:The life histories of New Zealand birds
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298:in his revised and expanded edition of
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827:Heather, B. D.; Robertson, H. (2015).
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370:The species is closely related to the
1796:Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin
1771:IUCN Red List near threatened species
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1250:. London, England: Search publishing.
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1079:. International Ornithologists' Union
1035:. London: Christopher Helm. pp.
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436:A History of the Birds of New Zealand
348:to the Pacific Ocean. The genus name
308:. He placed it with the terns in the
41:in flight with tiny fish in its beak
1683:dea1c35e-c1dd-4c59-be86-10dc40f660f2
1206:Fitter, Julian; Merton, Don (2011).
643:Group of white-fronted tern on beach
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721:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
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359:meaning "striated". The species is
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294:in 1789 by the German naturalist
1077:IOC World Bird List Version 12.2
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710:BirdLife International (2019).
1356:10.1080/03014223.1980.10423772
1343:New Zealand Journal of Zoology
1337:Mills, J.A; Shaw, P.W (1980).
1210:. Princeton University Press.
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679:Young chick calling for parent
485:Adult pair nesting on old pier
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991:A General Synopsis of Birds
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330:A General Synopsis of Birds
290:The white-fronted tern was
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1812:
1112:. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions
1031:Jobling, James A. (2010).
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1261:Chambers, Stuart (2009).
1005:Medway, David G. (1976).
728:: e.T22694607A155620380.
266:, was first described by
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966:Gmelin, Johann Friedrich
464:Distribution and habitat
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270:in 1789. A medium-sized
1791:Birds described in 1789
1484:Sterna_(Sterna)_striata
296:Johann Friedrich Gmelin
268:Johann Friedrich Gmelin
1071:, eds. (August 2022).
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1704:Paleobiology Database
1405:(Report). p. 23.
1101:"White-fronted Tern (
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498:Behaviour and ecology
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1786:Birds of New Zealand
1168:Medway, D.G (2000).
948:Mills, J.A. (2013).
1246:Stead, E.F (1932).
889:White-fronted tern"
655:Small flock at rest
578:Conservation status
477:Habitat preferences
400:Sterna hirundinacea
396:South American tern
48:Conservation status
24:White-fronted tern
1673:white-fronted-tern
1523:white-fronted-tern
1518:BirdLife-Australia
1420:White-fronted tern
1067:; Donsker, David;
558:
537:
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503:breeding results.
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338:William Wade Ellis
292:formally described
234:white-fronted tern
225: Non-breeding
1781:Birds of Tasmania
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1432:Taxon identifiers
1384:978-1-98-851423-9
1272:978-0-473-15307-6
1217:978-0-691-15351-3
1069:Rasmussen, Pamela
1050:978-1-4081-2501-4
905:978-0-19-553070-4
838:978-0-143-57092-9
588:Wellington region
416:Sterna paradisaea
332:. The naturalist
252:black-billed tern
242:), also known as
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548:Food and feeding
430:Illustration of
392:Sterna sumatrana
388:black-naped tern
384:Sterna dougallii
367:are recognised.
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169:S. striata
135:Charadriiformes
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63:Near Threatened
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1717:SeaLifeBase
1606:iNaturalist
1464:Wikispecies
1065:Gill, Frank
741:11 November
422:Description
412:Arctic tern
372:common tern
326:John Latham
248:sea swallow
1765:Categories
1743:Xeno-canto
1083:8 November
697:References
584:S. striata
365:subspecies
342:James Cook
213:S. striata
194:Gmelin, JF
1319:0029-4470
1020:: 44–60 .
565:Predators
361:monotypic
211:Range of
163:Species:
101:Kingdom:
95:Eukaryota
1650:22694607
1624:10194652
1510:22694607
1505:BirdLife
1449:Wikidata
1422:at eBird
1307:Notornis
1288:Notornis
1014:Notornis
988:(1785).
968:(1789).
691:Juvenile
507:Breeding
357:striatus
286:Taxonomy
141:Family:
115:Chordata
111:Phylum:
105:Animalia
91:Domain:
68:IUCN 3.1
1598:5229233
1585:1049351
1572:whfter1
1546:whfter1
1492:Avibase
1116:2 March
594:Gallery
151:Genus:
145:Laridae
131:Order:
121:Class:
66: (
1776:Sterna
1735:225976
1709:143808
1696:225976
1680:NZOR:
1670:NZBO:
1663:297824
1637:176916
1455:Q28698
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350:Sterna
314:Sterna
223:
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196:, 1789
156:Sterna
1730:WoRMS
1722:74150
1619:IRMNG
1567:eBird
1559:6ZSDF
1543:BOW:
1536:71321
1403:(PDF)
1010:(PDF)
892:(PDF)
455:Voice
434:from
363:: no
354:Latin
310:genus
262:, or
1691:OBIS
1658:NCBI
1645:IUCN
1632:ITIS
1611:4478
1593:GBIF
1531:BOLD
1379:ISBN
1315:ISSN
1267:ISBN
1212:ISBN
1174:ISBN
1118:2019
1085:2022
1045:ISBN
900:ISBN
833:ISBN
743:2021
726:2019
272:tern
244:tara
232:The
125:Aves
1580:EoL
1554:CoL
1479:AFD
1351:doi
1041:367
1037:365
730:doi
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