106:
1714:
25:
1114:
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1098:
1083:
802:
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878:, the 2nd Lanarkshire Rifle Volunteer Corps at Glasgow University in July 1859, becoming Major in 1860 after it was formed into the first company of the 2nd Battalion, 1st Lanarkshire Rifle Volunteer Corps; he served until 1864, when he resigned due to pressure of work – much of it associated with Naval Architecture.
837:
failed in a similar way. Rankine presented his conclusions in a paper delivered to the
Institution of Civil Engineers. His work was ignored however, by many engineers who persisted in believing that stress could cause "re-crystallisation" of the metal, a myth which has persisted even to recent times.
593:
Emboldened by his success, in 1851 he set out to calculate the efficiency of heat engines and used his theory as a basis to deduce the principle, that the maximum efficiency possible for any heat engine is a function only of the two temperatures between which it operates. Though a similar result had
380:
and indeed of all heat engines. His manuals of engineering science and practice were used for many decades after their publication in the 1850s and 1860s. He published several hundred papers and notes on science and engineering topics, from 1840 onwards, and his interests were extremely varied,
842:
a few years later, which showed the weakening effect of repeated flexure on large beams. Nevertheless, fatigue remained a serious and poorly understood phenomenon, and was the root cause of many accidents on the railways and elsewhere. It is still a serious problem, but at least is much better
677:
Energetics offered
Rankine an alternative, and rather more mainstream, approach, to his science and, from the mid-1850s, he made rather less use of his molecular vortices. Yet he still claimed that Maxwell's work on electromagnetics was effectively an extension of his model. And, in 1864, he
537:
He died at 8 Albion
Crescent (now called Dowanside Road), Dowanhill, Glasgow at 11:45pm on Christmas Eve, 24 December 1872, aged only 52. He was unmarried and had no children. His death was registered by his uncle, Alex Grahame (his late mother's brother in law).
602:, Rankine claimed that his result rested upon his hypothesis of molecular vortices alone, rather than upon Carnot's theory or some other additional assumption. The work marked the first step on Rankine's journey to develop a more complete theory of heat. In
654:. This article presents the first published definition of energy in terms of capacity for performing work, which quickly became the standard general definition of energy. The theory was very influential in the 1890s. In 1859 he proposed the
550:. Though his theory of circulating streams of elastic vortices whose volumes spontaneously adapted to their environment sounds fanciful to scientists formed on a modern account, by 1849, he had succeeded in finding the relationship between
1373:
682:, based on linear atomic motion, were inadequate. It was only in 1869 that Rankine admitted the success of these rival theories. By that time, his own model of the atom had become almost identical with that of Thomson.
1625:
2456:
1317:
817:
of 1842 when a locomotive axle suddenly fractured and led to the death of over 50 passengers. He showed that the axles had failed by progressive growth of a brittle crack from a shoulder or other
469:
which brought coal into the growing city. He left the
University of Edinburgh in 1838 without a degree (which was not then unusual) and, perhaps because of straitened family finances, became an
1280:
708:, an analysis of an ideal heat-engine with a condensor. Like other thermodynamic cycles, the maximum efficiency of the Rankine cycle is given by calculating the maximum efficiency of the
685:
As was his constant aim, especially as a teacher of engineering, he used his own theories to develop a number of practical results and to elucidate their physical principles including:
1810:
493:
and productivity over existing methods. In fact, the technique was simultaneously in use by other engineers – and in the 1860s there was a minor dispute about
Rankine's priority.
2368:
430:
on
Lothian Road in Edinburgh with the mathematician George Lee. By that year William was already highly proficient in mathematics and received, as a gift from his uncle,
415:
His father moved around
Scotland on various projects and the family moved with him. William was initially educated at home, due to his poor health, but he later attended
936:(founded 1860) and attended many of its annual meetings. With William Thomson and others, Rankine was a member of the board of enquiry into the controversial sinking of
875:
423:(1830). Around 1830 the family moved to Edinburgh when the father got a post as Manager of the Edinburgh to Dalkeith Railway. The family then lived at 2 Arniston Place.
2441:
1803:
929:
983:
813:
failures of railway axles was caused by the initiation and growth of brittle cracks. In the early 1840s he examined many broken axles, especially after the
627:
by which it was replaced. He assumed the sum of the two energies to be constant, an idea already, although surely not for very long, familiar in the law of
2481:
860:
2416:
504:
form but he was frustrated by his lack of experimental data. At the time of Queen
Victoria's visit to Scotland, later that year, he organised a large
1796:
1113:
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724:
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512:, constructed with radiating air passages under the fuel. The bonfire served as a beacon to initiate a chain of other bonfires across Scotland.
2406:
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1129:
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1097:
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1082:
313:
91:
2446:
2426:
2177:
697:, governs the behaviour of shock waves normal to the oncoming flow. It is named after physicists Rankine and the French engineer
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2318:
1185:
1168:
2411:
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1383:
1290:
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465:. During vacations, he assisted his father who, from 1830, was manager and, later, effective treasurer and engineer of the
427:
867:
from
November 1855 until his death in December 1872, pursuing engineering research along a number of lines in civil and
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39:
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412:(locally known as the Innocent Railway). His mother was Barbara Grahame, of a prominent legal and banking family.
353:; 5 July 1820 – 24 December 1872) was a Scottish mathematician and physicist. He was a founding contributor, with
2431:
2167:
956:
928:, to make naval architecture into an engineering science. He was a founding member, and first President of the
925:
766:
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409:
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in 1869, but his model was not adequate and he predicted that supercritical speeds could not be attained.
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The theory of recrystallisation was quite wrong, and inhibited worthwhile research until the work of
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Rankine worked closely with Clyde shipbuilders, especially his friend and lifelong collaborator
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Rankine later recast the results of his molecular theories in terms of a macroscopic account of
105:
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is replete with the interplay of theory and practice. Rankine first performed an analysis of a
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to Lt David Rankin (sic), a civil engineer from a military background, who later worked on the
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558:. The following year, he used his theory to establish relationships between the temperature,
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1932:
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461:. Under Forbes he was awarded prizes for essays on methods of physical inquiry and on the
8:
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1416:
Deaths in the
District of Partick, 1872, page 199, National Records of Scotland 646/3 597
1209:
898:
679:
646:
which gave an account of dynamics in terms of energy and its transformations rather than
482:
393:, and, in his mature years, most major branches of science, mathematics and engineering.
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1972:
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for the period 1851–53. He served as the Society's Vice President from 1871 to 1872.
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Undaunted, Rankine returned to his youthful fascination with the mechanics of the
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1503:
Rankine, William John Macquorn (1855). "Outlines of the science of energetics".
1345:
Biographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002
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833:. It was likely that the front axle of one of the locomotives involved in the
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of temperature, an absolute or thermodynamic scale whose degree is equal to a
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2111:
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1966:
1962:
1946:
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1007:
970:
894:, are named in recognition of the significant contributions Rankine made to:
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The year 1842 also marked Rankine's first attempt to reduce the phenomena of
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contended that the microscopic theories of heat proposed by Clausius and
575:
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555:
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283:
259:
851:
2457:
Presidents of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland
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2211:
2081:
2012:
1599:
1174:
On the Thermodynamic Theory of Waves of Finite Longitudinal Disturbance
801:
694:
659:
486:
470:
441:
In 1836, Rankine began to study a spectrum of scientific topics at the
1952:
1866:
405:
129:
1723:
740:
2051:
1727:
1428:"On the Mechanical Action of Heat, especially in Gases and Vapours"
915:. The Rankine method of earth pressure analysis is named after him.
559:
1749:. New York: Scribner & American Council of Learned Societies.
2151:
1986:
1886:
1876:
1152:
On the Mechanical Action of Heat, especially in Gases and Vapours
825:. He was supported by similar direct analysis of failed axles by
674:, which disproves the possibility of an infinitely old universe.
636:
563:
530:
From 1855 he was Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics at
505:
396:
He was also a singer, pianist and cellist as well as a rifleman.
279:
231:
148:
1282:
Hearing the Crimean War: Wartime Sound and the Unmaking of Sense
582:. He accurately predicted the surprising fact that the apparent
1845:
1835:
874:
Rankine was instrumental in the formation of the forerunner of
614:
579:
481:. During his pupilage he developed a technique, later known as
382:
1226:
617:
and its transformations. He defined and distinguished between
2312:
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1936:
1926:
1896:
989:
843:
understood today, and so can be prevented by careful design.
647:
1818:
2352:
2181:
2016:
2006:
1021:
663:
603:
497:
365:, particularly focusing on its First Law. He developed the
336:
1956:
809:
Rankine was one of the first engineers to recognise that
567:
342:
333:
930:
Institution of Engineers & Shipbuilders in Scotland
485:, for laying out railway curves, fully exploiting the
2373:
People whose names are used in chemical element names
2369:
Scientists whose names are used in physical constants
984:
Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland
666:, Rankine expanded Lord Kelvin’s theory of universal
369:, a Fahrenheit-based equivalent to the Celsius-based
345:
339:
1675:"On the General Law of the Transformation of Energy"
330:
1375:
Practical Chemical Thermodynamics for Geoscientists
1137:
A Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers
1121:
A Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers
1105:
A Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers
1090:
A Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers
861:
Regius Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics
327:
1545:Roche, John (2003). "What is potential energy?".
1468:Roche, John (2003). "What is potential energy?".
1055:Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers
1010:absolute Fahrenheit scale is named in his honour.
2442:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
2383:
2365:List of scientists whose names are used as units
670:and, along with Kelvin himself, formulated the
639:of Clausius. By 1855, Rankine had formulated a
1435:Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
1164:On the General Law of Transformation of Energy
1804:
1371:
1351:. The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006.
805:Drawing of a fatigue failure in an axle, 1843
635:which he later realised was identical to the
1784:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
1027:In 2013 he was one of four inductees to the
952:Fellow of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts
2482:Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame inductees
769:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
376:Rankine developed a complete theory of the
1811:
1797:
104:
2417:Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
1738:
1646:
876:Glasgow University Officer Training Corps
789:Learn how and when to remove this message
69:Learn how and when to remove this message
1819:Scientists whose names are used as units
1768:
1318:The Institution of Engineers in Scotland
1278:
850:
800:
621:which was lost in dynamic processes and
489:and making a substantial improvement in
32:This article includes a list of general
2178:John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh
1672:
1579:
1528:The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal
1524:"Outlines of the science of energetics"
1522:Rankine, William John Macquorn (1855).
1521:
1505:The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal
1502:
1425:
1227:Rankine, William John MacQuorn (1881).
1067:Shipbuilding, theoretical and practical
979:of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1854
932:in 1857. He was an early member of the
715:Properties of steam, gases and vapours.
515:In 1850 he was elected a Fellow of the
2402:Academics of the University of Glasgow
2384:
1775:"Rankine, William John Macquorn"
1338:
1336:
1334:
1233:. London: Charles Griffin and Company.
1196:This work influenced French physicist
477:, who was at the time surveyor to the
2407:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
1792:
1544:
1467:
1372:Fegley, Bruce; Osborne, Rose (2013).
1181:Outlines of the Science of Energetics
946:
934:Royal Institution of Naval Architects
919:
631:. From 1854, he made wide use of his
2487:19th-century Scottish businesspeople
1407:Edinburgh Post Office Directory 1830
1398:Edinburgh Post Office Directory 1831
1304:
1302:
1212:, to be the more fundamental theory.
881:
767:adding citations to reliable sources
734:
463:undulatory (or wave) theory of light
18:
1649:"Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame"
1331:
1310:"Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame"
1279:Williams, Gavin (6 December 2018).
959:, 1843 (he was never a full Member)
428:Scottish Naval and Military Academy
247:Coining the term 'potential energy'
13:
1746:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
730:
38:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
2503:
2319:René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur
1715:Works by or about William Rankine
1708:
1299:
1029:Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame
1001:Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
541:
361:(Lord Kelvin), to the science of
1731:
1588:. Vol. 5. pp. 388–393.
1128:
1112:
1096:
1081:
1073:Manual of Machinery and Millwork
892:British Geotechnical Association
739:
323:
23:
1743:. In Gillispie, Charles (ed.).
1741:"William John Macquorn Rankine"
1666:
1640:
1626:"Library and Archive catalogue"
1618:
1592:
1573:
1538:
1515:
1496:
1230:Miscellaneous Scientific Papers
1035:
821:source on the shaft, such as a
2447:People educated at Ayr Academy
2427:Creators of temperature scales
2168:Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet
1582:"On the Age of the Sun's Heat"
1461:
1419:
1410:
1401:
1392:
1365:
1272:
1204:(1911) in which he considered
1024:, is also named in his honour.
957:Institution of Civil Engineers
467:Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway
438:(1687) in the original Latin.
410:Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway
1:
2477:Scottish mechanical engineers
2467:19th-century Scottish writers
2228:William John Macquorn Rankine
2158:Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille
1653:www.engineeringhalloffame.org
1314:www.engineeringhalloffame.org
1265:
1186:Glasgow Philosophical Society
1169:Glasgow Philosophical Society
1020:near the eastern limb of the
909:lateral earth pressure theory
846:
310:William John Macquorn Rankine
110:William John Macquorn Rankine
87:William John Macquorn Rankine
2412:Fellows of the Royal Society
227:Second law of thermodynamics
16:Scottish mechanical engineer
7:
1883:Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
1730:(public domain audiobooks)
1547:European Journal of Physics
1470:European Journal of Physics
1285:. Oxford University Press.
1238:
1061:Manual of Civil Engineering
1048:Manual of Applied Mechanics
426:In 1834 he was sent to the
242:Kelvin’s heat death paradox
10:
2508:
1600:"Past Presidents of IESIS"
1559:10.1088/0143-0807/24/2/359
1482:10.1088/0143-0807/24/2/359
1157:Royal Society of Edinburgh
982:Founding President of the
964:Royal Society of Edinburgh
899:Forces in frame structures
570:, and expressions for the
517:Royal Society of Edinburgh
237:Heat death of the universe
2492:Scientists from Edinburgh
2422:British fluid dynamicists
2362:
2241:
2208:Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
2191:
2036:
1855:
1824:
1739:Parkinson, E. M. (2008).
1691:10.1080/14786445308647205
1580:Thomson, William (1862).
1447:10.1017/S008045680003307X
1426:Rankine, William (1850).
911:and the stabilization of
691:Rankine–Hugoniot equation
552:saturated vapour pressure
381:including, in his youth,
303:
293:
275:
268:
255:
217:Rankine–Hugoniot relation
174:
164:
156:
137:
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103:
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2462:Scottish civil engineers
2452:Engineers from Edinburgh
2437:British naval architects
1724:Works by William Rankine
594:already been derived by
519:his proposer being Prof
479:Irish Railway Commission
2218:Johann Heinrich Lambert
2118:Johann Heinrich Lambert
1983:Rolf Maximilian Sievert
1781:Encyclopædia Britannica
1202:Traité de l'énergétique
994:Trinity College, Dublin
523:. He won the Society's
443:University of Edinburgh
419:(1828–29) and then the
399:
169:University of Edinburgh
53:more precise citations.
2432:Geotechnical engineers
2349:Evangelista Torricelli
1679:Philosophical Magazine
1255:Track transition curve
999:Foreign member of the
869:mechanical engineering
856:
835:Versailles train crash
815:Versailles train crash
806:
633:thermodynamic function
629:conservation of energy
475:John Benjamin Macneill
421:High School of Glasgow
222:Laws of thermodynamics
2249:Alexander Graham Bell
2148:Hans Christian Ørsted
2048:Anders Jonas Ångström
1119:Table of contents to
865:University of Glasgow
854:
804:
699:Pierre Henri Hugoniot
606:, he coined the term
298:University of Glasgow
2242:Non-systematic units
2088:Carl Friedrich Gauss
2023:Wilhelm Eduard Weber
1933:James Prescott Joule
1586:Macmillan's Magazine
1184:(1855), read at the
1167:(1853), read at the
1155:(1850), read at the
855:Rankine in the 1870s
819:stress concentration
763:improve this section
404:Rankine was born in
2138:James Clerk Maxwell
1764:J. Macquorn Rankine
1673:Rankine, W (1853).
1628:. The Royal Society
1210:classical mechanics
926:James Robert Napier
890:, organised by the
693:for propagation of
680:James Clerk Maxwell
590:would be negative.
1973:Werner von Siemens
1832:André-Marie Ampère
1378:. Academic Press.
947:Awards and honours
920:Naval architecture
907:; most notably in
859:Rankine served as
857:
807:
672:heat death paradox
532:Glasgow University
521:James David Forbes
459:James David Forbes
455:natural philosophy
2472:Thermodynamicists
2379:
2378:
1903:Louis Harold Gray
1756:978-0-684-10114-9
1385:978-0-12-251100-4
1292:978-0-19-091677-0
1260:Weighted catenary
1159:, 4 February 1850
955:Associate of the
882:Civil engineering
840:William Fairbairn
799:
798:
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307:
306:
288:civil engineering
270:Scientific career
264:
187:Rankine half body
79:
78:
71:
2499:
2003:Alessandro Volta
1856:SI derived units
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1135:Introduction to
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888:Rankine Lectures
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624:potential energy
608:potential energy
483:Rankine's method
373:of temperature.
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197:Rankine's method
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141:24 December 1872
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40:inline citations
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2329:Wilhelm Röntgen
2289:Michael Faraday
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2108:Heinrich Kayser
2098:William Gilbert
2078:Galileo Galilei
2037:Non-SI metric (
2032:
1893:Michael Faraday
1863:Henri Becquerel
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973:of London, 1853
949:
922:
913:retaining walls
884:
849:
795:
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778:
775:
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733:
731:Fatigue studies
719:The history of
600:William Thomson
596:Rudolf Clausius
588:saturated steam
544:
447:natural history
402:
359:William Thomson
355:Rudolf Clausius
326:
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165:Alma mater
152:
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133:
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45:Please help to
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2336:
2326:
2323:degree Réaumur
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2299:Heinrich Mache
2296:
2286:
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2256:
2245:
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2235:
2232:degree Rankine
2225:
2215:
2204:
2202:
2189:
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1930:
1923:Heinrich Hertz
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1873:Anders Celsius
1870:
1859:
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1772:, ed. (1911).
1770:Chisholm, Hugh
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1710:
1709:External links
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905:Soil mechanics
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729:
725:spinning shaft
717:
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543:
542:Thermodynamics
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451:Robert Jameson
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363:thermodynamics
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2068:Loránd Eötvös
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2024:
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2018:
2014:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1994:
1991:
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1963:Blaise Pascal
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1825:SI base units
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1225:
1224:
1221:About Rankine
1220:
1219:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1194:
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1190:
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764:
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748:This section
746:
742:
737:
736:
728:
726:
722:
721:rotordynamics
714:
711:
707:
706:Rankine cycle
703:
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681:
675:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
656:Rankine scale
653:
649:
645:
644:
638:
634:
630:
626:
625:
620:
619:actual energy
616:
611:
609:
605:
601:
597:
591:
589:
585:
584:specific heat
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
539:
535:
533:
528:
526:
522:
518:
513:
511:
510:Arthur's Seat
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460:
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418:
413:
411:
407:
397:
394:
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391:number theory
388:
384:
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367:Rankine scale
364:
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356:
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202:Rankine scale
200:
198:
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192:Rankine cycle
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84:
81:
73:
70:
62:
52:
48:
42:
41:
35:
30:
21:
20:
2269:Pierre Curie
2222:foot-lambert
1993:Nikola Tesla
1943:Isaac Newton
1913:Joseph Henry
1779:
1744:
1694:. Retrieved
1682:
1678:
1668:
1656:. Retrieved
1652:
1642:
1630:. Retrieved
1620:
1608:. Retrieved
1603:
1594:
1585:
1575:
1550:
1546:
1540:
1531:
1527:
1517:
1508:
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1412:
1403:
1394:
1374:
1367:
1344:
1321:. Retrieved
1313:
1281:
1274:
1229:
1201:
1198:Pierre Duhem
1180:
1173:
1163:
1151:
1136:
1120:
1104:
1089:
1072:
1066:
1060:
1054:
1046:
1036:Publications
939:
923:
885:
873:
858:
827:Joseph Glynn
808:
785:
779:January 2022
776:
761:Please help
749:
718:
710:Carnot cycle
684:
676:
640:
632:
622:
618:
612:
592:
545:
536:
529:
514:
508:situated on
502:mathematical
495:
445:, including
440:
435:
432:Isaac Newton
425:
414:
403:
395:
387:music theory
378:steam engine
375:
371:Kelvin scale
309:
308:
294:Institutions
269:
182:Rankine body
143:(1872-12-24)
80:
65:
56:
37:
2397:1872 deaths
2392:1820 births
2309:John Napier
2279:John Dalton
2259:Marie Curie
2058:Peter Debye
1842:Lord Kelvin
1685:(30): 106.
1441:: 147–190.
977:Keith Medal
695:shock waves
662:degree. In
641:science of
576:evaporation
572:latent heat
556:temperature
548:heat engine
525:Keith Prize
417:Ayr Academy
284:engineering
260:Keith Medal
157:Nationality
126:5 July 1820
51:introducing
2386:Categories
2212:Fahrenheit
2013:James Watt
1553:(2): 187.
1511:: 120–141.
1476:(2): 185.
1266:References
1016:, a small
847:Other work
668:heat death
660:Fahrenheit
643:energetics
487:theodolite
471:apprentice
151:, Scotland
132:, Scotland
122:1820-07-05
34:references
2199:customary
1953:Georg Ohm
1867:becquerel
1632:4 October
1604:iesis.org
1567:250895349
1490:250895349
1455:100996660
750:does not
436:Principia
406:Edinburgh
130:Edinburgh
59:July 2009
2333:roentgen
2210:(degree
2193:Imperial
2052:angstrom
1875:(degree
1728:LibriVox
1696:17 March
1239:See also
560:pressure
491:accuracy
160:Scottish
2343:thomson
2293:faraday
2152:oersted
2142:maxwell
2132:langley
2122:lambert
2102:gilbert
2041:) units
1987:sievert
1977:siemens
1887:coulomb
1877:Celsius
1717:at the
1658:9 April
1323:9 April
1014:Rankine
1008:Rankine
940:Captain
863:at the
811:fatigue
771:removed
756:sources
637:entropy
564:density
506:bonfire
473:to Sir
280:Physics
232:Entropy
149:Glasgow
47:improve
2283:dalton
2172:stokes
2112:kayser
2072:eotvos
1967:pascal
1947:newton
1846:kelvin
1836:ampere
1753:
1606:. 2012
1565:
1534:: 129.
1488:
1453:
1382:
1355:
1289:
1208:, not
1176:(1869)
1145:Papers
1139:(1859)
1123:(1859)
1107:(1859)
1075:(1869)
1069:(1866)
1063:(1861)
1057:(1859)
1051:(1858)
1003:, 1868
996:, 1857
986:, 1857
966:, 1850
823:keyway
652:motion
615:energy
580:liquid
457:under
449:under
383:botany
276:Fields
263:(1854)
256:Awards
36:, but
2313:neper
2303:Mache
2273:curie
2263:curie
2201:units
2162:poise
2092:gauss
2062:debye
2027:weber
1997:tesla
1937:joule
1927:hertz
1917:henry
1897:farad
1681:. 4.
1610:6 May
1563:S2CID
1486:S2CID
1451:S2CID
1431:(PDF)
1349:(PDF)
1041:Books
992:from
990:LL.D.
648:force
578:of a
568:gases
500:to a
316:
94:
2353:torr
2195:and
2182:rayl
2017:watt
2007:volt
1907:gray
1751:ISBN
1698:2014
1660:2018
1634:2010
1612:2012
1380:ISBN
1353:ISBN
1325:2018
1287:ISBN
1022:Moon
1006:The
938:HMS
886:The
754:any
752:cite
704:The
689:The
664:1862
650:and
604:1853
598:and
562:and
554:and
498:heat
453:and
400:Life
389:and
357:and
314:FRSE
138:Died
116:Born
92:FRSE
2253:bel
2082:gal
2039:cgs
1957:ohm
1726:at
1687:doi
1555:doi
1478:doi
1443:doi
1200:'s
765:by
586:of
574:of
566:of
434:'s
318:FRS
96:FRS
2388::
2371:·
2367:·
2197:US
1778:.
1677:.
1651:.
1602:.
1584:.
1561:.
1551:24
1549:.
1530:.
1526:.
1507:.
1484:.
1474:24
1472:.
1449:.
1439:20
1437:.
1433:.
1333:^
1316:.
1312:.
1301:^
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610:.
534:.
385:,
286:,
282:,
2355:)
2351:(
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2341:(
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2331:(
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2321:(
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2311:(
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2301:(
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2291:(
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2271:(
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2110:(
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2100:(
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2090:(
2084:)
2080:(
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2070:(
2064:)
2060:(
2054:)
2050:(
2029:)
2025:(
2019:)
2015:(
2009:)
2005:(
1999:)
1995:(
1989:)
1985:(
1979:)
1975:(
1969:)
1965:(
1959:)
1955:(
1949:)
1945:(
1939:)
1935:(
1929:)
1925:(
1919:)
1915:(
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1905:(
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1895:(
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1885:(
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1869:)
1865:(
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1834:(
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1700:.
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1683:5
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1636:.
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1569:.
1557::
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1492:.
1480::
1457:.
1445::
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1327:.
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1031:.
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786:(
781:)
777:(
773:.
759:.
712:;
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349:/
346:n
343:ɪ
340:k
337:ŋ
334:æ
331:r
328:ˈ
325:/
321:(
124:)
120:(
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66:(
61:)
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43:.
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