869:
381:
250:
672:
841:
941:
884:
899:
853:
817:
927:
111:
913:
68:, salary inequalities were high: men earned twice as much as women, who were seen as competitors to men and employed at lower cost. In general, women worked from home in order to take care of their families, where alcohol problems were common. Industry and convents, which benefited from free labor, were strong competitors against freelancing women, lowering the value of their work. Sometimes working-class women became prostitutes to support their families.
829:
77:
782:
recognized but assimilated to psychiatric and nervous problems proper to the "weak sex". Their sexual morality is questioned and they are accused of being prostitutes, of being women prone to moral and sexual perversion who want to enjoy free union or even sexual communism. Any social and political dimension is denied to their action.
43:. Many women took active roles in the events, and are known as "communardes". They are important in the history of women's rights in France, particularly with regards to women's emancipation. Equal pay and the first forms of structured organization of women in France appear during this period, in particular the
777:
Jacques
Rougerie expressed the view that they "bravely held their place without having to exaggerate it in these brief days of 1871". Eugène Schulkind considers that "it is remarkable that this group of women realized better from the beginning, the importance of a revolutionary theory as a weapon and
737:
When the
Versaillais took over Paris, the fate of the women was no different from that of the men: execution on the spot or summary judgment. 4,000 women were killed, for a total of 20,000 victims. 1,051 women were imprisoned and judged by the 4th Council of War. No woman was sentenced to death, but
278:
ensured, in addition to the defense of Paris, the propagation of revolutionary ideas and the recruitment of women. Nathalie Lemel coordinated and sometimes intervened in its meetings held in the working class districts of Paris. The meetings were held in churches, and women were particularly active.
149:
in 1869 and associations such as the "Société pour la revendication des droits civils de la femme" by André Léo, also in 1869. The different movements for the improvement of the female condition did not always agree on what was essential. Some put forward the education of girls while others demanded
564:
Despite the numerous appeals of women, the government of the
Commune was slow to incorporate women into the defense of Paris. In fact, the Committee of Public Safety outlawed women on the battlefield on 1 May. André Léo attributed this to the "bourgeois and authoritarian mindset" of the army elite.
446:
This union aimed to involve women more in the
Commune through clubs and neighborhood meetings. The Union, well structured, was then able to organize support committees in each district allowing all ambulances to be provided by women. The Union took on a charitable role, taking over the place of the
240:
Two types of demands could be distinguished, according to the social origin of women without one excluding the other. For women from an educated background, political and civic equality (right to vote) were the objective in a context of class struggle. For those from a working-class background, the
122:
took advantage of the relative freedom promoted by the Second French Empire at the beginning to publish works dedicated to the equality of the sexes. In 1866, she created the "Association for the
Improvement of Women's Education" and in 1868, she published a text defending the equality of the sexes
781:
Paul Lidsky, a specialist in anti-Communard writings by artists and intellectuals from the French elite, indicated that the women of the
Commune were the target of particular violence. The contempt for the working classes is associated with a profound misogyny. The bravery of the women fighters is
186:
When the government decided to disarm the
Parisians, they felt directly threatened. Women began to participate in the various demonstrations of the Parisians, showing their anger and regrouping without a precise agenda. On 18 March the army came to fetch the cannons but the Parisian people opposed
559:
That the
Commune, representative of the great principle proclaiming the annihilation of all privilege, of all inequality, - by the same is committed, to take into account the just claims of the whole population, without distinction of sex, - distinction created and maintained by the need of the
170:
and a serious famine during the winter of 1870-1871, the French capitulation and the cease-fire on 26 January 1871, the situation seemed unbearable to the
Parisians, who had resisted the enemy for nearly four months. Popular clubs and societies emerged during this siege and gave many women the
548:
499:(Women's Committee of the Rue d'Arras) distinguished itself by organizing collective workshops "in order to prepare the organization of women's work by themselves", as well as the recruitment of women soldiers and the promotion of revolutionary ideas.
638:
was a term used to describe a woman accused of having used petroleum to start fires during the crushing of the Paris
Commune by the Versaillais. No evidence is available to support this role. The term was applied, especially after the burning of the
868:
710:
On 10 April 1871 a group of women seized a guillotine and symbolically burned it on the Place Voltaire, in order to signify the difference between the concept of revolution (a symbol of liberation) and scaffold (a symbol of oppression).
454:
for women and obtained equal salaries (it started to be applied for teachers), it participated in the census of the workshops abandoned by their owners who took refuge in Versailles and organized self-managed workshops.
508:, made up of women teachers, asked the government of the Commune to establish a secular, compulsory, free school for all. Similarly, Louise Michel asked for the creation of secular orphanages and professional schools.
773:
There are differing views on the importance of the role of women during the Commune, particularly because of the lack of testimony. It is certain that their participation gave moral authority to this insurrection.
471:
The executive commission of the Commune supported the views of this committee without following up. According to Jacques Rougerie, historian of the Commune, it was only "a few groups of revolutionary women "26.
619:
During the fights between the National Guard and Versailles troops, the women help by participating in the care of the wounded or their supply. The fighting was done in families with the presence of children.
218:(the movement paid a pension to the widows of federates, married or not, as well as to their legitimate or natural children), the prohibition of prostitution, the establishment of the beginnings of
697:, called on women to stay at home, but after an appeal on 3 April to women in Communard newspapers, several women's marches took place, including one on 5 April 1871 towards Versailles, where the
583:
Nathalie Lemel urged women to take up arms at the Club de la Délivrance. Two other clubs, the Daughters of Père Duchêne and the Club of Women Patriots, also armed women for the defence of Paris.
521:
Generally speaking, there was little support for a women's newspaper, especially during the Commune, due to the revolutionary activities of women and the Commune itself. However, the newspapers
166:. The following month, on 7 October 1870, about 150 women demanded the right to be able to care for the wounded of the 1870 war at the front and to replace the men in the ambulances. After the
409:
397:
44:
701:
had taken refuge, following the example of the one that had marched in October 1789. The marchers were turned back before they reached Versailles, but the marches presaged the creation of the
97:
1508:
1026:
312:
433:. In its first appeal, this association positioned the Commune within the framework of the struggle for the emancipation of the working class, its two founders being members of the
580:
Most often, women were confined to non-fighting roles and their involvement in military actions was instead the result of neighborhood clubs and committees and the Women's Union.
2107:
262:
187:
them. It was the women who were the first to wake up and prevent the soldiers from seizing the cannons. Louise Michel actively participates in this opposition on the
714:
During the semaine sanglante when the Versailles troops entered Paris, women, among them Elisabeth Dmitrieff, Nathalie Lemel, Blanche Lefebvre, BĂ©atrix Excoffon and
352:
1952:"« La Représentation des Communardes dans le roman français de 1871 à 1900 », Master 1, sous la direction de Isabelle Tournier, Université Paris 8, 2013"
595:
298:
2135:
569:. However, they were intended only to pursue deserters and were not supposed to leave the city. This group was linked to Club Eloi and was led by Colonel
481:
grew throughout the Commune, from organizing meetings and training in nursing to arming women and forcing the enlistment of men for the defense of Paris.
758:
or criminals. Generally speaking, it was their revolutionary and ideological activity more than their military activity that worried the Council of War.
574:
233:
one does not see women claiming then, as some had done in 1848, a right of suffrage that their revolutionary companions would have refused them for sure.
738:
many were imprisoned, deported or sentenced to forced labor. Very often, the military authorities always tried to prove either their sexual immorality (
590:, several thousand women took to the barricades to defend the Commune. Louise Michel is known to have dressed in the uniform of the National Guard and
840:
715:
2088:
2143:
1699:
1249:
2010:
680:
415:
555:
The appeal to the executive committee of the Commune showed that women want to be part of the defense of the Commune without distinction of sex:
2131:
237:
On 10 May 1871 the Commission of Work and Exchange recognized the necessity of creating women's unions for the organization of women's work.
2718:
722:
on a barricade on 23 May 1871. 120 women delayed General Clinchant's troops before retreating, exhausted and short of ammunition, to the
211:, were concerned with issues directly related to the fate of women. Women did not have access to positions of power during this period.
786:
wrote in particular "We will say nothing about their females, by respect for the women to whom they resemble - when they are dead".
1646:
1672:
317:
2728:
2627:
2467:
2153:
2064:
1656:
1339:
102:
1401:
Johann Fleuri, « Emploi ou enfant, le dilemme nippon », article paru initialement en octobre 2015 sous le titre
828:
283:
123:
which was the origin of the first French feminist group. Other women also defended the idea of women's liberation such as
48:
443:
added to that of the International since the domination of men over women was one of the elements of the class struggle.
852:
253:
Club de Saint-Nicolas-des-Champs where women, after an initial refusal of their right to speak, contributed strongly.
174:
It is important to note that the women who were active during this siege were also active during the Commune, such as
2448:
2425:
2279:
1548:
1432:
999:
535:
served as platforms for the ideas of André Léo, sometimes in the company of Benoît Malon. Paule Minck also wrote in
1629:
1319:
214:
Many of the Commune's measures, however, concerned the rights of families and workers, such as the recognition of
23:
was an insurrectionary period in the history of Paris that lasted just over two months, from 18 March 1871 to the
2698:
940:
414:(Union of Women for the Defense of Paris and the Care of the Wounded) was created on 11 April 1871, in a café on
325:
267:
2688:
883:
222:, access to education and the facilitation of divorce. Women are the indirect beneficiaries of these measures.
167:
2703:
1985:
1257:
1094:
2263:
1532:
345:
338:
305:
226:
2708:
380:
2713:
2139:
357:
119:
1063:(in French). Presses universitaires de France, coll. « Que sais-je ? ». pp. 94–95.
241:
concerns were more concrete and focused, for example, on equal pay and access to education for girls.
2460:
The Paradise of Association: Political Culture and Popular Organizations in the Paris Commune of 1871
566:
85:
898:
778:
of a strong organization as a means of realization, than most of the members, even of the Commune".
249:
2440:
2417:
698:
219:
107:). The fight for women's rights continued in an intellectual way, leaving aside the working class.
36:
2271:
1540:
1424:
765:
Some managed to escape, with their families if necessary. A general amnesty was declared in 1880.
660:
640:
294:
124:
2723:
2693:
2592:
816:
40:
2534:
1984:
Blois 2018, RĂ©mi Burlot | 7 Nov 2018 |; Blois | 0 |, Rendez-Vous de l'Histoire de (2018-11-07).
162:, took place in front of the Paris City Hall and demanded arms to defend themselves against the
2683:
2665:
2650:
2027:
Dictionnaire des comédiens français, ceux d'hier : biographie, bibliographie, iconographie
889:
600:
570:
2507:
926:
904:
591:
565:
Only the 12th legion managed to organize a company of "volunteer women citizens", called the
2655:
912:
1095:"Rendez-Vous de l'Histoire de (2018-11-07). "Les femmes durant la Commune de Paris (1871)""
783:
671:
65:
2477:
Johnson, Martin P. (1997). "Memory and the Cult of Revolution in the 1871 Paris Commune".
932:
8:
1402:
430:
385:
384:
Appeal to women workers from the Union des femmes on 18 May 1871, signed among others by
141:
2130:
1673:"Le rôle des femmes pendant la Commune Entretien avec Michèle Audin - la voie du jaguar"
684:
447:
Church following the decree of separation of Church and State in schools and hospitals.
363:
2579:
2494:
2198:
2082:
1610:
1384:
2633:
2623:
2550:
2498:
2463:
2444:
2421:
2275:
2190:
2149:
2070:
2060:
2004:
1959:
1951:
1652:
1602:
1585:
Krakovitch, Odile (1997). "Violence des communardes : une mémoire à revisiter".
1544:
1428:
1376:
1335:
1005:
995:
859:
727:
587:
332:
26:
136:
132:
2604:
2571:
2542:
2521:
2486:
1594:
1368:
1331:
1327:
918:
420:
2669:. Translated by Atkinson, James; Atkinson, Starr. New York: George Braziller, Inc.
2546:
2059:. Étienne, ... Dobenesque, Impr. Floch). Paris: La Fabrique éditions. p. 31.
1598:
1372:
643:(24 May 1871), to women who had taken part in the armed struggle, making them the
200:
2025:
759:
755:
2645:
651:
that occurred during the semaine sanglante. This ideology persists to this day.
208:
2512:
426:
389:
287:
175:
93:
2508:"Citizenship and gender: the légion des Fédérées in the Paris Commune of 1871"
750:
according to the terms and the gradation in place) or the fact that they were
635:
623:
Of the 1,050 women judged by the councils of war, most were ambulance nurses,
204:
146:
2677:
2637:
2575:
2554:
2194:
2074:
1963:
1606:
1380:
946:
723:
719:
451:
163:
159:
89:
20:
2608:
2332:
2321:
1009:
624:
2490:
2377:
2365:
2354:
2343:
2102:
1897:
743:
644:
2617:
2054:
2525:
989:
739:
731:
434:
110:
2202:
1614:
1388:
1356:
139:
etc. All this reflection resulted in the creation of newspapers such as
2385:
875:
495:, other women's organizations were also active during the Commune. The
437:(IWA), but the demands were broadened. In their minds, the work of the
215:
188:
128:
2583:
2563:
2378:"Ménand, Anne-Marie, Josèphe (ou Menans, Menan Marie, Louise ?)"
693:
648:
527:
32:
76:
560:
antagonism on which rest the privileges of the governmental classes
403:
178:
and her uniform workshop or Louise Michel who set up an ambulance.
96:
who were however quickly forgotten, for the role they took for the
2274:/ Histoire (in French). Vol. 263. Gallimard. pp. 81–83.
410:
Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés
398:
Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés
45:
Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés
846:
Portrait of Boulanger Eugénie, taken in the prison of Versailles.
751:
747:
605:
and Elizabeth Dmitrieff also took part, leading 140 women of the
459:
2541:(in French) (2). Presses Universitaires de France (PUF): 23–48.
1983:
1700:"ANNA JACLARD (1844- 1887) L'aristocrate russe pétroleuse (16)"
547:
118:
The first French feminists appeared in France after the 1860s.
1250:"" Chronologie de la vie de Louise Michel " sur ac-creteil.fr"
199:
Few of the male leaders of the Commune, with the exception of
874:
Hortense David, Machu's wife, at the prison des Chantiers in
1898:"PRÉVOST Marguerite, née Guinder, dite Lachaise - Maitron"
1854:
158:
On 8 September 1870 a demonstration, led by André Léo and
1734:
1732:
1357:"Violence des communardes : une mémoire à revisiter"
2034:
1866:
1844:
1842:
1409:
No. 150, décembre 2016-janvier 2017, p. 64-64.
402:
One of the first movements openly claiming to be a mass
726:. Many communardes were present for the defense of the
127:, the first woman to obtain the baccalaureate in 1861,
2437:
Surmounting the Barricades: Women in the Paris Commune
2248:
Deraismes, Maria (September 1871). "Les pétroleuses".
1776:
Histoires des clubs de femme et des légions d'amazones
1729:
1557:
171:
opportunity to speak out on issues important to them.
1839:
1773:
1195:
La vie parisienne pendant le siège et sous la Commune
1403:« Les Japonaises indésirables au travail »
808:
458:
Certain district committees demanded the closing of
324:
Club Saint Nicolas at the Club Saint Nicolas at the
71:
1804:"Adresse Ă la commission executive de la Commune".
1543:/ Histoire (in French). Gallimard. pp. 81–83.
834:Portrait of Marie Leroy (took part in the Commune)
614:
2181:Thomas, Edith (1971). "The Women of the Commune".
88:gave birth to some famous female figures such as
2675:
2262:
1531:
2564:"Socialist Women during the 1871 Paris Commune"
2366:Rose Rétif aka Élisabeth Rétiffe sur maitron.fr
1322:. In Cardi, Coline; Pruvost, Geneviève (eds.).
1197:(in French). Éditions Albin Miche. p. 312.
16:Women's actions in the 1871 French insurrection
1986:"Les femmes durant la Commune de Paris (1871)"
1648:Political and Historical Encyclopedia of Women
1326:(in French). La Découverte. pp. 106–111.
1021:
1019:
967:This right will be obtained during the Commune
730:or on the barricades of the Pigalle place, in
468:voted for the complete emancipation of women.
181:
2103:"Excoffon Béatrix [née Euvrie Julia]"
2593:"Le rĂ´le des femmes dans la Commune de 1871"
2087:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1789:"demande de la société Éducation Nouvelle".
702:
606:
503:
490:
476:
463:
438:
407:
372:
273:
24:
2622:(Nouv. Ă©d ed.). Paris: La DĂ©couverte.
2615:
2535:"Les femmes et la Commune de Paris de 1871"
2306:
2009:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1242:
1180:
1168:
1156:
1016:
337:Club Éloi, at the church Saint-Éloi in the
279:The following have left traces in history:
35:refused to recognize the government of the
1584:
1354:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
630:
59:
2590:
2561:
2294:
2247:
2218:
1833:
1761:
1495:
1447:
1317:
1224:
1141:
762:was one of the only ones to defend them.
663:gave a support concert at the Tuileries.
2414:The Paris Commune : a brief history
1627:
1418:
1152:
1150:
1058:
987:
670:
546:
379:
248:
109:
75:
2505:
2476:
2457:
2434:
2411:
2040:
1949:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1872:
1860:
1848:
1778:(in French). Plon-Nourrit. p. 409.
1738:
1580:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1563:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1192:
1045:
991:Paris insurgé : la Commune de 1871
370:
2676:
2662:
2644:
2597:Revue d'Histoire du XIXe siècle - 1848
2532:
2235:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2214:
2212:
2180:
2168:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1938:
1926:
1884:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1723:
1694:
1692:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1470:
1290:
1236:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1120:
1092:
1073:
351:Club des femmes de la Boule noire, on
1644:
1628:Remy, Tristan; RĂ©my, Tristan (1970).
1509:"Les Femmes dans la Commune de Paris"
1147:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1027:"Les Femmes dans la Commune de Paris"
484:
462:with varying degrees of success. The
2095:
2052:
2030:(in French). Vol. 1. p. 9.
1915:
1631:La Commune Ă Montmartre, 23 mai 1871
1569:
1453:
1320:"Des communardes sur les barricades"
1296:
1273:
1230:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
304:Club of Free-thinkers at the church
98:Condition of women in France in 1848
2256:
2224:
2209:
2145:Ne nous libérez pas, on s'en charge
2023:
1970:
1812:
1744:
1689:
1525:
1501:
1476:
1201:
675:Barricade defended by women during
497:Comité des femmes de la rue d'Arras
13:
2654:. La suite des temps (in French).
2268:Paris insurgé - La Commune de 1871
1638:
1537:Paris insurgé - La Commune de 1871
1421:Paris insurgé - La Commune de 1871
1412:
1395:
1126:
1105:
804:, Glénat, Vents d'Ouest, 2015-2016
691:Some Parisian newspapers, such as
551:Louise Michel in military uniform.
435:International Workers' Association
331:Club of Notre-Dame-de-la-Croix in
244:
194:
14:
2740:
2322:Marie Thérèse Leroy on maitron.fr
1079:
809:Photo gallery of women communards
362:, chaired by Sophie Poirier with
313:Saint-Lambert de Vaugirard Church
284:Comité de vigilance de Montmartre
72:Emergence of the women's movement
49:Comité de vigilance de Montmartre
39:, which had just been elected by
2462:. University of Michigan Press.
2458:Johnson, Martin Phillip (1996).
2412:Eichner, Carolyn Jeanne (2022).
1806:Journal Officiel (De la Commune)
1061:La Commune de 1871 (chapter 581)
939:
925:
911:
897:
882:
867:
851:
839:
827:
815:
615:Ambulance nurses and cantinières
31:that ended on 28 May 1871. This
2719:19th century in women's history
2506:Johnson, Martin Philip (1994).
2405:
2370:
2359:
2348:
2344:Eulalie Papavoine on maitron.fr
2337:
2333:Eugénie Boulanger on maitron.fr
2326:
2315:
2309:Les Ă©crivains contre la Commune
2300:
2288:
2241:
2174:
2162:
2124:
2046:
2017:
1943:
1932:
1890:
1878:
1797:
1782:
1767:
1717:
1665:
1645:Fauré, Christine (2004-06-02).
1634:(in French). Éditions sociales.
1621:
1441:
1348:
1186:
1174:
961:
326:Saint-Nicolas-des-Champs Church
1774:Villiers boimare (de) (1910).
1332:10.3917/dec.cardi.2012.01.0106
1162:
1067:
981:
654:
611:to the rue Blanche barricade.
516:
1:
2729:First-wave feminism in France
2616:Riot-Sarcey, Michèle (2008).
2591:Schulkind, Eugene W. (1950).
2547:10.3917/rhis.g1997.603n2.0023
2355:Hortense Aurore on maitron.fr
1950:Bensaad, AnaĂŻs (2014-10-16).
1599:10.3917/rhis.g1997.602n1.0521
1373:10.3917/rhis.g1997.602n1.0521
1324:Penser la violence des femmes
974:
768:
293:Club de la DĂ©livrance at the
2435:Eichner, Carolyn J. (2004).
2148:(in French). La DĂ©couverte.
1427:/ Histoire. pp. 81–83.
1423:(in French). Vol. 263.
789:
7:
2053:Ross, Kristin, ... (2015).
1318:Deluermoz, Quentin (2012).
1093:Burlot, RĂ©mi (2018-11-07).
542:
311:Club of Patriotic Women in
263:Clubs of the Paris Commune.
182:The outbreak of the Commune
153:
10:
2745:
2562:Schulkind, Eugene (1985).
2479:Journal of Women's History
2140:Michelle Zancarini-Fournel
2056:L'imaginaire de la Commune
1791:Journal Officiel (Commune)
1419:Rougerie, Jacques (2003).
1355:Krakovitch, Odile (1997).
1059:Rougerie, Jacques (2014).
988:Rougerie, Jacques (1995).
395:
168:siege of Paris (1870–1871)
150:legal and civil equality.
54:
794:
666:
567:Federated Legion of Women
306:Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois
86:French Revolution of 1848
37:National Assembly of 1871
2441:Indiana University Press
2418:Rutgers University Press
2183:The Massachusetts Review
954:
511:
465:Club des libres penseurs
2609:10.3406/r1848.1950.1467
2533:Linton, Marisa (1997).
1706:(in French). 2011-07-27
1193:Alméras, Henri (1927).
450:The Union demanded the
353:Rue des Acacias (Paris)
348:with up to 3,000 women.
60:A precarious daily life
41:universal male suffrage
2699:Women in war in France
2666:The Women Incendiaries
2576:10.1093/past/106.1.124
2491:10.1353/jowh.2010.0188
703:
688:
607:
562:
552:
504:
491:
477:
464:
439:
408:
393:
373:
274:
258:
235:
115:
81:
25:
2689:19th century in Paris
2619:Histoire du féminisme
2416:. New Brunswick, NJ:
2272:DĂ©couvertes Gallimard
1541:DĂ©couvertes Gallimard
1425:DĂ©couvertes Gallimard
677:the semaine sanglante
674:
557:
550:
475:The influence of the
383:
344:Club Ambroise in the
252:
231:
125:Julie-Victoire Daubié
113:
79:
2704:Feminism and history
2307:Paul Lidsky (1970).
1956:Genre & Histoire
1593:(2 (602)): 521–531.
1367:(2 (602)): 521–531.
994:. Paris: Gallimard.
784:Alexandre Dumas fils
728:Montparnasse station
261:The creation of the
66:Second French Empire
2439:. Bloomington, IN:
2250:L'Avenir des Femmes
1513:www.commune1871.org
1031:www.commune1871.org
905:Elisabeth Dmitrieff
596:Marguerite Lachaise
594:was wounded twice.
489:In addition to the
431:Élisabeth Dmitrieff
386:Élisabeth Dmitrieff
346:11th arrondissement
339:12th arrondissement
297:, presided over by
142:Le Droit des femmes
2709:Feminism in France
2656:Éditions Gallimard
2568:Past & Present
2526:10.1093/fh/8.3.276
2136:Florence Rochefort
1958:(in French) (14).
1863:, p. 103-104.
1677:lavoiedujaguar.net
802:Communardes !
707:on 11 April 1871.
689:
553:
505:Éducation Nouvelle
485:Other associations
394:
392:and Aline Jacquier
366:as vice-president.
259:
116:
82:
2714:Women in politics
2629:978-2-7071-5472-9
2469:978-0-472-10724-7
2155:978-2-348-05567-6
2066:978-2-35872-064-9
1658:978-1-135-45691-7
1341:978-2-7071-7296-9
933:Anne-Marie MĂ©nand
890:Élisabeth Rétiffe
860:Eulalie Papavoine
822:Elisabeth Javelin
699:National Assembly
627:or food sellers.
588:semaine sanglante
575:Louise Neckbecker
571:Adélaïde Valentin
27:Semaine sanglante
2736:
2670:
2663:— (1966).
2659:
2641:
2612:
2587:
2570:(106): 124–163.
2558:
2539:Revue historique
2529:
2502:
2473:
2454:
2431:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2393:
2374:
2368:
2363:
2357:
2352:
2346:
2341:
2335:
2330:
2324:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2304:
2298:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2264:Jacques Rougerie
2260:
2254:
2253:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2222:
2216:
2207:
2206:
2178:
2172:
2166:
2160:
2159:
2128:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2086:
2078:
2050:
2044:
2043:, p. 46-48.
2038:
2032:
2031:
2024:Lyonnet, Henry.
2021:
2015:
2014:
2008:
2000:
1998:
1997:
1981:
1968:
1967:
1947:
1941:
1936:
1930:
1929:, pp. 41–42
1924:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1894:
1888:
1882:
1876:
1875:, p. 71-72.
1870:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1846:
1837:
1836:, pp. 24–27
1831:
1810:
1809:
1808:. 14 April 1871.
1801:
1795:
1794:
1793:. April 2, 1871.
1786:
1780:
1779:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1742:
1736:
1727:
1721:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1711:
1696:
1687:
1686:
1684:
1683:
1669:
1663:
1662:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1587:Revue Historique
1582:
1567:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1533:Jacques Rougerie
1529:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1519:
1505:
1499:
1498:, pp. 21–22
1493:
1474:
1473:, pp. 37–39
1468:
1451:
1450:, pp. 23–24
1445:
1439:
1438:
1416:
1410:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1361:Revue Historique
1352:
1346:
1345:
1315:
1294:
1293:, pp. 35–36
1288:
1271:
1270:. via Archive.is
1269:
1267:
1265:
1256:. Archived from
1246:
1240:
1234:
1228:
1227:, pp. 18–20
1222:
1199:
1198:
1190:
1184:
1181:Riot-Sarcey 2008
1178:
1172:
1169:Riot-Sarcey 2008
1166:
1160:
1157:Riot-Sarcey 2008
1154:
1145:
1144:, pp. 15–17
1139:
1124:
1123:, pp. 26–28
1118:
1103:
1102:
1090:
1077:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1056:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1023:
1014:
1013:
985:
968:
965:
943:
929:
919:Victorine Gorget
915:
901:
886:
871:
855:
843:
831:
819:
800:Wilfrid Lupano,
706:
704:Union des femmes
685:Musée Carnavalet
679:. Lithograph by
610:
608:Union des femmes
604:
592:Léontine Suétens
507:
494:
492:Union des femmes
480:
478:Union des femmes
467:
442:
440:Union des femmes
424:
413:
376:
374:Union des femmes
364:BĂ©atrix Excoffon
361:
321:
299:LodoĂŻska Caweska
277:
275:Union des femmes
271:
227:Jacques Rougerie
106:
30:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2734:
2733:
2674:
2673:
2651:Les PĂ©troleuses
2630:
2470:
2451:
2428:
2408:
2403:
2402:
2391:
2389:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2364:
2360:
2353:
2349:
2342:
2338:
2331:
2327:
2320:
2316:
2305:
2301:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2261:
2257:
2246:
2242:
2234:
2225:
2217:
2210:
2179:
2175:
2167:
2163:
2156:
2129:
2125:
2114:
2112:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2080:
2079:
2067:
2051:
2047:
2039:
2035:
2022:
2018:
2002:
2001:
1995:
1993:
1982:
1971:
1948:
1944:
1937:
1933:
1925:
1916:
1907:
1905:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1883:
1879:
1871:
1867:
1859:
1855:
1847:
1840:
1832:
1813:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1788:
1787:
1783:
1772:
1768:
1760:
1745:
1737:
1730:
1722:
1718:
1709:
1707:
1698:
1697:
1690:
1681:
1679:
1671:
1670:
1666:
1659:
1643:
1639:
1626:
1622:
1583:
1570:
1562:
1558:
1551:
1530:
1526:
1517:
1515:
1507:
1506:
1502:
1494:
1477:
1469:
1454:
1446:
1442:
1435:
1417:
1413:
1407:Manière de voir
1400:
1396:
1353:
1349:
1342:
1316:
1297:
1289:
1274:
1263:
1261:
1248:
1247:
1243:
1235:
1231:
1223:
1202:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1155:
1148:
1140:
1127:
1119:
1106:
1091:
1080:
1072:
1068:
1057:
1046:
1035:
1033:
1025:
1024:
1017:
1002:
986:
982:
977:
972:
971:
966:
962:
957:
950:
944:
935:
930:
921:
916:
907:
902:
893:
887:
878:
872:
863:
856:
847:
844:
835:
832:
823:
820:
811:
797:
792:
771:
760:Maria Deraismes
718:, defended the
716:Malvina Poulain
669:
657:
641:Paris City Hall
633:
617:
598:
545:
519:
514:
487:
418:
400:
378:
355:
315:
265:
257:, 20 April 1871
247:
245:Political Clubs
197:
195:Social measures
184:
156:
100:
74:
62:
57:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2742:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2724:Women in Paris
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2694:1871 in France
2691:
2686:
2672:
2671:
2660:
2642:
2628:
2613:
2603:(185): 15–29.
2588:
2559:
2530:
2520:(3): 276-295.
2513:French History
2503:
2474:
2468:
2455:
2449:
2432:
2426:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2388:. 30 June 2020
2369:
2358:
2347:
2336:
2325:
2314:
2299:
2295:Schulkind 1950
2287:
2280:
2255:
2240:
2223:
2219:Schulkind 1950
2208:
2173:
2161:
2154:
2142:(2020-09-03).
2123:
2111:. 26 July 2009
2094:
2065:
2045:
2033:
2016:
1990:Les Clionautes
1969:
1942:
1931:
1914:
1904:. 30 June 2020
1889:
1877:
1865:
1853:
1838:
1834:Schulkind 1950
1811:
1796:
1781:
1766:
1762:Schulkind 1950
1743:
1741:, p. 245.
1728:
1716:
1688:
1664:
1657:
1637:
1620:
1568:
1566:, p. 167.
1556:
1549:
1524:
1500:
1496:Schulkind 1950
1475:
1452:
1448:Schulkind 1950
1440:
1433:
1411:
1394:
1347:
1340:
1295:
1272:
1241:
1229:
1225:Schulkind 1950
1200:
1185:
1173:
1161:
1146:
1142:Schulkind 1950
1125:
1104:
1099:Les Clionautes
1078:
1066:
1044:
1015:
1000:
979:
978:
976:
973:
970:
969:
959:
958:
956:
953:
952:
951:
945:
938:
936:
931:
924:
922:
917:
910:
908:
903:
896:
894:
888:
881:
879:
873:
866:
864:
857:
850:
848:
845:
838:
836:
833:
826:
824:
821:
814:
810:
807:
806:
805:
796:
793:
791:
788:
770:
767:
668:
665:
656:
653:
632:
629:
616:
613:
544:
541:
518:
515:
513:
510:
486:
483:
427:Nathalie Lemel
406:movement, the
396:Main article:
390:Nathalie Lemel
377:
369:
368:
367:
349:
342:
335:
329:
322:
309:
302:
295:Trinité church
291:
288:Sophie Poirier
255:L'Illustration
246:
243:
225:The historian
196:
193:
183:
180:
176:Sophie Poirier
155:
152:
137:Adèle Esquiros
133:Amélie Bosquet
94:Pauline Roland
73:
70:
61:
58:
56:
53:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2741:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2684:Paris Commune
2682:
2681:
2679:
2668:
2667:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2647:
2646:Thomas, Édith
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2625:
2621:
2620:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2465:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2450:0-253-34442-5
2446:
2442:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2427:9781978827684
2423:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2409:
2387:
2384:(in French).
2383:
2379:
2373:
2367:
2362:
2356:
2351:
2345:
2340:
2334:
2329:
2323:
2318:
2310:
2303:
2296:
2291:
2283:
2281:2-07-053289-5
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2259:
2251:
2244:
2237:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2220:
2215:
2213:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2177:
2170:
2165:
2157:
2151:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2127:
2110:
2109:
2104:
2098:
2090:
2084:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2062:
2058:
2057:
2049:
2042:
2037:
2029:
2028:
2020:
2012:
2006:
1991:
1987:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1940:
1935:
1928:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1886:
1881:
1874:
1869:
1862:
1857:
1851:, p. 71.
1850:
1845:
1843:
1835:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1807:
1800:
1792:
1785:
1777:
1770:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1740:
1735:
1733:
1725:
1720:
1705:
1701:
1695:
1693:
1678:
1674:
1668:
1660:
1654:
1651:. Routledge.
1650:
1649:
1641:
1633:
1632:
1624:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1565:
1560:
1552:
1550:2-07-053289-5
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1528:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1497:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1472:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1449:
1444:
1436:
1434:2-07-053289-5
1430:
1426:
1422:
1415:
1408:
1404:
1398:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1343:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1292:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1260:on 2012-12-09
1259:
1255:
1254:ac-creteil.fr
1251:
1245:
1238:
1233:
1226:
1221:
1219:
1217:
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1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1196:
1189:
1182:
1177:
1170:
1165:
1158:
1153:
1151:
1143:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1122:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1100:
1096:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1075:
1070:
1062:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1032:
1028:
1022:
1020:
1011:
1007:
1003:
1001:2-07-053289-5
997:
993:
992:
984:
980:
964:
960:
948:
947:Louise Pioger
942:
937:
934:
928:
923:
920:
914:
909:
906:
900:
895:
891:
885:
880:
877:
870:
865:
861:
854:
849:
842:
837:
830:
825:
818:
813:
812:
803:
799:
798:
787:
785:
779:
775:
766:
763:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
735:
733:
729:
725:
724:Place Pigalle
721:
720:Place Blanche
717:
712:
708:
705:
700:
696:
695:
686:
682:
678:
673:
664:
662:
652:
650:
646:
642:
637:
631:"PĂ©troleuses"
628:
626:
621:
612:
609:
602:
597:
593:
589:
584:
582:
578:
576:
572:
568:
561:
556:
549:
540:
538:
534:
530:
529:
524:
509:
506:
500:
498:
493:
482:
479:
473:
469:
466:
461:
456:
453:
452:right to work
448:
444:
441:
436:
432:
428:
422:
417:
416:rue du Temple
412:
411:
405:
399:
391:
387:
382:
375:
365:
359:
354:
350:
347:
343:
340:
336:
334:
330:
327:
323:
319:
314:
310:
307:
303:
300:
296:
292:
289:
285:
282:
281:
280:
276:
269:
264:
256:
251:
242:
238:
234:
230:
228:
223:
221:
217:
212:
210:
206:
202:
201:Eugène Varlin
192:
190:
179:
177:
172:
169:
165:
164:Prussian Army
161:
160:Louise Michel
151:
148:
144:
143:
138:
134:
130:
126:
121:
112:
108:
104:
99:
95:
91:
90:Jeanne Deroin
87:
78:
69:
67:
52:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
29:
28:
22:
21:Paris Commune
2664:
2649:
2618:
2600:
2596:
2567:
2538:
2517:
2511:
2485:(1): 39–57.
2482:
2478:
2459:
2436:
2413:
2406:Bibliography
2390:. Retrieved
2381:
2372:
2361:
2350:
2339:
2328:
2317:
2308:
2302:
2297:, p. 29
2290:
2267:
2258:
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1927:Linton 1997
1885:Linton 1997
1724:Linton 1997
1471:Linton 1997
1291:Linton 1997
1264:19 November
1237:Linton 1997
1121:Linton 1997
1074:Linton 1997
949:, songmaker
892:(1834-1882)
659:The singer
655:Other roles
625:cantinières
599: [
586:During the
517:Journalists
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266: [
229:noted that
205:LĂ©o Frankel
147:LĂ©on Richer
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2678:Categories
2386:Le Maitron
2382:maitron.fr
2189:(3): 416.
2108:Le Maitron
1996:2020-12-29
1908:2021-01-03
1902:maitron.fr
1710:2020-11-02
1704:L'Humanité
1682:2021-09-14
1518:2020-10-22
975:References
876:Versailles
769:Importance
756:hysterical
744:prostitute
732:Batignolle
645:scapegoats
636:PĂ©troleuse
537:La Commune
533:La Sociale
523:La Commune
333:Belleville
216:free union
189:Montmartre
129:Paule Mink
114:Paule Mink
64:Under the
2638:300280620
2555:0035-3264
2499:144137693
2195:0025-4878
2083:cite book
2075:902796458
1964:2102-5886
1607:0035-3264
1381:0035-3264
790:Posterity
740:concubine
694:Le Rappel
649:vandalism
528:Le Rappel
220:equal pay
191:hilltop.
120:André Léo
80:André Léo
2648:(1963).
2392:31 March
2266:(2003).
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647:for the
543:Soldiers
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