820:
failure. In addition to reward and punishment, the general should inculcate (essentially pseudo-Confucian) values into his soldiers: men fighting for what they believe is a moral cause will prefer death to living ignominiously, improving the chances of success for both the individual soldier and the army as a whole. It is only with the combination of both moral focus and effective rewards and punishments that the army will become a disciplined, spirited, strongly motivated force.
368:
758:. The work attempts to resolve a humanistic (Confucian) concern for moral values and benevolent government with an administrative (Legalist) need for strict, predictable rewards and punishments. The attempted synthesis between Confucian and Legalist values is common to other military treatises dated more conclusively to the
898:" existed, but (at least) one of them has been lost. The fact that large portions of the text seem to have been either lost or deliberately excised from surviving editions makes the dating of the work more challenging. There is evidence both supporting the theory that much of the present text was authored in the mid-
807:
Harmony and organization are equally important to each other: without harmony, an organization will not be cohesive; but, without organization, harmony will not be effective in achieving collective goals. There are three steps to achieving a disciplined, effective fighting force: proper organization;
778:
As a young man, Wu Qi spent a formative three years as a student of
Confucianism. After gaining several years of administrative experience, he came to believe that, in order for benevolence and righteousness to survive in his time, military strength and preparation were necessary. Without a strong
1083:
period, the text's emphasis on cavalry implies that present editions must have been edited after Wu Qi's death (unless cavalry became important in central China much earlier than presently believed). Unless evidence is found that cavalry became important in China before c. 300 BC (the date modern
909:
date of composition and authorship, based on historical references and the book's content, concludes that the core of the work was likely authored by Wu Qi himself, but was likely subject to serious losses of content, revisions, and accretions after his lifetime. This theory assumes that Wu Qi's
774:
consists of six sections, each focusing on a critical aspect of military affairs: Planning for the State; Evaluating the Enemy; Controlling the Army; the Tao of the
General; Responding to Change; and, Stimulating the Officers. Although each chapter is less concentrated than the traditional topic
827:
advises generals to adopt different tactics and strategy based on their assessment of battlefield situations. Factors affecting appropriate tactics and strategy include: the relative terrain and weather of the engagement; the national character of the combatants; the enemy commander's personal
819:
states that rewards and punishments are, by themselves, insufficient: excessive reward may cause individuals to pursue profit and glory at the expense of the group, while excessive punishment can lower morale, in the worst cases forcing men to flee service rather than face the consequences of
1103:
himself, but that in the course of transmission and revision, later
Warring States strategists (and probably Han students)... added passages on cavalry and otherwise emended some of the terminology." By being a work which was the product of a famous historical figure, but amended by future
697:
795:
places a greater importance and focus on raising and maintaining a force of cavalry more than on maintaining infantry in its discussions of logistics. Because of the shift away from warfare fought among nobility, towards the mass mobilization of civilian armies, the
910:
disciples initially continued amending the text, but cannot account for some content that seems to have been inserted as late as the Han dynasty (possibly in an effort to "update" the work). The following five points summarize this study's conclusions regarding the
783:
states that commanders must be selected carefully, ideally from those possessing courage and who excelled in military arts, but who also possessed good civil administration skills, and who displayed
Confucian virtues, particularly those of wisdom and self-control.
828:
history and characteristics; and, the relative morale, discipline, fatigue, number, and general quality of both friendly and enemy forces. In gathering this information, and in preventing the enemy from gaining it, espionage and deception are paramount.
779:
military to defend the just, he believed that
Confucian virtues would disappear, and evil would dominate the world. Because of his emphasis on the importance of the military for safeguarding civil rights and liberty, the author of the
1078:
s authenticity cannot account for center on the book's description of cavalry as a major, important branch of the military. Because the use of cavalry (presumably) did not become important until the (very)
800:
stresses the importance of gaining the strong support and loyalty of the common people. Because of its focus on the importance of civil administration as a necessary aid to military strength, the
1058:; and, the appearance of certain astrological banners used by different units. Because recent archeological discoveries have confirmed that all of these "anachronous" practices existed by the
808:
extensive training; and, thorough motivation. It is only after the creation of a disciplined, cohesive army that achieving victory becomes a matter of tactics and strategy. Much of the
1054:
period. The list of items (then) considered anachronous includes: playing pipes in camp; the inclusion of terms not otherwise known to have been invented until after the
804:
stresses the implementation of
Confucian policies designed to improve the material welfare of the people, gain their emotional support, and support their moral virtues.
254:
1050:
Qing scholastic criticism discounted the possible authenticity of the text based on its mention of military practices then considered anachronous to the
338:
1038:
was written from the perspective of an official with both civil and martial responsibilities supports the theory that it dates from the early
1099:
Modern scholars conclude that the most satisfying conclusion, accounting for the above facts, is that the text was substantially created by "
727:
s final composition, but the core of the work is nominally assumed to have been composed around Wu Qi's lifetime (440–381 BC), in the mid-
658:
932:, that "Within the borders everyone speaks about warfare, and everywhere households secretly store away the books of Sun and Wu." The
167:
723:(960–1279). Because of the lack of surviving copies, there is no consensus among modern scholars concerning the latest date of the
331:
836:
Because of the lack of archaeological evidence, there is no consensus among modern scholars concerning the date that The
1030:
Wu Qi was both a civil and military leader, and excelled in both occupations. This dual role was common until the early
630:
815:
Regarding the
Legalist theories of achieving desired action through the proper exercise of reward and punishment, the
247:
1404:
422:
324:
651:
195:
35:
1409:
755:
359:
54:
174:
151:
1399:
625:
950:
period. The record of continuous attention supports the view that was continuously transmitted from the
844:
was one of the most widely referenced books on military strategy among the records that existed in the
644:
854:
791:
were heavily dependent on the horse, both for transportation and for the power of the chariot, the
1148:
1133:
1109:
1007:
985:
887:
775:
headings would suggest, they depict the subject matter and general scope of the book as a whole.
690:
570:
274:
226:
204:
707:
It is said there were two books on the art of war by Wu Qi, but one was lost, hence leaving the
615:
564:
1138:
490:
281:
592:
990:
233:
8:
387:
970:
shares both concepts and whole passages with other works dated more conclusively to the
926:
period. The assertion of the book's early popularity is based on the comment, from the
678:
513:
460:
682:
465:
392:
128:
120:
397:
85:
1122:
1089:
1080:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1039:
1031:
999:
971:
955:
951:
947:
923:
899:
891:
879:
845:
788:
759:
736:
728:
288:
212:
144:
137:
106:
1084:
scholars generally assume
Cavalry became important), then either parts of the
747:
pays significant attention to the logistical achievement of war preparedness.
1393:
750:
The philosophical content of the work mainly consists of a synthesis between
557:
533:
437:
302:
1019:
751:
743:. In addition to strategic/tactical studies and the philosophy of war, the
720:
528:
475:
92:
1143:
1093:
943:
883:
740:
495:
295:
160:
980:
922:
The writings of Wu Qi were known to be in wide circulation by the late
587:
538:
523:
480:
407:
402:
382:
240:
45:
42:
928:
865:
860:
597:
576:
309:
1034:
period, but disappeared in later
Chinese history. The fact that the
485:
470:
417:
1011:
427:
149:
620:
518:
455:
367:
1128:
1100:
961:
934:
870:
712:
701:
696:
686:
432:
412:
1088:, or the entire text, must be attributed either to the late
172:
1308:. Peking: Chieh-fang-chun ch'u-pan-she. 1986. pp. 3–12.
1010:
had been lost for two thousand years, so passages from
1025:
848:
period. (Notable contemporary records mentioning the
125:
111:
97:
840:
was composed, and/or last modified. A work known as
1108:s composition is very similar to most of the other
1391:
1074:Remaining criticisms which the defenders of the
1014:'s work could not have been lifted to forge the
731:period. Historical references indicate that the
812:discusses the means to achieve such a force.
652:
332:
59:
40:
1381:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1366:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1351:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1336:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1321:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1291:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1276:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1261:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1246:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1231:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1216:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1201:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1186:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1171:The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
1022:, as was claimed in later Chinese history.)
1006:predates these other works, largely because
902:, and that it was modified after this date.
1383:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. pp. 454–455.
1323:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. pp. 453–454.
1278:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. pp. 191–192.
1263:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. pp. 204–205.
1203:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. pp. 202–203.
962:Shared passages between contemporary works
659:
645:
339:
325:
1045:
978:shares the greatest resemblance are the
917:
735:was very famous and popular in both the
695:
1069:
942:continued to be studied both by famous
1392:
1368:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. p. 454.
1353:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. p. 454.
1338:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. p. 454.
1293:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. p. 455.
1248:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. p. 204.
1233:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. p. 204.
1218:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. p. 203.
1188:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. p. 202.
1173:. New York: Basic Books. 2007. p. 454.
127:
994:.) The close similarities that the
938:corroborates this information. The
719:edition that survives dates to the
711:as the only existing book carrying
13:
1026:Perspective / occupation of writer
974:period. (The texts with which the
765:
689:. It is considered one of China's
631:Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius
14:
1421:
1062:, this Qing-era evidence for the
998:shares with other works from the
905:The most systematic study of the
890:. There is evidence that, in the
715:'s military thoughts. The oldest
248:Three Strategies of Huang Shigong
1104:generations of strategists, the
874:, equates the popularity of the
366:
1371:
1356:
1341:
1326:
1311:
1303:Li Shou-chih and Wang Shih-chin
1296:
173:
150:
1281:
1266:
1251:
1236:
1221:
1206:
1191:
1176:
1161:
894:, two different texts titled "
126:
112:
98:
60:
41:
1:
946:figures, and by those in the
831:
7:
1115:
626:Discourses on Salt and Iron
10:
1426:
186:
166:
159:
143:
136:
119:
105:
91:
84:
79:
75:
67:
53:
34:
30:
23:
1154:
1066:s forgery is not valid.
1002:period suggest that the
855:Spring and Autumn Annals
770:The present text of the
36:Traditional Chinese
1405:Seven Military Classics
1134:Seven Military Classics
1110:Seven Military Classics
914:s date of composition.
691:Seven Military Classics
227:The Methods of the Sima
205:Seven Military Classics
55:Simplified Chinese
1046:Archaeological support
787:Because armies in the
704:
616:Rectification of names
565:The Book of Lord Shang
196:Chinese military texts
1139:Warring States period
918:Historical references
699:
282:Thirty-Six Stratagems
255:Questions and Replies
1410:4th-century BC books
1149:Sun Bin's Art of War
1070:Remaining criticisms
1008:Sun Bin's Art of War
991:Six Secret Teachings
986:Sun Bin's Art of War
888:Sun Tzu's Art of War
275:Sun Bin's Art of War
234:Six Secret Teachings
1018:(just prior to the
954:until at least the
571:Shenzi (both books)
388:Marquess Wen of Wei
354:Part of a series on
1400:Zhou dynasty texts
1306:Wu-tzu Ch'ien-shuo
739:period and in the
705:
593:Annals of Lü Buwei
514:Emperor Wen of Sui
461:Emperor Wen of Han
683:military strategy
669:
668:
610:Relevant articles
466:Emperor Wu of Han
349:
348:
190:
189:
182:
181:
86:Standard Mandarin
1417:
1384:
1379:
1378:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1375:
1369:
1364:
1363:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1360:
1354:
1349:
1348:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1345:
1339:
1334:
1333:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1330:
1324:
1319:
1318:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1315:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1294:
1289:
1288:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1285:
1279:
1274:
1273:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1270:
1264:
1259:
1258:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1255:
1249:
1244:
1243:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1240:
1234:
1229:
1228:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1225:
1219:
1214:
1213:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1210:
1204:
1199:
1198:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1195:
1189:
1184:
1183:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1180:
1174:
1169:
1168:Sawyer, Ralph D.
1165:
661:
654:
647:
398:Duke Xiao of Qin
370:
360:Chinese legalism
351:
350:
341:
334:
327:
192:
191:
178:
177:
176:
155:
154:
153:
132:
131:
130:
115:
114:
101:
100:
77:
76:
63:
62:
49:
48:
21:
20:
1425:
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1414:
1390:
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1357:
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1327:
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1227:
1226:
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1212:
1211:
1207:
1197:
1196:
1192:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1118:
1072:
1048:
1028:
964:
920:
886:, with that of
834:
768:
766:Military theory
665:
636:
635:
611:
603:
602:
552:
544:
543:
509:
501:
500:
451:
443:
442:
378:
345:
316:
315:
269:
261:
260:
207:
68:Literal meaning
17:
12:
11:
5:
1423:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1386:
1385:
1370:
1355:
1340:
1325:
1310:
1295:
1280:
1265:
1250:
1235:
1220:
1205:
1190:
1175:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1123:The Art of War
1117:
1114:
1090:Warring States
1081:Warring States
1071:
1068:
1060:Warring States
1056:Warring States
1052:Warring States
1047:
1044:
1040:Warring States
1032:Warring States
1027:
1024:
1000:Warring States
972:Warring States
963:
960:
956:Three Kingdoms
952:Warring States
948:Three Kingdoms
924:Warring States
919:
916:
900:Warring States
892:Warring States
880:Warring States
878:, in both the
846:Warring States
833:
830:
789:Warring States
767:
764:
760:Warring States
737:Warring States
729:Warring States
685:attributed to
667:
666:
664:
663:
656:
649:
641:
638:
637:
634:
633:
628:
623:
618:
612:
609:
608:
605:
604:
601:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
573:
568:
561:
553:
551:Relevant texts
550:
549:
546:
545:
542:
541:
536:
531:
526:
521:
516:
510:
507:
506:
503:
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488:
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405:
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355:
347:
346:
344:
343:
336:
329:
321:
318:
317:
314:
313:
306:
299:
292:
289:Wujing Zongyao
285:
278:
270:
267:
266:
263:
262:
259:
258:
251:
244:
237:
230:
223:
216:
213:The Art of War
208:
203:
202:
199:
198:
188:
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180:
179:
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164:
163:
157:
156:
147:
145:Middle Chinese
141:
140:
138:Middle Chinese
134:
133:
123:
117:
116:
109:
103:
102:
95:
89:
88:
82:
81:
80:Transcriptions
73:
72:
69:
65:
64:
57:
51:
50:
38:
32:
31:
28:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1422:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1395:
1382:
1374:
1367:
1359:
1352:
1344:
1337:
1329:
1322:
1314:
1307:
1299:
1292:
1284:
1277:
1269:
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1130:
1127:
1125:
1124:
1120:
1119:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1092:or the early
1091:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1023:
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987:
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977:
973:
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941:
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936:
931:
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915:
913:
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903:
901:
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893:
889:
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881:
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867:
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862:
857:
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843:
839:
829:
826:
821:
818:
813:
811:
805:
803:
799:
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790:
785:
782:
776:
773:
763:
761:
757:
753:
748:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
703:
698:
694:
692:
688:
684:
680:
677:is a classic
676:
675:
662:
657:
655:
650:
648:
643:
642:
640:
639:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
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599:
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584:
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569:
567:
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560:
559:
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554:
548:
547:
540:
537:
535:
534:Zhang Juzheng
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
511:
508:Later figures
505:
504:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
453:
447:
446:
439:
438:Qin Shi Huang
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
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419:
416:
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411:
409:
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401:
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365:
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342:
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330:
328:
323:
322:
320:
319:
312:
311:
307:
305:
304:
303:Jixiao Xinshu
300:
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286:
284:
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70:
66:
58:
56:
52:
47:
44:
39:
37:
33:
29:
26:
22:
19:
16:Book by Wu Qi
1380:
1373:
1365:
1358:
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1105:
1098:
1085:
1075:
1073:
1063:
1049:
1035:
1029:
1020:Tang dynasty
1015:
1003:
995:
989:
979:
975:
967:
965:
939:
933:
927:
921:
911:
906:
904:
895:
875:
869:
859:
853:
849:
841:
837:
835:
824:
822:
816:
814:
809:
806:
801:
797:
792:
786:
780:
777:
771:
769:
752:Confucianism
749:
744:
732:
724:
721:Song dynasty
716:
708:
706:
700:Portrait of
673:
672:
670:
582:
575:
563:
556:
529:Li Shanchang
476:Gongsun Hong
308:
301:
294:
287:
280:
273:
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225:
219:
218:
211:
175:/*ŋʷaːʔslɯʔ/
93:Hanyu Pinyin
24:
18:
1144:Han dynasty
1094:Han dynasty
944:Han dynasty
884:Han dynasty
741:Han dynasty
496:Zhuge Liang
450:Han figures
296:Huolongjing
268:Other texts
161:Old Chinese
1394:Categories
988:, and the
981:Wei Liaozi
832:Authorship
588:Wei Liaozi
539:Xu Guangqi
524:Wang Anshi
481:Zhang Tang
408:Shen Buhai
403:Shang Yang
383:Guan Zhong
241:Wei Liaozi
168:Zhengzhang
107:Wade–Giles
929:Han Feizi
868:, in his
866:Sima Qian
861:Han Feizi
598:Huang-Lao
577:Han Feizi
310:Wubei Zhi
152:/ŋuot͡sɨ/
71:Master Wu
1116:See also
958:period.
882:and the
858:and the
852:are the
762:period.
756:Legalism
681:work on
486:Huan Tan
471:Chao Cuo
423:Zhang Yi
418:Shen Dao
1012:Sun Bin
679:Chinese
491:Wang Fu
428:Han Fei
377:Figures
907:Wuzi's
621:Wu wei
558:Guanzi
519:Du You
456:Jia Yi
393:Li Kui
113:Wu-tzŭ
1155:Notes
1129:Wu Qi
1106:Wuzi'
1101:Wu Qi
1079:late-
1076:Wuzi'
1064:Wuzi'
935:Shiji
912:Wuzi'
871:Shiji
725:Wuzi'
713:Wu Qi
702:Wu Qi
687:Wu Qi
433:Li Si
413:Wu Qi
1086:Wuzi
1036:Wuzi
1016:Wuzi
1004:Wuzi
996:Wuzi
976:Wuzi
968:Wuzi
966:The
940:Wuzi
896:Wuzi
876:Wuzi
850:Wuzi
842:Wuzi
838:Wuzi
825:Wuzi
823:The
817:Wuzi
810:Wuzi
802:Wuzi
798:Wuzi
793:Wuzi
781:Wuzi
772:Wuzi
754:and
745:Wuzi
733:Wuzi
717:Wuzi
709:Wuzi
674:Wuzi
671:The
583:Wuzi
220:Wuzi
99:Wúzǐ
25:Wuzi
864:.)
121:IPA
1396::
1112:.
1096:.
1042:.
984:,
693:.
61:吴子
660:e
653:t
646:v
340:e
333:t
326:v
46:子
43:吳
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