725:
exhibits evidence of a major population decline and it has been suggested that the abundant springs of the
Jurreru Valley may have offered its inhabitants unique protection. At the Jurreru Valley in southern India, Middle Paleolithic stone tools below the Toba ash layer are dated by OSL to 77±4 kyr, while the age of stone tools above the ash layer is constrained to be no older than 55 kyr. This age gap is suspected to be due to the removal of post-eruption sediments or decimation of the local population until re-occupation at 55 kyr. Additional archaeological evidence from southern and northern India also suggests a lack of evidence for effects of the eruption on local populations, causing the authors of the study to conclude, "many forms of life survived the supereruption, contrary to other research which has suggested significant animal extinctions and genetic bottlenecks". However, some researchers have questioned the techniques utilized to date artifacts to the period subsequent to the Toba supervolcano. The Toba Catastrophe also coincides with the disappearance of the
545:. Maximum global mean cooling is 2.3 °C (4.1 °F) for the lower emission and 4.1 °C (7.4 °F) for the higher emission. Strong decrease in precipitation occurs in high emission. Negative temperature anomalies return to less than 1 °C (1.8 °F) within 3 and 6 years for each emission scenario after the eruption. But so far no model can simulate aerosol microphysical processes with sufficient accuracy, empirical constraints from historical eruptions suggest that aerosol size may substantially reduce magnitude of cooling to less than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) no matter how much sulfur emitted.
477:, whether the eruption played any role in accelerating these events is much more debated. South China Sea marine records of climate, sampled at every centennial interval, shows 1 °C (1.8 °F) cooling above Toba ash layer for a thousand years but the authors concede that it may just be GS20. Arabian Sea marine records confirm that Toba ash occurred after the onset of GS20 but also that GS20 is not colder than GS21 in the records, from which authors conclude that the eruption did not intensify GS20 cooling. Dense sampling of environmental records, at every 6
773:
787:
29:
143:
505:
sulfate loadings that have ever been identified. In the ice core records, GS20 cooling was already underway by the time of sulfate deposition, nonetheless a 110-year period of accelerated cooling followed the sulfate event, and the authors interpret this acceleration as AMOC weakened by the Toba eruption.
504:
No Toba ash has been identified in ice core records, but four sulfate events within the ice strata have been proposed to possibly represent the deposition of aerosols from Toba eruption. One sulfate event at 73.75–74.16 kyr, which has all the characteristics of the Toba eruption, is among the largest
234:
440:
5 to glacial MIS 4, experiencing cooling and glacial expansion. This transition is a part of
Pleistocene interglacial-glacial cycle driven by variations in the earth's orbit. Ocean temperature cooled by 0.9 °C (1.6 °F). Sea level fell 60 m (200 ft). Northern Hemisphere ice sheets
577:
found very few variants, and to account for the low frequency of variation human population must have been as low as a few thousand until very recently. More genetic studies confirmed an effective population on the order of 10,000 for much of human history. Subsequent research on the differences in
724:
at the
Jurreru Valley in southern India were found above and below a thick layer of ash from the Toba eruption and were very similar across these layers, suggesting that the dust clouds from the eruption did not wipe out this local population. However, another site in India, the Middle Son Valley,
589:
In 1993, science journalist Ann
Gibbons posited that population growth was suppressed by the cold climate of the last Pleistocene Ice Age, possibly exacerbated by the Toba super-eruption which at the time was dated to between 73 and 75 kyr near the beginning of glacial period MIS 4. The subsequent
692:
reached a nadir around 50 kyr, though the long-term declining trend already started before 200 kyr. The estimated remaining effective population sizes are around 10,000 individuals, larger than the estimated non-African size during their bottleneck. Unlike the non-African populations, there is no
711:
subspecies. Whole-genome analysis similarly recovers very low
African population sizes around 1 million years ago. This 1 million year old bottleneck is thought to have been caused by severe ice age MIS 22 which marked the mid-Pleistocene climate transition with widespread aridity across Africa.
606:
hypothesized that the Toba eruption caused a human population crash to only a few thousand surviving individuals, and the subsequent recovery was suppressed by the global glacial condition of MIS 4 until the climate eventually transitioned to the warmer condition of MIS 3 about 60,000 years ago,
666:
to the complete set of genetic material to infer human population history. In non-African populations, studies recover a long-term steep decline in numbers starting 200 kyr and reaching the lowest point around 40–60 kyr. During this bottleneck non-African populations experienced 5- to 15-fold
676:
related to cold adaptations in non-African populations, of which 31 sweeps occurred during 72–97 kyr. This event of closely timed selections is named
Arabian Standstill and may have been caused by the severe cold arid conditions from the onset of MIS 4 and exacerbated by Toba super-eruption.
4586:
Fan, Shaohua; Spence, Jeffrey P.; Feng, Yuanqing; Hansen, Matthew E.B.; Terhorst, Jonathan; Beltrame, Marcia H.; Ranciaro, Alessia; Hirbo, Jibril; Beggs, William; Thomas, Neil; Nyambo, Thomas; Mpoloka, Sununguko Wata; Mokone, Gaonyadiwe George; Njamnshi, Alfred K.; Fokunang, Charles (2023).
2733:
Schaefer, Joerg M.; Putnam, Aaron E.; Denton, George H.; Kaplan, Michael R.; Birkel, Sean; Doughty, Alice M.; Kelley, Sam; Barrell, David J.A.; Finkel, Robert C.; Winckler, Gisela; Anderson, Robert F.; Ninneman, Ulysses S.; Barker, Stephen; Schwartz, Roseanne; Andersen, Bjorn G. (2015).
525:, volcanic winter has a maximum global mean cooling of 3.5 °C (6.3 °F) and returns gradually within the range of natural variability 5 years after the eruption. An initiation of 1,000-year cold period or ice age is not supported by the model. Two other emission scenarios,
4156:
Higham, Tom; Douka, Katerina; Wood, Rachel; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Brock, Fiona; Basell, Laura; Camps, Marta; Arrizabalaga, Alvaro; Baena, Javier; Barroso-Ruíz, Cecillio; Bergman, Christopher; Boitard, Coralie; Boscato, Paolo; Caparrós, Miguel; Conard, Nicholas J. (2014).
493:. The Lake Malawi studies concluded that the environmental effects of the eruption were mild and limited to less than a decade in East Africa, but these studies are questioned due to sediment mixing which would have diminished the cooling signal. Environmental records from a
5078:
Fan, Shaohua; Kelly, Derek E.; Beltrame, Marcia H.; Hansen, Matthew E. B.; Mallick, Swapan; Ranciaro, Alessia; Hirbo, Jibril; Thompson, Simon; Beggs, William; Nyambo, Thomas; Omar, Sabah A.; Meskel, Dawit Wolde; Belay, Gurja; Froment, Alain; Patterson, Nick (2019-04-26).
6662:
ScienceDaily (Mar. 17, 2005) – By analyzing the relationship between the geographic location of current human populations in relation to East Africa and the genetic variability within these populations, researchers have found new evidence for an
African origin of modern
3011:
1861:
Kappelman, John; Todd, Lawrence C.; Davis, Christopher A.; Cerling, Thure E.; Feseha, Mulugeta; Getahun, Abebe; Johnsen, Racheal; Kay, Marvin; Kocurek, Gary A.; Nachman, Brett A.; Negash, Agazi; Negash, Tewabe; O'Brien, Kaedan; Pante, Michael; Ren, Minghua (2024).
4644:
Petraglia, Michael; Korisettar, Ravi; Boivin, Nicole; Clarkson, Christopher; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Koshy, Jinu; Lahr, Marta Mirazón; Oppenheimer, Clive; Pyle, David; Roberts, Richard; Schwenninger, Jean-Luc; Arnold, Lee; White, Kevin (2007-07-06).
4268:
Sutikna, Thomas; Tocheri, Matthew W.; Morwood, Michael J.; Saptomo, E. Wahyu; Jatmiko; Awe, Rokus Due; Wasisto, Sri; Westaway, Kira E.; Aubert, Maxime; Li, Bo; Zhao, Jian-xin; Storey, Michael; Alloway, Brent V.; Morley, Mike W.; Meijer, Hanneke J. M. (2016).
4463:
Mallick, Swapan; Li, Heng; Lipson, Mark; Mathieson, Iain; Gymrek, Melissa; Racimo, Fernando; Zhao, Mengyao; Chennagiri, Niru; Nordenfelt, Susanne; Tandon, Arti; Skoglund, Pontus; Lazaridis, Iosif; Sankararaman, Sriram; Fu, Qiaomei; Rohland, Nadin (2016).
704:
has shown that the effective human population size was less than 26,000 at 1.2 million years ago; possible explanations for the low population size of human ancestors may include repeated population crashes or periodic replacement events from competing
671:
caused by Out-of-Africa dispersal. As a small group with a size of a few thousand people migrated from the
African continent into the Near East, the drastic reduction in numbers imprinted on non-African genomic diversity. Genetic analysis identified 56
693:
consensus as to the cause of
African bottleneck. Proposed causes include climatic deterioration (from MIS 5, Toba eruption, GS20 and/or MIS 4), reduction in substructure across African populations, and founder effects from the dispersal within Africa.
313:
that flowed over the ground, and approximately 800 km (190 cu mi) that fell as ash mostly to the west. However, as more outcrops become available, the most recent estimate of eruptive volume is 3,800 km (910 cu mi)
729:. Evidence from pollen analysis has suggested prolonged deforestation in South Asia, and some researchers have suggested that the Toba eruption may have forced humans to adopt new adaptive strategies, which may have permitted them to replace
351:
in 3.5 cm (1.4 in), and
Central Indian Ocean Basin in 10 cm (3.9 in). Its horizon of ashfall covered an area of more than 38,000,000 km (15,000,000 sq mi) in 1 cm (0.39 in) or more thickness. In
3226:
Crick, Laura; Burke, Andrea; Hutchison, William; Kohno, Mika; Moore, Kathryn A.; Savarino, Joel; Doyle, Emily A.; Mahony, Sue; Kipfstuhl, Sepp; Rae, James W. B.; Steele, Robert C. J.; Sparks, R. Stephen J.; Wolff, Eric W. (2021-10-18).
4212:
Jacobs, Zenobia; Li, Bo; Shunkov, Michael V.; Kozlikin, Maxim B.; Bolikhovskaya, Nataliya S.; Agadjanian, Alexander K.; Uliyanov, Vladimir A.; Vasiliev, Sergei K.; O'Gorman, Kieran; Derevianko, Anatoly P.; Roberts, Richard G. (2019).
6488:
Williams, Martin A.J.; Stanley H. Ambrose; Sander van der Kaars; Carsten Ruehlemann; Umesh Chattopadhyaya; Jagannath Pal; Parth R. Chauhan (30 December 2009). "Environmental impact of the 73 ka Toba super-eruption in South Asia".
3169:
Ambrose, S. H. (2019), "Chapter 6 chronological calibration of Late Pleistocene Modern Human dispersals, climate change and Archaeology with Geochemical Isochrons", in Sahle, Yonatan; Reyes-Centeno, Hugo; Bentz, Christian (eds.),
2280:
Svensson, A.; Bigler, M.; Blunier, T.; Clausen, H. B.; Dahl-Jensen, D.; Fischer, H.; Fujita, S.; Goto-Azuma, K.; Johnsen, S. J.; Kawamura, K.; Kipfstuhl, S.; Kohno, M.; Parrenin, F.; Popp, T.; Rasmussen, S. O. (2013-03-19).
2130:
Du, Wenjing; Cheng, Hai; Xu, Yao; Yang, Xunlin; Zhang, Pingzhong; Sha, Lijuan; Li, Hanying; Zhu, Xiaoyan; Zhang, Meiliang; Stríkis, Nicolás M.; Cruz, Francisco W.; Edwards, R. Lawrence; Zhang, Haiwei; Ning, Youfeng (2019).
330:
is over 600 m (2,000 ft). The outflow sheet originally covered an area of 20,000–30,000 km (7,700–11,600 sq mi) with thickness nearly 100 m (330 ft), likely reaching into the
896:
428:. The start of GS20 cooling event corresponds to the start of Antarctic Isotope Maxima 19 (AIM19) warming event. GS20 was associated with iceberg discharges into the North Atlantic, thus it was also named
2413:
Menking, James A.; Shackleton, Sarah A.; Bauska, Thomas K.; Buffen, Aron M.; Brook, Edward J.; Barker, Stephen; Severinghaus, Jeffrey P.; Dyonisius, Michael N.; Petrenko, Vasilii V. (2022-09-16).
5480:
3657:"Had Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT, ca. 75 ka) eruption really destroyed living media explicitly in entire Southeast Asia or just a theoretical debate? An extensive review of its catastrophic event"
1797:; Johnsen, Racheal; Ren, Minghua; Fisher, Erich C.; Oestmo, Simen; Wilkins, Jayne; Harris, Jacob A.; Karkanas, Panagiotis; Fitch, Shelby; Ciravolo, Amber; Keenan, Deborah; Cleghorn, Naomi;
5518:
Shea, John. (2008). Transitions or Turnovers? Climatically-forced Extinctions of Homo sapiens and Neanderthals in the East Mediterranean Levant. Quaternary Science Reviews 27: 2253-2270.
408:
that started around the time of Toba eruption. The timing of the initiation of GS20 is dated to 74.0–74.2 kyr, and the entire event lasted about 1,500 years. It is the stadial part of
5926:
Luo, Shu-Jin; Zhang, Yue; Johnson, Warren E.; Miao, Lin; Martelli, Paolo; et al. (2014). "Sympatric Asian felid phylogeography reveals a major Indochinese-Sundaic divergence".
5422:
Jones, Sacha. (2012). Local- and Regional-scale Impacts of the ~74 ka Toba Supervolcanic Eruption on Hominin Population and Habitats in India. Quaternary International 258: 100-118.
4546:
A, Bergstrom; SA, McCarthy; R, Hui; MA, Almarri; Q, Ayub; P, Danecek; Y, Chen; S, Felkel; P, Hallast; J, Kamm; H, Blanche; JF, Deleuze; H, Cann; S, Mallick; D, Reich (2020-10-23).
262:
flows. The ignimbrite phase is characterized by low eruption fountain, but co-ignimbrite column developed on top of pyroclastic flows reached a height of 32 km (20 mi).
2867:
De Deckker, Patrick; Arnold, Lee J.; van der Kaars, Sander; Bayon, Germain; Stuut, Jan-Berend W.; Perner, Kerstin; Lopes dos Santos, Raquel; Uemura, Ryu; Demuro, Martina (2019).
2668:
Batchelor, Christine L.; Margold, Martin; Krapp, Mario; Murton, Della K.; Dalton, April S.; Gibbard, Philip L.; Stokes, Chris R.; Murton, Julian B.; Manica, Andrea (2019-08-16).
6519:
2572:
Shackleton, Sarah; Menking, James A.; Brook, Edward; Buizert, Christo; Dyonisius, Michael N.; Petrenko, Vasilii V.; Baggenstos, Daniel; Severinghaus, Jeffrey P. (2021-10-27).
326:
period. Previous volume estimates have ranged from 2,000 km (480 cu mi) to 6,000 km (1,400 cu mi). Inside the caldera, the maximum thickness of
5333:
309:
have estimated that the total amount of material released in the eruption was at least 2,800 km (670 cu mi)—about 2,000 km (480 cu mi) of
654:
and discoveries of archaeological cultures with Toba ash layer add further light to how humans had fared during the eruption and the following GS20 and MIS 4 ice age.
6669:
ScienceDaily (Feb. 16, 2007) – When man made his way out of Africa some 60,000 years ago to populate the world, he was not alone: He was accompanied by the bacterium
6708:
667:
reduction, with only 1,000–3,000 remaining individuals at 50 kyr, consistent with the earliest mtDNA studies. This severe non-African contraction is consistent with
4324:
Détroit, Florent; Mijares, Armand Salvador; Corny, Julien; Daver, Guillaume; Zanolli, Clément; Dizon, Eusebio; Robles, Emil; Grün, Rainer; Piper, Philip J. (2019).
6010:
Ninkovich, D.; N.J. Shackleton; A.A. Abdel-Monem; J.D. Obradovich; G. Izett (7 December 1978). "K−Ar age of the late Pleistocene eruption of Toba, north Sumatra".
3333:
Timmreck, Claudia; Graf, Hans-F.; Lorenz, Stephan J.; Niemeier, Ulrike; Zanchettin, Davide; Matei, Daniela; Jungclaus, Johann H.; Crowley, Thomas J. (2010-12-22).
258:
were activated within a few centuries before the eruption. The eruption commenced with small and limited air-fall and was directly followed by the main phase of
565:. However, some physical evidence disputes the association with the millennium-long cold event and genetic bottleneck, and some consider the theory disproven.
282:, depending on the existence of separate sulfur gas in the Toba magma chamber. The lower end of estimate is due to the low solubility of sulfur in the magma.
73:
2527:"Variations in the Earth's Orbit: Pacemaker of the Ice Ages: For 500,000 years, major climatic changes have followed variations in obliquity and precession"
2084:
1143:"Tephra glass chemistry provides storage and discharge details of five magma reservoirs which fed the 75 ka Youngest Toba Tuff eruption, northern Sumatra"
6650:
by Professor Stanley H. Ambrose, Department of Anthropology, University Of Illinois, Urbana, USA; Extract from "Journal of Human Evolution" 34, 623–651
513:
The modeled climate effects of the Toba eruption hinges on the mass of sulfurous gases and aerosol microphysical processes. Modeling on an emission of
5488:
634:, survived the Toba eruption and subsequent MIS 4 ice age, as their latest presence are dated to ca. 40 kyr, and ca. 55 kyr. Other lineages including
3120:"Subdecadal phytolith and charcoal records from Lake Malawi, East Africa imply minimal effects on human evolution from the ~74 ka Toba supereruption"
199:-forming eruptions at this location, with the earlier known caldera having formed around 1.2 million years ago. This last eruption had an estimated
4379:
Chang, Chun-Hsiang; Kaifu, Yousuke; Takai, Masanaru; Kono, Reiko T.; Grün, Rainer; Matsu'ura, Shuji; Kinsley, Les; Lin, Liang-Kong (2015-01-27).
246:
The exact year of the eruption is unknown, but the pattern of ash deposits suggests that it occurred during the northern summer because only the
3070:"High-resolution paleoecological records from Lake Malawi show no significant cooling associated with the Mount Toba supereruption at ca. 75 ka"
2869:"Marine Isotope Stage 4 in Australasia: A full glacial culminating 65,000 years ago – Global connections and implications for human dispersal"
6701:
982:"The exceptional magnitude and intensity of the Toba eruption, sumatra: An example of the use of deep-sea tephra layers as a geological tool"
5387:
5213:
Hu, Wangjie; Hao, Ziqian; Du, Pengyuan; Di Vincenzo, Fabio; Manzi, Giorgio; Cui, Jialong; Fu, Yun-Xin; Pan, Yi-Hsuan; Li, Haipeng (2023).
413:
387:
The subsequent collapse formed a caldera that filled with water, creating Lake Toba. The island in the center of the lake is formed by a
6611:
2085:"Rapid speleothem δ13C change in southwestern North America coincident with Greenland stadial 20 and the Toba (Indonesia) supereruption"
6219:
6165:
3012:"The Toba Volcanic Event and Interstadial/Stadial Climates at the Marine Isotopic Stage 5 to 4 Transition in the Northern Indian Ocean"
473:
While Toba eruption occurred in the backdrop of rapid climate transitions of GS20 and MIS 4 triggered by changes in ocean currents and
250:
could have deposited Toba ashfall in the South China Sea. The eruption lasted perhaps 9 to 14 days. The most recent two high-precision
1982:
Baxter, A. J.; Verschuren, D.; Peterse, F.; Miralles, D. G.; Martin-Jones, C. M.; Maitituerdi, A.; Van der Meeren, T.; Van Daele, M.;
4956:
Tobler, Raymond; Souilmi, Yassine; Huber, Christian D.; Bean, Nigel; Turney, Chris S. M.; Grey, Shane T.; Cooper, Alan (2023-05-30).
6550:
6919:
6694:
5405:
127:
6909:
603:
5341:
720:
Other research has cast doubt on an association between the Toba Caldera Complex and a genetic bottleneck. For example, ancient
6819:
6717:
1462:
Lin, Jiamei; Abbott, Peter M.; Sigl, Michael; Steffensen, Jørgen P.; Mulvaney, Robert; Severi, Mirko; Svensson, Anders (2023).
818:
930:"Toba ash layers in the South China Sea: Evidence of contrasting wind directions during eruption ca. 74 ka: Comment and Reply"
6000:
5867:
5434:"The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years"
1651:"The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years"
1037:"Astronomically calibrated 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age for the Toba supereruption and global synchronization of late Quaternary records"
851:"The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years"
432:. Heinrich events tend to be longer, colder and with weaker AMOC in the Atlantic ocean than other DO stadials. From 74 to 58
741:
Some evidence indicates population crashes of other animals after the Toba eruption. The populations of the Eastern African
497:
site in Ethiopia, however, shows that a severe drought occurred concurrently with Toba ash layer which altered early human
3457:
McGraw, Zachary; DallaSanta, Kevin; Polvani, Lorenzo M.; Tsigaridis, Kostas; Orbe, Clara; Bauer, Susanne E. (2024-02-15).
1698:"Discovery of the Toba Ash ( c. 70 ka) in a high-resolution core recovering millennial monsoonal variability off Pakistan"
599:
318:(DRE), of which 1,800 km (430 cu mi) was deposited as ash fall and 2,000 km (480 cu mi) as
3583:"Understanding the overestimated impact of the Toba volcanic super-eruption on global environments and ancient hominins"
2822:"The Last Interglacial–Glacial cycle (MIS 5–2) re-examined based on long proxy records from central and northern Europe"
6899:
6581:
3294:
Timmreck, Claudia; Graf, Hans-F.; Zanchettin, Davide; Hagemann, Stefan; Kleinen, Thomas; Krüger, Kirstin (2012-05-01).
212:
6630:
6047:
Oppenheimer, Clive (August 2002), "Limited global change due to largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74 kyr BP?",
2350:"A new view on abrupt climate changes and the bipolar seesaw based on paleotemperatures from Iberian Margin sediments"
6151:
4589:"Whole-genome sequencing reveals a complex African population demographic history and signatures of local adaptation"
3637:
2621:
Cutler, K.B; Edwards, R.L; Taylor, F.W; Cheng, H; Adkins, J; Gallup, C.D; Cutler, P.M; Burr, G.S; Bloom, A.L (2003).
1438:
306:
5270:"Hominin population bottleneck coincided with migration from Africa during the Early Pleistocene ice age transition"
1464:"Bipolar ice-core records constrain possible dates and global radiative forcing following the ∼74 ka Toba eruption"
228:
6676:
5727:
2963:"Cooling of the South China Sea by the Toba Eruption and correlation with other climate proxies ~71,000 years ago"
1573:"The Young Toba Tuff (73.9 ka) Magma Body – True Size and the most Extensive and Voluminous Ignimbrite Yet Known?"
6889:
6766:
6316:
4958:"The role of genetic selection and climatic factors in the dispersal of anatomically modern humans out of Africa"
522:
6648:
Mount Toba: Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans
5677:
3390:
Black, Benjamin A.; Lamarque, Jean-François; Marsh, Daniel R.; Schmidt, Anja; Bardeen, Charles G. (2021-07-20).
6904:
6884:
6807:
6784:
6760:
6132:"Volcanic winter in the Garden of Eden: The Toba supereruption and the late Pleistocene human population crash"
3523:"Volcanic winter in the Garden of Eden: The Toba supereruption and the late Pleistocene human population crash"
2060:
Guo, Z., Liu, J., Chu, G., & JFW, N. (2002). Composition and origin of tephra of the Huguangyan Maar Lake.
953:
824:
650:
may have also survived through the eruption. More recently, reconstructions of human demographic history using
6375:
1425:, Geophysical Monograph Series, vol. 139, Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union, pp. 11–40,
1141:
Pearce, Nicholas J.G.; Westgate, John A.; Gualda, Guilherme A.R.; Gatti, Emma; Muhammad, Ros F. (2019-10-14).
1104:"High-precision 40Ar/39Ar dating of Pleistocene tuffs and temporal anchoring of the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary"
6837:
6790:
5081:"African evolutionary history inferred from whole genome sequence data of 44 indigenous African populations"
1532:
Kutterolf, S.; Schindlbeck-Belo, J.C.; Müller, F.; Pank, K.; Lee, H.-Y.; Wang, K.-L.; Schmitt, A.K. (2023).
1192:"Constraining magma storage conditions of the Toba magmatic system: a plagioclase and amphibole perspective"
6859:
5440:. The Toba Volcanic Super-eruption of 74,000 Years Ago: Climate Change, Environments, and Evolving Humans.
812:
542:
478:
409:
3184:
Zielinski, G. A.; Mayewski, P. A.; Meeker, L. D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M. S.; Taylor, K. (1996-04-15).
1534:"Revisiting the occurrence and distribution of Indian Ocean Tephra: Quaternary marine Toba ash inventory"
806:
792:
302:
176:
5802:
6929:
6864:
6644:, including bibliographic information on the two papers he has published on the Toba catastrophe theory
5612:
3069:
200:
122:
in 5 cm (2.0 in) of ash, volcanic winter may have caused a severe human population bottleneck
105:
6077:"Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-eruption"
5856:"The Toba Supervolcanic Eruption: Tephra-Fall Deposits in India and Paleoanthropological Implications"
5801:
Huff, Chad. D; Xing, Jinchuan; Rogers, Alan R.; Witherspoon, David; Jorde, Lynn B. (19 January 2010).
5608:"Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans"
5433:
4647:"Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-Eruption"
3582:
2231:
1744:
6924:
6869:
6825:
6772:
3010:
Schulz, Hartmut; Emeis, Kay-Christian; Erlenkeuser, Helmut; Rad, Ulrich von; Rolf, Christian (2002).
1167:
726:
583:
454:
6076:
6075:
Petraglia, M.; Korisettar, R.; Boivin, N.; Clarkson, C.; Ditchfield, P.; et al. (6 July 2007).
1697:
6914:
6874:
5432:
Petraglia, Michael D.; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Korisettar, Ravi; Pal, J. N. (2012-05-01).
4899:
Henn, Brenna M.; Botigué, Laura R.; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Clark, Andrew G.; Gravel, Simon (2015).
5215:"Genomic inference of a severe human bottleneck during the Early to Middle Pleistocene transition"
3555:
1604:"Stratigraphy of the Toba Tuffs and the evolution of the Toba Caldera Complex, Sumatra, Indonesia"
33:
Artist's impression of early stages of eruption from about 42 km (26 mi) above northern
6894:
6737:
6666:
6659:
5528:
5363:
3459:"Severe Global Cooling After Volcanic Super-Eruptions? The Answer Hinges on Unknown Aerosol Size"
3295:
2735:
1925:"Ash from the Toba supereruption in Lake Malawi shows no volcanic winter in East Africa at 75 ka"
1533:
1379:
651:
914:
Stratigraphy of the Toba Tuffs and the evolution of the Toba Caldera Complex, Sumatra, Indonesia
6518:
Zielinski, G.A.; Mayewski, P.A.; Meeker, L.D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M.S.; Taylor, K. (1996).
6348:
800:
251:
5855:
3810:"Drosophila melanogaster mitochondrial DNA: gene organization and evolutionary considerations"
2020:
6743:
6667:
Out of Africa – Bacteria, As Well: Homo Sapiens And H. Pylori Jointly Spread Across The Globe
6615:
5754:
Hernandez, R.D.; Hubisz, M.J.; Wheeler, D.A.; Smith, D.G.; Ferguson, B.; et al. (2007).
4769:"Robust and scalable inference of population history from hundreds of unphased whole genomes"
680:
African populations experienced a slightly earlier, milder bottleneck and recovered earlier.
590:
explosive human expansion was believed to be the result of the end of the ice age. Geologist
558:
437:
315:
6412:
Steiper, M.E. (2006). "Population history, biogeography, and taxonomy of orangutans (Genus:
6258:
6204:
5877:
Luo, S.-J.; Kim, J.-H.; Johnson, W.E.; Van der Walt, J.; Martenson, J.; et al. (2004).
2638:
2526:
1649:
Petraglia, Michael D.; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Korisettar, Ravi; Pal, J.N. (2012).
1419:"Petrological and volcanological constraints on volcanic sulfur emissions to the atmosphere"
849:
Petraglia, Michael D.; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Korisettar, Ravi; Pal, J.N. (2012).
6831:
6656:
by The Bradshaw Foundation – includes discussion on Toba eruption, DNA and human migrations
6534:
6498:
6425:
6392:
6383:
Self, Stephen; Blake, Stephen (February 2008). "Consequences of Explosive Supereruptions".
6363:
6325:
6282:
6234:
6180:
6091:
6056:
6019:
5988:
5935:
5814:
5771:
5698:
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5445:
5281:
5226:
5151:
4969:
4840:
4658:
4477:
4392:
4337:
4282:
4226:
4170:
4114:
4044:
3762:
3668:
3594:
3522:
3470:
3403:
3346:
3307:
3240:
3229:"New insights into the ~ 74 ka Toba eruption from sulfur isotopes of polar ice cores"
3197:
3131:
3081:
3023:
2974:
2927:
2880:
2833:
2786:
2747:
2681:
2634:
2623:"Rapid sea-level fall and deep-ocean temperature change since the last interglacial period"
2585:
2491:
2426:
2415:"Multiple carbon cycle mechanisms associated with the glaciation of Marine Isotope Stage 4"
2361:
2294:
2243:
2196:
2144:
2096:
1999:
1936:
1875:
1814:
1756:
1709:
1662:
1615:
1584:
1545:
1475:
1391:
1341:
1253:
1203:
1048:
993:
941:
862:
442:
151:
132:(Potentially) almost all of humanity, leaving around 3,000–10,000 humans left on the planet
6270:
5650:
3778:
3367:
2232:"Compiled Southern Ocean sea surface temperatures correlate with Antarctic Isotope Maxima"
1511:
8:
6813:
6670:
809: – Most recent individual from which all organisms in a group are directly descended
595:
557:
of six to ten years and contributed to a 1,000-year-long cooling episode, resulting in a
340:
119:
6647:
6538:
6502:
6429:
6396:
6367:
6329:
6286:
6238:
6184:
6095:
6060:
6023:
5992:
5939:
5818:
5775:
5702:
5686:
5669:
5625:
5607:
5449:
5310:
5285:
5269:
5230:
5155:
4998:
4973:
4957:
4844:
4662:
4621:
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4341:
4286:
4230:
4174:
4118:
4048:
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3535:
3474:
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3311:
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3135:
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2884:
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2751:
2685:
2589:
2495:
2430:
2390:
2365:
2298:
2247:
2200:
2148:
2100:
2038:
2003:
1987:
1940:
1879:
1818:
1760:
1713:
1666:
1619:
1588:
1572:
1549:
1479:
1395:
1345:
1257:
1207:
1052:
997:
945:
866:
356:, microscopic glass shards from this eruption are also discovered on the south coast of
6879:
6605:
6250:
6215:
6196:
6161:
6127:
6115:
6035:
5967:
5837:
5803:"Mobile Elements Reveal Small Population Size in the Ancient Ancestors of Homo Sapiens"
5379:
5115:
5080:
5055:
5022:
4933:
4900:
4871:
4828:
4801:
4768:
4737:
4705:"Inferring human population size and separation history from multiple genome sequences"
4704:
4548:"Insights into human genetic variation and population history from 929 diverse genomes"
4516:
4465:
4431:
4380:
4098:
4068:
4028:
4002:
3943:
3931:
3877:
3842:
3694:
3618:
3518:
3434:
3391:
3372:
3276:
3047:
2992:
2710:
2669:
2455:
2414:
2330:
1959:
1924:
1745:"New occurrence of Youngest Toba Tuff in abyssal sediments of the Central Indian Basin"
1079:
1036:
1017:
913:
591:
353:
216:
6068:
5909:
5878:
5139:
4102:
3392:"Global climate disruption and regional climate shelters after the Toba supereruption"
2646:
1768:
6587:
6577:
6476:
6441:
6298:
6254:
6147:
6131:
6107:
5996:
5959:
5951:
5914:
5863:
5842:
5789:
5714:
5637:
5461:
5383:
5315:
5297:
5250:
5242:
5175:
5167:
5120:
5102:
5060:
5042:
5003:
4985:
4938:
4920:
4876:
4858:
4806:
4788:
4742:
4724:
4682:
4674:
4626:
4608:
4563:
4521:
4503:
4436:
4418:
4361:
4353:
4306:
4298:
4271:"Revised stratigraphy and chronology for Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua in Indonesia"
4250:
4242:
4194:
4186:
4138:
4130:
4060:
4010:
3994:
3935:
3897:
3847:
3829:
3790:
3782:
3743:
3735:
3698:
3686:
3622:
3610:
3486:
3439:
3421:
3280:
3268:
3149:
3097:
3051:
3039:
2996:
2943:
2896:
2868:
2849:
2821:
2802:
2715:
2697:
2650:
2603:
2554:
2546:
2507:
2479:
2460:
2442:
2395:
2377:
2322:
2283:"Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores at the Toba eruption (74 ka BP)"
2259:
2230:
Anderson, H. J.; Pedro, J. B.; Bostock, H. C.; Chase, Z.; Noble, T. L. (2021-03-01).
2212:
2184:
2183:
Menviel, Laurie C.; Skinner, Luke C.; Tarasov, Lev; Tzedakis, Polychronis C. (2020).
2162:
2112:
2043:
2025:
1964:
1899:
1891:
1863:
1838:
1830:
1772:
1725:
1678:
1631:
1557:
1493:
1434:
1403:
1357:
1310:
1269:
1219:
1172:
1123:
1084:
1066:
1021:
1009:
957:
878:
746:
636:
579:
336:
204:
6310:
Robock, A.; Ammann, C.M.; Oman, L.; Shindell, D.; Levis, S.; Stenchikov, G. (2009).
6119:
5971:
5756:"Demographic histories and patterns of linkage disequilibrium in Chinese and Indian
5651:"Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) Clarified"
4325:
4214:
3947:
3376:
2892:
2845:
2759:
2503:
2334:
2255:
1488:
1463:
6731:
6542:
6506:
6466:
6433:
6400:
6371:
6333:
6290:
6242:
6200:
6188:
6139:
6099:
6064:
6039:
6027:
5943:
5904:
5894:
5832:
5822:
5779:
5706:
5673:
5629:
5453:
5371:
5305:
5289:
5234:
5159:
5110:
5092:
5050:
5034:
4993:
4977:
4928:
4912:
4866:
4848:
4796:
4780:
4732:
4716:
4666:
4616:
4600:
4555:
4511:
4493:
4485:
4426:
4408:
4400:
4345:
4290:
4234:
4178:
4122:
4072:
4052:
3966:
3927:
3889:
3865:
3837:
3821:
3774:
3725:
3676:
3602:
3478:
3429:
3411:
3362:
3354:
3315:
3258:
3248:
3228:
3205:
3139:
3089:
3068:
Jackson, Lily J.; Stone, Jeffery R.; Cohen, Andrew S.; Yost, Chad L. (2015-09-01).
3031:
2982:
2935:
2888:
2841:
2794:
2755:
2705:
2689:
2642:
2622:
2593:
2573:
2538:
2499:
2450:
2434:
2385:
2369:
2312:
2302:
2251:
2204:
2152:
2104:
2033:
2015:
2007:
1954:
1944:
1883:
1822:
1764:
1717:
1670:
1623:
1553:
1483:
1426:
1399:
1349:
1300:
1261:
1211:
1162:
1154:
1115:
1074:
1056:
1001:
949:
870:
778:
494:
489:
after the deposition of Toba ash, but cooling-forced aridity killed high elevation
474:
327:
180:
6686:
2542:
1721:
1241:
1103:
6569:
6510:
6437:
5980:
5899:
5481:"Newly Discovered Archaeological Sites in India Reveals Ancient Life before Toba"
5457:
3825:
3606:
3525:, Volcanic Hazards and Disasters in Human Antiquity, Floyd W. McCoy, Grant Heiken
3319:
3144:
3119:
2282:
2157:
2132:
1803:"Humans thrived in South Africa through the Toba eruption about 74,000 years ago"
1696:
Von Rad, Ulrich; Burgath, Klaus-Peter; Pervaz, Muhammad; Schulz, Hartmut (2002).
1674:
1305:
1288:
1265:
1119:
874:
673:
642:
554:
348:
6641:
5710:
4588:
3809:
3681:
3656:
1191:
4604:
4466:"The Simons Genome Diversity Project: 300 genomes from 142 diverse populations"
3978:
3974:
3970:
3962:
3915:
3873:
3869:
2693:
2478:
Doughty, Alice M.; Kaplan, Michael R.; Peltier, Carly; Barker, Stephen (2021).
2438:
2208:
2011:
1983:
1920:
1887:
1798:
1794:
1650:
1215:
850:
750:
668:
482:
450:
446:
429:
417:
405:
388:
56:
6681:
6591:
6404:
6166:"Volcanic Winter and Accelerated Glaciation following the Toba Super-eruption"
5649:
Chesner, C.A.; Westgate, J.A.; Rose, W.I.; Drake, R.; Deino, A. (March 1991).
5097:
5023:"Inference of human population history from individual whole-genome sequences"
4349:
4270:
4238:
4158:
4033:"Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba super-eruption"
3730:
3713:
3458:
2916:"Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba super-eruption"
2736:"The Southern Glacial Maximum 65,000 years ago and its Unfinished Termination"
1864:"Adaptive foraging behaviours in the Horn of Africa during Toba supereruption"
1802:
6853:
6653:
6635:
6143:
5955:
5465:
5401:
5301:
5246:
5214:
5171:
5106:
5046:
4989:
4924:
4862:
4792:
4728:
4678:
4646:
4612:
4567:
4507:
4422:
4357:
4302:
4246:
4190:
4134:
4064:
3998:
3901:
3833:
3786:
3739:
3690:
3614:
3490:
3482:
3425:
3272:
3101:
3043:
2947:
2900:
2853:
2806:
2701:
2654:
2607:
2550:
2511:
2446:
2381:
2349:
2326:
2263:
2216:
2166:
2133:"Timing and structure of the weak Asian Monsoon event about 73,000 years ago"
2116:
2029:
1895:
1834:
1776:
1729:
1682:
1635:
1497:
1361:
1314:
1273:
1223:
1176:
1127:
1070:
1013:
961:
929:
882:
689:
685:
425:
255:
254:
dated the eruption to 73,880 ± 320 and 73,700 ± 300 years ago. Five distinct
88:
75:
6471:
6454:
6294:
6103:
5827:
5784:
5755:
5293:
5238:
5163:
4981:
4853:
4670:
4126:
3416:
3334:
3253:
2670:"The configuration of Northern Hemisphere ice sheets through the Quaternary"
2598:
2373:
1949:
1061:
412:
20 (DO20), commonly explained by an abrupt reduction in the strength of the
6574:
When Humans Nearly Vanished: The Catastrophic Explosion of the Toba Volcano
6480:
6445:
6246:
6111:
5963:
5918:
5846:
5793:
5718:
5633:
5319:
5254:
5179:
5124:
5064:
5007:
4942:
4880:
4810:
4746:
4686:
4630:
4525:
4440:
4365:
4310:
4254:
4215:"Timing of archaic hominin occupation of Denisova Cave in southern Siberia"
4198:
4032:
3983:"Mismatch Distributions of mtDNA Reveal Recent Human Population Expansions"
3939:
3443:
3153:
3035:
2915:
2719:
2558:
2464:
2399:
2047:
1988:"Reversed Holocene temperature–moisture relationship in the Horn of Africa"
1968:
1903:
1842:
1329:
1088:
829:
761:, all expanded from very small populations around 70,000–55,000 years ago.
701:
697:
681:
663:
553:
The Toba catastrophe theory holds that the eruption caused a severe global
357:
332:
173:
6520:"Potential Atmospheric Impact of the Toba Mega-Eruption ~71,000 years ago"
6312:"Did the Toba Volcanic Eruption of ~74k BP Produce Widespread Glaciation?"
6302:
5641:
5375:
4142:
4014:
3851:
3794:
3747:
3186:"Potential atmospheric impact of the Toba Mega-Eruption ~71,000 years ago"
2961:
Huang, Chi-Yue; Zhao, Meixun; Wang, Chia-Chun; Wei, Ganjian (2001-10-15).
2307:
457:. Southern Hemisphere glaciation grew to its maximum extent during MIS 4.
6778:
6338:
6311:
5140:"Late Pleistocene Demography and the Appearance of Modern Human Behavior"
4827:
Henn, Brenna M.; Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.; Feldman, Marcus W. (2012-10-30).
3358:
3185:
2987:
2962:
730:
625:
490:
458:
404:
Greenland stadial 20 (GS20) is a millennium-long cold event in the north
377:
369:
344:
6453:
Thalman, O.; Fisher, A.; Lankester, F.; Pääbo, S.; Vigilant, L. (2007).
5038:
4547:
4498:
4489:
4294:
4182:
4006:
3982:
1826:
602:
supported her theory. In 1998, anthropologist Stanley H. Ambrose of the
6220:"Climate–Volcanism Feedback and the Toba Eruption of ~74,000 Years ago"
5985:
Comet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society: an Interdisciplinary Approach
4559:
4404:
4159:"The timing and spatiotemporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance"
3263:
2774:
2317:
2083:
Polyak, Victor J.; Asmerom, Yemane; Lachniet, Matthew S. (2017-09-01).
1627:
1005:
742:
721:
574:
421:
373:
323:
319:
310:
259:
208:
6546:
6138:. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America Special Paper 345.
5947:
5509:
National Geographic- Did early humans in India survive a supervolcano?
4413:
3209:
2798:
1142:
6192:
6031:
4056:
3093:
2939:
2108:
1603:
1418:
1353:
1158:
981:
631:
263:
233:
192:
184:
147:
45:
5529:"Supervolcano Eruption In Sumatra Deforested India 73,000 Years ago"
4916:
4784:
4720:
4326:"A new species of Homo from the Late Pleistocene of the Philippines"
3335:"Aerosol size confines climate response to volcanic super-eruptions"
2185:"An ice–climate oscillatory framework for Dansgaard–Oeschger cycles"
1430:
1035:
Storey, Michael; Roberts, Richard G.; Saidin, Mokhtar (2012-11-13).
897:"Surprisingly, Humanity Survived the Super-volcano 74,000 Years Ago"
3918:(1995). "Genetic Evidence for a Pleistocene Population Explosion".
3893:
3539:
1531:
1190:
Lubbers, Jordan; Kent, Adam J. R.; de Silva, Shanaka (2024-01-18).
772:
647:
498:
481:
9 year interval, in Lake Malawi, show no cooling-induced change in
365:
361:
283:
5981:"The GGE Threat: Facing and Coping with Global Geophysical Events"
5431:
2866:
1648:
848:
541:, are investigated using state-of-art simulations provided by the
6416:) based on a population genetic meta-analysis of multiple loci".
4643:
3456:
754:
486:
462:
247:
196:
188:
66:
34:
980:
Ninkovich, D.; Sparks, R. S. J.; Ledbetter, M. T. (1978-09-01).
461:, Africa and Europe were characterized by increasingly cold and
3864:
3556:"Toba Supervolcano Not to Blame for Humanity's Near-Extinction"
3296:"Climate response to the Toba super-eruption: Regional changes"
2574:"Evolution of mean ocean temperature in Marine Isotope Stage 4"
1981:
821: – "Out of Africa" theory of the early migration of humans
786:
28:
5334:"Mount Toba Eruption – Ancient Humans Unscathed, Study Claims"
5138:
Powell, Adam; Shennan, Stephen; Thomas, Mark G. (2009-06-05).
3960:
3293:
3183:
1380:"A melt inclusion study of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia"
441:
embarked on significant expansion and surpassed the extent of
6455:"The complex history of gorillas: insights from genomic data"
2775:"A climatic context for the out-of-Africa migration: COMMENT"
2571:
2412:
2182:
1986:; Haug, G. H.; Olago, D. O.; Sinninghe Damsté, J. S. (2023).
1417:
Scaillet, Bruno; Luhr, James F.; Carroll, Michael R. (2003),
758:
562:
5860:
The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia
4267:
2279:
815: – Extinctions of large mammals in the Late Pleistocene
142:
5678:
10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2
2667:
2525:
Hays, J. D.; Imbrie, John; Shackleton, N. J. (1976-12-10).
1515:
1330:"Dimensions and dynamics of co-ignimbrite eruption columns"
707:
620:
381:
4898:
3332:
2732:
2477:
1695:
954:
10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<1056:talits>2.0.co;2
6376:
10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<913:DOAITG>2.0.CO;2
6271:"Bottleneck in the Human Evolution and the Toba Eruption"
4826:
3389:
3009:
2229:
1860:
1140:
433:
266:
constraints on sulfur emission yielded a wide range from
5742:"Genetics and biogeography of East African chimpanzees (
4767:
Terhorst, Jonathan; Kamm, John A.; Song, Yun S. (2017).
4462:
4323:
3225:
2620:
979:
607:
during which rapid human population expansion occurred.
6269:
Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (24 December 1993).
4211:
1743:
Pattan, J. N; Shane, Phil; Banakar, V. K (1999-03-01).
1461:
736:
468:
5077:
4955:
3502:
3500:
803: – Spread of humans from Africa through the world
688:
attained their lowest numbers around 70–80 kyr, while
4155:
4103:"Bottleneck in Human Evolution and the Toba Eruption"
3067:
2082:
1792:
286:
records estimate the sulfur emission on the order of
6349:"Dispersal of Ash in the Great Toba Eruption, 75 ka"
3878:"The Genetic Structure of Ancient Human Populations"
2773:
Stewart, John R.; Fenberg, Phillip B. (2018-05-01).
2524:
1570:
1289:"Petrogenesis of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia"
768:
586:
of 1,000 to 10,000, sometime between 35 and 65 kyr.
16:
Volcanic supereruption 74,000 years ago in Indonesia
6716:
5925:
5137:
4585:
4378:
4079:
3497:
1571:Self, S.; Gouramanis, C.; Storey, M. (2019-12-01).
1416:
1189:
1034:
6677:Magma 'Pancakes' May Have Fueled Toba Supervolcano
5212:
1742:
1602:Chesner, Craig A.; Rose, William I. (1991-06-01).
832: – Line separating Asian and Australian fauna
241:
6491:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
6136:Volcanic Hazards and Disasters in Human Antiquity
5268:Muttoni, Giovanni; Kent, Dennis V. (2024-03-26).
3536:"Toba super-volcano catastrophe idea 'dismissed'"
2480:"A maximum in global glacier extent during MIS 4"
6851:
5983:. In Bobrowsky, Peter T.; Rickman, Hans (eds.).
5879:"Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers (
4766:
3655:Singh, Ajab; Srivastava, Ashok K. (2022-06-01).
3589:. Current Research on Prehistoric Central Asia.
2960:
1919:
1702:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
1378:Chesner, Craig A.; Luhr, James F. (2010-11-30).
927:
179:that occurred about 74,000 years ago during the
6517:
6074:
6009:
5807:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5753:
5579:
5274:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4962:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4901:"Estimating the mutation load in human genomes"
4833:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4702:
3654:
3396:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2354:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1929:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1041:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
928:Bühring, Christian; Sarnthein, Michael (2000).
343:in a layer of 5 cm (2.0 in) ash, the
195:. It was the last in a series of at least four
6487:
6126:
5545:
3714:"Population size and protein variation in man"
2772:
1538:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1384:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1101:
399:
339:. The air-fall of this eruption blanketed the
322:, making this eruption the largest during the
6702:
6452:
5648:
3638:"The so-called Toba bottleneck didn't happen"
2129:
6309:
6268:
6214:
5728:"Human Ancestors Were an Endangered Species"
4703:Schiffels, Stephan; Durbin, Richard (2014).
1327:
657:
582:sequences dated a rapid growth from a small
203:of 8, making it the largest-known explosive
6346:
6160:
6046:
5858:. In Petraglia, M. D.; Allchin, B. (eds.).
5406:"At last, the death of the Toba bottleneck"
5267:
4097:
4027:
2914:Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (1992).
2913:
2348:Davtian, Nina; Bard, Edouard (2023-03-13).
2347:
1601:
1377:
1328:Woods, Andrew W.; Wohletz, Kenneth (1991).
610:
414:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
6709:
6695:
6660:Geography Predicts Human Genetic Diversity
6606:Population Bottlenecks and Volcanic Winter
6347:Rose, W.I.; Chesner, C.A. (October 1987).
5800:
5400:
5193:
3711:
3117:
975:
973:
971:
907:
548:
297:
141:
27:
6470:
6382:
6337:
5908:
5898:
5876:
5836:
5826:
5783:
5590:
5361:
5309:
5114:
5096:
5054:
4997:
4932:
4870:
4852:
4800:
4736:
4620:
4515:
4497:
4430:
4412:
3841:
3729:
3712:Haigh, John; Smith, John Maynard (1972).
3680:
3433:
3415:
3366:
3262:
3252:
3143:
2986:
2709:
2597:
2454:
2389:
2316:
2306:
2156:
2037:
2019:
1958:
1948:
1487:
1304:
1196:Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology
1168:2160/dba3b012-8369-4dbb-8a89-1102f11e92c3
1166:
1078:
1060:
715:
237:Location of Lake Toba shown in red on map
6642:Homepage of Professor Stanley H. Ambrose
6568:
5738:
5557:
5020:
3760:
1512:"Supersized eruptions are all the rage!"
232:
6411:
5978:
5749:(PhD). Harvard University, unpublished.
5725:
5684:
5605:
5568:
5197:
4085:
3807:
3763:"Allelic genealogy and human evolution"
3506:
2819:
1923:; Chorn, B. T.; Johnson, T. C. (2013).
1286:
1239:
1102:Channell, J.E.T.; Hodell, D.A. (2017).
968:
604:University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
436:, Earth transitioned from interglacial
6852:
6134:. In McCoy, F. W.; Heiken, G. (eds.).
5390:from the original on December 7, 2008.
5208:
5206:
4894:
4892:
4890:
4822:
4820:
4762:
4760:
4758:
4756:
4698:
4696:
4581:
4579:
4577:
4545:
4541:
4539:
4537:
4535:
4458:
4456:
4454:
4452:
4450:
3914:
3165:
3163:
3118:Yost, Chad; et al. (March 2018).
3063:
3061:
2189:Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
2178:
2176:
2078:
2076:
2074:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1457:
1455:
1235:
1233:
836:
819:Recent African origin of modern humans
598:and volcanologist Stephen Self of the
416:(AMOC). Weaker AMOC caused warming in
380:, Toba tephras is found in Huguangyan
6690:
5853:
3779:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a039995
3635:
3580:
3221:
3219:
3113:
3111:
2275:
2273:
1915:
1913:
1788:
1786:
1527:
1525:
1373:
1371:
923:
921:
6682:Youtube video "Stone Age Apocalypse"
6164:; Self, Stephen (2 September 1992).
4552:Yearbook of Paediatric Endocrinology
4381:"The first archaic Homo from Taiwan"
3553:
1504:
1423:Volcanism and the Earth's Atmosphere
737:Genetic bottlenecks in other mammals
469:Possible climate records of eruption
5687:"Pleistocene Population Explosions"
5203:
4887:
4817:
4753:
4693:
4574:
4532:
4447:
3160:
3058:
2627:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2173:
2071:
1849:
1452:
1230:
733:and "other archaic human species".
508:
394:
13:
6562:
5487:. 25 February 2010. Archived from
5362:Sanderson, Katherine (July 2007).
5021:Li, Heng; Durbin, Richard (2011).
4021:
3932:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1995.tb02297.x
3661:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X
3629:
3581:Ge, Yong; Gao, Xing (2020-09-10).
3216:
3172:Modern Human Origins and Dispersal
3108:
3003:
2270:
2021:1854/LU-01HF6GN7WZQ65R3C82NK0HC57E
1910:
1783:
1522:
1368:
918:
521:of sulfur, which is 100 times the
424:, and this asynchrony is known as
347:in 1 mm (0.039 in), the
14:
6941:
6599:
6576:. Washington: Smithsonian Books.
307:Michigan Technological University
213:largest known explosive eruptions
5726:Gibbons, Ann (19 January 2010).
5584:
5573:
5562:
5551:
5539:
1558:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2023.107879
1404:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.06.001
785:
771:
229:List of large volcanic eruptions
6920:Volcanic eruptions in Indonesia
6718:Volcanic eruptions in Indonesia
6459:Molecular Biology and Evolution
6317:Journal of Geophysical Research
5685:Gibbons, Ann (1 October 1993).
5521:
5512:
5503:
5472:
5425:
5416:
5394:
5355:
5326:
5261:
5186:
5131:
5071:
5014:
4949:
4637:
4372:
4317:
4261:
4205:
4149:
4091:
3954:
3908:
3858:
3801:
3767:Molecular Biology and Evolution
3754:
3705:
3648:
3636:Hawks, John (9 February 2018).
3574:
3554:Choi, Charles Q. (2013-04-29).
3528:
3512:
3450:
3383:
3326:
3287:
3177:
2954:
2907:
2893:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.11.017
2860:
2846:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.12.012
2813:
2766:
2760:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.02.009
2726:
2661:
2614:
2565:
2518:
2504:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106948
2471:
2406:
2341:
2256:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106821
2223:
2123:
2054:
1975:
1736:
1689:
1642:
1595:
1564:
1489:10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108162
1410:
1321:
1280:
242:Chronology of the Toba eruption
6910:Events that forced the climate
6612:"Toba Volcano by George Weber"
5987:. Springer. pp. 123–141.
5862:. Springer. pp. 173–200.
5744:Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
4101:; Self, Stephen (1993-12-24).
4031:; Self, Stephen (1992-09-03).
3368:11858/00-001M-0000-0011-F70C-7
1183:
1134:
1095:
1028:
889:
842:
825:Timeline of volcanism on Earth
600:University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
573:In 1972, an analysis of human
1:
6631:"The proper study of mankind"
6069:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00154-8
5598:
5364:"Super-eruption: no problem?"
5340:. 6 July 2007. Archived from
2647:10.1016/s0012-821x(02)01107-x
2543:10.1126/science.194.4270.1121
1801:; Matthews, Thalassa (2018).
1769:10.1016/S0025-3227(98)00160-1
1722:10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.195.01.25
1147:Journal of Quaternary Science
6527:Geophysical Research Letters
6511:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.10.009
6438:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.12.005
5900:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020442
5606:Ambrose, Stanley H. (1998).
5458:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042
3607:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.06.021
3521:, Stanley H. Ambrose, 2000.
3339:Geophysical Research Letters
3320:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.10.008
3190:Geophysical Research Letters
3145:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.11.005
2967:Geophysical Research Letters
2158:10.1016/j.quageo.2019.05.002
1675:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042
1266:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.025
1120:10.1016/j.quageo.2017.08.002
875:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042
813:Late Pleistocene extinctions
696:Earlier genetic analysis of
543:Community Earth System Model
7:
5711:10.1126/science.262.5130.27
5580:Hernandez & others 2007
4829:"The great human expansion"
3682:10.1016/j.jaesx.2022.100083
3174:, Kerns Verlag, pp. 171–213
807:Most recent common ancestor
793:Evolutionary biology portal
764:
400:Climate at time of eruption
222:
183:at the site of present-day
10:
6946:
6673:...; illus. migration map.
6497:(3–4). Elsevier: 295–314.
6418:Journal of Human Evolution
6049:Quaternary Science Reviews
5613:Journal of Human Evolution
5546:Williams & others 2009
4605:10.1016/j.cell.2023.01.042
3826:10.1093/genetics/118.4.649
3124:Journal of Human Evolution
2873:Quaternary Science Reviews
2826:Quaternary Science Reviews
2820:Helmens, Karin F. (2014).
2740:Quaternary Science Reviews
2694:10.1038/s41467-019-11601-2
2484:Quaternary Science Reviews
2439:10.1038/s41467-022-33166-3
2236:Quaternary Science Reviews
2209:10.1038/s43017-020-00106-y
2012:10.1038/s41586-023-06272-5
1888:10.1038/s41586-024-07208-3
1577:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts
1468:Quaternary Science Reviews
1306:10.1093/petrology/39.3.397
1242:"The Toba Caldera Complex"
1240:Chesner, Craig A. (2012).
1216:10.1007/s00410-023-02089-7
568:
438:marine isotope stage (MIS)
226:
6900:Ancient natural disasters
6800:
6753:
6724:
6405:10.2113/GSELEMENTS.4.1.41
6130:; Ambrose, S. H. (2000).
5098:10.1186/s13059-019-1679-2
4350:10.1038/s41586-019-1067-9
4239:10.1038/s41586-018-0843-2
3808:Garesse, R (1988-04-01).
3731:10.1017/S0016672300014282
1287:CHESNER, C (1998-03-01).
727:Skhul and Qafzeh hominins
658:Human demographic history
584:effective population size
455:North American Cordillera
140:
136:
126:
114:
104:
62:
51:
41:
26:
21:
6218:; Self, Stephen (1993).
6144:10.1130/0-8137-2345-0.71
5438:Quaternary International
3587:Quaternary International
3483:10.1175/jcli-d-23-0116.1
3300:Quaternary International
2137:Quaternary Geochronology
1655:Quaternary International
1246:Quaternary International
1108:Quaternary Geochronology
855:Quaternary International
662:Recent analysis applies
410:Dansgaard–Oeschger event
6754:19th & 20th century
6295:10.1126/science.8266085
6104:10.1126/science.1141564
5828:10.1073/pnas.0909000107
5785:10.1126/science.1140462
5739:Goldberg, T.L. (1996).
5294:10.1073/pnas.2318903121
5239:10.1126/science.abq7487
5164:10.1126/science.1170165
4982:10.1073/pnas.2213061120
4905:Nature Reviews Genetics
4854:10.1073/pnas.1212380109
4671:10.1126/science.1141564
4127:10.1126/science.8266085
3417:10.1073/pnas.2013046118
3254:10.5194/cp-17-2119-2021
2639:2003E&PSL.206..253C
2599:10.5194/cp-17-2273-2021
2374:10.1073/pnas.2209558120
1950:10.1073/pnas.1301474110
1608:Bulletin of Volcanology
1062:10.1073/pnas.1208178109
986:Bulletin Volcanologique
652:whole-genome sequencing
549:Toba catastrophe theory
298:Effects of the eruption
6890:Pre-Holocene volcanism
6734:(21 million years ago)
6247:10.1006/qres.1993.1081
5979:McGuire, W.J. (2007).
5634:10.1006/jhev.1998.0219
5194:Huff & others 2010
3868:; Sherry, Stephen T.;
3036:10.1006/qres.2001.2291
801:Early human migrations
716:Archaeological studies
238:
170:Youngest Toba eruption
164:(sometimes called the
22:Youngest Toba eruption
6905:Pleistocene volcanism
6885:Prehistoric Indonesia
6472:10.1093/molbev/msl160
5854:Jones, S. C. (2007).
5591:Luo & others 2004
5376:10.1038/news070702-15
4385:Nature Communications
3761:Takahata, N. (1993).
2674:Nature Communications
2419:Nature Communications
2308:10.5194/cp-9-749-2013
523:1991 Pinatubo sulphur
316:dense-rock equivalent
305:and Craig Chesner of
236:
6740:(c. 74,000 years BP)
6339:10.1029/2008JD011652
6055:(14–15): 1593–1609,
3961:Sherry, Stephen T.;
3882:Current Anthropology
3866:Harpending, Henry C.
3359:10.1029/2010GL045464
2988:10.1029/2000GL006113
1293:Journal of Petrology
611:Possible effects on
443:Last Glacial Maximum
46:Toba Caldera Complex
6860:Scientific theories
6671:Helicobacter pylori
6570:Prothero, Donald R.
6539:1996GeoRL..23..837Z
6503:2009PPP...284..295W
6430:2006JHumE..50..509S
6397:2008Eleme...4...41S
6368:1987Geo....15..913R
6330:2009JGRD..11410107R
6287:1993Sci...262.1955R
6239:1993QuRes..40..269R
6227:Quaternary Research
6216:Rampino, Michael R.
6210:on 20 October 2011.
6185:1992Natur.359...50R
6162:Rampino, Michael R.
6096:2007Sci...317..114P
6061:2002QSRv...21.1593O
6024:1978Natur.276..574N
5993:2007caih.book.....B
5940:2014MolEc..23.2072L
5819:2010PNAS..107.2147H
5776:2007Sci...316..240H
5703:1993Sci...262...27G
5670:1991Geo....19..200C
5626:1998JHumE..34..623A
5535:. 24 November 2009.
5450:2012QuInt.258..119P
5286:2024PNAS..12118903M
5280:(13): e2318903121.
5231:2023Sci...381..979H
5156:2009Sci...324.1298P
5150:(5932): 1298–1301.
5039:10.1038/nature10231
4974:2023PNAS..12013061T
4968:(22): e2213061120.
4845:2012PNAS..10917758H
4839:(44): 17758–17764.
4663:2007Sci...317..114P
4490:10.1038/nature18964
4482:2016Natur.538..201M
4397:2015NatCo...6.6037C
4342:2019Natur.568..181D
4295:10.1038/nature17179
4287:2016Natur.532..366S
4231:2019Natur.565..594J
4183:10.1038/nature13621
4175:2014Natur.512..306H
4119:1993Sci...262.1955R
4099:Rampino, Michael R.
4049:1992Natur.359...50R
4029:Rampino, Michael R.
3673:2022JAESX...700083S
3599:2020QuInt.559...24G
3475:2024JCli...37.1449M
3408:2021PNAS..11813046B
3402:(29): e2013046118.
3351:2010GeoRL..3724705T
3312:2012QuInt.258...30T
3245:2021CliPa..17.2119C
3233:Climate of the Past
3202:1996GeoRL..23..837Z
3136:2018JHumE.116...75Y
3130:. Elsevier: 75–94.
3086:2015Geo....43..823J
3028:2002QuRes..57...22S
3016:Quaternary Research
2979:2001GeoRL..28.3915H
2932:1992Natur.359...50R
2885:2019QSRv..204..187D
2838:2014QSRv...86..115H
2791:2018Geo....46E.442S
2752:2015QSRv..114...52S
2686:2019NatCo..10.3713B
2590:2021CliPa..17.2273S
2578:Climate of the Past
2537:(4270): 1121–1132.
2496:2021QSRv..26106948D
2431:2022NatCo..13.5443M
2366:2023PNAS..12009558D
2360:(12): e2209558120.
2299:2013CliPa...9..749S
2287:Climate of the Past
2248:2021QSRv..25506821A
2201:2020NRvEE...1..677M
2149:2019QuGeo..5301003D
2101:2017Geo....45..843P
2062:Quaternary Sciences
2004:2023Natur.620..336B
1941:2013PNAS..110.8025L
1880:2024Natur.628..365K
1827:10.1038/nature25967
1819:2018Natur.555..511S
1761:1999MGeol.155..243P
1714:2002GSLSP.195..445V
1667:2012QuInt.258..119P
1620:1991BVol...53..343C
1589:2019AGUFM.V51H0141S
1550:2023JVGR..44107879K
1480:2023QSRv..31208162L
1396:2010JVGR..197..259C
1346:1991Natur.350..225W
1258:2012QuInt.258....5C
1208:2024CoMP..179...12L
1053:2012PNAS..10918684S
1047:(46): 18684–18688.
998:1978BVol...41..286N
946:2000Geo....28.1056B
867:2012QuInt.258..119P
837:Citations and notes
618:At least two other
596:New York University
499:foraging behaviours
491:afromontane forests
459:Australasian region
430:Heinrich stadial 7a
341:Indian subcontinent
252:argon–argon datings
120:Indian subcontinent
85: /
6654:Journey of Mankind
4599:(5): 923–939.e14.
4560:10.1530/ey.17.14.4
4405:10.1038/ncomms7037
3519:Michael R. Rampino
3463:Journal of Climate
1799:Lane, Christine S.
1793:Smith, Eugene I.;
1628:10.1007/BF00280226
1006:10.1007/BF02597228
700:across the entire
592:Michael R. Rampino
559:genetic bottleneck
354:Sub-Saharan Africa
337:Straits of Malacca
239:
166:Toba supereruption
89:2.6845°N 98.8756°E
6930:Asahan Toba basin
6865:Extinction events
6847:
6846:
6618:on April 22, 2011
6556:on July 18, 2011.
6547:10.1029/96GL00706
6090:(5834): 114–116.
6018:(5688): 574–577.
6002:978-3-540-32709-7
5948:10.1111/mec.12716
5928:Molecular Ecology
5893:(12): 2275–2293.
5869:978-1-4020-5561-4
5770:(5822): 240–243.
5410:john hawks weblog
5370:: news070702–15.
5225:(6661): 979–984.
5033:(7357): 493–496.
4657:(5834): 114–116.
4476:(7624): 201–206.
4336:(7751): 181–186.
4281:(7599): 366–369.
4225:(7741): 594–599.
4169:(7514): 306–309.
3967:Harpending, Henry
3718:Genetics Research
3642:john hawks weblog
3210:10.1029/96GL00706
2973:(20): 3915–3918.
2799:10.1130/g40057c.1
1998:(7973): 336–343.
1935:(20): 8025–8029.
1874:(8007): 365–372.
1813:(7697): 511–515.
1340:(6315): 225–227.
749:, central Indian
747:Bornean orangutan
580:mitochondrial DNA
328:pyroclastic flows
211:, and one of the
205:volcanic eruption
158:
157:
150:is the resulting
6937:
6925:Volcanic winters
6870:Geology theories
6711:
6704:
6697:
6688:
6687:
6627:
6625:
6623:
6614:. Archived from
6595:
6557:
6555:
6549:. Archived from
6524:
6514:
6484:
6474:
6449:
6408:
6379:
6353:
6343:
6341:
6306:
6265:
6263:
6257:. Archived from
6224:
6211:
6209:
6203:. Archived from
6193:10.1038/359050a0
6170:
6157:
6123:
6081:
6071:
6043:
6032:10.1038/276574a0
6006:
5975:
5934:(8): 2072–2092.
5922:
5912:
5902:
5873:
5850:
5840:
5830:
5813:(5): 2147–2152.
5797:
5787:
5750:
5735:
5722:
5681:
5655:
5645:
5593:
5588:
5582:
5577:
5571:
5566:
5560:
5555:
5549:
5543:
5537:
5536:
5525:
5519:
5516:
5510:
5507:
5501:
5500:
5498:
5496:
5485:Anthropology.net
5476:
5470:
5469:
5429:
5423:
5420:
5414:
5413:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5359:
5353:
5352:
5350:
5349:
5338:Anthropology.net
5330:
5324:
5323:
5313:
5265:
5259:
5258:
5210:
5201:
5190:
5184:
5183:
5135:
5129:
5128:
5118:
5100:
5075:
5069:
5068:
5058:
5018:
5012:
5011:
5001:
4953:
4947:
4946:
4936:
4896:
4885:
4884:
4874:
4856:
4824:
4815:
4814:
4804:
4764:
4751:
4750:
4740:
4700:
4691:
4690:
4641:
4635:
4634:
4624:
4583:
4572:
4571:
4543:
4530:
4529:
4519:
4501:
4460:
4445:
4444:
4434:
4416:
4376:
4370:
4369:
4321:
4315:
4314:
4265:
4259:
4258:
4209:
4203:
4202:
4153:
4147:
4146:
4095:
4089:
4083:
4077:
4076:
4057:10.1038/359050a0
4025:
4019:
4018:
3958:
3952:
3951:
3912:
3906:
3905:
3862:
3856:
3855:
3845:
3805:
3799:
3798:
3758:
3752:
3751:
3733:
3709:
3703:
3702:
3684:
3652:
3646:
3645:
3633:
3627:
3626:
3578:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3550:
3548:
3547:
3532:
3526:
3516:
3510:
3504:
3495:
3494:
3469:(4): 1449–1464.
3454:
3448:
3447:
3437:
3419:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3370:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3266:
3256:
3239:(5): 2119–2137.
3223:
3214:
3213:
3181:
3175:
3167:
3158:
3157:
3147:
3115:
3106:
3105:
3094:10.1130/G36917.1
3065:
3056:
3055:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2990:
2958:
2952:
2951:
2940:10.1038/359050a0
2911:
2905:
2904:
2864:
2858:
2857:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2770:
2764:
2763:
2730:
2724:
2723:
2713:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2633:(3–4): 253–271.
2618:
2612:
2611:
2601:
2584:(5): 2273–2289.
2569:
2563:
2562:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2458:
2410:
2404:
2403:
2393:
2345:
2339:
2338:
2320:
2310:
2277:
2268:
2267:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2180:
2171:
2170:
2160:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2109:10.1130/G39149.1
2080:
2069:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2041:
2023:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1962:
1952:
1917:
1908:
1907:
1858:
1847:
1846:
1790:
1781:
1780:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1568:
1562:
1561:
1529:
1520:
1519:
1518:. 28 April 2005.
1508:
1502:
1501:
1491:
1459:
1450:
1449:
1448:
1447:
1414:
1408:
1407:
1390:(1–4): 259–278.
1375:
1366:
1365:
1354:10.1038/350225a0
1325:
1319:
1318:
1308:
1284:
1278:
1277:
1237:
1228:
1227:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1170:
1159:10.1002/jqs.3149
1153:(1–2): 256–271.
1138:
1132:
1131:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1082:
1064:
1032:
1026:
1025:
977:
966:
965:
925:
916:
911:
905:
904:
893:
887:
886:
846:
795:
790:
789:
781:
779:Volcanoes portal
776:
775:
674:selective sweeps
540:
538:
532:
530:
520:
518:
509:Climate modeling
495:Middle Stone Age
487:grassy woodlands
395:Climatic effects
293:
291:
281:
279:
273:
271:
181:Late Pleistocene
145:
100:
99:
97:
96:
95:
90:
86:
83:
82:
81:
78:
55:c. 74,000 years
31:
19:
18:
6945:
6944:
6940:
6939:
6938:
6936:
6935:
6934:
6915:VEI-8 eruptions
6875:Human evolution
6850:
6849:
6848:
6843:
6796:
6749:
6720:
6715:
6621:
6619:
6610:
6602:
6584:
6565:
6563:Further reading
6560:
6553:
6522:
6362:(10): 913–917.
6351:
6324:(D10): D10107.
6261:
6222:
6207:
6179:(6390): 50–52.
6168:
6154:
6079:
6003:
5881:Panthera tigris
5870:
5697:(5130): 27–28.
5653:
5601:
5596:
5589:
5585:
5578:
5574:
5567:
5563:
5556:
5552:
5544:
5540:
5527:
5526:
5522:
5517:
5513:
5508:
5504:
5494:
5492:
5491:on 22 July 2011
5479:
5477:
5473:
5430:
5426:
5421:
5417:
5404:(5 July 2007).
5399:
5395:
5360:
5356:
5347:
5345:
5332:
5331:
5327:
5266:
5262:
5211:
5204:
5191:
5187:
5136:
5132:
5076:
5072:
5019:
5015:
4954:
4950:
4917:10.1038/nrg3931
4897:
4888:
4825:
4818:
4785:10.1038/ng.3748
4773:Nature Genetics
4765:
4754:
4721:10.1038/ng.3015
4709:Nature Genetics
4701:
4694:
4642:
4638:
4584:
4575:
4544:
4533:
4461:
4448:
4377:
4373:
4322:
4318:
4266:
4262:
4210:
4206:
4154:
4150:
4096:
4092:
4084:
4080:
4043:(6390): 50–52.
4026:
4022:
3979:Stoneking, Mark
3975:Jenkins, Trefor
3971:Soodyall, Himla
3963:Rogers, Alan R.
3959:
3955:
3916:Rogers, Alan R.
3913:
3909:
3874:Stoneking, Mark
3870:Rogers, Alan R.
3863:
3859:
3806:
3802:
3759:
3755:
3710:
3706:
3653:
3649:
3634:
3630:
3579:
3575:
3564:
3562:
3560:Livescience.com
3545:
3543:
3542:. 30 April 2013
3534:
3533:
3529:
3517:
3513:
3505:
3498:
3455:
3451:
3388:
3384:
3331:
3327:
3292:
3288:
3224:
3217:
3182:
3178:
3168:
3161:
3116:
3109:
3066:
3059:
3008:
3004:
2959:
2955:
2926:(6390): 50–52.
2912:
2908:
2865:
2861:
2818:
2814:
2771:
2767:
2731:
2727:
2666:
2662:
2619:
2615:
2570:
2566:
2523:
2519:
2476:
2472:
2411:
2407:
2346:
2342:
2278:
2271:
2228:
2224:
2195:(12): 677–693.
2181:
2174:
2128:
2124:
2081:
2072:
2059:
2055:
1980:
1976:
1918:
1911:
1859:
1850:
1795:Jacobs, Zenobia
1791:
1784:
1741:
1737:
1694:
1690:
1647:
1643:
1600:
1596:
1569:
1565:
1530:
1523:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1460:
1453:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1431:10.1029/139gm02
1415:
1411:
1376:
1369:
1326:
1322:
1285:
1281:
1238:
1231:
1188:
1184:
1139:
1135:
1100:
1096:
1033:
1029:
978:
969:
926:
919:
912:
908:
895:
894:
890:
847:
843:
839:
791:
784:
777:
770:
767:
739:
718:
660:
637:H. floresiensis
627:H. neanderthals
616:
571:
555:volcanic winter
551:
536:
534:
528:
526:
516:
514:
511:
471:
402:
397:
349:South China Sea
300:
289:
287:
277:
275:
269:
267:
244:
231:
225:
217:Earth's history
154:
94:2.6845; 98.8756
93:
91:
87:
84:
79:
76:
74:
72:
71:
70:
37:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6943:
6933:
6932:
6927:
6922:
6917:
6912:
6907:
6902:
6897:
6895:Supervolcanoes
6892:
6887:
6882:
6877:
6872:
6867:
6862:
6845:
6844:
6842:
6841:
6835:
6829:
6823:
6817:
6811:
6804:
6802:
6798:
6797:
6795:
6794:
6788:
6782:
6776:
6770:
6764:
6757:
6755:
6751:
6750:
6748:
6747:
6741:
6735:
6728:
6726:
6722:
6721:
6714:
6713:
6706:
6699:
6691:
6685:
6684:
6679:
6674:
6664:
6657:
6651:
6645:
6639:
6628:
6608:
6601:
6600:External links
6598:
6597:
6596:
6583:978-1588346353
6582:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6558:
6533:(8): 837–840.
6515:
6485:
6450:
6424:(5): 509–522.
6409:
6380:
6344:
6307:
6281:(5142): 1955.
6266:
6264:on 2011-10-21.
6233:(3): 269–280.
6212:
6158:
6152:
6128:Rampino, M. R.
6124:
6072:
6044:
6007:
6001:
5976:
5923:
5874:
5868:
5851:
5798:
5751:
5736:
5723:
5682:
5664:(3): 200–203.
5646:
5620:(6): 623–651.
5602:
5600:
5597:
5595:
5594:
5583:
5572:
5561:
5550:
5538:
5520:
5511:
5502:
5471:
5424:
5415:
5393:
5354:
5325:
5260:
5202:
5185:
5130:
5085:Genome Biology
5070:
5013:
4948:
4911:(6): 333–343.
4886:
4816:
4779:(2): 303–309.
4752:
4715:(8): 919–925.
4692:
4636:
4573:
4531:
4446:
4371:
4316:
4260:
4204:
4148:
4113:(5142): 1955.
4090:
4078:
4020:
3993:(5): 761–775.
3953:
3926:(4): 608–615.
3907:
3894:10.1086/204195
3888:(4): 483–496.
3857:
3820:(4): 649–663.
3800:
3753:
3704:
3647:
3628:
3573:
3571:
3570:
3527:
3511:
3496:
3449:
3382:
3325:
3286:
3215:
3196:(8): 837–840.
3176:
3159:
3107:
3080:(9): 823–826.
3057:
3002:
2953:
2906:
2859:
2812:
2765:
2725:
2660:
2613:
2564:
2517:
2470:
2405:
2340:
2293:(2): 749–766.
2269:
2222:
2172:
2122:
2095:(9): 843–846.
2070:
2053:
1974:
1909:
1848:
1782:
1755:(3): 243–248.
1749:Marine Geology
1735:
1708:(1): 445–461.
1688:
1641:
1614:(5): 343–356.
1594:
1563:
1521:
1503:
1451:
1439:
1409:
1367:
1320:
1299:(3): 397–438.
1279:
1229:
1182:
1133:
1094:
1027:
992:(3): 286–298.
967:
917:
906:
888:
840:
838:
835:
834:
833:
827:
822:
816:
810:
804:
797:
796:
782:
766:
763:
738:
735:
717:
714:
669:founder effect
659:
656:
615:
609:
570:
567:
550:
547:
510:
507:
470:
467:
451:Northeast Asia
447:eastern Europe
426:bipolar seesaw
418:Southern Ocean
406:Atlantic ocean
401:
398:
396:
393:
389:resurgent dome
299:
296:
248:summer monsoon
243:
240:
224:
221:
156:
155:
146:
138:
137:
134:
133:
130:
124:
123:
116:
112:
111:
108:
102:
101:
64:
60:
59:
53:
49:
48:
43:
39:
38:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6942:
6931:
6928:
6926:
6923:
6921:
6918:
6916:
6913:
6911:
6908:
6906:
6903:
6901:
6898:
6896:
6893:
6891:
6888:
6886:
6883:
6881:
6878:
6876:
6873:
6871:
6868:
6866:
6863:
6861:
6858:
6857:
6855:
6839:
6836:
6833:
6830:
6827:
6826:Anak Krakatoa
6824:
6821:
6818:
6815:
6812:
6809:
6806:
6805:
6803:
6799:
6792:
6789:
6786:
6783:
6780:
6777:
6774:
6771:
6768:
6765:
6762:
6761:Mount Tambora
6759:
6758:
6756:
6752:
6745:
6742:
6739:
6736:
6733:
6730:
6729:
6727:
6723:
6719:
6712:
6707:
6705:
6700:
6698:
6693:
6692:
6689:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6672:
6668:
6665:
6661:
6658:
6655:
6652:
6649:
6646:
6643:
6640:
6638:
6637:
6636:The Economist
6633:– Article in
6632:
6629:
6617:
6613:
6609:
6607:
6604:
6603:
6593:
6589:
6585:
6579:
6575:
6571:
6567:
6566:
6552:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6521:
6516:
6512:
6508:
6504:
6500:
6496:
6492:
6486:
6482:
6478:
6473:
6468:
6464:
6460:
6456:
6451:
6447:
6443:
6439:
6435:
6431:
6427:
6423:
6419:
6415:
6410:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6386:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6365:
6361:
6357:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6267:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6244:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6153:0-8137-2345-0
6149:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6117:
6113:
6109:
6105:
6101:
6097:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6078:
6073:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6008:
6004:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5977:
5973:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5949:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5924:
5920:
5916:
5911:
5906:
5901:
5896:
5892:
5888:
5884:
5882:
5875:
5871:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5824:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5786:
5781:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5765:
5761:
5759:
5752:
5748:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5733:
5729:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5667:
5663:
5659:
5652:
5647:
5643:
5639:
5635:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5603:
5592:
5587:
5581:
5576:
5570:
5565:
5559:
5558:Goldberg 1996
5554:
5547:
5542:
5534:
5530:
5524:
5515:
5506:
5490:
5486:
5482:
5475:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5428:
5419:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5397:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5365:
5358:
5344:on 2008-01-11
5343:
5339:
5335:
5329:
5321:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5264:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5209:
5207:
5199:
5195:
5189:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5134:
5126:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5074:
5066:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5024:
5017:
5009:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4952:
4944:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4895:
4893:
4891:
4882:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4823:
4821:
4812:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4770:
4763:
4761:
4759:
4757:
4748:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4699:
4697:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4640:
4632:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4582:
4580:
4578:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4542:
4540:
4538:
4536:
4527:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4459:
4457:
4455:
4453:
4451:
4442:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4375:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4320:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4264:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4208:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4152:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4094:
4087:
4082:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4024:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3987:Human Biology
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3957:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3911:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3861:
3853:
3849:
3844:
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3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
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3815:
3811:
3804:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3708:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3651:
3643:
3639:
3632:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3577:
3561:
3557:
3552:
3551:
3541:
3537:
3531:
3524:
3520:
3515:
3508:
3503:
3501:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3453:
3445:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3386:
3378:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3329:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3290:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3222:
3220:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3180:
3173:
3166:
3164:
3155:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3114:
3112:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3064:
3062:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3006:
2998:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2957:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2910:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2863:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2816:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2769:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2729:
2721:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2617:
2609:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2568:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2474:
2466:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2409:
2401:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2344:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2276:
2274:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2177:
2168:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2126:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2068:(3), 266-272.
2067:
2063:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1916:
1914:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1789:
1787:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1692:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1645:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1598:
1590:
1586:
1583:: V51H–0141.
1582:
1578:
1574:
1567:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1526:
1517:
1513:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1456:
1442:
1440:0-87590-998-1
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1413:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1374:
1372:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1324:
1316:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1283:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1234:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1186:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1137:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1098:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1031:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
976:
974:
972:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
924:
922:
915:
910:
902:
898:
892:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
845:
841:
831:
828:
826:
823:
820:
817:
814:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
798:
794:
788:
783:
780:
774:
769:
762:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
734:
732:
728:
723:
713:
710:
709:
703:
699:
698:Alu sequences
694:
691:
690:Yoruba people
687:
686:Maasai people
683:
678:
675:
670:
665:
655:
653:
649:
645:
644:
643:H. luzonensis
639:
638:
633:
629:
628:
623:
622:
614:
608:
605:
601:
597:
593:
587:
585:
581:
576:
566:
564:
560:
556:
546:
544:
524:
506:
502:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
466:
465:environment.
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
392:
390:
385:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
364:of northwest
363:
359:
355:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
329:
325:
321:
317:
312:
308:
304:
295:
285:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
235:
230:
220:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
175:
174:supervolcanic
171:
167:
163:
162:Toba eruption
153:
149:
144:
139:
135:
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
107:
103:
98:
68:
65:
61:
58:
54:
50:
47:
44:
40:
36:
30:
25:
20:
6838:Mount Marapi
6808:Mount Merapi
6801:21st century
6791:Mount Marapi
6634:
6620:. Retrieved
6616:the original
6573:
6551:the original
6530:
6526:
6494:
6490:
6462:
6458:
6421:
6417:
6413:
6391:(1): 41–46.
6388:
6384:
6359:
6355:
6321:
6315:
6278:
6274:
6259:the original
6230:
6226:
6205:the original
6176:
6172:
6135:
6087:
6083:
6052:
6048:
6015:
6011:
5984:
5931:
5927:
5890:
5887:PLOS Biology
5886:
5880:
5859:
5810:
5806:
5767:
5763:
5757:
5747:
5743:
5740:
5731:
5694:
5690:
5661:
5657:
5617:
5611:
5586:
5575:
5569:Steiper 2006
5564:
5553:
5541:
5533:ScienceDaily
5532:
5523:
5514:
5505:
5493:. Retrieved
5489:the original
5484:
5474:
5441:
5437:
5427:
5418:
5409:
5396:
5367:
5357:
5346:. Retrieved
5342:the original
5337:
5328:
5277:
5273:
5263:
5222:
5218:
5198:Gibbons 2010
5188:
5147:
5143:
5133:
5088:
5084:
5073:
5030:
5026:
5016:
4965:
4961:
4951:
4908:
4904:
4836:
4832:
4776:
4772:
4712:
4708:
4654:
4650:
4639:
4596:
4592:
4551:
4499:11336/125570
4473:
4469:
4388:
4384:
4374:
4333:
4329:
4319:
4278:
4274:
4263:
4222:
4218:
4207:
4166:
4162:
4151:
4110:
4106:
4093:
4086:Gibbons 1993
4081:
4040:
4036:
4023:
3990:
3986:
3956:
3923:
3919:
3910:
3885:
3881:
3860:
3817:
3813:
3803:
3770:
3766:
3756:
3724:(1): 73–89.
3721:
3717:
3707:
3664:
3660:
3650:
3641:
3631:
3590:
3586:
3576:
3563:. Retrieved
3559:
3544:. Retrieved
3530:
3514:
3507:Ambrose 1998
3466:
3462:
3452:
3399:
3395:
3385:
3342:
3338:
3328:
3303:
3299:
3289:
3236:
3232:
3193:
3189:
3179:
3171:
3127:
3123:
3077:
3073:
3022:(1): 22–31.
3019:
3015:
3005:
2970:
2966:
2956:
2923:
2919:
2909:
2876:
2872:
2862:
2829:
2825:
2815:
2782:
2778:
2768:
2743:
2739:
2728:
2677:
2673:
2663:
2630:
2626:
2616:
2581:
2577:
2567:
2534:
2530:
2520:
2487:
2483:
2473:
2422:
2418:
2408:
2357:
2353:
2343:
2290:
2286:
2239:
2235:
2225:
2192:
2188:
2140:
2136:
2125:
2092:
2088:
2065:
2061:
2056:
1995:
1991:
1977:
1932:
1928:
1871:
1867:
1810:
1806:
1752:
1748:
1738:
1705:
1701:
1691:
1658:
1654:
1644:
1611:
1607:
1597:
1580:
1576:
1566:
1541:
1537:
1506:
1471:
1467:
1444:, retrieved
1422:
1412:
1387:
1383:
1337:
1333:
1323:
1296:
1292:
1282:
1249:
1245:
1199:
1195:
1185:
1150:
1146:
1136:
1111:
1107:
1097:
1044:
1040:
1030:
989:
985:
940:(11): 1056.
937:
933:
909:
900:
891:
858:
854:
844:
830:Wallace Line
740:
731:Neanderthals
719:
706:
702:human genome
695:
679:
664:Markov model
661:
641:
635:
626:
619:
617:
612:
588:
572:
552:
512:
503:
483:lake ecology
472:
403:
386:
358:South Africa
333:Indian Ocean
301:
264:Petrological
256:magma bodies
245:
169:
165:
161:
159:
118:Covered the
6822:(2017–2019)
6820:Mount Agung
6779:Mount Agung
6725:Before 1800
6465:: 146–158.
5495:28 February
5444:: 119–134.
4391:(1): 6037.
3773:(1): 2–22.
3345:(24): n/a.
3264:10023/24161
2879:: 187–207.
2832:: 115–143.
2785:(5): e442.
2680:(1): 3713.
2425:(1): 5443.
2318:2158/774798
1984:Lane, C. S.
1921:Lane, C. S.
1661:: 119–134.
861:: 119–134.
722:stone tools
575:hemoglobins
378:South China
370:Lake Malawi
345:Arabian Sea
152:crater lake
92: /
69:, Indonesia
6854:Categories
6592:1020313538
5732:ScienceNow
5599:References
5402:John Hawks
5348:2008-04-20
4414:1885/12938
3667:: 100083.
3565:2017-01-08
3546:2017-01-08
2490:: 106948.
2242:: 106821.
2143:: 101003.
1544:: 107879.
1474:: 108162.
1446:2024-04-25
743:chimpanzee
632:Denisovans
624:lineages,
475:insolation
422:Antarctica
374:Lake Chala
324:Quaternary
320:ignimbrite
311:ignimbrite
260:ignimbrite
227:See also:
209:Quaternary
80:98°52′32″E
6880:Lake Toba
6255:129546088
5956:0962-1083
5760:macaques"
5478:See also
5466:1040-6182
5384:177216526
5302:0027-8424
5247:0036-8075
5172:0036-8075
5107:1474-760X
5091:(1): 82.
5047:1476-4687
4990:0027-8424
4925:1471-0064
4863:0027-8424
4793:1546-1718
4729:1546-1718
4679:0036-8075
4613:0092-8674
4568:1662-4009
4508:1476-4687
4423:2041-1723
4358:1476-4687
4303:1476-4687
4247:1476-4687
4191:1476-4687
4135:0036-8075
4065:1476-4687
3999:0018-7143
3920:Evolution
3902:0011-3204
3834:1943-2631
3787:1537-1719
3740:1469-5073
3699:246416256
3691:2590-0560
3623:225418492
3615:1040-6182
3593:: 24–33.
3491:0894-8755
3426:0027-8424
3306:: 30–44.
3281:239203480
3273:1814-9324
3102:0091-7613
3052:129838182
3044:0033-5894
2997:128903263
2948:1476-4687
2901:0277-3791
2854:0277-3791
2807:0091-7613
2746:: 52–60.
2702:2041-1723
2655:0012-821X
2608:1814-9324
2551:0036-8075
2512:0277-3791
2447:2041-1723
2382:0027-8424
2327:1814-9324
2264:0277-3791
2217:2662-138X
2167:1871-1014
2117:0091-7613
2030:1476-4687
1896:1476-4687
1835:1476-4687
1777:0025-3227
1730:0305-8719
1683:1040-6182
1636:1432-0819
1498:0277-3791
1362:1476-4687
1315:1460-2415
1274:1040-6182
1224:0010-7999
1202:(2): 12.
1177:0267-8179
1128:1871-1014
1114:: 56–59.
1071:0027-8424
1022:128626019
1014:1432-0819
962:0091-7613
883:1040-6182
539:10 g
531:10 g
519:10 g
382:Maar Lake
372:, and in
360:, in the
303:Bill Rose
292:10 g
280:10 g
193:Indonesia
185:Lake Toba
148:Lake Toba
77:2°41′04″N
6773:Krakatoa
6572:(2018).
6481:17065595
6446:16472840
6385:Elements
6120:20380351
6112:17615356
5972:40030155
5964:24629132
5919:15583716
5847:20133859
5794:17431170
5719:17742951
5388:Archived
5320:38466876
5311:10990135
5255:37651513
5180:19498164
5125:31023338
5065:21753753
5008:37220274
4999:10235988
4943:25963372
4881:23077256
4811:28024154
4747:24952747
4687:17615356
4631:36868214
4622:10568978
4526:27654912
4441:25625212
4366:30971845
4311:27027286
4255:30700870
4199:25143113
4007:41465014
3981:(1994).
3948:29309837
3940:28565146
3876:(1993).
3814:Genetics
3540:BBC News
3444:34230096
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