Parental brain: Difference between revisions

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infant's needs in any context could be described as mothering behavior and is regulated by many systems in the maternal brain.<ref name="barrett and fleming">{{cite journal|last=Barrett|first=Jennifer|author2=Fleming, Alison S.|title=Annual Research Review: All mothers are not created equal: neural and psychobiological perspectives on mothering and the importance of individual differences|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry|date=1 April 2011|volume=52|issue=4|pages=368–397|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02306.x|pmid=20925656}}</ref> Research has shown that hormones such as ], ], ] and ] are essential for the onset and the maintenance of maternal behavior in rats, and other mammals as well.<ref name="bridges 2008">{{cite book|last=Bridges|first=R|title=Neurobiology of the parental brain|year=2008|publisher=Academic|location=Amsterdam}}</ref><ref name="bridges 1990">{{cite book|last=Bridges|first=R.S|title=Endocrine regulation of parental behavior in rodents, Mammalian parenting: Biochemical, neurobiological and behavioral determinants|year=1990|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|pages=93–117}}</ref><ref name="insel 1990">{{cite book|last=Insel|first=T|title=Oxytocin and maternal behavior, Mammalian parenting: biochemical, neurobiological and behavioral determinants|year=1990|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|pages=260–280}}</ref><ref name="numan 2007">{{cite journal|last=Numan|first=M|title=Motivational systems and the neural circuitry of maternal behavior in the rat.|journal=Developmental Psychobiology|date=Jan 2007|volume=49|issue=1|pages=12–21|pmid=17186513|doi=10.1002/dev.20198|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pryce 1995">{{cite book|author1=Pryce C.R |author2=Martin RD |author3=Skuse D |title=Motherhood in human and nonhuman primates|year=1995|publisher=Karger|location=New York}}</ref><ref name="rosenblatt 1998">{{cite journal|last=Rosenblatt|first=JS|author2=Olufowobi, A |author3=Siegel, HI |title=Effects of pregnancy hormones on maternal responsiveness, responsiveness to estrogen stimulation of maternal behavior, and the lordosis response to estrogen stimulation.|journal=Hormones and Behavior|date=Apr 1998|volume=33|issue=2|pages=104–14|pmid=9647936|doi=10.1006/hbeh.1998.1441|s2cid=38510815}}</ref> Mothering behavior has also been classified within the basic drives (sexual desire, hunger and thirst, fear, power/dominance etc.).<ref name="sewards and sewards 2002">{{cite journal|last=Sewards|first=TV|author2=Sewards, MA|title=Fear and power-dominance drive motivation: neural representations and pathways mediating sensory and mnemonic inputs, and outputs to premotor structures.|journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews|date=Aug 2002|volume=26|issue=5|pages=553–79|pmid=12367590|doi=10.1016/S0149-7634(02)00020-9|s2cid=25374502|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1259839}}</ref>

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2010|volume=33|issue=10|pages=465–73|pmid=20832872|doi=10.1016/j.tins.2010.07.003|pmc=3076301}}</ref> Research on this topic is continuing to expand as more researchers examine fathers. Many of the brain regions and networks responsible for parental behavior are responsible for parental behavior in human fathers after having a child.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Paternal Brain in Action: A Review of Human Fathers' fMRI Brain Responses to Child-Related Stimuli |date=2021 |pmc=8233834 |last1=Provenzi |first1=L. |last2=Lindstedt |first2=J. |last3=De Coen |first3=K. |last4=Gasparini |first4=L. |last5=Peruzzo |first5=D. |last6=Grumi |first6=S. |last7=Arrigoni |first7=F. |last8=Ahlqvist-Björkroth |first8=S. |journal=Brain Sciences |volume=11 |issue=6 |page=816 |doi=10.3390/brainsci11060816 |pmid=34202946 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Changes in hormones, brain activation and brain structure (mainly changes in gray matter) are seen in both human mothers and fathers, with hormonal changes beginning in both males and females before the birth of their children, with changes continuing to develop after the birth of children.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article-abstract/33/7/4156/6691667 |title= First-time fathers show longitudinal gray matter cortical volume reductions: evidence from two international samples |url-access=registration |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=academic.oup.com}}</ref>

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349:, but changes in the father's brain occur alongside the mother. Research on this topic is continuing to expand as more researchers examine fathers. Many of the brain regions and networks responsible for parental behavior are responsible for parental behavior in human fathers after having a child. Changes in hormones, brain activation and brain structure (mainly changes in gray matter) are seen in both human mothers and fathers, with hormonal changes beginning in both males and females before the birth of their children, with changes continuing to develop after the birth of children. 537: 306: 68: 796:) were found among these post-traumatically stressed mothers of toddlers compared to mothers of toddlers without PTSD in response to stressful parent-child interactions as well as, within a different sample, in response to menacing adult male-female interactions. In the latter study, this pattern of corticolimbic dysregulation was linked to less observed 544:

The amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex also contain receptors for the hormones which are most likely to be changing behavior at the time of pregnancy, and may be the sites where these changes occur. Increased activity has also been observed in the amygdala as the mother is responding to emotions

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Parental experience, as well as changing hormone levels during pregnancy and postpartum, cause changes in the '''parental brain'''.<ref name="leuner et al 2010" /> Displaying ] towards infant cues, processing those cues and being motivated to engage socially with her infant and attend to the

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Different areas/structures of the brain are associated with different factors which contribute to maternal behavior. One's own infant acts as a special stimulus which triggers activation of different areas of the brain. These brain areas together allow for maternal behavior and related systems.

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In the first few days after giving birth the levels of cortisol are high which correlates with maternal approach behavior and positive maternal attitudes. Mothers with high levels of cortisol were also found to be more vocal towards their children. Mothers who experienced adversity in their own

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towards infant cues, processing those cues and being motivated to engage socially with her infant and attend to the infant's needs in any context could be described as mothering behavior and is regulated by many systems in the maternal brain. Research has shown that hormones such as

556:(DLPFC) plays a role in the attention, cognitive flexibility and working memory of the mother. It helps the mother identify infant cues. In any environment and efficiently, it allows for the decision-making and action planning process involved in attending to the infant's cues. 1015:

in the paternal brain has also been correlated with a more positive response to the infant's cry. Similar to mothers, fathers have a reduction of gray matter in the orbitofrontal cortex areas, and increase of gray matter in the hypothalamus and amygdala after having a child.

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Less is known about the ], but changes in the father's brain occur alongside the mother. <ref name="leuner et al 2010">{{cite journal|last=Leuner|first=B|author2=Glasper, ER |author3=Gould, E |title=Parenting and plasticity.|journal=Trends in Neurosciences|date=Oct

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Rat mothers provide high levels of maternal care (licking and grooming) to their offspring if they themselves received high maternal care as a pup from their own mothers. Rat mothers who received low levels of maternal care as pups have lower levels of expression of the

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during mother-child play. Decreased ventral-medial prefrontal cortex activity in violence-exposed mothers, in response to viewing their own and unfamiliar toddlers in video-clips of separation versus play, has also been associated with increased PTSD symptoms,

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Seifritz E, Esposito F, Neuhoff JG, Lüthi A, Mustovic H, Dammann G, von Bardeleben U, Radue EW, Cirillo S, Tedeschi G, Di Salle F (15 December 2003). "Differential sex-independent amygdala response to infant crying and laughing in parents versus nonparents".

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as associated with specific patterns of maternal neural activation in response to viewing silent video-stimuli of stressful parent-toddler interactions such as separation versus less-stressful ones such as play. Importantly, less medial

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are essential for the onset and the maintenance of maternal behavior in rats, and other mammals as well. Mothering behavior has also been classified within the basic drives (sexual desire, hunger and thirst, fear, power/dominance etc.).

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These changes in the brain may occur in order to promote appropriate mothering behavior. The mother's positive attitude towards the infant can be used as a predictor for the increase in gray matter in the above stated brain structures.

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Rosenblatt, JS; Olufowobi, A; Siegel, HI (April 1998). "Effects of pregnancy hormones on maternal responsiveness, responsiveness to estrogen stimulation of maternal behavior, and the lordosis response to estrogen stimulation".

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Feldman, R; Gordon, I; Schneiderman, I; Weisman, O; Zagoory-Sharon, O (September 2010). "Natural variations in maternal and paternal care are associated with systematic changes in oxytocin following parent-infant contact".

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to their own mothers display higher amygdala sensitivity to negative emotional stimuli, like hearing their infant cry. Having more difficulty dealing with stress makes mothers less responsive to their infant's cues.

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Barrett, Jennifer; Fleming, Alison S. (1 April 2011). "Annual Research Review: All mothers are not created equal: neural and psychobiological perspectives on mothering and the importance of individual differences".

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Francis, DD; Young, LJ; Meaney, MJ; Insel, TR (May 2002). "Naturally occurring differences in maternal care are associated with the expression of oxytocin and vasopressin (V1a) receptors: gender differences".

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Belsky, J; Jaffee, SR; Sligo, J; Woodward, L; Silva, PA (March–April 2005). "Intergenerational transmission of warm-sensitive-stimulating parenting: a prospective study of mothers and fathers of 3-year-olds".

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Schechter, DS; Moser, DA; Paoloni-Giacobino, A; Stenz, A; Gex-Fabry, M; Aue, T; Adouan, W; Cordero, MI; Suardi, F; Manini, A; Sancho Rossignol, A; Merminod, G; Ansermet, F; Dayer, AG; Rusconi Serpa, S (2015).

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Castro-Fornieles, J; Bargalló, N; Lázaro, L; Andrés, S; Falcon, C; Plana, MT; Junqué, C (January 2009). "A cross-sectional and follow-up voxel-based morphometric MRI study in adolescent anorexia nervosa".

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Leuner, B; Mirescu, C; Noiman, L; Gould, E (2007). "Maternal experience inhibits the production of immature neurons in the hippocampus during the postpartum period through elevations in adrenal steroids".

2754:"Methylation of NR3C1 is related to maternal PTSD, parenting stress and maternal medial prefrontal cortical activity in response to child separation among mothers with histories of violence exposure" 362:

Different hormone levels in the maternal brain and the overall well being of the mother account for 40%–50% of differences in the mother's attachment to her infant. Mothers experience a decrease in

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Lemche, E; Giampietro, VP; Surguladze, SA; Amaro, EJ; Andrew, CM; Williams, SC; Brammer, MJ; Lawrence, N; Maier, MA; Russell, TA; Simmons, A; Ecker, C; Joraschky, P; Phillips, ML (August 2006).

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Moser, DA; Aue, T; Favez, N; Kutlikova, H; Suardi, F; Cordero, MI; Rusconi Serpa, S; Schechter, DS. "Violence-related PTSD and neural activation when seeing emotional male-female interactions".

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Shingo, T; Gregg, C; Enwere, E; Fujikawa, H; Hassam, R; Geary, C; Cross, JC; Weiss, S (3 January 2003). "Pregnancy-stimulated neurogenesis in the adult female forebrain mediated by prolactin".

487:. All these hormones are involved in some way in activating maternal behavior in the brain. The following are other behavioral changes necessary for mothering that the MPOA is responsible for: 15: 2101:

Darnaudéry M, Perez-Martin M, Del Favero F, Gomez-Roldan C, Garcia-Segura LM, Maccari S (August 2007). "Early motherhood in rats is associated with a modification of hippocampal function".

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Rees, SL; Panesar, S; Steiner, M; Fleming, AS (March 2006). "The effects of adrenalectomy and corticosterone replacement on induction of maternal behavior in the virgin female rat".

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Featherstone, RE; Fleming, AS; Ivy, GO (February 2000). "Plasticity in the maternal circuit: effects of experience and partum condition on brain astrocyte number in female rats".

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in the maternal brain correlate with maternal behaviors such as gazing, vocalization, positive affect, affectionate touch and other similar mother-infant relationship behaviors.

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Protopopescu, X; Butler, T; Pan, H; Root, J; Altemus, M; Polanecsky, M; McEwen, B; Silbersweig, D; Stern, E (2008). "Hippocampal structural changes across the menstrual cycle".

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Williams, MA; McGlone, F; Abbott, DF; Mattingley, JB (15 January 2005). "Differential amygdala responses to happy and fearful facial expressions depend on selective attention".

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species, including humans, the father plays a significant role in caring for his young. Similar to the changes that occur in the maternal brain, the same areas of the brain (

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and provide that same experience for their own children. Mothers that had negative experiences involving their families undergo neurobiological changes which lead to high

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Alter: title, template type. Add: pages, doi-access, pmid, doi, page, issue, volume, journal, pmc, date, authors 1-8. Removed proxy/dead URL that duplicated identifier. |

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Kaffman, A; Meaney, MJ (March–April 2007). "Neurodevelopmental sequelae of postnatal maternal care in rodents: clinical and research implications of molecular insights".

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Schechter, DS; Moser, D; Wang, Z; Marsh, R; Hao, XJ; Duan, Y; Yu, S; Gunter, B; Murphy, D; McCaw, J; Kangarlu, A; Willheim, E; Myers, M; Hofer, M; Peterson, BS (2012).

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Fleming, AS; Corter, C; Stallings, J; Steiner, M (December 2002). "Testosterone and prolactin are associated with emotional responses to infant cries in new fathers".

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Kozorovitskiy, Y; Hughes, M; Lee, K; Gould, E (September 2006). "Fatherhood affects dendritic spines and vasopressin V1a receptors in the primate prefrontal cortex".

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Matthiesen, AS; Ransjö-Arvidson AB; Nissen E; Uvnäs-Moberg K. (2001). "Postpartum maternal oxytocin release by newborns: effects of infant hand massage and sucking".

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Francis, D; Diorio, J; Liu, D; Meaney, MJ (5 November 1999). "Nongenomic transmission across generations of maternal behavior and stress responses in the rat".

684:. Postpartum increase in gray matter volumes may help the mother activate the motivation to perform maternal behavior in response to cue from their offspring. 3135:

Martorell, GA; Bugental, DB (December 2006). "Maternal variations in stress reactivity: implications for harsh parenting practices with very young children".

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levels are positively correlated with the amount of affection the father displays towards the child. In humans, and in other primate species, lower levels of

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Killgore, WD; Yurgelun-Todd, DA (April 2004). "Activation of the amygdala and anterior cingulate during nonconscious processing of sad versus happy faces".

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Noriuchi, M; Kikuchi, Y; Senoo, A (15 February 2008). "The functional neuroanatomy of maternal love: mother's response to infant's attachment behaviors".

1280:"Fear and power-dominance drive motivation: neural representations and pathways mediating sensory and mnemonic inputs, and outputs to premotor structures" 837:. In human mothers, lower hippocampal volume has been associated with a lower ability to regulate emotions and stress, which can be linked with decreased 447:

Glucocorticoids are not essential for displaying maternal behaviors, but in mothers, the levels of glucocorticoids are elevated as to initiate lactation.

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Larger gray matter and increased activations of the following brain areas occur in mothers who had experienced higher quality maternal care as infants:

2691:"Comorbid dissociation dampens limbic activation in violence-exposed mothers with PTSD who are exposed to video-clips of their child during separation" 980:

receptors in this area of the paternal brain. With age, this effect is reversed, and is therefore believed to be driven by father-infant interactions.

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Platek, SM; Kemp, SM (February 2009). "Is family special to the brain? An event-related fMRI study of familiar, familial, and self-face recognition".

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Pawluski, JL; Galea, LA (12 October 2007). "Reproductive experience alters hippocampal neurogenesis during the postpartum period in the dam".

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Bredy, TW; Grant, RJ; Champagne, DL; Meaney, MJ (November 2003). "Maternal care influences neuronal survival in the hippocampus of the rat".

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Meaney, MJ (2001). "Maternal care, gene expression, and the transmission of individual differences in stress reactivity across generations".

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Flemming, A.S; Steiner M; Andreson V (1987). "Hormonal and attitudinal correlates of maternal behavior during the early postparpregnancy".

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The developmental and evolutionary psychology of intergenerational transmission of attachment in Attachment and bonding: A new synthesis

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Endocrine regulation of parental behavior in rodents, Mammalian parenting: Biochemical, neurobiological and behavioral determinants

28: 1571:"The relation between early life adversity, cortisol awakening response and diurnal salivary cortisol levels in postpartum women" 1327:

Provenzi, L.; Lindstedt, J.; De Coen, K.; Gasparini, L.; Peruzzo, D.; Grumi, S.; Arrigoni, F.; Ahlqvist-Björkroth, S. (2021).

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occur in the paternal brain. These hormonal changes occur through the father's interaction with the mother and his offspring.

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Kim, Pilyoung; Leckman, James F.; Mayes, Linda C.; Newman, Michal-Ann; Feldman, Ruth; Swain, James E. (30 September 2009).

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Raji, CA; Ho, AJ; Parikshak, NN; Becker, JT; Lopez, OL; Kuller, LH; Hua, X; Leow, AD; Toga, AW; Thompson, PM (March 2010).

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seen in negative (fearful) faces, positive faces or familiar faces that her baby makes. Primate mothers with damage to the

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in the paternal brain correlates with the effectiveness of the father's response to the baby's cry. Increased levels of

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Recent research has begun to look at how maternal psychopathology affects the maternal brain in relation to parenting.

108: 3630:"Brain basis of early parent-infant interactions: psychology, physiology, and in vivo functional neuroimaging studies" 1418:"Hormonal and experiential correlates of maternal responsiveness during pregnancy and the puerperium in human mothers" 1383:"First-time fathers show longitudinal gray matter cortical volume reductions: evidence from two international samples" 3088:"Human attachment security is mediated by the amygdala: evidence from combined fMRI and psychophysiological measures" 1533: 149: 86: 3541:

Mak, GK; Weiss, S (June 2010). "Paternal recognition of adult offspring mediated by newly generated CNS neurons".

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Kozorovitskiy, Y; et al. (2007). "Fatherhood influences neurogenesis in the hippocampus of California mice".

2642:"An fMRI study of the brain responses of traumatized mothers to viewing their toddlers during separation and play" 2299:"The plasticity of human maternal brain: Longitudinal changes in brain anatomy during the early postpartum period" 1997:

Franzen, EA; Myers, RE (May 1973). "Neural control of social behavior: prefrontal and anterior temporal cortex".

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Kim, Pilyoung; Leckman, James F.; Mayes, Linda C.; Feldman, Ruth; Wang, Xin; Swain, James E. (1 January 2010).

153: 1819:"General and specific responsiveness of the amygdala during explicit emotion recognition in females and males" 316:

Parental experience, as well as changing hormone levels during pregnancy and postpartum, cause changes in the

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Oxytocin and maternal behavior, Mammalian parenting: biochemical, neurobiological and behavioral determinants

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McEwen, BS (July 2007). "Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: central role of the brain".

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Derntl, B; Habel, U; Windischberger, C; Robinson, S; Kryspin-Exner, I; Gur, RC; Moser, E (4 August 2009).

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Women who had a positive experience involving their family in their childhood are more likely to be more

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Fernandez-Duque, E; et al. (2009). "The biology of paternal care in human and non-human primates".

1329:"The Paternal Brain in Action: A Review of Human Fathers' fMRI Brain Responses to Child-Related Stimuli" 3222:

Mayes, L.C; Leckman, J.F (2007). "Parental representation and subclinical changes in postpartum mood".

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has also been associated with mothers who received low quality maternal care early in their own life.

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Lonstein, JS; De Vries, GJ (August 2000). "Sex differences in the parental behavior of rodents".

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Furuta, M; Bridges, RS (21 April 2005). "Gestation-induced cell proliferation in the rat brain".

681: 460: 2934: 2425: 818: 407: 104: 3175:"Perceived quality of maternal care in childhood and structure and function of mothers' brain" 2689:

Moser, DA; Aue, T; Wang, Z; Rusconi-Serpa, S; Favez, N.; Peterson, BS; Schechter, DS (2014).

875: 63: 2209: 2034:"Alterations of the cortical representation of the rat ventrum induced by nursing behavior" 1967: 838: 814: 797: 436: 321: 8: 3315: 2416:

Bartels, A; Zeki, S (March 2004). "The neural correlates of maternal and romantic love".

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Heim, C; Nemeroff, CB (January 2009). "Neurobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder".

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Also in rats, the increased interaction with pups causes an increase in density in the

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In human mothers there was a correlation between increased gray matter volume in the

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Kim, P.; Rigo, P.; Mayes, L. C.; Feldman, R.; Leckman, J. F.; Swain, J. E. (2014).

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Newborns placed skin-to-skin with their mothers to study maternal oxytocin release.

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serve for processing the smell, touch and vocalization associated with the infant.

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The volume of gray matter increases postpartum in the following brain regions:

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Maternal responsiveness in humans: Emotional, cognitive and biological factors

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of the paternal brain have been linked in some species to recognition of kin.

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Wynne-Edwards, KE (September 2001). "Hormonal changes in mammalian fathers".

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Postpartum, new neuron production is suppressed due to decreased levels of

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Skin-to-skin contact with a newborn helps to increase the mother's oxytocin

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which are thought to suppress the production of new cells in the brain.

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and colleagues have studied specifically interpersonal violence-related

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such as enhancing spatial navigation learning and behaviors linked with

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This allows the mother to be more sensitive to her own infant's needs.

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Swain, JE; Lorberbaum, JP; Kose, S; Strathearn, L (March–April 2007).

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may also be factors which trigger the maternal brain to change during

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etc.) are activated in the father, and hormonal changes occur in the

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postpartum in the rat maternal brain. Maternal experience increases

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mother rats. Mother-infant interaction is also thought to suppress

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Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines

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Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines

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Gonzalez, A; Jenkins, JM; Steiner, M; Fleming, AS (January 2009).

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in both fathers and mothers, but not in non-parents. The level of

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due to the increased interaction of the mother with the infant.

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and decreased methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene.

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period cause changes in the structures of the maternal brain.

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have also been associated with disrupted maternal behavior.

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begin to change during pregnancy due to the high levels of

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In father rats, just as in the mother rats, a decrease in

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Maternal experience alters behaviors which stem from the

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Maternal Behavior in Neill's physiology of reproduction

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Journal of Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience

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have been linked to the display of paternal behavior.

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fathers have enhanced dendritic spine density in the

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and positive emotional feelings towards the infant.

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activates positive responses to the pup stimuli via

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In animals, structures of the mother's brain change

3676: 2917: 2882: 1476: 1036: 1034: 1032: 1030: 1028: 3534: 3424: 3380: 3332: 2735: 1515: 1381: 1277: 1083: 463:(MPOA) of the hypothalamus contains receptors for 3221: 3168: 3166: 3079: 2980: 2796: 2292: 2290: 2288: 2286: 2284: 2282: 2250: 2190: 2153: 2032:Xerri, C; Stern, JM; Merzenich, MM (March 1994). 1609: 1041:Leuner, B; Glasper, ER; Gould, E (October 2010). 3723: 3621: 3058: 3009: 2832: 2025: 1996: 1408: 1406: 1404: 1025: 833:receptor gene and lower synaptic density in the 808: 3679:"Neural Plasticity in Fathers of Human Infants" 3301: 1658: 1416:; Ruble, D; Krieger, H; Wong, PY (April 1997). 3163: 2415: 2279: 1953: 1767: 1719:. San Diego, CA: Elsevier. pp. 1921–1993. 1511: 1509: 1227: 635:is the hormone which mediates the increase in 3478: 3343: 3252: 2843:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 169–198. 2147: 1904: 1861: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1562: 1488:Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology 1401: 999:Being exposed to crying babies activates the 401: 299:Latest revision as of 23:45, 13 December 2023 150:Latest revision as of 23:45, 13 December 2023 2253:Brain Research. Developmental Brain Research 1990: 1723: 976:. This increase correlates with increase in 719:experienced by the mother during this time. 196: 3540: 2847: 2738:Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 2548: 2374: 1947: 1810: 1506: 1141: 1126: 913: 357: 3472: 2080: 1701: 1467: 1100:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 3702: 3653: 3491: 3323: 3198: 3111: 2938: 2779: 2769: 2665: 2616: 2584: 2429: 2322: 2122: 2057: 1844: 1834: 1793: 1433: 1354: 1344: 1295: 1221:Motherhood in human and nonhuman primates 1212: 1195: 1171: 1156: 1066: 910:to ensure display of parenting behavior. 1278:Sewards, TV; Sewards, MA (August 2002). 535: 431:childhood, had higher daily patterns of 304: 1147: 1132: 502:stimulus salience (changes made by the 87:Revision as of 18:10, 24 September 2023 3724: 3261:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2853: 2838: 2380: 2085:. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. pp. 31–60. 1968:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.12.027 1284:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 1219:Pryce C.R; Martin RD; Skuse D (1995). 203:: doi updated in citation with #oabot. 1715:Numan M; Fleming A.S; Levy F (2006). 1470:The Neurobiology of Parental Behavior 1376: 1374: 1177: 1162: 574: 491:mother's affect (changes made by the 3316:10.1146/annurev-anthro-091908-164334 3018:The European Journal of Neuroscience 1768:Gamer, M; Büchel, C (15 July 2009). 945: 598: 77: 43: 994: 698: 195: 164: 147: 140: 127: 96: 84: 13: 2168:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.07.031 2050:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-03-01710.1994 1371: 1135:Neurobiology of the parental brain 442: 410:correlates with a higher ratio of 301: 32: 3758: 2265:10.1016/j.devbrainres.2005.01.008 1520:. Vol. 19. pp. 83–136. 881: 386:and interaction with the infant. 352: 3646:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01731.x 3191:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00923.x 3030:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2003.02965.x 2995:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01730.x 2949:10.1046/j.0007-1331.2002.00776.x 2818:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00852.x 2570:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.03.013 2440:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.11.003 1925:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.08.017 1882:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.12.033 1744:10.1046/j.1523-536x.2001.00013.x 1516:Corter, C; Flemming A.S (1990). 1112:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02306.x 3670: 2868:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.1161 2744: 2729: 2682: 2633: 2558:Journal of Psychiatric Research 1761: 1320: 513:attention (changes made by the 450: 3402:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.01.013 2483:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.018 2115:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.05.012 1786:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1883-09.2009 1587:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.08.012 554:dorsolateral prefrontal cortex 1: 3599:10.1016/s0006-3223(03)00697-8 3273:10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00036-1 2927:Journal of Neuroendocrinology 2903:10.1126/science.286.5442.1155 2856:Annual Review of Neuroscience 2593:"Brain structure and obesity" 1526:10.1016/s0065-3454(08)60201-6 1297:10.1016/S0149-7634(02)00020-9 1019: 809:Early experiences and shaping 773:posttraumatic stress disorder 297: 253: 245: 3695:10.1080/17470919.2014.933713 3225:Infant Mental Health Journal 3137:Journal of Family Psychology 2707:10.3109/10253890.2013.816280 2011:10.1016/0028-3932(73)90002-x 524:memory (changes made by the 18:Browse history interactively 7: 2360:10.1037/0735-7044.114.1.158 2038:The Journal of Neuroscience 1774:The Journal of Neuroscience 1679:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.08.012 1468:Numan, M; Insel, T (2003). 1184:Developmental Psychobiology 425: 389: 10: 3763: 3742:Developmental neuroscience 3149:10.1037/0893-3200.20.4.641 2395:10.1152/physrev.00041.2006 1059:10.1016/j.tins.2010.07.003 1043:"Parenting and plasticity" 841:as a mother. Mothers with 402:Estradiol and progesterone 1500:10.1080/02646838708403495 1178:Numan, M (January 2007). 918:An increase in levels of 422:, than at the beginning. 212: 209: 146: 83: 3481:Society for Neuroscience 3390:Psychoneuroendocrinology 2771:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00690 2103:Psychoneuroendocrinology 2081:Rosenblatt, J.S (2002). 1575:Psychoneuroendocrinology 1346:10.3390/brainsci11060816 914:Paternal hormonal effect 860:superior temporal sulcus 607:and increased levels of 530:medial prefrontal cortex 519:medial prefrontal cortex 408:mother-infant attachment 358:Maternal hormonal effect 345:Less is known about the 2758:Frontiers in Psychology 2348:Behavioral Neuroscience 2303:Behavioral Neuroscience 2222:10.1126/science.1076647 1836:10.1186/1471-2202-10-91 1047:Trends in Neurosciences 309:Maternal affection, by 82: 3450:10.1006/hbeh.2002.1840 3358:10.1006/hbeh.2001.1699 1435:10.1006/hbeh.1997.1376 1249:10.1006/hbeh.1998.1441 1137:. Amsterdam: Academic. 729:Other changes such as 541: 435:levels, and were less 313: 3587:Biological Psychiatry 3438:Hormones and Behavior 3346:Hormones and Behavior 3179:Developmental Science 2471:Biological Psychiatry 2383:Physiological Reviews 2083:Handbook of parenting 1667:Hormones and Behavior 1422:Hormones and Behavior 1237:Hormones and Behavior 1148:Bridges, R.S (1990). 876:Postpartum depression 866:middle frontal cortex 784:activity and greater 539: 308: 3304:Annu. Rev. Anthropol 3067:(1 Suppl 1): 13–24. 843:insecure attachments 839:maternal sensitivity 815:maternally sensitive 798:maternal sensitivity 775:(PTSD) and comorbid 461:Medial Preoptic Area 437:maternally sensitive 322:maternal sensitivity 137:. | #UCB_CommandLine 3683:Social Neuroscience 3543:Nature Neuroscience 3500:Nature Neuroscience 3092:Human Brain Mapping 2658:10.1093/scan/nsr069 2597:Human Brain Mapping 2214:2003Sci...299..117S 2044:(3 Pt 2): 1710–21. 1223:. New York: Karger. 1133:Bridges, R (2008). 823:insecure attachment 625:subventricular zone 366:and an increase in 311:Edward Hodges Baily 3747:Neuroendocrinology 3238:10.1002/imhj.20136 2839:Belsky, J (2005). 2526:10.1002/hipo.20468 1636:10.1002/hipo.20278 1472:. Springer-Verlag. 575:Postpartum changes 542: 314: 162: 94: 3104:10.1002/hbm.20206 2806:Child Development 2609:10.1002/hbm.20870 1197:10.1002/dev.20198 1163:Insel, T (1990). 1001:prefrontal cortex 989:prefrontal cortex 974:prefrontal cortex 946:In animal fathers 900:prefrontal cortex 790:entorhinal cortex 782:prefrontal cortex 709:prefrontal cortex 599:In animal mothers 547:prefrontal cortex 526:nucleus accumbens 515:nucleus accumbens 508:nucleus accumbens 497:prefrontal cortex 296: 148: 85: 65: 3754: 3717: 3716: 3706: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3657: 3625: 3619: 3618: 3581: 3575: 3574: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3495: 3489: 3488: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3433: 3422: 3421: 3384: 3378: 3377: 3341: 3330: 3329: 3327: 3299: 3293: 3292: 3256: 3250: 3249: 3219: 3213: 3212: 3202: 3170: 3161: 3160: 3132: 3126: 3125: 3115: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3013: 3007: 3006: 2978: 2969: 2968: 2942: 2921: 2915: 2914: 2897:(5442): 1155–8. 2886: 2880: 2879: 2851: 2845: 2844: 2836: 2830: 2829: 2800: 2794: 2793: 2783: 2773: 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1124: 1123: 1094: 1081: 1080: 1070: 1038: 995:In human fathers 853:middle temporal 803:parenting stress 769:Daniel Schechter 724:substantia nigra 699:In human mothers 689:substantia nigra 687:Postpartum, the 665:substantia nigra 260:|doi-access=free 204: 198: 190: 180: 161: 156: 138: 122: 112: 93: 66: 57: 56: 54: 49: 47: 39: 36: 21: 19: 3762: 3761: 3757: 3756: 3755: 3753: 3752: 3751: 3722: 3721: 3720: 3675: 3671: 3640:(3–4): 262–87. 3626: 3622: 3593:(12): 1367–75. 3582: 3578: 3555:10.1038/nn.2550 3539: 3535: 3496: 3492: 3477: 3473: 3434: 3425: 3385: 3381: 3342: 3333: 3300: 3296: 3257: 3253: 3220: 3216: 3171: 3164: 3133: 3129: 3084: 3080: 3057: 3053: 3014: 3010: 2989:(3–4): 224–44. 2979: 2972: 2940:10.1.1.319.5416 2922: 2918: 2887: 2883: 2852: 2848: 2837: 2833: 2801: 2797: 2749: 2745: 2734: 2730: 2687: 2683: 2638: 2634: 2589: 2585: 2553: 2549: 2510: 2506: 2467: 2463: 2431:10.1.1.214.3081 2414: 2410: 2379: 2375: 2344: 2340: 2295: 2280: 2249: 2245: 2198: 2191: 2152: 2148: 2099: 2090: 2079: 2075: 2030: 2026: 1995: 1991: 1952: 1948: 1909: 1905: 1866: 1862: 1815: 1811: 1766: 1762: 1728: 1724: 1713: 1702: 1663: 1659: 1619: 1610: 1567: 1563: 1551: 1550: 1541: 1540: 1536: 1514: 1507: 1484: 1477: 1466: 1459: 1411: 1402: 1392: 1390: 1380: 1379: 1372: 1325: 1321: 1276: 1272: 1232: 1228: 1217: 1213: 1176: 1172: 1161: 1157: 1146: 1142: 1131: 1127: 1095: 1084: 1039: 1026: 1022: 997: 964:glucocorticoids 948: 924:glucocorticoids 916: 884: 821:reactivity and 811: 788:activity (i.e. 731:menstrual cycle 701: 670:globus pallidus 609:glucocorticoids 601: 577: 565:parietal cortex 453: 445: 443:Glucocorticoids 428: 404: 392: 360: 355: 293: 285: 275: 270: 263: 262:}}</ref> 261: 251: 241: 236: 229: 222: 205: 201:Open access bot 199: 194: 193: 192: 188: 186: 170: 168: 163: 157: 152: 144: 142:← Previous edit 139: 128: 126: 125: 124: 120: 118: 102: 100: 95: 89: 81: 80: 79: 78: 76: 75: 74: 73: 72: 71: 62: 58: 52: 50: 45: 42: 40: 37: 35:Content deleted 34: 31: 29:← Previous edit 26: 25: 24: 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bulb 600: 597: 576: 573: 534: 533: 522: 511: 500: 452: 449: 444: 441: 427: 424: 418:at the end of 403: 400: 394:The levels of 391: 388: 359: 356: 354: 353:Maternal brain 351: 347:paternal brain 318:parental brain 300: 295: 294: 290: 288: 286: 282: 280: 277: 276: 273: 271: 268: 265: 264: 259: 256: 254: 252: 248: 246: 243: 242: 239: 237: 234: 231: 230: 227: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 214: 211: 207: 206: 187: 182: 181: 166: 145: 119: 114: 113: 98: 67: 61: 59: 41: 33: 27: 23: 22: 14: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3759: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3729: 3727: 3714: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3673: 3665: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3580: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3506:(9): 1094–5. 3505: 3501: 3494: 3486: 3482: 3475: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3432: 3430: 3428: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 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