1166:
of Qasim's rule has been called by U.T. Thakkur "the darkest period in Sind history", with the records speaking of massive forced conversions, temple destruction, slaughters and genocides; the people of Sindh, described as inherently pacifist due to their Hindu/Buddhist religious inclinations, had to adjust to the conditions of "barbarian inroad". On one extreme, the Arab
Muslims are seen as being compelled by religious stricture to conquer and forcibly convert Sindh, but on the other hand, they can be seen as being respectful and tolerant of non-Muslims as part of their religious duty, with conversion being facilitated by the vitality, equality and morals of the Islamic religion. Citations of towns taken either violently or bloodlessly, reading back into Arab Sindh information belonging to a later date and dubious accounts such as those of the forcible circumcision of Brahmins at Deybul or Qasims consideration of Hindu sentiment in forbidding the slaughter of cows are used as examples for one particular view or the other.
1571:"The fall of Multan laid the Indus valley at the feet of the conqueror. The tribes came in, 'ringing bells and beating drums and dancing,' in token of welcome. The Hindu rulers had oppressed them heavily, and the Jats and Meds and other tribes were on the side of the invaders. The work of conquest, as often happened in India, was thus aided by the disunion of the inhabitants, and jealousies of race and creed conspired to help the Muslims. To such suppliants Mohammad Kasim gave the liberal terms that the Arabs usually offered to all but inveterate foes. He imposed the customary poll-tax, took hostages for good conduct, and spared the people's lands and lives. He even left their shrines undesecrated: 'The temples,' he proclaimed, 'shall be inviolate, like the churches of the Christians, the synagogues of the Jews, and the altars of the Magians.'" Stanley Lane-Poole,
855:, such as Armabil, Nirun, and Aror, resistance was light and few casualties occurred. Sulh appeared to be Muhammad bin Qasim's preferred mode of conquest, the method used for more than 60% of the towns and tribes recorded by Baladhuri or the Chachnama. At one point, he was actually berated by Hajjaj for being too lenient. Meanwhile, the common folk were often pardoned and encouraged to continue working; Hajajj ordered that this option not be granted to any inhabitant of Daybul, yet Qasim still bestowed it upon certain groups and individuals.
763:, were captured alongside other in-between towns with only light Muslim casualties. Usually after a siege of a few weeks or months the Arabs gained a city through the intervention of heads of mercantile houses with whom subsequent treaties and agreements would be settled. After battles all fighting men were executed and their wives and children enslaved in considerable numbers and the usual fifth of the booty and slaves were sent to Hajjaj. The general populace was encouraged to carry on with their trades and taxes and tributes settled.
751:) he was met by Dahir's forces and the eastern Jats in battle. Qasim was triumphant in this battle and Dahir died in the battle leaving Muhammad bin Qasim in control of Sind. In the wake of the battle enemy soldiers were put to death - but not artisans, merchants or farmers - and Dahir and his chiefs, the "daughters of princes" and the usual fifth of the booty and slaves was sent on to Hajjaj. Soon the capitals of the other provinces,
71:
640:
560:. Muslim sources insist that it was these persistent activities along increasingly important Indian trade routes by Debal pirates and others which forced the Arabs to subjugate the area, in order to control the seaports and maritime routes of which Sindh was the hinge as well the overland passage. During Hajjaj's governorship, the
1142:
proclaimed, 'shall be inviolate, like the churches of the
Christians, the synagogues of the Jews and altars of the Magians'. In the same text, however, it is mentioned that "Occasional desecration of Hindu fanes took place...but such demonstrations were probably rare sops to the official conscience..".
1169:
Some historians strike a middle ground, saying that Qasim was torn between the political expediency of making peace with the Hindus and
Buddhists; having to call upon non-Muslims to serve under him as part of his mandate to administer newly conquered land; and orthodoxy by refraining from seeking the
1023:
No mass conversions were attempted and the destruction of temples such as the Sun Temple at Multan was forbidden. However, Qasim was not entirely deferential to the native religions. Many town temples containing idols were converted into mosques. At Multan, 6000 custodians of the Sun-temple were made
739:
were dispatched to Hajjaj and the Caliph. The conquest of these towns was accomplished easily; however, Dahir's armies being prepared on the other side of the Indus had not yet been fought. In preparation to meet them, Muhammad bin Qasim moved back to Nerun to resupply and receive reinforcements sent
1165:
perceptions of Islam, Hinduism and
Buddhism are also reflected in this debate. Elliot perceived Islam as a religion of "terror, devastation, murder and rapine" where the conquering Arabs were characterized as "ruthless bigots" and "furious zealots" motivated by "plunder and proselytism". The period
1156:
has been attributed to Thomas W. Arnold and modern Muslim historians such as Habib and
Qureishi. They believe that the conquest was largely peaceful, and the conversion entirely so, and that the Arab forces enacted liberal, generous and tolerant policies. These historians mention the "praiseworthy
290:
Significant
Medieval Muslim chronicles such as the ] ,Zainul-akhbar and Tarikh-I-baihaqi have recorded battles between the Jats and forces of Muhammad bin Qasim .<ref>Chapter by S Jabir Raza Titled -Passages in the Chachnama,Zainul-Akhbar And Tarikh-i-Baihaqi-Text and Translation ,from the
282:
Significant
Medieval Muslim chronicles such as the ] ,Zainul-akhbar and Tarikh-I-baihaqi have recorded battles between the Jats and forces of Muhammad bin Qasim .<ref>Chapter by S Jabir Raza Titled -Passages in the Chachnama,Zainul-Akhbar And Tarikh-i-Baihaqi-Text and Translation ,from the
1107:, resulting in his death en route from suffocation. This narrative attributes the motive for this subterfuge to securing vengeance for their father's death. Upon discovering this subterfuge, the Khalifa is recorded to have been filled with remorse and ordered the sisters buried alive in a wall.
1192:
The next Arab governor died on arrival. Dahir's son
Jaisimha recaptured Brahmanabad and c. 720, he was granted pardon and included in the administration in return for converting to Islam. Soon, however, he recanted and split off when the Umayyads were embroiled in a succession crisis. Later,
1141:
His conquest, as described by
Stanley Lane-Poole, in Medieval India (Published in 1970 by Haskell House Publishers Ltd),was "liberal". He imposed customary poll tax, took hostages for good conduct and spared peoples' lives and lands. He even left their shrines undesecrated: 'The temples;, he
850:
Where resistance was strong, prolonged and intensive, often resulting in considerable Arab casualties, Muhammad bin Qasim's response was dramatic, inflicting 6,000 deaths at Rawar, between 6,000 and 26,000 at
Brahmanabad, 4,000 at Iskalandah and 6,000 at Multan. Conversely, in areas taken by
1149:
has been attributed to early historians such as Elliot, Cousens, Majumdar and Vaidya. They hold the view that the conversion of Sindh was necessitated as a direct consequence of the violent nature of Islam. Qasim's numerical inferiority is said to explain any instances of apparent religious
982:
During his administration, Hindus and Buddhists were inducted into the administration as trusted advisors and governors. A Hindu, Kaksa, was at one point the second most important member of his administration. Dahir's prime minister and various chieftains were also incorporated into the
933:
After the conquest, Muhammad bin Qasim's task was to set up an administrative structure for a stable Muslim state that incorporated a newly conquered alien land, inhabited by non-Muslims. He adopted a conciliatory policy, asking for acceptance of Muslim rule by the natives in return for
740:
by Hajjaj. Camped on the east bank of the Indus, Qasim sent emissaries and bargained with the river Jats and boatmen. Upon securing the aid of Mokah Basayah, "the King of the island of Bet", Muhammad bin Qasim crossed over the river where he was joined by the forces of the
1311:
829:), with the choice governing their treatment upon capture. The capture of towns was usually accomplished by means of a treaty with a party from among the enemy, who were then extended special privileges and material rewards. There were two types of such treaties, "
619:. Through conquest, the caliphate intended to protect its maritime interest, while also cutting off refuge for fleeing rebel chieftains as well as Sindhi military support to the Sassanid rump state; akin to those received at several prior major battles during the
160:
1641:, (London, 1867-1877), vol. 1, p. 203. "Kaksa took precedence in the army before all the nobles and commanders. He collected the revenue of the country and the treasury was placed under his seal. He assisted Muhammad ibn Qasim in all of his undertakings..."
1666:
Chapter by S Jabir Raza Titled -Passages in the Chachnama,Zainul-Akhbar And Tarikh-i-Baihaqi-Text and Translation ,from the book THE Jats ,Their Role and contribution to the socio-Economic Life and Polity of North and North -West India Volume 2 Pages 43 to
314:
63:
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The Arabs' first concern was to facilitate the conquest of Sindh with the fewest casualties while also trying to preserve the economic infrastructure. Towns were given two options: submit to Arab authority peacefully or be attacked by force
1103:. The account relates that they then tricked the Khalifa into believing that Muhammad bin Qasim had violated them before sending them on and as a result of this subterfuge, Muhammad bin Qasim was wrapped in oxen hides and returned to
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state. These successor states did not achieve much and shrank in size. The Arab conquest remained checked in what is now the south of Pakistan for three centuries by powerful Hindu monarchs to the north and east until the arrival of
1028:
was a source of great wealth for the town, receiving pilgrims from across the region. Muhammad bin Qasim left the idol where it was;, but he hung a piece of cow flesh on its neck by way of mockery; he then built a mosque in the same
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domains. Conflict was endemic among the frontier Muslims, with a considerable number seeking refuge with the king of Sindh. The period also experienced an intensification of the rivalry between Arab conquerors and the
938:
law over the people of the region; however, Hindus were allowed to rule their villages and settle their disputes according to their own laws, and traditional hierarchical institutions, including the Village Headmen
858:
After each major phase of his conquest, Muhammad bin Qasim attempted to establish law and order in the newly-conquered territory by showing religious tolerance and incorporating the ruling class – the
458:, Muhammad bin Qasim's paternal uncle, was instrumental in teaching Muhammad bin Qasim about warfare and governing. Muhammad bin Qasim married his cousin Zubaidah, Hajjaj's daughter, shortly before going to
1098:
The account from the Chachnama narrates a tale according to which the during Muhammad bin Qasim s governorship, the daughters of Dahir were taken captive and were sent on as presents to the Khalifa for his
1114:'s account states that the Khalifa was a political enemy of Hajjaj and recalled Muhammad bin Qasim after Hajjaj's death and imprisoned him; Muhammad bin Qasim is reported to have died under torture in
1071:. After Hajjaj's death, the new governor took revenge against all who were close to Hajjaj. Sulayman owed political support to opponents of Hajjaj and so recalled both of Hajjaj's successful generals
15:
505:. By way of skirting Gandhara and taking Sindh to its south, they thus sought to open a second front against Gandhara and had on occasion attempted the conquest prior to this campaign.
716:) The first town assaulted was Debal and upon the orders of Al-Hajjaj, he exacted a bloody retribution on Debal by giving no quarter to its residents or priests and destroying its great
962:) were settled and hostages taken - occasionally this also meant the custodians of temples. Natives were excused from military service and payment of the tax paid by Muslim subjects -
887:. This is attributed to having resulted in support being provided by Buddhists and inclusion of rebel soldiers serving as valuable infantry in his cavalry-heavy force from the Jat and
1194:
778:
via the ports here, and the Arabs wished to tax these as well, especially if commerce might be diverted here from the Sindhi ports. Muhammad bin Qasim wrote out letters to "kings of
1033:
at the center of the town. Again, this observation is generally disputed by Lane-Poole who writes that, " as a rule Mohammedan government was at once tolerant and economic".
891:. Brahman, Buddhist, Greek, and Arab testimony however can be found that attests towards amicable relations between the adherents of the two religions up to the 7th century.
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records that "Muhammad bin Qasim maintained these regulations, declaring that the jats resembled the savages of Persia " According to Wink "While the Jats were also granted
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143:
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843:(surrender/ peace)". Upon the capture of towns and fortresses, Muhammad bin Qasim performed executions as part of his military strategy, but they were limited to the
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There is controversy regarding the conquest and subsequent conversion of Sindh. This is usually voiced in two antagonistic perspectives viewing Qasim's actions:
655:
Muhammad bin Qasim's expedition was actually the third attempt, the first having failed due to stiffer-than-expected opposition as well as heat, exhaustion and
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valley to the seaports of Sindh, an important link in the ancient Silk Road. They had earlier unsuccessfully sought to gain control of the route, via the
1123:
447:
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by maintaining close contact with Muhammad bin Qasim in the form of regular reports and then regularly issuing orders. The army which departed from
291:
book THE Jats ,Their Role and contribution to the socio-Economic Life and Polity of North and North -West India Volume 2 Pages 43 to 52</ref>
283:
book THE Jats ,Their Role and contribution to the socio-Economic Life and Polity of North and North -West India Volume 2 Pages 43 to 52</ref>
662:
Hajjaj had put more care and planning into this campaign than the first campaign under Badil bin Tuhfa. Hajjaj superintended this campaign from
155:
93:
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28:
974:, being heavier on the upper classes and light for the poor. In addition, three percent of government revenue was allocated to the Brahmins.
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Religion; the widespread belief in the prophecy of Muslim success, as well as Dahir's marriage to his sister which alienated him from others.
1201:
period, c. 870, the local emirs shook off all allegiance to the caliphs and by the 10th century the region was split into two weak states,
1036:
A small minority who converted to Islam were granted exemption from slavery and taxes. Hindus and Buddhists were included in the status of
1231:
missionaries to expand Muslim influence. From Debal, which remained an important port until the 12th century, commercial links with the
720:
in the process of freeing the kidnapped women. He then settled a garrison of four thousand colonists in one quarter Debal and built a
72:
611:; new non-Arab converts; who were usually allied with Hajjaj's political opponents and thus frequently forced to participate in the
1500:
during this time used to flow to the east of Nerun. An earthquake at in the 10th century caused it to change to its current course.
1174:
upon the native Sindhis and permitting them to participate in his administration, but treating them as "noncitizens" (i.e. in the
151:
89:
1343:, The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire Last accessed September 11, 2007
918:
The Samanis persuading the population to submit and not take up arms in self-defence because Buddhism was a religion of peace.
1187:
Qasim's presence and rule was very brief. His conquest for the Umayyads brought Sindh into the gambit of the Muslim world
934:
non-interference in their religious practice, so long as the natives paid their taxes and tribute. He established Islamic
1197:
killed Jaisimha and recaptured the territory before his successors once again struggled to hold and keep it. During the
1150:
toleration, with the destruction of temples seen as a reflection of the more basic, religiously motivated intolerance.
594:. It was a period of great expansion of the Umayyads under the governorship of Hajjaj, the first governor of both the
446:
A member of the Thaqeef tribe, which is still settled in and around the city of Taif, Muhammad bin Qasim's father was
1015:
a considerable number of Jats were also captured as prisoners of war and deported to Iraq and elsewhere as slaves.
489:
According to Berzin, Umayyad interest in the region stemmed from their desire to control the trade route down the
1924:, Presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May, 2006
1407:, Presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May, 2006
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co-operation of "infidels". It is contended that Qasim may have struck a middle ground, conferring the status of
806:); arrest their sons and daughters for hostages and imprison them. Whoever does not fight against us..grant them
591:
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of Debal in one of their raids had kidnapped Muslim women travelling from Sri Lanka to Arabia, thus providing a
1055:, where conversion to Islam was slow and took centuries, and generally came from among the ranks of Buddhists.
178:
995:,Zainul-akhbar and Tarikh-I-baihaqi have recorded battles between the Jats and forces of Muhammad bin Qasim .
708:
and Mids as well as other irregulars that heard of successes in Sindh. When Muhammad bin Qasim passed through
111:
138:, I am sure a concise summary can be extracted from the sources to represent the information more succintly.
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875:
Muhammad bin Qasim's success has been partly ascribed to Dahir being an unpopular Hindu king ruling over a
587:
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region of al-Hind inhabited largely by semi-nomadic tribes whose activities disturbed much of the Western
1080:
2043:
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1906:"Part I: The Umayyad Caliphate (661 - 750 CE), The First Muslim Incursion into the Indian Subcontinent"
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1341:"Part I: The Umayyad Caliphate (661 - 750 CE), The First Muslim Incursion into the Indian Subcontinent"
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while raising forces, he had to re-subdue the restive Umayyad towns of Fannazbur and Arman Belah (
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1744:
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Muhammad bin Qasim had begun preparations for further expansions when Hajjaj died, as did Caliph
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did occur, the social dynamics of Sindh were not too different from other Muslim regions such as
481:
to lead an army towards South Asia into what are today the Sindh and Punjab regions of Pakistan.
1302:
1912:
1908:, The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire
1654:
1597:
1297:
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The campaign for the conquest of Sindh under Qasim was launched during the same period as the
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Coastal trade and a Muslim colony in Sindh allowed for cultural exchanges and the arrival of
1202:
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66:
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conduct of Arab Muslims" and attribute their actions to a "superior civilizational complex".
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who died when Muhammad bin Qasim was young, leaving his mother in charge of his education.
474:, where he succeeded in putting down a rebellion. At the age of seventeen, he was sent by
8:
2023:
2018:
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1275:
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to the rising power of the Umayyad Caliphate that enabled them to gain a foothold in the
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According to Wink, Umayyad interest in the region was galvanized by the operation of the
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327:
1813:
The Global World of Indian Merchants, 1750-1947: Traders of Sind from Bukhara to Panama
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intensified as Sindh became the "hinge of the Indian Ocean Trade and overland passway."
463:
174:
1257:
407:
107:
1303:
Online Version of the History of the Rise of Mahommedan Power in India by Ferishta,
727:
From Debal the Arab army then marched north taking towns such as Nerun and Sadusan (
1771:
by Stanley Lane-Poole, Published by Haskell House Publishers Ltd. NY 1970. Page 10
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A Glossary of the Tribes and castes of the Punjab and North -West Frontier Province
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731:) peacefully. A mosque was built to replace the main temples, and one-fifth of the
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16:
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was stationed with a troop of cavalry to manage each town on a hereditary basis
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The military strategy was outlined by Hajjaj to Muhammad bin Qasim in a letter:
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2012:
1887:
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684:. At the borders of Sindh he was joined by an advance guard and six thousand
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asking them to submit and pay tribute before his recall ended the campaign.
47:
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1408:
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1815:, Cambridge University Press, June 22, 2000, ISBN 0-521-62285-9, pg. 34.
1743:. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979.
1653:. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979.
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1252:
Muhammad bin Qasim is sometimes called the "the first Pakistani citizen".
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771:
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1915:. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979.
1596:. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979
704:. The army that eventually captured Sindh would later be swelled by the
1922:
FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES
1681:
1405:
FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES
1247:, Pakistan's second major port is named in honor of Muhammad bin Qasim.
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The narrative in the Chach Nama conveys that Chach humiliated the
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and continues to lend the Sindh province of Pakistan the nickname
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Online Version of the Chach Nama, Last accessed 3 September 2007
847:(fighting men), whose surviving dependents were also enslaved.
1970:, Brill Academic Publishers, August 1, 2002, ISBN 0-391-04173-8
1850:, Kessinger Publishing, June 1, 2004, ISBN 1-4191-3994-0 pg.45.
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There are two accounts regarding the details of Qasim's fate:
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1837:, Routledge (UK), December 1, 2003, ISBN 0-415-32814-4 pg.102.
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captive and their wealth confiscated. The temple housing the
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802:"My ruling is given:Kill anyone belonging to the combatants (
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1944:, Brill Academic Publishers, Jan 1, 1980, ISBN 90-04-06117-7
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and based on the Census Report for the Punjab 1883, by Sir
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1091:, Makran and Sindh; he immediately placed Qasim in chains.
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1575:, 712-1764, G.P. Putnam's Sons. New York, 1970. p. 9-10
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is observed in Pakistan, in honor of Muhammad bin Qasim.
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1863:, Routledge (UK), February 1, 1997, ISBN 0-7007-0470-1
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Landlord Power and Rural Indebtedness in Colonial Sind
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Religion and Society in Arab Sind By Derryl N. Maclean
986:
313:
54:
1979:, Brill Academic Publishers, 2004, ISBN 9-004-09249-8
462:. . Another paternal uncle of Muhammad bin Qasim was
2005:, Brill Academic Publishers, 1989 ISBN 9-004-08551-3
991:
Significant Medieval Muslim chronicles such as the
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in 710 CE under Muhammad bin Qasim was 6,000 Syrian
921:
The laboring under disabilities of the Lohana Jats.
1639:The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians
793:
1688:and the census report for the Punjab 1892 by Sir
978:Incorporation of ruling elite into administration
2010:
1209:on the upper Indus, which were soon captured by
924:Defections from among Dahirs chiefs and nobles.
786:, and subsequently 10,000 cavalry were sent to
318:Muhammad Bin Qasim leading his troops in battle
1933:Medieval India under Mohammedan Rule, 712-1764
1692:. Published By the Asian Educational Services
947:) were maintained. A Muslim officer called an
426:). The conquest of Sindh and Punjab began the
306:Imád-uddín Muhammad bin Qasim bin Yusuf Sakifi
1977:Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World
1968:Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World
1942:Religionen - Islam in the Indian Subcontinent
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1799:by U.T. Thakkur, University of Bombay 1959
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966:. The tax enforced on the natives was the
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615:on the frontier - such as Kabul, Sind and
1874:"History books contain major distortions"
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774:. Sea trade from Central India passed to
724:over the remains of the original temple.
1722:by Stanly Lane-Poole, Pub 1970, Page 10.
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1949:Appleby, R Scott & Martin E Marty,
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651:(modern state boundaries shown in red).
239:==Jat clashes with Muhammad bin Qasim==
232:==Jat clashes with Muhammad bin Qasim==
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1935:, G.P. Putnam's Sons. New York, 1970
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142:
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87:
13:
867:– into his administration.
810:(safety) and settle their tribute(
688:and later reinforcements from the
552:. At the time, Sindh was the wild
441:
300:
298:Revision as of 15:21, 4 March 2009
152:Revision as of 15:21, 4 March 2009
90:Revision as of 12:06, 4 March 2009
35:
2065:
2003:Religion and Society in Arab Sind
1600:, last accessed 30 September 2006
1307:, Last accessed 12 September 2007
1291:
647:rule under Muhammad bin Qasim in
1195:Junaid Ibn Abdur Rahman al-Marri
909:Troop discipline and leadership.
744:of Bhatta and the western Jats.
312:
1953:, University of Chicago Press,
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883:and his kin as usurpers of the
794:Military and political strategy
634:
1940:Schimmel, Annemarie Schimmel,
1657:, last accessed 3 October 2006
1637:H. M. Elliot and John Dowson,
1490:
1481:
1472:
1363:
1133:
514:and others. They had operated
418:). He was born in the city of
1:
1897:
1126:who later became governor of
540:shipping from their bases at
372:Muhammad bin Qasim Al-Thaqafi
296:
255:
246:
1951:Fundamentalisms Comprehended
1317:
588:Umayyad conquest of Hispania
18:Browse history interactively
7:
1846:Federal Research Division.
1747:, last accessed 15 May 2007
1264:
1081:Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah
1018:
10:
2070:
1848:"Pakistan a Country Study"
1213:who set up an independent
782:" to surrender and accept
402:general who conquered the
250:{{Expand|date=March 2009}}
127:
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1069:Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik
1043:An eccelastical office, "
485:Umayyad interest in Sindh
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148:
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696:transferred directly to
643:Extent and expansion of
621:their conquest of Persia
438:(The Gateway of Islam).
1534:Wink (2002) pg. 204-206
1205:on the lower Indus and
1067:, who was succeeded by
1045:sadru-I-Islam al affal"
700:by sea along with five
85:
1710:Wink (2002) pg 187-188
1469:Wink (2004) pg 201-205
1110:The Persian historian
894:Along with this were:
822:
652:
1083:, as the governor of
1077:Yazid ibn al-Muhallab
839:(capitulation)" and "
800:
642:
1996:, ISBN 0-8021-3797-0
1961:, ISBN 0-226-50888-9
1931:Stanley Lane-Poole,
1628:Appleby. pg. 291-292
1154:Voluntary conversion
2034:History of Pakistan
2001:Maclean, Derryl N.
1835:The Shade of Swords
1676:page 358 Volume 11
1360:Wink (2002), pg.164
1286:Abdullah Shah Ghazi
1276:Qutaibah bin Muslim
1271:Battle of Rajasthan
1178:, but not of it)..
1147:Coercive conversion
1073:Qutaibah bin Muslim
871:Reasons for success
674:and detachments of
623:- such as those at
578:and Sindh regions.
456:Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf
328:Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf
136:WP:Not a quote farm
1920:Nicholas F. Gier,
1904:Alexander Berzin,
1811:Markovits, Claude
1731:Wink (2002) pg. 53
1478:Wink (2004) pg 131
1403:Nicholas F. Gier,
1369:Wink (2002), 51-52
1339:Alexander Berzin,
1026:great idol (sanam)
954:Everywhere taxes (
943:) and Chieftains (
653:
536:and now did so to
464:Muhammad bin Yusuf
410:regions along the
330:, Governor to the
164:
97:
2044:Umayyad Caliphate
2029:Islam in Pakistan
1514:Derryl pg. 37-39
1258:Yom-e-Babul Islam
1124:Umro bin Muhammad
999:Treatment of Jats
879:majority who saw
602:halves of the ex-
582:Political setting
497:, from the Turki-
369:
368:
295:
150:
134:Removing quotes,
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2039:History of Sindh
1986:India: A History
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380:محمد بن قاسم
371:
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354:Battles/wars
1498:Indus River
1237:Middle East
1134:Controversy
1049:proselytism
970:- it was a
885:Rai Dynasty
837:ahd-e-wasiq
772:Rashtrakuta
753:Brahmanabad
747:At Ar-rur (
617:Transoxania
576:Balochistan
567:casus belli
495:Khyber Pass
491:Indus River
436:Bab-e-Islam
412:Indus river
384:31 December
202:Next edit →
32:Next edit →
2024:715 deaths
2019:695 births
2013:Categories
1898:References
1682:H. A. Rose
1245:Port Qasim
1065:Al-Walid I
904:Mongol bow
845:ahl-i-harb
804:ahl-i-harb
629:Qādisiyyah
528:Sri Lankan
479:Al-Walid I
432:South Asia
338:Al-Walid I
324:Allegiance
259:{{expand}}
1318:Footnotes
1163:polemical
1112:Baladhuri
993:Chachnama
865:Shramanas
776:Byzantium
768:Surashtra
749:Nawabshah
702:catapults
550:Kathiawar
454:governor
398:) was an
186:3,734,324
1265:See also
1235:and the
1211:Ismailis
1203:Mansurah
1176:Khilafat
1161:Various
1019:Religion
902:and the
877:Buddhist
861:Brahmins
827:anwattan
755:, Alor (
690:governor
604:Sassanid
554:frontier
520:Sassanid
503:Gandhara
416:Pakistan
363:Umayyads
361:for the
212:Line 70:
209:Line 70:
179:contribs
169:SmackBot
112:contribs
56:Wikitext
1890:. Dawn.
1215:Fatimid
1199:Abassid
945:dihqans
817:dhimmah
788:Kannauj
742:Thakore
714:Lasbela
672:cavalry
645:Umayyad
625:Salasal
533:bawarij
526:to the
516:preying
452:Umayyad
430:era in
428:Islamic
400:Umayyad
392:18 July
390:–
332:Umayyad
102:Tigeroo
1207:Multan
1182:Legacy
1172:Dhimmi
1089:Kirman
1038:Dhimmi
1031:bazaar
1013:(aman)
960:kharaj
936:Sharia
835:" or "
761:Multan
759:) and
737:slaves
729:Sehwan
722:mosque
718:temple
710:Makran
694:Makran
677:mawali
668:Shiraz
657:scurvy
613:Jihads
609:mawali
572:Makran
524:Tigris
499:Shahis
476:Caliph
472:Persia
408:Punjab
382:) (c.
376:Arabic
335:Caliph
67:Inline
49:Visual
1990:May 1
1955:May 1
1128:Sindh
1116:Mosul
1105:Syria
1101:harem
1059:Death
1053:Egypt
968:jizya
964:Zakat
814:) as
812:amwal
784:Islam
733:booty
698:Debal
680:from
600:Ajami
596:Arabi
546:Debal
542:Kutch
518:upon
468:Yemen
460:Sindh
404:Sindh
359:Sindh
188:edits
121:edits
119:3,575
1994:2001
1959:2004
1496:The
1229:Sufi
1085:Fars
1005:Jats
949:amil
941:Rais
889:Meds
863:and
853:sulh
841:aman
832:Sulh
820:..."
808:aman
780:Hind
757:Aror
735:and
706:Jats
682:Iraq
664:Kufa
627:and
598:and
590:and
562:Mids
548:and
538:Arab
511:Mids
420:Taif
406:and
348:Emir
344:Rank
175:talk
161:undo
156:edit
108:talk
94:edit
956:mal
692:of
501:of
396:715
388:695
2015::
1992:,
1957:,
1804:^
1776:^
1752:^
1667:52
1605:^
1580:^
1539:^
1519:^
1505:^
1414:^
1374:^
1349:^
1325:^
1130:.
1087:,
659:.
631:.
574:,
544:,
394:,
386:,
378::
177:|
132::
110:|
1222:.
1118:.
939:(
906:.
825:(
374:(
365:.
194:m
181:)
173:(
114:)
106:(
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