665:
eggs, the female collects pollen and deposits it, in the form of a ball, in the tunnel at a point furthest from the entrance. She lays a single egg on the pollen ball and seals both in a chamber with wood shavings. She may lay several eggs, each on its own pollen ball and inside its own sealed chamber, in a series within the tunnel. The eggs hatch in two to three days. The larvae develop in approximately two weeks. The prepupal (nonfeeding larvae) and pupal stages take about three to four weeks to reach adulthood. Teneral (adult shortly after emergence, when it is not entirely hardened or not of the mature color) females are fed by the mother. They are capable of buzzing in about a week, and of flight in approximately two to three weeks. A single female in a tunnel may be joined later by her offspring or other bees. Only one female will collect pollen, prepare cells, and lay eggs, however. Other females perform guard and nest-cleaning duties.
371:
867:
as loud buzzing by the male and the addition of an odor to the flowers. The males may use these signals when patrolling along extended paths or hovering at a specific site. "At this point real male dominance polygyny begins, for males may produce quantitatively or qualitatively individual pheromonal signals that may reflect their fitness, and the female could react correspondingly by selecting among the males". The use of pheromonal signals allows males to relocate their territories from resource sites to prominent sites such as hilltops, various protrusions, or trees. At this point, pheromones may direct the female into the territory founded by males. Short-range marking of the signal by the female bee attracts them to male territory just before
739:
720:
887:" conditions resulted in decreasing fidelity. Another aspect of the environment that affects site fidelity is the quality of territorial sites. Finally, fluctuating or declining territory value should reduce the extent of site fidelity. The extent to which female territorial preferences remain constant throughout the mating season will be very important in territory value. Males are expected to abandon territories at times when they no longer have the potential to produce offspring. It is also conceivable that in
42:
92:
590:
402:
414:
359:
390:
69:
930:
temperatures due to the rapid convective cooling, especially at high air temperatures when flight speed increases; thermoregulation involves a strong reliance on forced convection as a result of changes in flight speed, with active heat transfer to the abdomen and evaporative heat loss from the head at high temperatures.
712:
since it "took nectar through perforations and did not contact stigmas in doing so." Floral robbery occurs when the carpenter bee makes perforations near the base of the tubular corolla of the flower to obtain nectar, but does not pollinate the flower in return, when visiting flowers that are so deep
674:
Flowers are the sole source of food and water for these bees, which have a pattern of visiting certain plants at various times throughout the day, and provide pollen for the females to feed their brood. To collect pollen from most flowers, females gather pollen on their hindlegs through contact with
866:
Non-resource-based territoriality evolved from food source territoriality as a response to a low density of bees. The probability of a single male encountering females is very low, and the production of attractants by the male would be advantageous to both sexes. The attractants may be signals such
664:
Having located a suitable piece of wood, the female bee begins to excavate a single tunnel in preparation for egg laying. Because of our tropical climate, egg laying by female carpenter bees occurs year-round although it may decline during the winter months, when the weather is worse. Before laying
878:
fidelity rates. First, high mortality rates of resident males is significantly correlated with frequent turnover rates and decreased site fidelity. Second, male density affects site fidelity. As the ratio of rivals to suitable territories rises, competition for territorial control increases, which
343:
Female.—Black; head and thorax closely and moderately punctured; the mesothorax smooth, impunctate and shining on the disk; metathorax rounded behind; abdomen shining rather finely punctured, most closely so at the sides above; the pubescence entirely black, except that on the anterior tarsi
920:
temperatures of 33.0 to 46.5 °C while traveling through environments with 12.0 to 40.0 °C. Since the thoracic temperature is not constant the bees are thermoregulating. There is physiological transfer of large amounts of heat to the abdomen and to the head during pre-flight warming and
618:
show common features. The bees have a period of reproductive dormancy even in the presence of the other sex that occurs during the dry seasons. Or, they may enter into a non-reproductive phase during the cooler months. The second characteristic of nesting cycles is that the dormant females are
929:
Carpenter bees have large heads, which present a larger surface area for convective cooling. The abdomen is also "well-suited for rapid convective heat loss because it is flattened dorso-ventral, and uninsulated". Physiological heat transfer to head or abdomen would not be apparent from body
911:
at temperatures beyond the range of other bee species that have been tested; they can fly at very high temperatures without overheating and at low temperatures without freezing. By modifying their foraging patterns and flying between different altitudes depending upon temperature, the valley
648:
species are not aggressive, defense is primarily carried out by building well constructed cell partitions, blocking the nest entrance in various ways, covering the cell partitions with liquid substances, or sacrificing all the brood of a nest that has been compromised by a parasite.
637:, although they do not ingest the wood in the process, and they avoid painted or stained wood. The tunnels average 6 to 10 in (15 to 25 cm) in length and consist of a linear series of partitioned brood cells. The adult bees spend the winter in the tunnels. Most nests of
605:
Virgin females may make exploratory foraging flights and be attracted to visual and olfactory signals. Female mate-searching behavior might involve waiting for the male at the flower on which she discovers his markings or a directed flight toward a marked spot from a distance.
527:
have successfully colonized
Pacific archipelagoes east of the Americas through natural biological dispersal or with human help; This is out of a total of more than 150 identified species in North and South America, 70 of which can be found in Brazil alone. The two species are
827:, there are patches of different quality arising from "the continuous but variable input of mate-searching females over afternoons and flight seasons". Males may rely on environmental cues rather than on food availability when choosing their territories.
581:", which is a mixture of pollen and nectar used as food for the larvae. An egg is deposited on the pollen mass and each cell is sealed off with a partition of sawdust. Young adult male and female bees hibernate in the tunnels during the winter.
823:. This theory states that the most fit individuals will seek to occupy the most resource rich territory and those that are less fit will have to occupy a resource lacking territory until both territories are filled. For species such as
576:
In the spring, females mate with males and then may disperse and start new nests, or clean out and enlarge the old tunnels used during the winter, adding brood cells. Each cell a female provisions contains a substance called
622:
The name "carpenter" comes from the fact that these bees excavate nests inside a variety of woods, and the species' common name refers to the
Californian Central Valley in which they are commonly found. Like its relative,
789:. Although valued for their pollination, carpenter bee nesting behavior often results in their classification as pests; The bees prefer to burrow into wood to create nest galleries. Due to this problem, in 1934, a
1917:
Nishida, Toshiyuki (1963). "Ecology of the pollinators of passion fruit". Technical
Bulletin. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture, Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. 55:
925:
have circulatory anatomy like honeybees and bumblebees. Like bumblebees, they have an aortic loop through the flight muscles that acts as a cooling coil allowing heat transfer to the blood, head, and abdomen.
843:, which are attractive to females. These pheromones are long-range attractants and are used as male advertisements. The gland is seasonally active and overwintering males have no detectable attractant.
429:
This species is primarily found in the southwestern part of the United States (Arizona, California, New Mexico, Nevada, Texas, and Utah) and adjacent parts of Mexico. The primary habitats of mainland
344:
beneath, which is ferruginous; the claws of the tarsi ferruginous; wings fusco-hyaline, with a darker cloud beyond the enclosed cells, and adorned with a bright purple and coppery iridescence.
700:
visited 16 flowers per minute and spent an average of 1.5 seconds at each flower, usually flying towards the flower from the front, landing on the petals, and moving to the bottom of the
348:
Like most native bees, females are not aggressive, and will normally sting only when provoked, while the males do not have stingers. Males possess a large thoracic gland that produce
486:, more than 2,000 mi (3,219 km) away from the closest landfall in North America, Hawaii's great distance from the Americas is thought to have been too large for natural
288:, but in a paper published that year, M. A. Lieftinck showed that Smith's interpretation of the original specimen labels was in error: Smith had mistakenly read the label of
2146:
370:
2141:
272:, which has 31 subgenera and 500 species worldwide. Frederick Smith, Assistant in the Zoological Department of the British Museum and member of the council of the
921:
thoracic heating. The temperature increase of the head is due to passive conduction, while the abdomen is due to physiological heat transfer throughout the body.
548:
1246:
Smith, 1874 from
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Xylocopinae) with comments on its taxonomy. Biodiversity Data Journal 8: e49918.
871:
will occur. Competition among males for non resource sites may lead to adaptations that continue to evolve until one male has an advantage over the other.
1226:
879:
leads to frequent turnover. In contrast, if there are few replacements for territory owners, there will be evidence of increasing site fidelity. For
719:
339:
They are among the largest bees found in
California and Hawaii, growing to around 1 inch (2.5 cm) in length. Smith's original description was:
255:
found from western Texas to northern
California, and the eastern Pacific islands. Females are black while males are golden-brown with green eyes.
2121:
756:
which is visited by ants that inhibit the bees from robbing the nectar, though ant guards are only effective against certain bee species (not
2045:
502:
into the
Marianas Islands, China, and Japan, but these introductions were not successful. The species has also been anecdotally reported in
1294:
1032:
433:
are valleys and foothills with deciduous trees dominated by oaks. The species is also one of 11 non-native bees in the U.S. state of
1186:
Barrows, Edward M. (Mar 1980). "Robbing of Exotic Plants by
Introduced Carpenter and Honey Bees in Hawaii, with Comparative Notes".
2006:
847:
mark the central area of their territories with the pheromones. Three observations were made that helped form this conclusion:
466:
2131:
2126:
2116:
1273:
1512:
738:
17:
1606:
1463:
857:
Females fly to and pause on non-flowering plants that had been the focal area of the male where the attractant was placed.
2151:
2106:
2086:
2111:
1947:
1353:
2050:
1646:
946:
891:, the quality of the male's sex pheromone may be a key feature determining his sexual attractiveness. Most males of
633:
like to nest in fence posts, telephone poles. and structural timbers. The bees will tunnel through wood with their
1319:
2096:
1687:
Alcock, John (1996-03-01). "Timing of mate-locating by males in relation to female activity in the carpenter bee
752:
Some flowers protect themselves from robbery with adaptive structures such as strong plant walls or by producing
273:
76:
1563:"Temporal and spatial variation in the foraging behavior of honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) at Chinese violets"
1094:
446:
202:
683:, by which the pollen is released from anther following vibration of the indirect flight muscles of the bee.
653:
2136:
1370:
Occurrence and distribution of bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) of public health importance on the island of Oahu
1295:"UC Davis Department of Entomology – News: Ferocious-Looking, Green-Eyed Buzzing Insects Are 'Teddy Bears'"
619:
unmated. Additionally, mating occurs after territorial flights by the males and before nest establishment.
413:
1997:
854:
The "land and walk" behavior occurs at the focal area involving the application of the pheromone chemical
634:
296:
1390:
2101:
1939:
1928:
1839:
Heinrich, Bernd; Buchmann, Stephen L. (1986-07-01). "Thermoregulatory physiology of the carpenter bee,
1743:
Minckley, R.L. (1991). "Bioassay evidence for a sex attractant pheromone in the large carpenter bee,
437:. Humans are thought to have helped the species colonize Pacific archipelagoes. It is not known when
91:
1053:
Leys, Remko; Cooper, Steve (December 2000). "Molecular
Phylogeny of the Large Carpenter Bees, Genus
895:
did not exhibit site fidelity, while few males exhibited strong attachment to their original sites.
883:, the prevalence of days of very low territorial occupation and a few days of high male density in "
2037:
304:
820:
518:, but only the records from Midway have any specimens recorded that serve to confirm the report.
1785:
Alcock, John (1993). "Differences in site fidelity among territorial males of the carpenter bee
1959:
1298:
973:
Waller, Gordon D.; Vaissiere, Bernard E.; Moffett, Joseph O.; Martin, Joseph H. (1985-06-01).
2063:
1418:
557:
186:
772:
487:
458:
535:
8:
795:
753:
692:
58:
401:
1868:
1806:
1760:
1716:
1587:
1203:
625:
211:
86:
1900:
2091:
2058:
1943:
1923:
1860:
1708:
1536:
1349:
1269:
1161:
1074:
1002:
781:
499:
471:
389:
1872:
1720:
553:
1852:
1798:
1756:
1700:
1621:
1577:
1482:
1195:
1066:
994:
908:
868:
745:
680:
530:
442:
1625:
1486:
1122:
Latreille) of the
Moluccan Islands, with notes on other Indo-Australian species".
819:
appear to optimize their mate-locating activity, following the predictions of the
358:
1343:
974:
963:
Smith in Hawaii (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae). Pan-Pacific Entomologist 58:336-351
454:
41:
1028:
The carpenter bees of the eastern Pacific oceanic islands (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)
1982:
790:
2080:
1864:
1712:
1220:
Timberlake, P. H. (1922) Identity of the Hawaiian carpenter bee of the genus
1165:
1006:
786:
690:
involves a quick series of movements between flowers. In a 1996 study using
589:
539:
483:
476:
381:
285:
252:
163:
1802:
280:
in 1874 from specimens collected in Hawaii. Until 1956, it was thought that
1078:
1070:
998:
503:
316:
1936:
What's Bugging Me? Identifying and Controlling Household Pests in Hawaiʻi.
1562:
2032:
2019:
1991:
1144:
Snelling, Roy R. (Apr 2003). "Bees of the Hawaiian Islands, exclusive of
983:
L.) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) as Pollinators of Male-sterile Cotton in Cages"
851:
Flying bees occasionally brush against leaves or twigs towards the center
764:
515:
143:
2011:
1856:
1810:
1704:
1591:
1247:
1207:
884:
776:
676:
578:
511:
2024:
1027:
840:
701:
490:
to succeed, and it has been suggested that it is likely humans aided
349:
123:
103:
1953:
1889:
1582:
1369:
1199:
1976:
523:
268:
453:
is currently found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands and in the
1924:
Fauna Hawaiiensis or the Zoology of the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Isles
1921:
Perkins, R. C. L (1899). "Hymenoptera Aculeata". In David Sharp.
543:
327:. This was confirmed in 2020 using DNA analysis, and as the name
799:) was brought to Hawaii in an attempt to decrease the number of
494:
in its arrival to Hawaii. Following the colonization of Hawaii,
1194:(1). Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation: 23–29.
959:
Gerling, D. (1982) Nesting biology and flower relationships of
917:
912:
carpenter bee is able to adapt to very different environments.
434:
377:
153:
133:
113:
1057:(Hymenoptera: Apidae), Based on Mitochondrial DNA Sequences".
292:
as meaning the Sunda Islands instead of the Sandwich Islands.
1607:"Selection and importation of new pollinators to New Zealand"
972:
1268:. California: University of California Press. p. 398.
507:
445:, but it occurred prior to 1874, when British entomologist
1118:
Lieftinck, M. A. (1956). "Revision of the carpenter bees (
1401:. University of Hawaii Integrated Pest Management Program
1560:
560:, 700 mi (1,127 km) from the coast of Mexico.
1901:
The Carpenter Bees of California (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)
1342:
Tuleyome, Compiled by Mary K. Hanson for (2015-08-05).
1289:
1287:
1285:
1345:
A Species Guide for the Berryessa Snow Mountain Region
1263:
939:
979:
Patton) (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae) and Honey Bees (
266:
is one of three southwestern US species in the genus
1464:"Bionomics of the Large Carpenter Bees of the Genus
1297:. Entomology.ucdavis.edu. 2009-01-26. Archived from
1282:
1259:
1257:
1255:
861:
2147:Natural history of the Central Valley (California)
1620:(1). Entomological Society of New Zealand: 26–32.
1561:Villalobos, Ethel M.; Todd E. Shelly (Sep 1996).
1374:Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society
1264:Powell, Jerry A.; Charles L. Hogue (1980-09-08).
1227:Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society
713:they cannot reach the nectar with their tongues.
334:
323:would eventually be reclassified as a synonym of
2078:
1838:
1312:
1252:
2142:Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands
1896:; AEC-345. Honolulu (HI): University of Hawaii.
1554:
1139:
1137:
708:was a primary and secondary nectar "robber" of
331:has seniority, this is the valid species name.
1664:(1). Entomological Society of New Zealand: 4–5
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1934:Tenorio, JoAnn M.; Gordon M. Nishida (1995).
1576:(3). Florida Entomological Society: 398–407.
1111:
1907:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1598:
1160:(2). Kansas Entomological Society: 342–356.
1134:
675:the exposed anthers, but in flowers such as
1638:
1368:Leong Mark K. H., Grace J. Kenneth (2009) "
1172:
1154:Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society
1090:
1088:
1033:Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society
424:
1384:
1382:
1052:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
67:
40:
1581:
1117:
564:is thought to be most closely related to
1905:Bulletin of the California Insect Survey
1742:
1388:
1341:
1143:
1085:
652:Entomologist Julian R. Yates III of the
588:
1604:
1461:
1379:
1242:Sheffield C, Heron J, Musetti L (2020)
1185:
1013:
830:
641:contain a single female and her brood.
14:
2079:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1784:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1686:
1647:"The occurrence of the carpenter bee,
1644:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1320:"Xylocopa varipuncta UCSB-IZC00012194"
874:There are various factors that affect
614:All nesting cycles for all species of
2122:Fauna of the Northern Mariana Islands
1958:
1957:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1337:
1335:
1059:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
839:produces volatile components, called
1248:https://doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.8.e49918
538:, 604 mi (972 km) west of
521:Only two other species in the genus
1845:Journal of Comparative Physiology B
1817:
1767:
1543:. Nathistoc.bio.uci.edu. 2006-12-08
898:
315:, that had been named in 1879, and
24:
1882:
1761:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb04805.x
1727:
1675:
1500:
1426:
1332:
835:The large mesosomal gland of male
679:with closed anthers, they can use
600:
449:originally named the species, and
25:
2163:
1097:(1874) X. Monograph of the genus
1046:
1422:specimen records at DiscoverLife
1389:Yates II, Julian R. (Dec 1992).
862:Territoriality and site fidelity
810:
737:
718:
412:
400:
388:
369:
357:
90:
1894:Agricultural Economics Circular
1890:Passion fruit culture in Hawaii
1789:(Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae)".
1529:
1412:
1362:
1236:
1214:
975:"Comparison of Carpenter Bees (
419:male specimen UCSB-IZC00012194
274:Entomological Society of London
987:Journal of Economic Entomology
966:
953:
821:ideal free distribution theory
728:in a field of Chinese violet (
669:
546:as the closest land mass; and
335:Description and identification
299:described the same species as
13:
1:
1626:10.1080/00779962.1990.9722585
1487:10.1146/annurev.ento.34.1.163
933:
903:An unusual characteristic of
654:University of Hawaii at Manoa
571:
311:was the same as the mainland
2132:Insects of the United States
2127:Hymenoptera of North America
2117:Fauna of the Mariana Islands
1124:Tijdschrift voor Entomologie
803:; there is no evidence that
656:describes the life cycle of
7:
1475:Annual Review of Entomology
1152:) (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)".
704:. Another study found that
584:
258:
10:
2168:
2152:Natural history of Arizona
2107:Insects of the Philippines
2087:NatureServe secure species
1940:University of Hawaii Press
1929:Cambridge University Press
1693:Journal of Insect Behavior
947:"NatureServe Explorer 2.0"
609:
307:claimed that the Hawaiian
2112:Insects described in 1874
1966:
1899:Hurd, Jr., Paul (1955). "
1645:Manson, D. C. M. (1988).
1026:Hurd, Jr., Paul (1958). "
686:The foraging behavior of
217:
210:
192:
185:
87:Scientific classification
85:
65:
56:
48:
39:
34:
1888:Akamine et al. (1974). "
1691:(Hymenoptera: Apidae)".
1614:New Zealand Entomologist
425:Distribution and habitat
1913:(subscription required)
1803:10.1163/156853993x00245
1605:Donovan, B. J. (1990).
1537:"Valley Carpenter Bee,
1103:Trans. Ent. Soc. London
1042:(subscription required)
542:, with the mainland of
319:predicted in 2003 that
2097:Hymenoptera of Oceania
1399:Urban Knowledge Master
1071:10.1006/mpev.2000.0851
667:
597:
441:was introduced to the
346:
249:Hawaiian carpenter bee
662:
592:
558:Revillagigedo Islands
549:Xylocopa clarionensis
380:-covered female on a
341:
35:Valley carpenter bee
1570:Florida Entomologist
1462:Gerling, D. (1989).
1301:on February 20, 2010
999:10.1093/jee/78.3.558
907:is their ability to
831:Attractive pheromone
807:became established.
773:tropical agriculture
488:biological dispersal
459:tropical agriculture
352:to attract females.
301:Xylocopa aeneipennis
245:valley carpenter bee
227:Xylocopa aeneipennis
18:Valley carpenter bee
2137:Fauna of California
1841:Xylocopa varipuncta
1787:Xylocopa varipuncta
1745:Xylocopa varipuncta
1689:Xylocopa varipuncta
1539:Xylocopa varipuncta
977:Xylocopa varipuncta
796:Cissites auriculata
730:Asystasia gangetica
693:Asystasia gangetica
465:has been used as a
220:Xylocopa varipuncta
59:Conservation status
1942:. pp. 74–76.
1857:10.1007/BF00691042
1749:Journal of Zoology
1705:10.1007/BF02213874
1266:California Insects
754:extrafloral nectar
744:Robbing nectar in
696:(Chinese violet),
626:Xylocopa virginica
598:
276:, first described
251:, is a species of
2102:Insects of Hawaii
2074:
2073:
2059:Open Tree of Life
1998:Xylocopa sonorina
1968:Xylocopa sonorina
1960:Taxon identifiers
1931:. pp. 1–115.
1649:Xylocopa sonorina
1393:Xylocopa sonorina
1275:978-0-520-03782-3
1244:Xylocopa sonorina
961:Xylocopa sonorina
914:Xylocopa sonorina
782:Passiflora edulis
771:has been used in
595:Xylocopa sonorina
566:Xylocopa sonorina
536:Galápagos Islands
472:Passiflora edulis
240:Xylocopa sonorina
236:
235:
231:
224:
196:Xylocopa sonorina
80:
51:Xylocopa sonorina
16:(Redirected from
2159:
2067:
2066:
2054:
2053:
2041:
2040:
2028:
2027:
2015:
2014:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1987:
1986:
1985:
1955:
1954:
1914:
1877:
1876:
1836:
1815:
1814:
1797:(3/4): 199–217.
1782:
1765:
1764:
1740:
1725:
1724:
1684:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1655:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1611:
1602:
1596:
1595:
1585:
1567:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1549:
1548:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1523:
1513:"Carpenter Bees"
1509:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1472:
1459:
1424:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1406:
1386:
1377:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1339:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1316:
1310:
1309:
1307:
1306:
1291:
1280:
1279:
1261:
1250:
1240:
1234:
1218:
1212:
1211:
1183:
1170:
1169:
1141:
1132:
1131:
1115:
1109:
1095:Smith, Frederick
1092:
1083:
1082:
1050:
1044:
1043:
1024:
1011:
1010:
970:
964:
957:
951:
950:
943:
899:Thermoregulation
741:
722:
681:buzz pollination
531:Xylocopa darwini
443:Hawaiian Islands
416:
404:
392:
373:
361:
305:P. H. Timberlake
297:R. C. L. Perkins
229:
222:
198:
178:X. sonorina
95:
94:
74:
71:
70:
44:
32:
31:
21:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2157:
2156:
2077:
2076:
2075:
2070:
2062:
2057:
2049:
2044:
2036:
2031:
2023:
2018:
2010:
2005:
1996:
1995:
1990:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1962:
1912:
1885:
1883:Further reading
1880:
1837:
1818:
1783:
1768:
1741:
1728:
1685:
1676:
1667:
1665:
1653:
1651:in New Zealand"
1643:
1639:
1630:
1628:
1609:
1603:
1599:
1583:10.2307/3495589
1565:
1559:
1555:
1546:
1544:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1521:
1519:
1511:
1510:
1501:
1491:
1489:
1470:
1460:
1427:
1417:
1413:
1404:
1402:
1387:
1380:
1367:
1363:
1356:
1340:
1333:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1317:
1313:
1304:
1302:
1293:
1292:
1283:
1276:
1262:
1253:
1241:
1237:
1224:(Hymenoptera).
1219:
1215:
1200:10.2307/2387770
1184:
1173:
1142:
1135:
1116:
1112:
1093:
1086:
1051:
1047:
1041:
1036:. Allen Press.
1025:
1014:
971:
967:
958:
954:
945:
944:
940:
936:
901:
864:
833:
813:
785:, a species of
748:
742:
733:
723:
672:
612:
603:
601:Female behavior
587:
574:
562:X. clarionensis
534:, found in the
482:Located in the
475:, a species of
455:Mariana Islands
447:Frederick Smith
427:
420:
417:
408:
405:
396:
393:
384:
374:
365:
362:
337:
303:, and in 1922,
261:
225:
206:
200:
194:
181:
89:
81:
72:
68:
61:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2165:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2068:
2055:
2042:
2029:
2016:
2003:
1988:
1972:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1952:
1951:
1938:Honolulu, HI:
1932:
1919:
1915:
1897:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1851:(4): 557–562.
1816:
1766:
1755:(2): 285–291.
1726:
1699:(2): 321–328.
1674:
1637:
1597:
1553:
1528:
1499:
1425:
1411:
1378:
1361:
1354:
1331:
1311:
1281:
1274:
1251:
1235:
1213:
1171:
1133:
1110:
1084:
1065:(3): 407–418.
1045:
1012:
993:(3): 558–561.
981:Apis mellifera
965:
952:
937:
935:
932:
909:thermoregulate
900:
897:
863:
860:
859:
858:
855:
852:
832:
829:
812:
809:
791:blister beetle
763:In Hawaii and
750:
749:
743:
736:
734:
724:
717:
671:
668:
611:
608:
602:
599:
586:
583:
573:
570:
554:Clarión Island
426:
423:
422:
421:
418:
411:
409:
406:
399:
397:
394:
387:
385:
375:
368:
366:
363:
356:
336:
333:
284:came from the
260:
257:
234:
233:
215:
214:
208:
207:
201:
190:
189:
183:
182:
175:
173:
169:
168:
161:
157:
156:
151:
147:
146:
141:
137:
136:
131:
127:
126:
121:
117:
116:
111:
107:
106:
101:
97:
96:
83:
82:
66:
63:
62:
57:
54:
53:
46:
45:
37:
36:
27:Species of bee
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2164:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1978:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1949:
1948:0-8248-1742-7
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1925:
1920:
1916:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1886:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1650:
1641:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1601:
1593:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1564:
1557:
1542:
1540:
1532:
1518:
1517:www.fs.fed.us
1514:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1469:
1467:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1423:
1421:
1415:
1400:
1396:
1394:
1385:
1383:
1375:
1371:
1365:
1357:
1355:9781312746398
1351:
1347:
1346:
1338:
1336:
1321:
1315:
1300:
1296:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1277:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1249:
1245:
1239:
1232:
1229:
1228:
1223:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1140:
1138:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1114:
1107:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1049:
1040:(4): 249–255.
1039:
1035:
1034:
1029:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
982:
978:
969:
962:
956:
948:
942:
938:
931:
927:
924:
919:
915:
910:
906:
896:
894:
890:
886:
882:
877:
872:
870:
856:
853:
850:
849:
848:
846:
842:
838:
828:
826:
822:
818:
811:Male behavior
808:
806:
805:C. auriculata
802:
798:
797:
792:
788:
787:passion fruit
784:
783:
778:
774:
770:
766:
761:
759:
755:
747:
740:
735:
731:
727:
721:
716:
715:
714:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
694:
689:
684:
682:
678:
666:
661:
659:
655:
650:
647:
642:
640:
636:
632:
628:
627:
620:
617:
607:
596:
591:
582:
580:
569:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
550:
545:
541:
540:South America
537:
533:
532:
526:
525:
519:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
484:Pacific Ocean
480:
478:
477:passion fruit
474:
473:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
415:
410:
403:
398:
391:
386:
383:
382:passionflower
379:
372:
367:
360:
355:
354:
353:
351:
345:
340:
332:
330:
326:
322:
321:X. varipuncta
318:
314:
313:X. varipuncta
310:
306:
302:
298:
293:
291:
287:
286:Sunda Islands
283:
279:
275:
271:
270:
265:
256:
254:
253:carpenter bee
250:
246:
242:
241:
232:
230:Perkins, 1899
228:
221:
216:
213:
209:
204:
199:
197:
191:
188:
187:Binomial name
184:
180:
179:
174:
171:
170:
167:
166:
162:
159:
158:
155:
152:
149:
148:
145:
142:
139:
138:
135:
132:
129:
128:
125:
122:
119:
118:
115:
112:
109:
108:
105:
102:
99:
98:
93:
88:
84:
78:
64:
60:
55:
52:
47:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
1967:
1935:
1922:
1908:
1904:
1893:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1666:. Retrieved
1661:
1657:
1648:
1640:
1629:. Retrieved
1617:
1613:
1600:
1573:
1569:
1556:
1545:. Retrieved
1538:
1531:
1520:. Retrieved
1516:
1490:. Retrieved
1478:
1474:
1465:
1419:
1414:
1403:. Retrieved
1398:
1392:
1373:
1364:
1348:. Lulu.com.
1344:
1323:. Retrieved
1314:
1303:. Retrieved
1299:the original
1265:
1243:
1238:
1230:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1191:
1187:
1157:
1153:
1150:Nesoprosopis
1149:
1145:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1113:
1105:
1102:
1098:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1048:
1037:
1031:
990:
986:
980:
976:
968:
960:
955:
941:
928:
922:
913:
904:
902:
892:
888:
880:
875:
873:
865:
844:
836:
834:
824:
816:
814:
804:
800:
794:
780:
768:
762:
757:
751:
729:
725:
710:A. gangetica
709:
705:
697:
691:
687:
685:
673:
663:
657:
651:
645:
643:
638:
630:
624:
621:
615:
613:
604:
594:
575:
565:
561:
547:
529:
522:
520:
504:Midway Atoll
495:
491:
481:
470:
462:
450:
438:
430:
428:
347:
342:
338:
328:
324:
320:
317:Roy Snelling
312:
308:
300:
294:
289:
281:
277:
267:
263:
262:
248:
244:
239:
238:
237:
226:
223:Patton, 1879
219:
218:
195:
193:
177:
176:
164:
50:
29:
2033:NatureServe
2020:iNaturalist
1992:Wikispecies
1492:October 11,
1481:: 163–190.
1420:X. sonorina
905:X. sonorina
893:X. sonorina
889:X. sonorina
881:X. sonorina
876:X. sonorina
845:X. sonorina
837:X. sonorina
825:X. sonorina
817:X. sonorina
801:X. sonorina
769:X. sonorina
765:Niue Island
726:X. sonorina
706:X. sonorina
698:X. sonorina
688:X. sonorina
670:Pollination
660:in Hawaii:
658:X. sonorina
639:X. sonorina
631:X. sonorina
552:, found on
516:Philippines
496:X. sonorina
492:X. sonorina
463:X. sonorina
451:X. sonorina
439:X. sonorina
431:X. sonorina
325:X. sonorina
290:X. sonorina
282:X. sonorina
278:X. sonorina
264:X. sonorina
144:Hymenoptera
77:NatureServe
2081:Categories
1927:. London:
1668:2009-05-06
1631:2009-05-05
1547:2009-07-05
1522:2015-10-07
1405:2009-05-04
1325:2022-09-27
1305:2009-07-05
1188:Biotropica
934:References
869:copulation
841:pheromones
777:pollinator
677:Solanaceae
572:Life cycle
514:, and the
512:New Guinea
500:introduced
467:pollinator
350:pheromones
124:Arthropoda
2038:2.1036609
1865:0174-1578
1791:Behaviour
1713:0892-7553
1376:41:71–78.
1166:0022-8567
1108:: 247-302
1007:0022-0493
916:maintain
815:Males of
635:mandibles
579:bee bread
295:In 1899,
172:Species:
110:Kingdom:
104:Eukaryota
2092:Xylocopa
1983:Q3482645
1977:Wikidata
1873:26243626
1721:20264890
1658:The Weta
1466:Xylocopa
1395:(Smith)"
1233:(1): 51.
1222:Xylocopa
1130:: 55–73.
1120:Xylocopa
1101:, Latr.
1099:Xylocopa
1079:11133195
1055:Xylocopa
923:Xylocopa
918:thoracic
758:Xylocopa
646:Xylocopa
644:Because
616:Xylocopa
585:Behavior
524:Xylocopa
329:sonorina
309:Xylocopa
269:Xylocopa
259:Taxonomy
212:Synonyms
165:Xylocopa
150:Family:
120:Phylum:
114:Animalia
100:Domain:
2064:6269995
2051:1818115
2012:9016167
1811:4535112
1592:3495589
1208:2387770
1146:Hylaeus
702:corolla
610:Nesting
556:in the
544:Ecuador
160:Genus:
140:Order:
134:Insecta
130:Class:
75: (
73:Secure
49:Female
2025:244216
1946:
1871:
1863:
1809:
1719:
1711:
1590:
1352:
1272:
1206:
1164:
1077:
1005:
746:Hawaii
435:Hawaii
395:female
378:pollen
243:, the
205:, 1874
154:Apidae
1918:1-38.
1869:S2CID
1807:JSTOR
1717:S2CID
1654:(PDF)
1610:(PDF)
1588:JSTOR
1566:(PDF)
1471:(PDF)
1204:JSTOR
775:as a
593:Male
457:. In
203:Smith
2046:NCBI
2007:GBIF
1944:ISBN
1911:(2).
1861:ISSN
1709:ISSN
1494:2015
1350:ISBN
1270:ISBN
1162:ISSN
1075:PMID
1003:ISSN
508:Java
498:was
407:male
364:male
1903:".
1892:".
1853:doi
1849:156
1843:".
1799:doi
1795:125
1757:doi
1753:224
1747:".
1701:doi
1622:doi
1578:doi
1483:doi
1372:".
1196:doi
1067:doi
1030:".
995:doi
885:lek
779:of
760:).
469:of
247:or
2083::
2061::
2048::
2035::
2022::
2009::
1994::
1979::
1867:.
1859:.
1847:.
1819:^
1805:.
1793:.
1769:^
1751:.
1729:^
1715:.
1707:.
1695:.
1677:^
1662:11
1660:.
1656:.
1618:13
1616:.
1612:.
1586:.
1574:79
1572:.
1568:.
1515:.
1502:^
1479:34
1477:.
1473:.
1428:^
1397:.
1381:^
1334:^
1284:^
1254:^
1202:.
1192:12
1190:.
1174:^
1158:76
1156:.
1136:^
1128:99
1126:.
1106:22
1087:^
1073:.
1063:17
1061:.
1038:31
1015:^
1001:.
991:78
989:.
985:.
767:,
629:,
568:.
510:,
506:,
479:.
461:,
376:A
1950:.
1909:4
1875:.
1855::
1813:.
1801::
1763:.
1759::
1723:.
1703::
1697:9
1671:.
1634:.
1624::
1594:.
1580::
1550:.
1541:"
1525:.
1496:.
1485::
1468:"
1408:.
1391:"
1358:.
1328:.
1308:.
1278:.
1231:5
1210:.
1198::
1168:.
1148:(
1081:.
1069::
1009:.
997::
949:.
793:(
732:)
577:"
79:)
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
