273:. Even with the greatest attention to airworthiness, accidents still occur. Crashworthiness is the qualitative evaluation of how aircraft survive an accident. The main objective is to protect the passengers or valuable cargo from the damage caused by an accident. In the case of airliners the stressed skin of the pressurized fuselage provides this feature, but in the event of a nose or tail impact, large bending moments build all the way through the fuselage, causing fractures in the shell, causing the fuselage to break up into smaller sections. So the passenger aircraft are designed in such a way that seating arrangements are away from areas likely to be intruded in an accident, such as near a propeller, engine nacelle undercarriage etc. The interior of the cabin is also fitted with safety features such as oxygen masks that drop down in the event of loss of cabin pressure, lockable luggage compartments, safety belts, lifejackets, emergency doors and luminous floor strips. Aircraft are sometimes designed with emergency
314:
looking for ways to automate and simplify the calculation process and many relations and semi-empirical formulas were developed. Even after simplification, the calculations continued to be extensive. With the invention of the computer, engineers realized that a majority of the calculations could be automated, but the lack of design visualization and the huge amount of experimentation involved kept the field of aircraft design stagnant. With the rise of programming languages, engineers could now write programs that were tailored to design an aircraft. Originally this was done with mainframe computers and used low-level programming languages that required the user to be fluent in the language and know the architecture of the computer. With the introduction of personal computers, design programs began employing a more user-friendly approach.
586:
597:
as aerodynamics, propulsion, flight performance, structural and control systems. This is called design optimization. Fundamental aspects such as fuselage shape, wing configuration and location, engine size and type are all determined at this stage. Constraints to design like those mentioned above are all taken into account at this stage as well. The final product is a conceptual layout of the aircraft configuration on paper or computer screen, to be reviewed by engineers and other designers.
20:
547:
209:. To combat the pollution, ICAO set recommendations in 1981 to control aircraft emissions. Newer, environmentally friendly fuels have been developed and the use of recyclable materials in manufacturing have helped reduce the ecological impact due to aircraft. Environmental limitations also affect airfield compatibility. Airports around the world have been built to suit the topography of the particular region. Space limitations, pavement design,
440:
177:
expansion of airways over already congested and polluted cities have drawn heavy criticism, making it necessary to have environmental policies for aircraft noise. Noise also arises from the airframe, where the airflow directions are changed. Improved noise regulations have forced designers to create quieter engines and airframes. Emissions from aircraft include particulates,
613:
calculations of the flow field around the aircraft are done. Major structural and control analysis is also carried out in this phase. Aerodynamic flaws and structural instabilities if any are corrected and the final design is drawn and finalized. Then after the finalization of the design lies the key
596:
Aircraft conceptual design involves sketching a variety of possible configurations that meet the required design specifications. By drawing a set of configurations, designers seek to reach the design configuration that satisfactorily meets all requirements as well as go hand in hand with factors such
497:
The weight of the aircraft is the common factor that links all aspects of aircraft design such as aerodynamics, structure, and propulsion, all together. An aircraft's weight is derived from various factors such as empty weight, payload, useful load, etc. The various weights are used to then calculate
290:
progressed, the complexity of military and airline aircraft also grew. Modern military and airline design projects are of such a large scale that every design aspect is tackled by different teams and then brought together. In general aviation a large number of light aircraft are designed and built by
244:
sets international standards and recommended practices on which national authorities should base their regulations. The national regulatory authorities set standards for airworthiness, issue certificates to manufacturers and operators and the standards of personnel training. Every country has its own
119:
Budget limitations, market requirements and competition set constraints on the design process and comprise the non-technical influences on aircraft design along with environmental factors. Competition leads to companies striving for better efficiency in the design without compromising performance and
471:
The thrust provided by the engine must balance the drag at cruise speed and be greater than the drag to allow acceleration. The engine requirement varies with the type of aircraft. For instance, commercial airliners spend more time in cruise speed and need more engine efficiency. High-performance
31:
is a loosely defined method used to balance many competing and demanding requirements to produce an aircraft that is strong, lightweight, economical and can carry an adequate payload while being sufficiently reliable to safely fly for the design life of the aircraft. Similar to, but more exacting
313:
In the early years of aircraft design, designers generally used analytical theory to do the various engineering calculations that go into the design process along with a lot of experimentation. These calculations were labour-intensive and time-consuming. In the 1940s, several engineers started
68:
The design process starts with the aircraft's intended purpose. Commercial airliners are designed for carrying a passenger or cargo payload, long range and greater fuel efficiency whereas fighter jets are designed to perform high speed maneuvers and provide close support to ground troops. Some
289:
Aircraft designers normally rough-out the initial design with consideration of all the constraints on their design. Historically design teams used to be small, usually headed by a Chief
Designer who knows all the design requirements and objectives and coordinated the team accordingly. As time
176:
An increase in the number of aircraft also means greater carbon emissions. Environmental scientists have voiced concern over the main kinds of pollution associated with aircraft, mainly noise and emissions. Aircraft engines have been historically notorious for creating noise pollution and the
303:
614:
decision with the manufacturer or individual designing it whether to actually go ahead with the production of the aircraft. At this point several designs, though perfectly capable of flight and performance, might have been opted out of production due to their being economically nonviable.
213:
end safety areas and the unique location of airport are some of the airport factors that influence aircraft design. However changes in aircraft design also influence airfield design as well, for instance, the recent introduction of new large aircraft (NLAs) such as the superjumbo
256:
The aircraft manufacturer makes sure that the aircraft meets existing design standards, defines the operating limitations and maintenance schedules and provides support and maintenance throughout the operational life of the aircraft. The aviation operators include the
265:
and owners of private aircraft. They agree to comply with the regulations set by the regulatory bodies, understand the limitations of the aircraft as specified by the manufacturer, report defects and assist the manufacturers in keeping up the airworthiness standards.
36:, the technique is highly iterative, involving high-level configuration tradeoffs, a mixture of analysis and testing and the detailed examination of the adequacy of every part of the structure. For some types of aircraft, the design process is regulated by
143:
in engineering and manufacturing allows faster and cheaper development. Technology advances from materials to manufacturing enable more complex design variations like multifunction parts. Once impossible to design or construct, these can now be
453:
Aircraft propulsion may be achieved by specially designed aircraft engines, adapted auto, motorcycle or snowmobile engines, electric engines or even human muscle power. The main parameters of engine design are:
630:, sections and other structural elements. All aerodynamic, structural, propulsion, control and performance aspects have already been covered in the preliminary design phase and only the manufacturing remains.
226:
The high speeds, fuel tanks, atmospheric conditions at cruise altitudes, natural hazards (thunderstorms, hail and bird strikes) and human error are some of the many hazards that pose a threat to air travel.
374:
and other detail aspects may be influenced by wing layout factors. The wing can be mounted to the fuselage in high, low and middle positions. The wing design depends on many parameters such as selection of
111:
Airports may also impose limits on aircraft, for instance, the maximum wingspan allowed for a conventional aircraft is 80 metres (260 ft) to prevent collisions between aircraft while taxiing.
366:
The wing of a fixed-wing aircraft provides the lift necessary for flight. Wing geometry affects every aspect of an aircraft's flight. The wing area will usually be dictated by the desired
2359:
2028:
2167:
2787:
2308:
1777:
1664:
88:, or fill a perceived "gap in the market"; that is, a class or design of aircraft which does not yet exist, but for which there would be significant demand.
233:
is the standard by which aircraft are determined fit to fly. The responsibility for airworthiness lies with the national civil aviation regulatory bodies,
1989:
605:
The design configuration arrived at in the conceptual design phase is then tweaked and remodeled to fit into the design parameters. In this phase,
1807:
642:
Some commercial aircraft have experienced significant schedule delays and cost overruns in the development phase. Examples of this include the
1693:
250:
1837:
622:
This phase simply deals with the fabrication aspect of the aircraft to be manufactured. It determines the number, design and location of
2370:
2803:
2569:
1874:
2250:
241:
1905:
402:
The wing must be designed and tested to ensure it can withstand the maximum loads imposed by maneuvering, and by atmospheric gusts.
2916:
123:
In the 1950s and '60s, unattainable project goals were regularly set, but then abandoned, whereas today troubled programs like the
2036:
131:
have proven far more costly and complex to develop than expected. More advanced and integrated design tools have been developed.
2943:
2450:
2420:
498:
the center of mass of the entire aircraft. The center of mass must fit within the established limits set by the manufacturer.
2178:
1961:
2819:
2671:
2603:
100:
for a new design of aircraft. These requirements are published by major national airworthiness authorities including the US
2316:
85:
530:
resistance, maintainability and ease of manufacturing. The structure must be able to withstand the stresses caused by
218:, have led to airports worldwide redesigning their facilities to accommodate its large size and service requirements.
2771:
2746:
2721:
2696:
2538:
2513:
2488:
2291:
1760:
1785:
695:
1672:
81:(vertical take-off and landing) ability, helicopters have the ability to hover over an area for a period of time.
1990:
http://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Documents/Publications/FINAL.Doc%209889.1st%20Edition.alltext.en.pdf
246:
132:
105:
101:
2804:
Committee on
Analysis of Air Force Engine Efficiency Improvement Options for Large Non-fighter Aircraft (2007).
3043:
2932:
2228:
336:
3006:
2089:
558:
2811:
610:
281:
has a 'ditching' switch that closes valves and openings beneath the aircraft slowing the ingress of water.
2002:
1605:
33:
1815:
2891:
2841:
2344:
1722:
590:
1701:
346:
73:
have a unique design that allows them to operate from both land and water, some fighters, like the
37:
682:
An existing aircraft program can be developed for performance and economy gains by stretching the
2963:
2644:
2141:
671:
2395:
2886:
2339:
813:
371:
234:
1848:
399:
which defines the airfoil shape. Ribs can be made of wood, metal, plastic or even composites.
3048:
2805:
1615:
1610:
643:
492:
149:
136:
2573:
1882:
2878:
2257:
1620:
753:
740:
531:
472:
fighter jets need very high acceleration and therefore have very high thrust requirements.
139:
and optimization allows designers to explore more options early in the process. Increasing
128:
2951:
2458:
1639:
8:
1913:
768:
659:
388:
352:
All aircraft designs involve compromises of these factors to achieve the design mission.
96:
Another important factor that influences the design are the requirements for obtaining a
70:
2882:
2869:
Antonio
Filippone (2000), "Data and performances of selected aircraft and rotorcraft",
2829:
1935:
781:
699:
694:, new wings or new avionics. For a 9,100 nmi long range at Mach 0.8/FL360, a 10% lower
585:
511:
384:
361:
291:
2900:
84:
The purpose may be to fit a specific requirement, e.g. as in the historical case of a
2815:
2767:
2742:
2717:
2692:
2667:
2619:
2599:
2534:
2509:
2484:
2287:
2059:
1756:
262:
161:
2977:
2428:
2057:
2896:
1972:
1027:
799:
631:
515:
331:
97:
74:
2990:
3053:
2203:
1562:
1549:
1536:
1525:
1511:
1499:
691:
627:
519:
448:
270:
194:
1135:
1056:
1001:
973:
845:
623:
507:
396:
367:
258:
186:
178:
1971:. ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organisation). 2007-04-15. Archived from
3037:
1014:
924:
861:
274:
230:
3018:
1751:
Lloyd R. Jenkinson; Paul
Simpkin; Darren Rhodes (1999). "Aircraft Market".
1750:
1275:
1262:
946:
885:
647:
481:
376:
326:
206:
19:
2788:"Program management in aerospace and defense - Still late and over budget"
1575:
1485:
1471:
1458:
1446:
1433:
1422:
1353:
1088:
1042:
962:
674:, which was delayed by four years and ended up with empty weight issues.
663:
655:
651:
606:
278:
215:
546:
1388:
1341:
1309:
1288:
1250:
1071:
1061:
823:
807:
794:
667:
145:
140:
124:
52:
1080:
1048:
527:
523:
429:
380:
302:
3022:
2907:
2859:
148:, but they have yet to prove their utility in applications like the
2115:
978:
683:
411:
202:
165:
48:
44:
2338:
Dennis F. Shanahan (2004). "Basic
Principles of Crashworthiness".
2306:
439:
2807:
Improving the
Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft
2741:. American institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 5.
2716:. American institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 4.
1236:
1223:
1210:
1198:
1185:
1172:
1159:
1146:
1032:
982:
417:
392:
157:
153:
654:
with a two-year delay and US$ 6.1 billion in cost overruns, the
2281:
2058:
Alexandre Gomes de Barros; Sumedha
Chandana Wirasinghe (1997).
850:
307:
210:
198:
2933:"From preliminary aircraft cabin design to cabin optimization"
2315:. Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC). Archived from
905:
900:
889:
872:
836:
758:
16:
Establishing the configuration and plans for a new aeroplane
2923:
2504:
Jenkinson, Lloyd R.; Rhodes, Darren; Simpkin, Paul (1999).
2479:
Jenkinson, Lloyd R.; Rhodes, Darren; Simpkin, Paul (1999).
1093:
1076:
1019:
951:
828:
773:
745:
687:
416:
The fuselage is the part of the aircraft that contains the
341:
78:
2060:"New Aircraft Characteristics Related To Airport Planning"
832:
703:
3023:"To Re-Engine or Not to Re-Engine: That is the Question"
646:
with a delay of 4 years with massive cost overruns, the
534:, if fitted, turbulence and engine or rotor vibrations.
168:
generation cannot cost more than the previous ones did.
23:
Advanced
Supersonic Transport (AST) model in wind tunnel
2528:
2503:
2478:
577:
The design of any aircraft starts out in three phases
269:
Most of the design criticisms these days are built on
2307:
D. L. Greer; J. S. Breeden; T. L. Heid (1965-11-18).
506:
The aircraft structure focuses not only on strength,
135:
predicts potentially problematic interactions, while
2451:"Techniques for Aircraft Configuration Optimization"
297:
2029:"Aircraft Recycling: Life and times of an aircraft"
2337:
2069:. Air Transport Research Group of the WCTR Society
164:also recognize the economic limits, that the next
1814:. European Commission. 2010-10-30. Archived from
306:The external surfaces of an aircraft modelled in
3035:
2991:"Aircraft Design - an Open Educational Resource"
2761:
2686:
2286:. Great Britain: Arnold Publishers. p. 55.
1755:. Great Britain: Arnold Publishers. p. 10.
537:
391:. The cross-sectional shape of the wing is its
2598:. Momentum Press Engineering. pp. 77–100.
634:for aircraft are also developed at this stage.
395:. The construction of the wing starts with the
114:
69:aircraft have specific missions, for instance,
2087:
1775:
1700:. CASA - Australian Government. Archived from
2455:Aircraft Design : Synthesis and Analysis
1769:
690:, enhancing the aerodynamics, installing new
443:Aircraft engine being tested in a wind tunnel
120:incorporating new techniques and technology.
2661:
2282:L. Jenkinson; P. Simpkin; D. Rhodes (1999).
1872:
251:DGCA (Directorate General of Civil Aviation)
2666:(4th ed.). Elsevier Ltd. p. 353.
2553:
600:
2400:General Aviation and Recreational Aircraft
1962:"ICAO Airport Air Quality Guidance Manual"
1845:Convention on International Civil Aviation
1165:31.00–31.24 m (101.71–102.49 ft)
2908:"Aircraft Design: Synthesis and Analysis"
2890:
2736:
2711:
2596:Aircraft Performance and Sizing, Volume I
2593:
2343:
1903:
383:angle, thickness ratio, section profile,
322:The main aspects of aircraft design are:
242:International Civil Aviation Organization
2964:"chapter 4: Aircraft Basic Construction"
2529:John Cutler; Jeremy Liber (2006-02-10).
2067:First ATRG Conference, Vancouver, Canada
1954:
1427:53.61–54.08 m (175.9–177.4 ft)
584:
438:
301:
171:
18:
2739:Aircraft design - A conceptual approach
2714:Aircraft Design - A conceptual approach
1906:"Environment: Aircraft Noise Reduction"
1778:"Problems Aerospace Still Has To Solve"
1178:33.4–33.63 m (109.6–110.3 ft)
91:
3036:
2944:Hamburg University of Applied Sciences
2369:. www.smartcockpit.com. Archived from
2142:"The human component in air accidents"
677:
617:
284:
3005:Thomas C. Hayes (November 27, 1981).
2940:Deutscher Luft- und Raumfahrtkongress
2917:"Basic principles of Crashworthiness"
2861:Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane Design
2572:. Stanford University. Archived from
2457:. Stanford University. Archived from
2256:(Press release). ICAO. Archived from
1838:"Annex 16 - Environmental Protection"
706:saves 6% and all combined saves 28%.
58:
1782:Aviation Week & Space Technology
580:
541:
1129:
1104:
734:
658:with delays and cost overruns, the
237:, as well as owners and operators.
13:
2177:. www.navcanada.ca. Archived from
2033:Pressroom - Airlines International
1847:. ICAO. p. 29. Archived from
1671:. Transport Canada. Archived from
1665:"Airworthiness - Transport Canada"
86:British Air Ministry specification
14:
3065:
2993:. Hamburg Open Online University.
2915:Dennis F. Shanahan (8 Mar 2005).
2910:. Desktop Aeronautics, Inc. 2001.
2851:
2691:. McGraw-Hill. pp. 382–386.
2662:T.H.G Megson (16 February 2010).
2531:Understanding aircraft structures
2360:"Airbus A330-A340 Overhead Panel"
420:, passenger cabin or cargo hold.
317:
298:Computer-aided design of aircraft
292:amateur hobbyists and enthusiasts
2620:"Beginner's Guide to Propulsion"
702:increase saves 12%, a 10% lower
545:
43:This article deals with powered
2797:
2780:
2764:Aircraft performance and Design
2755:
2730:
2705:
2689:Aircraft Performance and design
2680:
2655:
2637:
2612:
2587:
2562:
2547:
2522:
2497:
2472:
2443:
2413:
2388:
2352:
2331:
2309:"Crashworthy Design Principles"
2300:
2275:
2243:
2221:
2196:
2160:
2134:
2108:
2090:"Airports prepare for the A380"
2081:
2051:
2021:
1995:
1928:
1897:
670:with a four-year delay and the
475:
458:Maximum engine thrust available
247:Federal Aviation Administration
133:Model-based systems engineering
106:European Aviation Safety Agency
102:Federal Aviation Administration
38:civil airworthiness authorities
3007:"BOEING'S 'RE-ENGINING' WORRY"
2998:
2871:Progress in Aerospace Sciences
2649:Pilot friend - Flight training
2556:Aero Engineering Vol II Part I
2003:"Biofuel Flight Demonstration"
1942:. NASA - Glenn Research Center
1866:
1830:
1808:"Travel(Air) - Aircraft Noise"
1800:
1776:Graham Warwick (May 6, 2016).
1744:
1715:
1686:
1657:
1632:
355:
1:
2989:Dieter Scholz (9 July 2018).
2901:10.1016/S0376-0421(00)00011-7
2645:"Aircraft weight and balance"
2088:Sandra Arnoult (2005-02-28).
1936:"Safeguarding our atmosphere"
1626:
1403:62.81 m (206.08 ft)
1394:56.72 m (186.08 ft)
538:Design process and simulation
434:
370:but the overall shape of the
259:passenger and cargo airliners
2956:Nonresident Training Courses
2812:US National Research Council
2210:. The Free online Dictionary
1590:73.59 m (241.4 ft)
1581:66.61 m (218.5 ft)
1567:75.36 m (247.2 ft)
1554:67.93 m (222.9 ft)
1541:59.40 m (194.9 ft)
1530:63.69 m (209.0 ft)
1517:58.82 m (193.0 ft)
1505:63.67 m (208.9 ft)
1491:44.51 m (146.0 ft)
1477:33.84 m (111.0 ft)
1463:31.44 m (103.1 ft)
1452:37.57 m (123.3 ft)
1438:46.66 m (153.1 ft)
1369:73.86 m (242.3 ft)
1347:63.73 m (209.1 ft)
1334:61.37 m (201.3 ft)
1324:54.94 m (180.2 ft)
1315:48.51 m (159.2 ft)
1280:76.25 m (250.2 ft)
1256:70.66 m (231.8 ft)
1242:43.80 m (143.7 ft)
1229:42.11 m (138.2 ft)
1216:39.47 m (129.5 ft)
1203:36.40 m (119.4 ft)
1191:35.56 m (116.7 ft)
1140:28.65 m (94.00 ft)
709:
501:
423:
245:regulatory body such as the
115:Financial factors and market
7:
2976:Guy Norris (Mar 10, 2014).
2958:. U.S. Navy. December 2012.
2931:M. Nila; D. Scholz (2010).
2594:Takahashi, Timothy (2016).
2096:. ATW (Air Transport World)
1599:
1151:30.5 m (100.2 ft)
650:with a two-year delay, the
611:computational fluid dynamic
405:
10:
3070:
2421:"Aircraft Design Software"
2168:"Aviation Weather Hazards"
1875:"Airframe Noise Reduction"
1723:"ICAO Aerodrome Standards"
1606:Index of aviation articles
1414:68.28 m (224 ft)
490:
479:
446:
427:
409:
359:
277:in mind, for instance the
63:
34:engineering design process
2858:Egbert Torenbeek (1976),
2762:John D. Anderson (1999).
2687:John D. Anderson (1999).
2506:Civil Jet Aircraft design
2481:Civil jet aircraft design
2284:Civil Jet Aircraft Design
1753:Civil Jet Aircraft Design
1532:
1529:
1524:
1454:
1451:
1445:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1380:76.7 m (252 ft)
1359:69.8 m (229 ft)
1349:
1346:
1340:
1317:
1314:
1308:
1302:54.4 m (178 ft)
1293:47.3 m (155 ft)
1267:56.3 m (185 ft)
1258:
1255:
1249:
1142:
1139:
1134:
698:saves 13% of fuel, a 10%
637:
486:
221:
2978:"Boeing's 'Wonder Wall'"
2877:(8), Elsevier: 629–654,
2864:, Delft University Press
2396:"Amateur Built Aircraft"
1698:Airworthiness Directives
1669:Airworthiness Directives
601:Preliminary design phase
2009:. Virgin Atlantic. 2008
1646:. www.dynamicflight.com
672:Mitsubishi Regional Jet
589:Conceptual design of a
29:aircraft design process
2651:. www.pilotfriend.com.
2427:. NASA. Archived from
2035:. IATA. Archived from
1912:. NASA. Archived from
1881:. NASA. Archived from
1812:Mobility and Transport
1694:"Airworthiness - CASA"
593:
591:Bréguet 763 Deux-Ponts
444:
310:
137:computational analysis
24:
3044:Aerospace engineering
3027:Aviation Week Network
2982:Aviation Week Network
2148:. www.pilotfriend.com
1616:Aircraft manufacturer
1611:Aerospace engineering
644:Boeing 787 Dreamliner
588:
493:Aircraft gross weight
442:
305:
172:Environmental factors
150:Northrop Grumman B-21
22:
2554:Hugh Nelson (1938).
2094:Airline Finance/Data
1978:on December 14, 2013
1621:Iron bird (aviation)
853:/CF6-80/RB211-524G/H
532:cabin pressurization
129:Lockheed Martin F-35
92:Aircraft regulations
71:amphibious airplanes
2883:2000PrAeS..36..629F
2664:Aircraft Structures
2425:Computer Technology
2184:on 16 December 2011
1992:for updated manual.
1111:
769:Boeing 737 Original
716:
678:Program development
660:Bombardier C Series
618:Detail design phase
285:Design optimization
2737:D. Raymer (1992).
2712:D. Raymer (1992).
2229:"ICAO regulations"
1873:William Wilshire.
1854:on October 5, 2011
1788:on January 2, 2018
1109:
915:Boeing 737 Classic
782:Boeing 737 Classic
714:
594:
557:. You can help by
445:
362:Wing configuration
311:
152:or the re-engined
59:Design constraints
25:
3021:(December 2010).
2821:978-0-309-66765-4
2793:. Deloitte. 2016.
2673:978-1-85617-932-4
2605:978-1-60650-683-7
2570:"Fuselage Layout"
2431:on 24 August 1999
2122:. www.airsafe.com
1597:
1596:
1366:Boeing 777-300/ER
1321:Boeing 767-300/ER
1102:
1101:
686:, increasing the
632:Flight simulators
581:Conceptual design
575:
574:
162:Airbus and Boeing
3061:
3030:
3014:
2994:
2985:
2970:
2968:
2959:
2947:
2937:
2927:
2921:
2911:
2903:
2894:
2865:
2846:
2845:
2839:
2835:
2833:
2825:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2766:. Mc Graw Hill.
2759:
2753:
2752:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2684:
2678:
2677:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2624:Beginner's Guide
2616:
2610:
2609:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2581:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2558:. George Newnes.
2551:
2545:
2544:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2476:
2470:
2469:
2467:
2466:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2407:
2392:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2376:on 30 March 2012
2375:
2364:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2319:on April 8, 2013
2313:Technical Report
2304:
2298:
2297:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2262:
2255:
2251:"Annex 8 - ICAO"
2247:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2215:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2183:
2172:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2085:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2064:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2014:
1999:
1993:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1977:
1966:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1910:NASA Aeronautics
1901:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1890:
1879:NASA Aeronautics
1870:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1853:
1842:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1784:. Archived from
1773:
1767:
1766:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1730:ICAO Regulations
1727:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1710:
1709:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1652:
1651:
1644:Flight maneuvers
1636:
1331:Boeing 767-400ER
1253:-100/200/300/400
1127:Stretched length
1112:
1108:
1105:Fuselage stretch
1028:Embraer E-Jet E2
940:PW4000/CF6/RB211
800:Rolls-Royce Spey
723:Previous engines
717:
713:
570:
567:
549:
542:
516:damage tolerance
461:Fuel consumption
98:type certificate
75:Harrier jump jet
32:than, the usual
3069:
3068:
3064:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3059:
3058:
3034:
3033:
3017:
3004:
3001:
2988:
2975:
2966:
2962:
2950:
2935:
2930:
2919:
2914:
2906:
2892:10.1.1.539.1597
2868:
2857:
2854:
2849:
2837:
2836:
2827:
2826:
2822:
2802:
2798:
2790:
2786:
2785:
2781:
2774:
2760:
2756:
2749:
2735:
2731:
2724:
2710:
2706:
2699:
2685:
2681:
2674:
2660:
2656:
2643:
2642:
2638:
2629:
2627:
2618:
2617:
2613:
2606:
2592:
2588:
2579:
2577:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2552:
2548:
2541:
2527:
2523:
2516:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2483:. p. 105.
2477:
2473:
2464:
2462:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2434:
2432:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2405:
2403:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2362:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2345:10.1.1.214.8052
2336:
2332:
2322:
2320:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2280:
2276:
2266:
2264:
2260:
2253:
2249:
2248:
2244:
2234:
2232:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2213:
2211:
2204:"Airworthiness"
2202:
2201:
2197:
2187:
2185:
2181:
2170:
2166:
2165:
2161:
2151:
2149:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2125:
2123:
2114:
2113:
2109:
2099:
2097:
2086:
2082:
2072:
2070:
2062:
2056:
2052:
2042:
2040:
2027:
2026:
2022:
2012:
2010:
2001:
2000:
1996:
1981:
1979:
1975:
1969:ICAO Guidelines
1964:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1945:
1943:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1919:
1917:
1904:Neal Nijhawan.
1902:
1898:
1888:
1886:
1871:
1867:
1857:
1855:
1851:
1840:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1821:
1819:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1791:
1789:
1774:
1770:
1763:
1749:
1745:
1735:
1733:
1725:
1721:
1720:
1716:
1707:
1705:
1692:
1691:
1687:
1678:
1676:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1649:
1647:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1602:
1563:Airbus A340-600
1550:Airbus A340-500
1537:Airbus A340-200
1526:Airbus A340-300
1512:Airbus A330-200
1500:Airbus A330-300
1107:
814:Rolls-Royce Tay
712:
680:
640:
620:
603:
583:
571:
565:
562:
555:needs expansion
540:
504:
495:
489:
484:
478:
467:Engine geometry
451:
449:Aircraft engine
437:
432:
426:
414:
408:
379:, taper ratio,
364:
358:
320:
300:
287:
271:crashworthiness
253:in India, etc.
224:
195:carbon monoxide
192:
184:
174:
117:
94:
66:
61:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3067:
3057:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3032:
3031:
3015:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2986:
2973:
2972:
2971:
2948:
2928:
2912:
2904:
2866:
2853:
2852:External links
2850:
2848:
2847:
2820:
2814:. p. 15.
2796:
2779:
2772:
2754:
2747:
2729:
2722:
2704:
2697:
2679:
2672:
2654:
2636:
2611:
2604:
2586:
2561:
2546:
2539:
2521:
2514:
2496:
2489:
2471:
2442:
2412:
2387:
2351:
2330:
2299:
2292:
2274:
2242:
2220:
2195:
2159:
2133:
2116:"Bird hazards"
2107:
2080:
2050:
2020:
1994:
1953:
1927:
1896:
1865:
1829:
1799:
1768:
1761:
1743:
1714:
1685:
1656:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1572:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1559:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1496:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1482:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1408:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1385:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1374:
1373:
1370:
1367:
1363:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1338:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1299:Boeing 757-300
1297:
1294:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1247:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1233:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1220:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1182:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1169:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1136:Boeing 737-100
1132:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1110:Jet airliners
1106:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1096:
1091:
1086:
1083:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1064:
1059:
1057:Airbus A330neo
1054:
1051:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1022:
1017:
1011:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1002:Boeing 737 MAX
999:
996:
993:
989:
988:
985:
976:
974:Airbus A320neo
971:
968:
965:
959:
958:
955:
949:
944:
941:
938:
937:Boeing 747-400
934:
933:
930:
927:
922:
919:
916:
912:
911:
908:
903:
898:
895:
892:
882:
881:
878:
875:
870:
867:
864:
858:
857:
854:
848:
846:Boeing 747-400
843:
840:
826:
820:
819:
816:
811:
805:
802:
797:
791:
790:
787:
784:
779:
776:
771:
765:
764:
761:
756:
751:
748:
743:
737:
736:
733:
730:
727:
724:
721:
715:Jet airliners
711:
708:
679:
676:
666:and 8000, the
639:
636:
619:
616:
602:
599:
582:
579:
573:
572:
552:
550:
539:
536:
522:, but also on
508:aeroelasticity
503:
500:
491:Main article:
488:
485:
480:Main article:
477:
474:
469:
468:
465:
462:
459:
447:Main article:
436:
433:
428:Main article:
425:
422:
410:Main article:
407:
404:
368:stalling speed
357:
354:
350:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
319:
318:Design aspects
316:
299:
296:
286:
283:
223:
220:
197:(CO), various
190:
187:sulfur dioxide
182:
179:carbon dioxide
173:
170:
116:
113:
93:
90:
65:
62:
60:
57:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3066:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3003:
3002:
2992:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2974:
2965:
2961:
2960:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2918:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2902:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2867:
2863:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2843:
2831:
2823:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2808:
2800:
2789:
2783:
2775:
2773:0-07-001971-1
2769:
2765:
2758:
2750:
2748:0-930403-51-7
2744:
2740:
2733:
2725:
2723:0-930403-51-7
2719:
2715:
2708:
2700:
2698:0-07-001971-1
2694:
2690:
2683:
2675:
2669:
2665:
2658:
2650:
2646:
2640:
2625:
2621:
2615:
2607:
2601:
2597:
2590:
2576:on 2001-03-07
2575:
2571:
2565:
2557:
2550:
2542:
2540:1-4051-2032-0
2536:
2532:
2525:
2517:
2515:0-340-74152-X
2511:
2507:
2500:
2492:
2490:0-340-74152-X
2486:
2482:
2475:
2461:on 2012-07-01
2460:
2456:
2452:
2446:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2416:
2401:
2397:
2391:
2372:
2368:
2361:
2355:
2346:
2341:
2334:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2303:
2295:
2293:0-340-74152-X
2289:
2285:
2278:
2263:on 2012-09-05
2259:
2252:
2246:
2230:
2224:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2180:
2176:
2175:LAKP Prairies
2169:
2163:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2068:
2061:
2054:
2039:on 2011-10-27
2038:
2034:
2030:
2024:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1991:
1974:
1970:
1963:
1957:
1941:
1937:
1931:
1916:on 2011-10-18
1915:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1885:on 2011-10-21
1884:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1850:
1846:
1839:
1833:
1818:on 2009-04-17
1817:
1813:
1809:
1803:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1772:
1764:
1762:0-340-74152-X
1758:
1754:
1747:
1731:
1724:
1718:
1704:on 2011-12-13
1703:
1699:
1695:
1689:
1675:on 2011-04-17
1674:
1670:
1666:
1660:
1645:
1641:
1635:
1631:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1603:
1593:Nov 24, 2016
1592:
1589:
1586:
1584:Jun 14, 2013
1583:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1570:Apr 23, 2001
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1557:Feb 11, 2002
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:Oct 25, 1991
1527:
1523:
1520:Aug 13, 1997
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1497:
1494:Mar 11, 1993
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1480:Aug 25, 1995
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1466:Jan 15, 2002
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:Feb 22, 1987
1448:
1444:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:Oct 28, 1972
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1417:Mar 31, 2017
1416:
1413:
1411:Boeing 787-10
1410:
1409:
1406:Sep 17, 2013
1405:
1402:
1399:
1397:Dec 15, 2009
1390:
1386:
1383:Jan 25, 2020
1382:
1379:
1377:Boeing 777X-9
1376:
1375:
1372:Oct 16, 1997
1371:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1350:Jun 12, 1994
1343:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1318:Sep 26, 1981
1311:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1296:Feb 19, 1982
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1137:
1133:
1130:First flight
1126:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1098:Jan 25, 2020
1097:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1085:Jun 12, 1994
1084:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1066:Oct 19, 2017
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1040:
1037:May 23, 2016
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:Feb 19, 2002
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1015:Embraer E-Jet
1013:
1012:
1009:Jan 29, 2016
1008:
1005:
1003:
1000:
997:
994:
992:Boeing 737 NG
991:
990:
987:Sep 25, 2014
986:
984:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:Feb 22, 1987
969:
966:
964:
961:
960:
956:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:Apr 29, 1988
942:
939:
936:
935:
931:
928:
926:
925:Boeing 737 NG
923:
921:Feb 24, 1984
920:
917:
914:
913:
910:Feb 22, 1993
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:Feb 25, 1965
896:
893:
891:
887:
884:
883:
880:Jan 10, 1990
879:
877:PW4000/CF6-80
876:
874:
871:
869:Aug 29, 1970
868:
865:
863:
862:Douglas DC-10
860:
859:
856:Apr 29, 1988
855:
852:
849:
847:
844:
841:
838:
834:
830:
827:
825:
822:
821:
818:Nov 30, 1986
817:
815:
812:
809:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
792:
789:Feb 24, 1984
788:
785:
783:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
766:
762:
760:
757:
755:
754:DC-8 Super 70
752:
750:May 30, 1958
749:
747:
744:
742:
741:DC-8 Super 60
739:
738:
735:First flight
731:
728:
725:
722:
719:
718:
707:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
675:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
635:
633:
629:
625:
615:
612:
608:
598:
592:
587:
578:
569:
566:December 2011
560:
556:
553:This section
551:
548:
544:
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1544:Apr 1, 1992
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1441:Apr 3, 1982
1400:Boeing 787-9
1283:Feb 8, 2010
1276:Boeing 747-8
1270:Jul 4, 1975
1263:Boeing 747SP
1259:Feb 9, 1969
1154:Aug 8, 1967
1143:Apr 9, 1967
1121:First flight
1053:Nov 2, 1992
998:Feb 9, 1997
957:Feb 8, 2010
947:Boeing 747-8
932:Feb 9, 1997
886:Douglas DC-9
842:Feb 9, 1969
804:May 9, 1967
778:Apr 9, 1967
726:First flight
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648:Boeing 747-8
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2838:|work=
2435:29 December
2007:Environment
1576:Airbus A350
1486:Airbus A321
1472:Airbus A319
1459:Airbus A318
1447:Airbus A320
1434:Airbus A310
1423:Airbus A300
1354:Boeing 777X
1245:plan. 2020
1118:Base length
1089:Boeing 777X
1047:CF6/PW4000/
1043:Airbus A330
967:CFM56/V2500
963:Airbus A320
866:JT9D/CF6-50
732:New engines
664:Global 7000
656:Airbus A350
652:Airbus A380
607:wind tunnel
524:fail-safety
464:Engine mass
356:Wing design
279:Airbus A330
216:Airbus A380
3038:Categories
2630:2011-10-10
2580:2011-09-18
2465:2011-09-20
2406:2011-10-10
2214:2011-10-10
2208:Dictionary
2188:12 October
2152:12 October
2146:Air Safety
2126:12 October
1940:Fact Sheet
1792:January 2,
1708:2011-12-05
1679:2011-12-05
1650:2011-10-10
1640:"Hovering"
1627:References
1389:Boeing 787
1344:-200/ER/LR
1342:Boeing 777
1310:Boeing 767
1289:Boeing 757
1251:Boeing 747
1072:Boeing 777
1062:Trent 7000
824:Boeing 747
808:Fokker 100
795:Fokker F28
729:Re-engined
668:Comac C919
512:durability
435:Propulsion
360:See also:
332:Propulsion
263:air forces
146:3D printed
141:automation
125:Boeing 787
53:helicopter
2999:Re-engine
2887:CiteSeerX
2840:ignored (
2830:cite book
2380:9 October
2340:CiteSeerX
2323:9 October
2100:7 October
2073:7 October
2043:7 October
2013:7 October
1982:7 October
1946:7 October
1920:7 October
1889:7 October
1858:8 October
1822:7 October
1736:5 October
1587:A350-1000
1124:Stretched
1081:Trent 800
1049:Trent 700
710:Re-engine
528:corrosion
520:stability
502:Structure
430:Empennage
424:Empennage
381:sweepback
347:Structure
55:designs.
49:airplanes
3011:NY Times
2952:"Airman"
1600:See also
1079:/PW4000/
1006:CFM LEAP
979:CFM LEAP
684:fuselage
412:Fuselage
406:Fuselage
389:dihedral
372:planform
337:Controls
249:in USA,
203:nitrates
166:airliner
127:and the
104:and the
47:such as
45:aircraft
2879:Bibcode
2120:Hazards
1312:-200/ER
1237:737 MAX
1224:737-900
1211:737-800
1199:737-400
1186:737 MAX
1173:737-300
1160:737-500
1147:737-200
1033:PW1000G
983:PW1100G
929:CFM56-7
918:CFM56-3
692:engines
418:cockpit
393:airfoil
385:washout
158:737 MAX
154:A320neo
77:, have
64:Purpose
3054:Design
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2267:May 5,
2235:May 5,
2231:. ICAO
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1732:. ICAO
1226:/MAX 9
1213:/MAX 8
851:PW4000
638:Delays
487:Weight
308:MATLAB
222:Safety
211:runway
199:oxides
2967:(PDF)
2936:(PDF)
2920:(PDF)
2791:(PDF)
2402:. FAA
2374:(PDF)
2363:(PDF)
2261:(PDF)
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2063:(PDF)
1988:(see
1976:(PDF)
1965:(PDF)
1852:(PDF)
1841:(PDF)
1726:(PDF)
1488:(neo)
1474:(neo)
1449:(neo)
995:CFM56
906:V2500
901:MD-90
890:MD-80
873:MD-11
837:RB211
786:CFM56
763:1982
759:CFM56
628:spars
2924:NATO
2842:help
2816:ISBN
2768:ISBN
2743:ISBN
2718:ISBN
2693:ISBN
2668:ISBN
2600:ISBN
2535:ISBN
2510:ISBN
2485:ISBN
2437:2014
2382:2011
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2190:2011
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2102:2011
2075:2011
2045:2011
2015:2011
1984:2011
1948:2011
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1824:2011
1794:2018
1757:ISBN
1738:2011
1578:-900
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1115:Base
1094:GE9X
1077:GE90
1020:CF34
952:GEnx
894:JT8D
839:-524
835:-50/
829:JT9D
774:JT8D
746:JT3D
720:Base
696:TSFC
688:MTOW
624:ribs
387:and
342:Mass
240:The
156:and
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