212:, are a type of antibiotic that have been linked to increased levels of anxiety and panic attacks, psychotic symptoms, and depression in both mice and humans, with adverse neuropsychiatric reactions estimated to occur in 1–4.4% of patients, across a range of mild to more severe cases. However, some of these effects may be resolved by the patient ceasing the course of antibiotics, instead of through therapeutic action.
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Kaur, K.; Fayad, R.; Saxena, A.; Frizzell, N.; Chanda, A.; Das, S.; Chatterjee, S.; Hegde, S.; Baliga, M. S.; Ponemone, V.; Rorro, M.; Greene, J.; Elraheb, Y.; Redd, A. J.; Bian, J.; Restaino, J.; Norris, L. B.; Qureshi, Z. P.; Love, B. L.; Brookstaver, B.; Georgantopoulos, P.; Sartor, O.; Raisch, D.
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Serotonergic agents affect the neurotransmission pathways that involve serotonin, a neurotransmitter associated with mood regulation. Serotonin agonists can bind to and activate serotonin receptors, increasing the levels of serotonin in the CNS and resultingly increasing the occurrence of behaviours
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SSRIs are a commonly prescribed type of antidepressants that are used to treat anxiety and depression in the long term by increasing levels of serotonin in the CNS through blocking the reabsorption of serotonin. However, SSRIs are ineffective in the short-term treatment of acute panic attacks or
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Anxiolytic substances have the opposite effect to anxiogenic substances in that they reduce levels of anxiety. Some of these are used in psychopharmacotherapy as antidepressants to treat a range of mental health conditions, including various types of anxiety disorders, panic disorders, and
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is one that alters the functioning of the nervous system to produce changes in cognition and behaviour and include commonly consumed substances such as caffeine and nicotine. Though not typically the desired response, several of these compounds may have anxiogenic side effects.
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is an adrenergic agent that increases the levels of NE through inhibiting the absorption of NE by blocking the receptors on noradrenergic neurons. Research suggests that it can lead to a mildly anxious state or worsen panic, anxiety, and related symptoms in PTSD patients.
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may have immediate anxiogenic effects from one dosage but long-term anxiolytic effects after three dosages in mice, supporting clinical findings of exacerbated anxiety preceding the beneficial effects from SSRIs. Other research suggests that at low doses,
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W.; Rao, G.; Lu, K.; Ray, P.; Hrusheshky, W.; Schulz, R.; Ablin, R.; Noxon, V.; Bennett, C. L. (2016). "Fluoroquinolone-related neuropsychiatric and mitochondrial toxicity: a collaborative investigation by scientists and members of a social network".
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Caffeine, found in tea and coffee, acts as an adenosine receptor antagonist. Adenosine receptors are involved in mood regulation among other functions, with its antagonists linked to general anxiogenic effects, and specific receptors, such as the
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Adrenergic agents affect the levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine in the nervous system. NE is a neurotransmitter associated with the regulation of various cognitive functions including stress responses, arousal, vigilance, and anxiety.
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Though nicotine is typically associated with a reduction in levels of anxiety, animal studies have found that at higher dosages, nicotine may have anxiogenic effects compared to its typical anxiolytic effects at lower dosages.
1007:
Galanter, Marc (1 July 2008). The
American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment (American Psychiatric Press Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment) (4 ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. p. 197.
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However, research suggests that for caffeine to have notable anxiogenic effects when consumed, a person needs to have a pre-existing anxiety or panic disorder, and to consume a large amount of caffeine (5 cups or more).
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Abrams, J. K.; Johnson, P. L.; Hay-Schmidt, A.; Mikkelsen, J. D.; Shekhar, A.; Lowry, C. A. (2005). "Serotonergic systems associated with arousal and vigilance behaviors following administration of anxiogenic drugs".
152:, found in tobacco products, binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nACHRs), that may affect the function of pathways implicated with stress brains and anxiety, such as the serotonergic or GABAergic pathways.
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However, studies suggest that benzodiazepines may be anxiogenic in the long term. Different benzodiazepines have different effects, such as β-CCM which has been linked to anxiogenic effects, unlike Ro 15-17888.
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The mechanism behind this action is unclear however, with some researchers suggesting that FQs may act as low-affinity GABA-A antagonists, and others positing that its interactions with
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Benzodiazepines are a class of depressant drugs used to treat anxiety disorders by acting as GABA receptor agonists and affecting the levels of GABA within the CNS.
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Fite, S. E.; Kenny, P. J.; Ouagazzal, A.-M. (1998). "Bimodal modulation by nicotine of anxiety in the social interaction test: Role of the dorsal hippocampus".
1102:
430:
Takeda H, Tsuji M, Matsumiya T (May 1998). "Changes in head-dipping behavior in the hole-board test reflect the anxiogenic and/or anxiolytic state in mice".
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Though these substances are typically used to decrease anxiety through affecting levels of neurotransmitters, some may have anxiogenic effects.
102:, are largely reported to have anxiogenic effects only if they are consumed or taken by people with pre-existing anxiety or panic disorders.
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Picciotto, M. R.; Brunzell, D. H.; Caldarone, B. J. (2002). "Effect of nicotine and nicotinic receptors on anxiety and depression".
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de
Carvalho, L. P.; Grecksch, G.; Chapouthier, G.; Rossier, J. (1983). "Anxiogenic and non-anxiogenic benzodiazepine antagonists".
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Barkus, Christopher; McHugh, Stephen B.; Sprengel, Rolf; Seeburg, Peter H.; Rawlins, J. Nicholas P.; Bannerman, David M. (2010).
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91:, the neuroendocrine system that mediates responses to stress, where dysfunction has been linked to anxiety and panic disorders.
219:(NMDA) receptors, which have been associated with fear, anxiety, and depression, may be responsible for the anxiogenic effects.
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522:
483:
Sztainberg Y, Chen A (2012). "Neuropeptide
Regulation of Stress-Induced Behavior: Insights from the CRF/Urocortin Family".
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in rats and mice. A number of agents are used to provoke anxiety (anxiogens) or panic (panicogens) in experimental models.
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Sánchez, C.; Meier, E. (1997). "Behavioral profiles of SSRIs in animal models of depression, anxiety and aggression".
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Juruena, M. F.; Eror, F.; Cleare, A. J. (2020). "The Role of Early Life Stress in HPA Axis and
Anxiety".
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Piotr, Wierzbiński; Hubska, J.; Henzler, M.; Kucharski, B.; Bies, R. R.; Marek, Krzystanek (2023).
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Clinical research suggests that SSRIs may have a biphasic response, with research suggesting that
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associated with anxiety. Research supports the resulting anxiogenic effects of agents such as
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Southwick, S. M. (1993). "Abnormal
Noradrenergic Function in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder".
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Anxiogenic substances typically work through affecting levels of neurotransmitters such as
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783:"Depressive and Other Adverse CNS Effects of Fluoroquinolones"
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agents, which inhibits anxiety. Together these categories of
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Mombereau, C.; Gur, T. L.; Onksen, J.; Blendy, J. A. (2009).
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Other substances that may have anxiogenic effects include:
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Calker, D.; Biber, K.; Domschke, K.; Serchov, T. (2019).
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Anxiogenic effects can be measured by, for example, the
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411:Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
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487:. Academic Press. pp. 355–375.
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514:Concise Guide to Anxiety Disorders
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111:Psychoactive Substances
73:gamma-aminobutyric acid
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342:Anxiolytic Substances
106:Anxiogenic Substances
1084:at Wikimedia Commons
314:dopamine antagonists
217:N-methyl-D-aspartate
59:Mechanisms of Action
47:Experimental Studies
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406:Anxiolytic
377:paroxetine
372:citalopram
183:LY-293,284
79:(NE), and
33:anxiolytic
21:anxiogenic
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322:reserpine
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169:Yohimbine
81:serotonin
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135:receptor
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