1666:. These crops crowd out weeds through competition. In addition, the sod and compost from cover crops and green manure slows the growth of what weeds are still able to make it through the soil, giving the crops further competitive advantage. By slowing the growth and proliferation of weeds while cover crops are cultivated, farmers greatly reduce the presence of weeds for future crops, including shallow rooted and row crops, which are less resistant to weeds. Cover crops are, therefore, considered conservation crops because they protect otherwise fallow land from becoming overrun with weeds.
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predictable, and unexpected periods of rain and drought may occur, a more flexible approach for soil cover by crop rotation is necessary. An opportunity cropping system promotes adequate soil cover under these erratic climate conditions. In an opportunity cropping system, crops are grown when soil water is adequate and there is a reliable sowing window. This form of cropping system is likely to produce better soil cover than a rigid crop rotation because crops are only sown under optimal conditions, whereas rigid systems are not necessarily sown in the best conditions available.
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erosion in a crop rotation system. Zero tillage is a fundamental management practice that promotes crop stubble retention under longer unplanned fallows when crops cannot be planted. Such management practices that succeed in retaining suitable soil cover in areas under fallow will ultimately reduce soil loss. In a recent study that lasted a decade, it was found that a common winter cover crop after potato harvest such as fall rye can reduce soil run-off by as much as 43%, and this is typically the most nutritional soil.
996:, namely peas, lentils, or beans; and the third field was left fallow. The three fields were rotated in this manner so that every three years, one of the fields would rest and lie fallow. Under the two-field system, only half the land was planted in any year. Under the new three-field rotation system, two thirds of the land was planted, potentially yielding a larger harvest. But the additional crops had a more significant effect than mere quantitative productivity. Since the spring crops were mostly legumes, which
1206:, are row crops (that is, grown in tight rows). While often the most profitable for farmers, these crops are more taxing on the soil. Row crops typically have low biomass and shallow roots: this means the plant contributes low residue to the surrounding soil and has limited effects on structure. With much of the soil around the plant exposed to disruption by rainfall and traffic, fields with row crops experience faster break down of organic matter by microbes, leaving fewer nutrients for future plants.
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to regulate or reinforce this standard. Increasing the biodiversity of crops has beneficial effects on the surrounding ecosystem and can host a greater diversity of fauna, insects, and beneficial microorganisms in the soil as found by McDaniel et al 2014 and Lori et al 2017. Some studies point to increased nutrient availability from crop rotation under organic systems compared to conventional practices as organic practices are less likely to inhibit of beneficial microbes in soil organic matter.
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1564:. Carbon, along with hydrogen and oxygen, is a macronutrient for plants. Highly diverse rotations spanning long periods of time have shown to be even more effective in increasing SOC, while soil disturbances (e.g. from tillage) are responsible for exponential decline in SOC levels. In Brazil, conversion to no-till methods combined with intensive crop rotations has been shown an SOC sequestration rate of 0.41 tonnes per hectare per year.
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consider in what condition one crop will leave the soil for the succeeding crop and how one crop can be seeded with another crop. For example, a nitrogen-fixing crop, like a legume, should always precede a nitrogen depleting one; similarly, a low residue crop (i.e. a crop with low biomass) should be offset with a high biomass cover crop, like a mixture of grasses and legumes.
1602:. During a process called nodulation, the rhizobia bacteria use nutrients and water provided by the plant to convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, which is then converted into an organic compound that the plant can use as its nitrogen source. It therefore makes good sense agriculturally to alternate them with cereals (family
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plan crops years in advance. Improper implementation of a crop rotation plan may lead to imbalances in the soil nutrient composition or a buildup of pathogens affecting a critical crop. The consequences of faulty rotation may take years to become apparent even to experienced soil scientists and can take just as long to correct.
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rotation under organic systems compared to conventional practices as organic practices are less likely to inhibit of beneficial microbes in soil organic matter, such as arbuscular mycorrhizae, which increase nutrient uptake in plants. Increasing biodiversity also increases the resilience of agro-ecological systems.
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ability of the water to detach and transport sediment. Soil erosion and seal prevent the disruption and detachment of soil aggregates that cause macropores to block, infiltration to decline, and runoff to increase. This significantly improves the resilience of soils when subjected to periods of erosion and stress.
1673:. Tillage is meant to inhibit growth of weeds by overturning the soil; however, this has a countering effect of exposing weed seeds that may have gotten buried and burying valuable crop seeds. Under crop rotation, the number of viable seeds in the soil is reduced through the reduction of the weed population.
1194:). For example, giving adequate attention to plant family is essential to mitigating pests and pathogens. However, many farmers have success managing rotations by planning sequencing and cover crops around desirable cash crops. The following is a simplified classification based on crop quality and purpose.
1445:, the inter-planting of corn with pole beans and vining squash or pumpkins. In this system, the beans provide nitrogen; the corn provides support for the beans and a "screen" against squash vine borer; the vining squash provides a weed suppressive canopy and a discouragement for corn-hungry raccoons.
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Mixed farming or the practice of crop cultivation with the incorporation of livestock can help manage crops in a rotation and cycle nutrients. Crop residues provide animal feed, while the animals provide manure for replenishing crop nutrients and draft power. These processes promote internal nutrient
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The effect of crop rotation on erosion control varies by climate. In regions under relatively consistent climate conditions, where annual rainfall and temperature levels are assumed, rigid crop rotations can produce sufficient plant growth and soil cover. In regions where climate conditions are less
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There are numerous factors that must be taken into consideration when planning a crop rotation. Planning an effective rotation requires weighing fixed and fluctuating production circumstances: market, farm size, labor supply, climate, soil type, growing practices, etc. Moreover, a crop rotation must
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and selects for both a highly competitive pest and weed community. Without balancing nutrient use and diversifying pest and weed communities, the productivity of monocultures is highly dependent on external inputs that may be harmful to the soil's fertility. Conversely, a well-designed crop rotation
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While crop rotation requires a great deal of planning, crop choice must respond to a number of fixed conditions (soil type, topography, climate, and irrigation) in addition to conditions that may change dramatically from year to the next (weather, market, labor supply). In this way, it is unwise to
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Increasing the biodiversity of crops has beneficial effects on the surrounding ecosystem and can host a greater diversity of fauna, insects, and beneficial microorganisms in the soil as found by McDaniel et al 2014 and Lori et al 2017. Some studies point to increased nutrient availability from crop
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When a forage crop breaks down, binding products are formed that act like an adhesive on the soil, which makes particles stick together, and form aggregates. The formation of soil aggregates is important for erosion control, as they are better able to resist raindrop impact, and water erosion. Soil
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In addition to lowering the need for inputs (by controlling for pests and weeds and increasing available nutrients), crop rotation helps organic growers increase the amount of biodiversity their farms. Biodiversity is also a requirement of organic certification, however, there are no rules in place
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Double-cropping is common where two crops, typically of different species, are grown sequentially in the same growing season, or where one crop (e.g. vegetable) is grown continuously with a cover crop (e.g. wheat). This is advantageous for small farms, which often cannot afford to leave cover crops
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The use of different species in rotation allows for increased soil organic matter (SOM), greater soil structure, and improvement of the chemical and biological soil environment for crops. With more SOM, water infiltration and retention improves, providing increased drought tolerance and decreased
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is a serious problem for some plants in warm climates and sandy soils, where it slowly builds up to high levels in the soil, and can severely damage plant productivity by cutting off circulation from the plant roots. Growing a crop that is not a host for root-knot nematode for one season greatly
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Other benefits include reduced production cost. Overall financial risks are more widely distributed over more diverse production of crops and/or livestock. Less reliance is placed on purchased inputs and over time crops can maintain production goals with fewer inputs. This in tandem with greater
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Crop rotations also affect the timing and length of when a field is subject to fallow. This is very important because depending on a particular region's climate, a field could be the most vulnerable to erosion when it is under fallow. Efficient fallow management is an essential part of reducing
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under crop rotation allows biomass aggregation to lead to greater nutrient retention and utilization, decreasing the need for added nutrients. With tillage, disruption and oxidation of soil creates a less conducive environment for diversity and proliferation of microorganisms in the soil. These
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crops with nitrogen-demanding crops. Legumes, like alfalfa and clover, collect available nitrogen from the atmosphere and store it in nodules on their root structure. When the plant is harvested, the biomass of uncollected roots breaks down, making the stored nitrogen available to future crops.
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Protection against soil loss is maximized with rotation methods that leave the greatest mass of crop stubble (plant residue left after harvest) on top of the soil. Stubble cover in contact with the soil minimizes erosion from water by reducing overland flow velocity, stream power, and thus the
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Agronomists describe the benefits to yield in rotated crops as "The
Rotation Effect". There are many benefits of rotation systems. The factors related to the increase are broadly due to alleviation of the negative factors of monoculture cropping systems. Specifically, improved nutrition; pest,
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microorganisms are what make nutrients available to plants. So, where "active" soil organic matter is a key to productive soil, soil with low microbial activity provides significantly fewer nutrients to plants; this is true even though the quantity of biomass left in the soil may be the same.
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Farmers are required to implement a crop rotation that maintains or builds soil organic matter, works to control pests, manages and conserves nutrients, and protects against erosion. Producers of perennial crops that aren’t rotated may utilize other practices, such as cover crops, to maintain
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There is no limit to the number of crops that can be used in a rotation, or the amount of time a rotation takes to complete. Decisions about rotations are made years prior, seasons prior, or even at the last minute when an opportunity to increase profits or soil quality presents itself.
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In addition to their negative impact on crop quality and yield, weeds can slow down the harvesting process. Weeds make farmers less efficient when harvesting, because weeds like bindweeds, and knotgrass, can become tangled in the equipment, resulting in a stop-and-go type of harvest.
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is a crop that is mixed into the soil. Both nitrogen-fixing legumes and nutrient scavengers, like grasses, can be used as green manure. Green manure of legumes is an excellent source of nitrogen, especially for organic systems, however, legume biomass does not contribute to lasting
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in the soil, controlling for erosion, or increasing soil structure and biomass, to name a few. When discussing crop rotations, crops are classified in different ways depending on what quality is being assessed: by family, by nutrient needs/benefits, and/or by profitability (i.e.
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Crop rotation is also used to control pests and diseases that can become established in the soil over time. The changing of crops in a sequence decreases the population level of pests by (1) interrupting pest life cycles and (2) interrupting pest habitat. Plants within the same
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activity through competition. In addition, plants produce root exudates and other chemicals which manipulate their soil environment as well as their weed environment. Thus rotation allows increased yields from nutrient availability but also alleviation of
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tend to have similar pests and pathogens. By regularly changing crops and keeping the soil occupied by cover crops instead of lying fallow, pest cycles can be broken or limited, especially cycles that benefit from overwintering in residue. For example,
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Crop rotation contributes to increased yields through improved soil nutrition. By requiring planting and harvesting of different crops at different times, more land can be farmed with the same amount of machinery and labour.
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by water. In areas that are highly susceptible to erosion, farm management practices such as zero and reduced tillage can be supplemented with specific crop rotation methods to reduce raindrop impact, sediment detachment,
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involves two or more crops growing in the same place at the same time. Crop rotations can be applied to both monocultures and polycultures, resulting in multiple ways of increasing agricultural biodiversity (table).
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cycling and minimize the need for synthetic fertilizers and large-scale machinery. As an additional benefit, the cattle, sheep and/or goat provide milk and can act as a cash crop in the times of economic hardship.
1610:. How much nitrogen made available to the plants depends on factors such as the kind of legume, the effectiveness of rhizobia bacteria, soil conditions, and the availability of elements necessary for plant food.
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to replenish the soil for extended periods of time, as larger farms can. When multiple cropping is implemented on small farms, these systems can maximize benefits of crop rotation on available land resources.
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Carroll, C.; Halpin, M; Burger, P.; Bell, K.; Sallaway, M. M.; Yule, D. F. (1997). "The effect of crop type, crop rotation, and tillage practice on runoff and soil loss on a
Vertisol in central Queensland".
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Littleboy, M.; Silburn, D. M.; Freebairn, D. M.; Woodruff, D. R.; Hammer, G. L. (1989). "PERFECT. A computer simulation model of
Productive Erosion Runoff Functions to Evaluate Conservation Techniques".
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Porter, Paul M.; Lauer, Joseph G.; Lueschen, William E.; Ford, J. Harlan; Hoverstad, Tom R.; Oplinger, Edward S.; Crookston, R. Kent (1997). "Environment
Affects the Corn and Soybean Rotation Effect".
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In short, while these crops may be profitable for the farm, they are nutrient depleting. Crop rotation practices exist to strike a balance between short-term profitability and long-term productivity.
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Mäder, Paul; et al. (2000). "Arbuscular mycorrhizae in a long-term field trial comparing low-input (organic, biological) and high-input (conventional) farming systems in a crop rotation".
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Loch, R. J.; Foley, J. L. (1994). "Measurement of
Aggregate Breakdown under rain: comparison with tests of water stability and relationships with field measurements of infiltration".
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Livestock and
Sustainable Nutrient Cycling in Mixed Farming Systems of Sub-Saharan Africa: Proceedings of an International Conference, International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA)
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Huang, Mingbin; Shao, Mingan; Zhang, Lu; Li, Yushan (2003). "Water use efficiency and sustainability of different long-term crop rotation systems in the Loess
Plateau of China".
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146:. In the front field, the "Norfolk" crop rotation sequence (potatoes, oats, peas, rye) is being applied; in the back field, rye has been grown for 58 years in a row.
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847:. This practice reduces the reliance of crops on one set of nutrients, pest and weed pressure, along with the probability of developing resistant pests and weeds.
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Crop rotation systems may be enriched by other practices such as the addition of livestock and manure, and by growing more than one crop at a time in a field. A
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Triberti, Loretta; Anna Nastri; Guido
Baldoni (2016). "Long-term effects of crop rotation, manure fertilization on carbon sequestration and soil fertility".
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1527:. Crop rotation, by nature, increases exposure to biomass from sod, green manure, and various other plant debris. The reduced need for intensive
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pathogen, and weed stress reduction; and improved soil structure have been found in some cases to be correlated to beneficial rotation effects.
1412:) are able to distribute the nutrients in these crops throughout the soil rather than removing nutrients from the farm through the sale of hay.
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of the mid-20th century, crop rotation gave way in the developed world to the practice of supplementing the chemical inputs to the soil through
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2423:"Long-Term Evidence Shows that Crop-Rotation Diversification Increases Agricultural Resilience to Adverse Growing Conditions in North America"
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from legumes can lead to an invasion of snails or slugs and the decay from green manure can occasionally suppress the growth of other crops.
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have long been used in crop rotations. They have bacteria in their root nodules which take nitrogen from the air and fix it into the soil as
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reduces the level of the nematode in the soil, thus making it possible to grow a susceptible crop the following season without needing soil
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Lamb, John; Sheaffer, Craig; Moncada, Kristine (2010). "Chapter 4 Soil
Fertility". Risk Management Guide for Organic Producers (Report).
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aggregates also reduce wind erosion, because they are larger particles, and are more resistant to abrasion through tillage practices.
1122:. Such practices aimed to increase yields, to prepare soil for specialist crops, and to reduce waste and inefficiency by simplifying
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and structure. The dense and far-reaching root systems give ample structure to surrounding soil and provide significant biomass for
976:. This persisted until the 20th century. Available land was divided into three sections. One section was planted in the autumn with
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Bowles, Timothy M.; Mooshammer, Maria; Socolar, Yvonne; CalderĂłn, Francisco; Cavigelli, Michel A.; et al. (20 March 2020).
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In addition to enhancing crop productivity, sequestration of atmospheric carbon has great implications in reducing rates of
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Rose CW, Freebairn DM. "A mathematical model of soil erosion and deposition processes with application to field data".
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Moncada, Kristine; Craig
Sheaffer (2010). "Chapter 2 Rotation". Risk Management Guide for Organic Producers (Report).
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Grasses and cereals are key in weed management as they compete with undesired plants for soil space and nutrients.
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Victoria, Reynaldo (2012). "The Benefits of Soil Carbon". Risk Management Guide for Organic Producers (Report).
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Crop choice is often related to the goal the farmer is looking to achieve with the rotation, which could be
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benefit from many of the same principals as crop rotation, they do not satisfy the requirement under the
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in place of grains for human consumption make it possible to restore or to maintain productive soils.
2322:"More Than the Sum of Its Parts: Microbiome Biodiversity as a Driver of Plant Growth and Soil Health"
1028:(in present-day northern Belgium) pioneered a four-field rotation in the early 16th century, and the
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Powell, J. M.; William, T. O. (1993). "An overview of mixed farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa".
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Different crops in the rotation can reduce the risks of adverse weather for the individual farmer.
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short and long term yields makes rotation a powerful tool for improving agricultural systems.
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Francis, Charles A. (2003). "Advances in the Design of Resource-Efficient Cropping Systems".
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Yamoah, Charles F.; Francis, Charles A.; Varvel, Gary E.; Waltman, William J. (April 1998).
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1441:, offer more diversity and complexity within the same season or rotation. An example is the
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Cereal and grasses are frequent cover crops because of the many advantages they supply to
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Under a two-field rotation, half the land was planted in a year, while the other half lay
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Organic Production: Using NRCS Practice Standards to Support Organic Growers (Report).
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Many challenges exist within the practices associated with crop rotation. For example,
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Farmers have long recognized that suitable rotations such as planting spring crops for
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2067:. Ithaca, New York: National Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Services (NRAES).
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This system has advantages over other common practices for weeds management, such as
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1036:(1674–1738) popularised this system in the 18th century. The sequence of four crops (
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to be bred year-round. The four-field crop rotation became a key development in the
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A preliminary assessment of crop interrelationships can be found in how each crop:
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farmers to rotate soil-depleting crops like cotton with soil-enriching crops like
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Crop rotation is a required practice, in the United States, for farms seeking
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Growing the same crop in the same place for many years in a row, known as
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A great advantage of crop rotation comes from the interrelationship of
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2917:"Weather and Management Impact on Crop Yield Variability in Rotations"
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2252:"Ecological Theories, Meta-Analysis, and the Benefits of Monocultures"
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from a diverse set of crops. Additionally, crop rotations can improve
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Unger, P. W.; McCalla, T. M. (1980). "Conservation Tillage Systems".
1928:"George Washington Carver's contributions to agriculture in the U.S."
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Crop rotation can significantly reduce the amount of soil lost from
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2022:(Report). Center for Environmental Farming Systems. Archived from
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Saleem, Muhammad; Hu, Jie; Jousset, Alexandre (2 November 2019).
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farmers practiced crop rotation in 6000 BC, alternately planting
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both the two- and three-field systems had been used since the
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Queensland Department of Primary Industries. Bulletin QB89005
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Crop Rotation on Organic Farms: A Planning Manual, NRAES 177
2254:. Center for Sustaining Agriculture and Natural Resources,
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Bailey, L. H., ed. (1907). "Chapter 5, "Crop Management"".
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is the practice of growing a series of different types of
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Interbreeds with other crops to produce hybrid offspring.
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2902:"Crop Rotation – A Vital Component of Organic Farming"
2572:"Nitrogen Fixation and Inoculation of Forage Legumes"
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Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences
2877:"Cover crops have major role to play in soil health"
2737:. Saskatchewan Soil Conservation Association. 2016.
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Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
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1202:Many crops which are critical for the market, like
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Impacts surrounding food webs and field ecosystems.
992:; the second section grew crops such as one of the
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1977:Tipsheet: Crop Rotation in Organic Farming Systems
1075:(1860s–1943) studied crop-rotation methods in the
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2968:"Are Some Crops Synergistic to Following Crops?"
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1461:. The “Crop Rotation Practice Standard” for the
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2063:Johnson, Sue Ellen; Mohler, Charles L. (2009).
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1806:"Jan 1, 6000 BC – Crop Rotation (Timeline)"
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1400:makes the most efficient use of critical
117:Learn how and when to remove this message
3102:10.2134/agronj1997.00021962008900030012x
3022:Bullock, D. G. (1992). "Crop rotation".
2544:. Department of Agrology. Archived from
2141:
1875:
1680:
1287:is a crop grown by itself in a field. A
890:
133:
2581:. University of Florida. Archived from
2207:
2110:
2014:
1860:
1642:This principle is of particular use in
1551:
1007:
131:Agricultural practice of changing crops
14:
3149:
2624:
2246:
2244:
2166:
2164:
1974:
1959:Natural Resources Conservation Service
1952:
1950:
1948:
1658:Integrating certain crops, especially
1514:
1260:
1225:
1163:How it contributes to or controls for
1160:Manages deficient or excess nutrients.
1067:
957:
3111:Medieval Technology and Social Change
2966:Anderson, Randy L. (1 January 2005).
2569:
2535:"Nitrogen Fixation by Forage Legumes"
2377:
2345:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110617-062605
1863:Science and Civilization in China 6-2
1302:
1296:Diversity of crops in space and time;
2744:from the original on 2 December 2016
2639:from the original on 19 October 2016
2520:United Nations Environment Programme
1726:
937:
55:adding citations to reliable sources
26:
2706:Australian Journal of Soil Research
2288:
2241:
2161:
2129:from the original on 4 October 2015
1945:
1931:4-H Global & Cultural Education
1878:"No. 26: Three-Field Crop Rotation"
1548:and competitive weed environments.
24:
3024:Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences
2958:
2874:
2533:Loynachan, Tom (1 December 2016).
2219:"Organic Crop Production Overview"
2201:Cyclopedia of American Agriculture
1735:
1653:
1574:
1535:Soil microorganisms also decrease
1452:
25:
3183:
3119:
2921:Journal of Production Agriculture
2111:Coleman, Pamela (November 2012).
1560:content, the main constituent of
1273:
142:at the Swojec Experimental Farm,
2113:Guide for Organic Crop Producers
1880:. The Engines of Our Ingenuity.
1606:) and other plants that require
1556:Crop rotations greatly increase
1469:, section §205.205, states that
1467:U.S. Code of Federal Regulations
793:
160:
31:
2908:
2894:
2868:
2817:
2756:
2724:
2697:
2688:
2651:
2618:
2563:
2526:
2269:
2017:Crop Rotations on Organic Farms
2015:Baldwin, Keith R. (June 2006).
1717:
1244:
1062:British Agricultural Revolution
779:Agriculture and the environment
245:British Agricultural Revolution
42:needs additional citations for
3139:New International Encyclopedia
2380:Biology and Fertility of Soils
1920:
1895:
1854:
1828:
1798:
1419:
1137:
225:Agriculture in the Middle Ages
13:
1:
3126:Technology in the middle ages
2862:10.1016/S0167-1987(03)00065-5
2672:10.1016/s0065-2113(08)60163-7
2298:. CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS
1791:
1743:
1279:Relationship to other systems
1056:and a grazing crop, allowing
138:Effects of crop rotation and
2493:European Journal of Agronomy
2448:10.1016/j.oneear.2020.02.007
1903:"Norfolk four-course system"
1197:
230:Arab Agricultural Revolution
7:
2256:Washington State University
2176:Royal Horticultural Society
1759:
1501:
10:
3188:
3113:. Oxford University Press.
3053:Journal of Crop Production
2632:. British Potato Council.
2627:"Weed Control in Potatoes"
2625:Davies, Ken (March 2007).
1617:
1423:
1392:Incorporation of livestock
1212:
1017:
1014:Norfolk four-course system
1011:
1000:needed for plants to make
961:
886:
190:Agriculture in Mesoamerica
3157:Agricultural soil science
3133:"Rotation of Crops"
3044:10.1080/07352689209382349
2842:Soil and Tillage Research
2505:10.1016/j.eja.2015.11.024
1975:Dufour, Rex (July 2015).
1614:Pathogen and pest control
1558:soil organic carbon (SOC)
1325:
1312:
1309:
1304:
1148:soil organic matter (SOM)
1024:Farmers in the region of
854:, gradually depletes the
717:Universities and colleges
677:Universities and colleges
2992:10.2134/agronj2005.0007a
2120:National Organic Program
1861:Needham, Joseph (1984).
1836:"What Is Crop Rotation?"
1587:, have nodules on their
1463:National Organic Program
1368:intermingled in a field
1073:George Washington Carver
863:can reduce the need for
702:Agriculturist profession
521:Agricultural engineering
506:Agricultural cooperative
3162:Sustainable agriculture
2612:University of Minnesota
2155:University of Minnesota
1907:Encyclopædia Britannica
1876:Lienhard, John (2023).
1583:, plants of the family
1336:one species in a field
1181:, increasing available
1106:, adding (for example)
672:Sustainable food system
667:Sustainable agriculture
558:Animal-free agriculture
526:Agricultural technology
1480:
915:
800:Agriculture portal
759:History of agriculture
744:Agriculture by country
739:Agricultural machinery
707:Agricultural machinery
625:Mechanised agriculture
195:Austronesian expansion
147:
3109:White, L. T. (1962).
3073:10.1300/j144v08n01_02
2764:"Aggregate Stability"
2732:"Forages in Rotation"
2542:Iowa State University
2400:10.1007/s003740050638
1882:University of Houston
1776:Convertible husbandry
1681:Reducing soil erosion
1471:
1459:organic certification
1408:; livestock (through
1020:Convertible husbandry
1018:Further information:
984:, followed by spring
894:
865:synthetic fertilizers
749:Agriculture companies
712:Government ministries
511:Agricultural supplies
348:Convertible husbandry
137:
2933:10.2134/jpa1998.0219
2660:Advances in Agronomy
1816:on 23 September 2019
1552:Carbon sequestration
1008:Four-field rotations
924:Ancient Near Eastern
563:Cellular agriculture
516:Agricultural science
185:Neolithic Revolution
51:improve this article
3094:1997AgrJ...89..442P
3065:2003JCrIm...8...15F
3036:1992CRvPS..11..309B
2984:2005AgrJ...97....7A
2854:2003STilR..72...95H
2439:2020OEart...2..284B
2392:2000BioFS..31..150M
2229:on 15 November 2011
1620:Plant–soil feedback
1562:soil organic matter
1515:Soil organic matter
1366:two or more species
1299:
1261:Planning a rotation
1255:soil organic matter
1236:soil organic matter
1226:Grasses and cereals
1068:Modern developments
958:Three-field systems
914:that crops can use.
444:Steam sterilization
2588:on 2 December 2016
1933:. 13 February 2019
1692:sediment transport
1632:root-knot nematode
1439:companion planting
1305:Diversity in time
1295:
974:three-field system
968:From the times of
964:Three-field system
916:
873:ecosystem services
353:Rotational grazing
235:Columbian exchange
148:
2718:10.1071/sr9940701
2203:. pp. 85–88.
2074:978-1-933395-21-0
1727:Farm productivity
1698:, and soil loss.
1488:multiple cropping
1433:systems, such as
1389:
1388:
1257:like grasses do.
1034:Charles Townshend
938:Two-field systems
834:
833:
682:Urban agriculture
655:Rice-duck farming
603:Intensive farming
573:Extensive farming
127:
126:
119:
101:
16:(Redirected from
3179:
3143:
3135:
3114:
3105:
3082:Agronomy Journal
3076:
3047:
3018:
3016:
3014:
3009:on 26 March 2023
3008:
3002:. Archived from
2972:Agronomy Journal
2952:
2951:
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2906:
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2889:
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2286:
2285:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2262:
2248:
2239:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2225:. Archived from
2214:
2205:
2204:
2196:
2187:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2168:
2159:
2158:
2150:
2139:
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2134:
2128:
2117:
2108:
2079:
2078:
2060:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2028:
2021:
2012:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1987:on 28 April 2016
1983:. Archived from
1972:
1963:
1962:
1954:
1943:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1899:
1893:
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1890:
1888:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1832:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1812:. Archived from
1802:
1627:taxonomic family
1300:
1294:
1108:ammonium nitrate
1096:Green Revolution
871:by better using
826:
819:
812:
798:
797:
796:
660:Rice-fish system
568:Contract farming
553:Animal husbandry
291:Animal husbandry
250:Green Revolution
201:Ancient history
164:
150:
149:
122:
115:
111:
108:
102:
100:
59:
35:
27:
21:
3187:
3186:
3182:
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3147:
3146:
3130:
3122:
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3108:
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3012:
3010:
3006:
2965:
2961:
2959:Further reading
2956:
2955:
2945:
2943:
2913:
2909:
2904:. 15 June 2016.
2900:
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2640:
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2608:
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2591:
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2568:
2564:
2554:
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2548:
2537:
2531:
2527:
2516:
2512:
2489:
2482:
2419:
2415:
2376:
2369:
2318:
2311:
2301:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2274:
2270:
2260:
2258:
2250:
2249:
2242:
2232:
2230:
2215:
2208:
2197:
2190:
2180:
2178:
2172:"Green Manures"
2170:
2169:
2162:
2151:
2142:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2115:
2109:
2082:
2075:
2061:
2042:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2019:
2013:
2000:
1990:
1988:
1973:
1966:
1956:
1955:
1946:
1936:
1934:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1911:
1909:
1901:
1900:
1896:
1886:
1884:
1874:
1870:
1859:
1855:
1845:
1843:
1842:. 25 April 2017
1834:
1833:
1829:
1819:
1817:
1804:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1786:Tillage erosion
1762:
1746:
1738:
1736:Risk management
1729:
1720:
1683:
1664:weed management
1656:
1654:Weed management
1644:organic farming
1622:
1616:
1593:nitrogen-fixing
1577:
1575:Nitrogen fixing
1554:
1517:
1504:
1455:
1453:Organic farming
1428:
1422:
1394:
1384:
1379:
1372:
1367:
1365:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1327:
1297:
1281:
1276:
1263:
1247:
1228:
1219:nitrogen-fixing
1215:
1200:
1179:weed management
1155:pest management
1146:Contributes to
1140:
1070:
1022:
1016:
1010:
966:
960:
940:
889:
830:
794:
792:
787:
786:
785:
784:
783:
774:Poultry farming
731:
723:
722:
721:
696:
688:
687:
686:
630:Organic farming
495:
487:
486:
485:
460:
450:
449:
448:
280:
270:
269:
268:
267:
266:
241:Modern history
221:Post-classical
174:
132:
123:
112:
106:
103:
66:"Crop rotation"
60:
58:
48:
36:
23:
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3121:
3120:External links
3118:
3116:
3115:
3106:
3088:(3): 442–448.
3077:
3059:(1–2): 15–32.
3048:
3030:(4): 309–326.
3019:
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2954:
2953:
2927:(2): 219–225.
2907:
2893:
2875:Walker, Andy.
2867:
2832:
2816:
2803:10.1071/S96017
2777:
2755:
2723:
2712:(4): 701–720.
2696:
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2433:(3): 284–293.
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2386:(2): 150–156.
2367:
2336:Annual Reviews
2309:
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2188:
2160:
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2080:
2073:
2040:
2029:on 13 May 2015
1998:
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1868:
1865:. p. 150.
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1696:surface runoff
1682:
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1618:Main article:
1615:
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1591:which contain
1576:
1573:
1569:climate change
1553:
1550:
1525:microorganisms
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1424:Main article:
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1274:Implementation
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1136:
1114:and restoring
1069:
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1052:), included a
1032:agriculturist
1012:Main article:
1009:
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962:Main article:
959:
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881:organic matter
877:soil structure
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18:Crop variation
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2897:
2882:
2881:peicanada.com
2878:
2871:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2848:(1): 95–104.
2847:
2843:
2836:
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2808:
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2800:
2796:
2792:
2791:Soil Research
2784:
2782:
2765:
2759:
2740:
2733:
2727:
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2715:
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2707:
2700:
2691:
2683:
2681:9780120007332
2677:
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2584:
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2551:on 3 May 2013
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1443:Three Sisters
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1385:polycultures
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1351:monocultures
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107:December 2023
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68: –
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62:Find sources:
56:
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40:This article
38:
34:
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3137:
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3081:
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3027:
3023:
3011:. Retrieved
3004:the original
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2884:. Retrieved
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2620:
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2583:the original
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2546:the original
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2300:. Retrieved
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2261:18 September
2259:. Retrieved
2231:. Retrieved
2227:the original
2200:
2179:. Retrieved
2131:. Retrieved
2064:
2031:. Retrieved
2024:the original
1989:. Retrieved
1985:the original
1961:. July 2009.
1935:. Retrieved
1930:
1922:
1910:. Retrieved
1906:
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1885:. Retrieved
1871:
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1856:
1844:. Retrieved
1839:
1830:
1820:23 September
1818:. Retrieved
1814:the original
1809:
1800:
1781:Field system
1771:Carbon cycle
1754:green manure
1751:
1747:
1739:
1730:
1721:
1718:Biodiversity
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1684:
1675:
1668:
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1648:pest control
1641:
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1414:
1396:Introducing
1395:
1364:Polyculture,
1334:Monoculture,
1282:
1268:
1264:
1250:Green manure
1248:
1245:Green manure
1240:
1232:soil quality
1229:
1216:
1208:
1201:
1176:
1165:soil erosion
1141:
1093:
1071:
1023:
998:fix nitrogen
967:
952:Eastern Zhou
941:
917:
852:monocropping
849:
836:
835:
640:Permaculture
598:Horticulture
543:Agroforestry
501:Agribusiness
458:Hydroculture
434:Smallholding
422:
215:Ancient Rome
128:
113:
104:
94:
87:
80:
73:
61:
49:Please help
44:verification
41:
2978:(1): 7–10.
2579:Forage Beef
2458:10214/21229
2338:: 145–168.
1887:31 December
1766:Agroecology
1660:cover crops
1546:allelopathy
1476:soil health
1431:Polyculture
1426:Polyculture
1420:Polyculture
1406:cover crops
1383:Sequence of
1378:Rotation of
1374:polyculture
1354:Sequence of
1349:Rotation of
1342:monoculture
1289:polyculture
1285:monoculture
1138:Crop choice
1104:fertilizers
1100:topdressing
1079:, teaching
1054:fodder crop
970:Charlemagne
858:of certain
650:Polyculture
476:Hydroponics
466:Aquaculture
407:Paddy field
392:Monoculture
286:Agrivoltaic
260:Monoculture
181:Prehistory
154:Agriculture
140:monoculture
3151:Categories
2946:9 November
2886:1 December
2797:(4): 925.
2770:1 December
2748:1 December
2643:1 December
2592:1 December
2555:1 December
2118:(Report).
1979:(Report).
1846:25 January
1840:WorldAtlas
1792:References
1744:Challenges
1637:fumigation
1465:under the
1371:Continuous
1339:Continuous
1204:vegetables
1192:cover crop
1132:irrigation
1128:harvesting
980:or winter
869:herbicides
730:Categories
645:Plantation
593:Free range
588:Feed ratio
481:Aeroponics
471:Aquaponics
338:Free-range
333:Fertilizer
77:newspapers
3000:215776836
2811:1838-675X
2499:: 47–55.
2475:212745944
2467:2590-3322
2427:One Earth
2362:199632146
2354:1543-592X
1520:erosion.
1398:livestock
1328:in space
1326:Diversity
1198:Row crops
1188:cash crop
1058:livestock
954:period.
920:livestock
860:nutrients
764:Livestock
583:Farmhouse
365:Intensive
328:Extensive
3167:Agronomy
2941:54785967
2739:Archived
2666:: 2–53.
2634:Archived
2284:: 21–36.
2124:Archived
1937:19 April
1760:See also
1646:, where
1608:nitrates
1600:rhizobia
1596:bacteria
1585:Fabaceae
1537:pathogen
1502:Benefits
1321:Dynamic
1183:nitrogen
1150:content.
1124:planting
1081:southern
1026:Waasland
1002:proteins
912:nitrates
898:such as
548:Agronomy
412:Ranching
3142:. 1905.
3090:Bibcode
3061:Bibcode
3032:Bibcode
3013:4 April
2980:Bibcode
2850:Bibcode
2435:Bibcode
2408:6152990
2388:Bibcode
1687:erosion
1671:tillage
1604:Poaceae
1598:called
1581:Legumes
1529:tillage
1361:Higher
1318:Cyclic
1313:Higher
1213:Legumes
1190:versus
1116:soil pH
1094:In the
1085:peanuts
1042:turnips
1030:British
994:legumes
932:cereals
928:legumes
900:alfalfa
896:Legumes
887:History
845:seasons
608:animals
531:Digital
494:Related
439:Terrace
423:Colonia
402:Organic
397:Orchard
387:Natural
370:animals
343:Grazing
323:Dryland
306:poultry
278:On land
255:Organic
172:History
91:scholar
2998:
2939:
2809:
2678:
2473:
2465:
2406:
2360:
2352:
2071:
1912:31 May
1486:While
1410:manure
1130:, and
1050:clover
1046:barley
990:barley
944:fallow
908:clover
906:, and
296:cattle
93:
86:
79:
72:
64:
3172:Crops
3007:(PDF)
2996:S2CID
2937:S2CID
2742:(PDF)
2735:(PDF)
2637:(PDF)
2630:(PDF)
2586:(PDF)
2575:(PDF)
2549:(PDF)
2538:(PDF)
2471:S2CID
2404:S2CID
2358:S2CID
2334:(1).
2302:4 May
2233:4 May
2181:4 May
2133:4 May
2127:(PDF)
2116:(PDF)
2033:4 May
2027:(PDF)
2020:(PDF)
1991:4 May
1589:roots
1118:with
1102:with
1038:wheat
982:wheat
948:China
904:beans
841:crops
695:Lists
618:crops
380:crops
360:Hobby
318:Dairy
311:sheep
98:JSTOR
84:books
3015:2020
2948:2022
2888:2016
2807:ISSN
2772:2016
2750:2016
2676:ISBN
2645:2016
2594:2016
2557:2016
2463:ISSN
2350:ISSN
2304:2016
2263:2015
2235:2016
2183:2016
2135:2016
2069:ISBN
2035:2016
1993:2016
1939:2024
1914:2017
1889:2023
1848:2019
1822:2019
1541:pest
1539:and
1490:and
1404:and
1331:Low
1310:Low
1120:lime
1112:urea
1089:peas
1087:and
1048:and
986:oats
930:and
879:and
867:and
856:soil
613:pigs
578:Farm
375:pigs
301:pigs
70:news
3098:doi
3069:doi
3040:doi
2988:doi
2929:doi
2858:doi
2799:doi
2714:doi
2668:doi
2501:doi
2453:hdl
2443:doi
2396:doi
2340:doi
1496:NOP
1437:or
1402:sod
1110:or
988:or
978:rye
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