1141:. China increased its standing as a responsible global actor during the crisis. China's response both helped stabilize the global economy and also provided an opportunity for China to retool its own infrastructure. Although China was significantly affected by the crisis due to the export oriented nature of the economy which depends heavily upon international trade, by nearly all accounts its stimulus was hugely successful and an important contributor to global economic recovery. Continued economic growth during the crisis increased China's confidence in its model of development and convinced elites that the global balance of power was shifting. The crisis led Chinese policymakers increasingly to question reliance on U.S.-led global markets and the U.S.'s role in international leadership.
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supporting the Third Front as their "primary task," instead downgrading the Third Front assistance to an "important task." The
Planning Commission also stated concerns about the amount of Third Front funding leading to neglect of heavy industry elsewhere, as well as insufficient investment in agriculture. After a CCP conference in May 1973 resolved to re-direct state investment efforts from the Third Front to the northeast and the coastal regions, the Third Front was no longer the country's most critical economic objective. Agriculture and light industry became more important priorities. When Reform and Opening Up began in 1978, China started a process of winding down Third Front projects with a "shut down, cease, merge, transform, and move" strategy.
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retain revenue from leasing land. These revenues had previously been required to be paid to the central government. This change led to the development of land financing, in which governments leased land to developers and business for a land-leasing fee (in China, land is in principle all state-owned). Local governments then adapted land financing for public borrowing, establishing investment vehicles which could borrow from state banks to finance large-scale infrastructure projects, using land revenue as their collateral. Land financing became an especially important mechanism for financing transportation projects in interior regions, which in turn improved their ability to attract investment and development.
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households. Households still had to contribute to state quotas but could make their own decisions about what to plant on contracted land and could sell via a multi-tier price system that included the lowest price for payment to the state up until the quota, a higher rate for above-quota sales to the state, and market price for crops allowed to be sold at fairs. This multi-tier price system also resulted in price stabilization effects that encouraged production while protecting households from a decrease in market prices caused by the production boom. By 1983, the responsibility system was adopted by numerous farm units in all sorts of areas.
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development of the Third Front also had the effect of bringing higher quality consumer goods and cultural goods to China's hinterlands. The rapprochement between the United States and China reduced the motivations for the Third Front construction, and projects were ultimately wound down with many privatized during China's Reform and
Opening Up. Through the development of infrastructure, industry, and specialized talent in these remote regions, the Third Front construction laid a foundation for continued economic development in China's western regions even after the end of the initiative.
699:. The practice of remitting taxes on profits and retaining the balance became universal by 1985, increasing the incentive for enterprises to maximize profits and substantially adding to their autonomy. A change of potentially equal importance was a shift in the source of investment funds from government budget allocations, which carried no interest and did not have to be repaid, to interest-bearing bank loans. As of 1987 the interest rate charged on such loans was still too low to serve as a check on unproductive investments, but the mechanism was in place.
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reached 35 percent. Unlike earlier periods, when China was committed to trying to achieve self-sufficiency, under Deng
Xiaoping foreign trade was regarded as an important source of investment funds and modern technology. As a result, restrictions on trade were loosened further in the mid-1960s, and foreign investment was legalized. The most common foreign investments were joint ventures between foreign firms and Chinese units. Sole ownership by foreign investors also became legal, but the feasibility of such undertakings remained questionable.
1016:(WTO) in December 2001, China began pursuing export-led growth and became a key link in global supply chains. Chinese businesses were encouraged to trade directly with foreign companies (instead of working through SOEs as previously). with the exception of certain state monopoly sectors deemed critical to national security. China's industrious and cheap labor also proved attractive to foreign investments. China accumulated large trade surpluses and foreign currency reserves, which greatly increased government resources.
757:. Then-Premier Zhao Ziyang wrote in his memoirs that in the years following the institution of household responsibility system, “the energy that was unleashed … was magical, beyond what anyone could have imagined. A problem thought to be unsolvable had worked itself out in just a few years time … y 1984, farmers actually had more grain than they could sell. The state grain storehouses were stacked full from the annual procurement program.” As the government raised prices for grain and cotton and stimulated the growth of
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663:, and as researcher Zongyuan Zoe Liu writes, it was a "near-complete reversal of the CPC's traditional skepticism toward foreign investment grounded in ideological and historical reasons." The Joint Venture Law was effective in helping to attract and absorb foreign technology and capital from advanced countries like the United States, facilitated China's exports to such countries, and thereby contributed to China's subsequent rapid economic growth.
420:, the growing imbalance between industrial and agricultural growth, dissatisfaction with inefficiency, and lack of flexibility in the decision-making process convinced the nation's leaders – particularly Mao Zedong – that the highly centralized, industry-based Soviet model was not appropriate for China. The income gap between rural and urban Chinese had widened. The situation was one Mao had begun to worry about before 1957, with his 1956
155:"yundong" campaigns that the CCP organized have helped shape the society's policies and how it focused on their goals and how to achieve them. One was creating a change for lower-class members who needed more or better education. Moreover, it is essential to draw attention to the fact that the goals have stayed the same over time. However, policies and developments have changed a lot since there were shifts in the politics of the economy.
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and limit spontaneous exchange between the two sectors of the economy. Leaders also attempted to withdraw currency from circulation and "return it to the cage" to combat "spontaneous capitalist tendencies" among rural consumers. However, despite these policies, Chinese citizens continued to engage in market-based transactions in an informal economy that constituted a substantial proportion of economic output throughout the Mao era.
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handicrafts over the period 1953 to 1956. Its industrial outputs grew by 31% in 1955 and a further 10% in 1956. By 1956, nearly all large-scale commerce and industry had been nationalized and virtually all urban private business business ownership had been ended. China had finished its efforts to complete a socialist transformation of the domestic economy. However, certain market activity persisted and remained underground.
800:'s forced resignation in 1987. Following Hu's resignation, the leadership engaged in an intense debate over the future course of the reforms and how to balance the need for efficiency and market incentives with the need for government guidance and control. The commitment to further reform was affirmed, but its pace, and the emphasis to be placed on macroeconomic and micro-economic levers, remained objects of caution.
859:." The 1993 Decision overhauled the organization of China's economic planning apparatus. State planning was not abolished, but instead reframed as one of three key mechanisms of macro-economic control, along with fiscal policy and monetary policy. Chinese administrators were instructed to plan for markets and to absorb major market trends (both domestically and internationally) into multi-year government programs.
229:. The CCP's success in overcoming hyperinflation and stabilizing prices became a major source of the new government's legitimacy. Price increases from the 1950s to the 1970s were generally minimal, although the periods of the Great Leap Forward and the Great Famine were notable exceptions. China ultimately had one of the most stable fiat currencies in modern history during the Mao era.
901:. China's nonconvertible capital account and its foreign exchange controls were decisive in limiting the impacts of the crisis. China declined to devalue its own currency, a decision which was well-regarded by the international community. China also contributed $ 4 billion to neighboring countries via a combination of bilateral bailouts and contributing to IMF bailout packages.
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than 80 percent of staple items and consumer goods. However, by 1975 China's economy was performing well according to most conventional economic measures. Although the economy was not on the verge of collapse as some post-Mao historical narratives portray, it nonetheless faced pervasive economic difficulties caused by political instability and the consequences of China's
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rank, thereby increasing internal wage disparities. Management officials also were given the authority to pay workers (instead of wage funds being distributed by the state). Distribution of wages by management instead of the state abolished China's eight-grade wage scale, which had ensured that workers of the same grade received the same wages in all state enterprises.
761:, household income surged and poverty decreased from 1980 to 1985. Life improved for billions of people in rural China. However, the agricultural policies responsible for the boom also increased inequalities. Regions with fertile soil, transportation hubs, or big cities were far more able to take advantage of market opportunities.
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involvement significantly improved the opportunities available to most enterprises, generated high rates of growth, and increased efficiency. Enterprise managers gradually gained greater control over their units, including the right to hire and fire, although the process required endless struggles with bureaucrats and
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households each. Thirty-eight percent of all farm households belonged to mutual aid teams in 1952. By 1952 price stability had been established, commerce had been restored, and industry and agriculture had regained their previous peak levels of production. By 1953, China had rapidly recovered its economy.
105:. This transformation required a complex number of reforms in China's fiscal, financial, enterprise, governance and legal systems and the ability for the government to be able to flexibly respond to the unintended consequences of these changes. This transformation has been accompanied by high levels of
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remained major hurdles. Over half of China's state-owned enterprises were inefficient and reporting losses. However, SOEs which operated at a loss sometimes did so for complex reasons, including as a result of policies which deliberately imposed higher income tax and VAT on SOEs than on foreign joint
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activity and professional managerial autonomy. Another difficulty was a wave of crime, corruption, and—in the minds of many older people—moral deterioration caused by the looser economic and political climate. The most fundamental tensions were those created by the widening income disparities between
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and the leadership ultimately rejected shock price reform. Zhao had accepted the argument that the basic concern in economic reform was energizing enterprises. By late summer, what started under the rubric of "coordinated comprehensive package reform" had been diluted to an adjustment in the price of
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Economist Thomas Rawski summarized China's economic development from 1957 to 1979, writing that "a nation that until 1957 could not manufacture tractors, power plants, or wristwatches now produces computers, earth satellites, oral contraceptives, and nuclear weapons. The technical skills required for
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Government control over industry was increased during this period by applying financial pressures and inducements to convince owners of private, modern firms to sell them to the state or convert them into joint public-private enterprises under state control. China nationalized commerce, industry, and
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was the only commercial bank under this centralized system and the only provider of credit, settlement clearance, and teller services. In 1950, the Bank of China became a bureau of the People's Bank of China. Pursuant to regulations issued in 1953, only the Bank of China could handle foreign currency
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The role of foreign trade under the economic reforms increased far beyond its importance in any previous period. Before the reform period, the combined value of imports and exports had seldom exceeded 10 percent of national income. In 1969 it was 15 percent, in 1984 it was 21 percent, and in 1986 it
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Mentioning the "succession issue," which was discussed in the book "Governing China: from
Revolution Through Reform" by Kenneth Lieberthal discusses the difficulties of choosing to change a leader and the challenges that come with it (148). This discussion started in 1956 and led leaders to plan new
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Also in 1988, the
Enterprise Law was passed. It gave enterprises the authority to make major production decisions (including dismissing workers). Following the law's passage, enterprises were leased from the state to management and became distinct legal entities. Workers in these formerly state-run
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The first few years of the reform program were designated the "period of readjustment," during which key imbalances in the economy were to be corrected and a foundation was to be laid for a well-planned modernization drive. The schedule of Hua
Guofeng's ten-year plan was discarded, although many of
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By 1987 the program had achieved remarkable results in increasing supplies of food and other consumer goods and had created a new climate of dynamism and opportunity in the economy. At the same time, however, the reforms also had created new problems and tensions, leading to intense questioning and
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which opened on
December 22, 1978, the party leaders decided to undertake a program of gradual but fundamental reform of the economic system. The traditional historical analysis views December 1978 as the beginning of China's economic reform, although some reforms efforts had already begun prior to
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recentralized tax revenues. It did not adjust expenditure requirements for local governments, however. As a result, local governments experienced shortfalls as revenue decreased but expenditure obligations continued. To address these budget pressures, the central government allowed lower levels to
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In industry the complexity and interrelation of production activities prevented a single, simple policy from bringing about the kind of dramatic improvement that the responsibility system achieved in agriculture. Nonetheless, a cluster of policies based on greater flexibility, autonomy, and market
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Wage reform was the initial phase of China's labor reform. It added bonus pay to increase workers' material incentives and in 1979-1980 introduced the piece-wage system. Management positions modeled after western conventions were established in state enterprises with additional pay commensurate to
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In the "Governing China: From
Revolution Through Reform," Kenneth Lieberthal mentions, "In the 1980s, the difference was that Deng understood the inadequacies of previous policies and encouraged more significant change as required. The results raised difficult political issues and challenged
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Commerce was stimulated and partially regulated by the establishment of state trading agencies (commercial departments), which competed with private traders in purchasing goods from producers and selling them to consumers or enterprises. State trading agencies served as a mechanism for re-creating
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Throughout the Mao era, the CCP attempted to demonetize and decommodify the
Chinese economy through top-down policy interventions and develop institutions to bring economic life under greater state control. The CCP established "puppet-like micro-management institutions" to regulate market activity
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endorsed the plans at its March 1998 session. In 2000, China claimed success in its three-year effort to make the majority of large SOEs profitable. By that year, the state sector accounted for 47% of industrial assets, approximately 50% of government output, and accounted for one-third of urban
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in agriculture, began development in 1979 as a way for poor rural units in mountainous or arid areas to increase their incomes. This system, which came to replace collective farming, maintained public ownership of land and some of the means of production, but made production the responsibility of
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As they develop, the people's material and cultural life will constantly improve. One of our shortcomings after the founding of the People's
Republic was that we didn't pay enough attention to developing the productive forces. Socialism means eliminating poverty. Pauperism is not socialism, still
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Mao's last years included a period of general economic disarray as a wave of strikes, factory slowdowns, and worker absenteeism arose in the majority of major industrial centers, accompanied by an increase in crime, including looting of state granaries. The rationing system expanded to cover more
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prioritized ownership of the state-owned economy, although it also gave consideration to some private interests. It did not seek to eliminate capitalism as a whole, instead encouraging private enterprises viewed as beneficial to the national economy and sought to implement a mixed economy. At the
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As the Nationalists fled during their defeat in the Chinese Civil War, they stripped China of liquid assets including gold, silver, and the country's dollar reserves. Nationalists forces also attempted to firebomb industrial sites, but workers were able to stop them at many such locations. By the
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By 2020, China became the largest trading partner of more than 120 countries. At the end of that year, China signed major free trade agreements with the European Union as well as fifteen different Asia-Pacific countries. As of at least 2023, China is the world's largest exporter, a status it has
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We have said that socialism is the primary stage of communism and that at the advanced stage the principle of from each, according to his ability, to each, according to his needs, will be applied. This calls for highly developed productive forces and an overwhelming abundance of material wealth.
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Agriculture also underwent extensive organizational changes. In fall 1953, the CCP's Central Committee instituted a state monopoly in purchasing and marketing of grain (and other raw materials). This policy served to break the relationship between wealthy peasants and grain merchants, ending the
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and stronger measures to control food prices. The year 2000 showed a modest reversal of this trend. Gross domestic product in 2000 grew officially at 8.0% that year, and had quadrupled since 1978. In 1999, with its 1.25 billion people but a GDP of just $ 3,800 per capita (PPP), China became the
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Despite political upheavals during the Mao era, China's GNP grew an average of 6.2% annually over the period 1952–1978. Industrialization during the Mao era resulted in the significant accumulation of both physical and human capital, which laid the foundation for China's successful reforms. The
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period that it had succeeded in feeding one fifth of the world's population with only 7% of the world's cultivable land. Once land reform was completed in an area, farmers were encouraged to cooperate in some phases of production through the formation of small "mutual aid teams" of six or seven
141:. As the years passed, the leadership continued to subscribe to these goals. But the economic policies formulated to achieve them were dramatically altered on several occasions in response to major changes in the economy, internal politics, and international political and economic developments.
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Through 1987 and into early 1988, Zhao's reform agenda focused on combining enterprise contracting with coastal development efforts. In summer 1988, radical price reform again became on the agenda. It provoked a dramatic reaction: inflation spiraled for the first time since the 1940s, and the
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The period of readjustment produced promising results, increasing incomes substantially; raising the availability of food, housing, and other consumer goods; and generating strong rates of growth in all sectors except heavy industry, which was intentionally restrained. On the strength of these
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model, which prioritized growth in industrial and military capacity rather than consumption. SOE-led investment in heavy industry contributed to economic slowdown in the early 1970s. However, it also established an education pool of workers, low indebtedness, and state capital that served as a
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process began slowly but accelerated in 1955 and 1956. In 1957 about 93.5 percent of all farm households had joined advanced producers' cooperatives. Although the agriculture sector only received 6.2% of the budget during the first five-year plan, agricultural gross outputs increased by 24.7%.
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Unlike other countries, China has played a significant role in developing industrial growth, which has become a substantial source of income more than farming itself. They focused on slow, steady growth rather than fast growth. They did not move to private ownership but kept state ownership, a
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The major goals of the readjustment process were to expand exports rapidly; overcome key deficiencies in transportation, communications, coal, iron, steel, building materials, and electric power; and redress the imbalance between light and heavy industry by increasing the growth rate of light
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Generally, reforms in this period started with local experiments that were adopted and expanded elsewhere once their success had been demonstrated. Officials generally faced few penalties for experimenting and failing and those who developed successful programs received nation-wide praise and
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Agricultural production was also stimulated by official encouragement to establish free farmers' markets in urban areas, as well as in the countryside, and by allowing some families to operate as "specialized households," devoting their efforts to producing a scarce commodity or service on a
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in 1972, investment to the Third Front region gradually declined. Rapprochement between the United States and China decreased the fear of invasion which motivated the Third Front construction. In August 1972, the Planning Commission recommended that the First and Second Fronts no longer view
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Events such as the "Great Leap" and Antirightist movements have played a role in losing highly skilled people from being part of making decisions. It draws attention to the idea that explains how, from 1953 to 1958, the Soviet Union helped China to develop more technical skills. And how such
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China's CCP members have grown significantly. From less than a hundred members in 1921, they grew to five million "victorious" parties by 1949. These parties had different practices and capabilities that played an enormous role in China's power after 1949. the CCP party members use different
1185:, the "Action Outline for Promoting the Development of Big Data", and the "Three-Year Action Plan to Promote the Development of a New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Industry". China's Thirteenth and Fourteenth Five-Year Plans have also emphasized high-tech and innovative development.
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campaign began in 1965 and continued during the Cultural Revolution. Motivated by fears of invasion by the Soviet Union or the United States, China implemented a major campaign to develop industry and national security facilities in remote areas, along with the necessary infrastructure. The
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were transferred to the state, conditions for workers improved. The growing number of state workers were entitled to permanent employment, an eight-hour day, medical benefits, subsidized food and housing, as well as an eight-grade wage scale that was consistent across different state owned
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at the Third Session of the Ninth National People's Congress. In Jiang's view, continuing development in China required active participation in global economic competition and that the state should support Chinese enterprises in gradual foreign investment and multi-national operations.
182:. Transportation, communication, and power systems had been destroyed or had deteriorated because of lack of maintenance. Agriculture was disrupted, and food production was some 30 percent below its pre-war peak level. Further, economic ills were compounded by one of the most virulent
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During the Xi Jinping era, the Chinese government continues to use SOEs to serve non-market objectives and CCP control of SOEs has increased while taking some limited steps towards market liberalization, such as increasing mixed ownership of SOEs. Although China has promoted
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Throughout the 1950s, a major challenge for the large-scale economic modernization was the relative lack of managerial talent. Promotion of ordinary workers to management roles was intended to address this challenge while also serving the larger political goal of placing the
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should focus on tightening financial regulations and resisting foreign pressures to open the country's financial markets prematurely.Lessons learned by policymakers also became an important factor in China's evolving approach to managing state-owned assets, particularly its
870:, the state is no more than an investor and controller of stock and assets. Pursuant to the Corporation Law, private and foreign investment in such enterprises must be below 49%. The law also permitted state firms to declare bankruptcy in the event of business failure.
768:—sudden price liberalization—or a more gradual approach. But in 1986, the latter approach won out. "Confronted with the diverse, authoritative warnings about the unforeseeable risks of imposing the shock of price reform and the uncertainty about its benefits" Premier
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in the system and by reducing—not eliminating—government planning and direct control. In the CCP's view, economic planning would be a mechanism for steering the market. Therefore, the CCP did not perceive its reforms as the foundation for a liberal market economy.
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announced push for price reforms precipitated panic buying, runs on the bank, and protests in opposition to the market reforms. By fall 1988, price liberalization plans were halted and leadership instead focused on price reform, austerity, and retrenchment.
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Therefore, the fundamental task for the socialist stage is to develop the productive forces. The superiority of the socialist system is demonstrated, in the final analysis, by faster and greater development of those forces than under the capitalist system.
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has set three overarching goals for China's economy. First, to increase China's capacity for innovation so that it will be able to more actively shape global economic rules. Second, to enhance order and security in China's domestic market. Third, creating
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and more prosperous farmers to the 60 to 70 percent of farm families that previously owned little or no land. The success of early land reform meant that at the founding of the PRC in 1949, China could credibly claim that for the first time since the late
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to organize increasingly large and socialized collective units. This collectivization continued over the period 1955 to 1958. From the loosely structured, tiny mutual aid teams, villages were to advance first to lower-stage, agricultural producers'
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of China designed to give new impetus to and reinvigorate the process of economic reform. During the Southern Tour, Deng stated his view that both government planning and use of the market are economic means which can be compatible with socialism.
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The Great Leap Forward's focus on total workforce mobilization resulted in opportunities for women's labor advancement. As women became increasingly needed to work in agriculture and industry, and encouraged by policy to do so, the phenomenon of
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period, China has evolved into a backbone of the world economy. China has been the fastest growing economy in the world since the 1980s, with an average annual growth rate of 10% from 1978 to 2005, based on government statistics. Its GDP reached
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founding of the PRC, the Central Finance and Economy Commission under the transitional Government Administrative Council was the single central government organ in charge of national economic planning and construction management. It was led by
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During the 2000s, China's coastal areas continued to outpace its interior in economic development. As regional disparities widened however, coastal areas became a major source of investment for inland areas.Manufacturing that was lower on the
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In 1986, the Contract Labor Law was passed, increasing management's power. Newly hired workers had to sign year-to-year contracts, with the goal of the policy being to reduce and eventually eliminate permanent employment for state employees.
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Deng and other reformist policy-makers legalized small-scale private businesses. Allowing private individuals to establish small businesses alleviated employment pressures that had developed following the return of approximately 6.5 million
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approved the consolidation of People's Bank of China headquarters as a bureau within the Ministry of Finance, and local branches were merged into local government finance departments. This effective demotion of the PBoC lasted for a decade.
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arose. Women did traditionally male work in both fields and factories, including major movements of women into management positions. Women competed for high productivity, and those who distinguished themselves came to be called Iron Women.
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China's was the only major world economy to experience GDP growth in 2020, when its GDP increased by 2.3%. In 2021, China's GDP growth reached 8.1% (its highest in a decade) and its trade surplus reached an all-time high $ 687.5 billion.
459:, this created a concern for CCP leadership: while rapid economic development and ideological transformation was necessary to release the productive energy of the masses, it also raised a risk that China could backslide into capitalism.
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In the early 1990s, economic challenges increased in rural China. Grain farming became unprofitable due to falling prices for staple crops relative to the cost of chemical fertilizers, water, electricity, and other necessary services.
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initial successes, the reform program was broadened, and the leadership under Deng Xiaoping frequently remarked that China's basic policy was "reform and opening," that is, reform of the economic system and opening to foreign trade.
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The government resumed dividend payments to Chinese capitalists whose property had been seized after the revolution (the practice had been suspended as a result of a campaign during the Cultural Revolution), including with interest.
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worked to revive the economy through an increased role for markets, greater material incentives for workers, a lower rate of investment, a more moderate pace for developmental goals, and increased funding for consumer industries.
455:(i.e., in the early 1960s), the economy began to recover from the failures of the Great Leap Forward. China's development was accelerating, including with regard to the production of material goods. In the view of historian
581:'s first report on China assessed the Mao era positively, citing rapid growth and industrialization as well as the "virtual elimination of the worst aspects of poverty," although it also identified room for improvement.
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Moreover, the people faced challenges and suffering in political or personal ways during the Cultural Revolution. Second, the people who were not affected by the revolution as they were not participating or involved.
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To bring inflation under control by 1951, the government unified the monetary system, tightened credit, restricted government budgets at all levels and put them under central control, and guaranteed the value of the
588:'s July 1978 report to the State Council, "Act in Accordance with Economic Laws," described the situation of the peasants during as grave and estimated that grain output had merely kept pace with population growth.
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published the revised figures for 2007 financial year in which growth happened at 13 percent instead of 11.9 percent (provisional figures). China's gross domestic product stood at US$ 3.4 trillion while
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central role in China's economic development, which focused on the collectively owned businesses and then on the private ones. This leads to a great way of managing economic growth while interacting with society.
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deeply entrenched interests. Among Deng's greatest accomplishments was his ability in the late 1970s and much of the 1980s to sustain, on balance, pro-reform momentum in a badly divided political system" (128).
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During the middle of the 1950s, state planning controls by the central government relaxed to allow a somewhat increased role for markets and for greater involvement by province and local level governments. The
366:, in which families still received some income on the basis of the amount of land they contributed, and eventually to advanced cooperatives, or collectives. In the advanced producers' cooperatives, income
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the people who were "getting rich" and those who were not and by the pervasive threat of inflation. These concerns played a role in the political struggle that culminated in party general secretary
217:. Its major priorities were restoring national economic order, price stabilization, currency stabilization, establishing a management mechanism for the planned economy, and preparing for the First
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also disrupted the economy. However, since the period of economic reform began in 1978, China has seen major improvements in average living standards and has experienced relative social stability.
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Although the Third Five Year Plan would have commenced in 1963, the economic turmoil the Great Leap Forward period prompted CCP leadership to delay Plan until 1966. In the interim, a group led by
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strategies when introducing new ideas or solving existing problems. However, even though those members continued their influence during the years, most CCP members still needed higher education.
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In the early 2000s, the government began to finance construction of cross-regional transportation to improve accessibility to, and develop of, China's interior regions. In March 2004, Premier
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were based only on the amount of labor contributed. In addition, each family was allowed to retain a small private plot on which to grow vegetables, fruit, and livestock for its own use. The
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made these measures public in September 1956, announcing that "minor commodities" could be traded on the market and peasants could develop sideline work like handicrafts or raising poultry.
1192:. First, it seeks to rely more on China's domestic consumers. Second, it seeks to innovate more domestically developed technology and thereby reduce China's reliance on western technology.
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Since the early 2000s, China's clean energy sector has rapidly developed. This growth has enabled renewable energy to have an important role in China's international cooperation, including
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This article is about Economic history of the People's Republic of China. For economic history of the Republic of China during the period when it only controls Taiwan area after 1949, see
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Although the reform program achieved impressive successes, it also gave rise to several serious problems. One problem was the challenge to party authority presented by the principles of
1701:"China Recovery from War, 1949-52 - Flags, Maps, Economy, History, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System"
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The early PRC government established a centralized banking system focused on a few state institutions. Early banking regulations were adopted from the Soviet Union's regulations. The
51:(PRC) in 1949 to the present day. The speed of China's transformation in this period from one of the poorest countries to one of the world's largest economies is unmatched in history.
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industry and reducing investment in heavy industry. Agricultural production was stimulated in 1979 by an increase of over 22 percent in the procurement prices paid for farm products.
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acknowledged that a planned economy was not the only way to develop socialism and that prior policies restricting the commodity economy had hindered socialist development. After the
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In 1996, the Chinese economy continued to grow at a rapid pace, at about 9.5%, accompanied by low inflation. The economy slowed for the next three years, influenced in part by the
331:. Compared to the Soviet planning method, the Chinese approach had less centralized planning with regard to consumer goods and regional planning authorities had greater authority.
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begun under US president Donald Trump resulted in increased economic ties between China and the European Union, largely resulting from resulting shifts in commodity flows.
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726:. Their success led to the designation of fourteen coastal cities as SEZs in 1984, and then the development of Pudong, a primarily agricultural are in Shanghai. Most of
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in 2003. China tightened its controls over foreign exchange and capital flows, including making violations of the foreign exchange regulations punishable as crimes.
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ways of changing leaders without causing much chaos, an essential step in China's improvement from violence that has happened for the same reason since the 1880s.
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trended towards moving inland. This trend was termed "industrial transfer." Developing Chinese policymakers reacted by further encouraging industrial transfer.
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was set in motion by Mao Zedong in 1966 and called to a halt in 1968, but the atmosphere of radical leftism persisted until Mao's death and the fall of the
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Since 2015, the CCP has issued several industrial plans designed to emphasize high-tech innovation and digital development. These industrial plans include
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A significant economic debate during this period concerned the approach to price liberalization and whether China should adopt an approach consistent with
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Until the Cultural Revolution, China had paid dividends to the former capitalist class from the value of property that had been seized in the revolution.
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that met in September 1997, Jiang announced plans to sell, merge, or close the vast majority of SOEs in his call for increased "non-public ownership" (
498:
5551:
4059:
1041:
5610:
4220:
4044:
647:
The central policies of the reform program were introduced experimentally during the readjustment period. The most successful reform policy, the
190:
time the Nationalists were defeated, commerce had been destroyed, the national currency rendered valueless, and the economy was based on barter.
54:
Since the PRC was founded in 1949, China has experienced a surprising and turbulent economic development process. It has experienced revolution,
1235:
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3038:
1080:
445:
327:
assisted in developing and installing new heavy industrial facilities, including many entire plants and pieces of equipment purchased from the
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Oi, Jean C. Rural China Takes Off: Institutional Foundations of Economic Reform. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. Chapter 1.
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moved more aggressively to create a modern market economy. In 1993, the CCP issued its "Decision on Issues Related to the Establishment of a
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233:
and integrating markets and through this process of re-integration between urban and rural economies helped stabilize the value of money.
5061:
4509:
4437:
3454:
2914:
1280:
885:, with official growth of 8.9% in 1997, 7.8% in 1998 and 7.1% for 1999. From 1995 to 1999, inflation dropped sharply, reflecting tighter
696:
738:. Researcher Zongyuan Zoe Liu writes that "he success of these cities as 'red' treaty ports represented another step in China's overall
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identifying the important of "the relationship between heavy industry on one hand and light industry and agriculture on the other."
62:, and finally the gradual economic reform and fast economic growth that has characterized the post-Maoist period. The period of the
6904:
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5715:
5615:
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In July 1979, China adopted its first Law on Joint Venture Using Chinese and Foreign Investment. The Joint Venture Law encouraged
6756:
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4475:
904:
The crisis helped solidify Chinese policymakers' views that China should not move towards a liberal market economy, and that its
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and therefore have symbolic significance in demonstrating a "reversal of fortunes" in China's dealings with foreigners since the
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5636:
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2514:
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2155:
2046:
1978:
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By 1984, agricultural production had boomed following the institution of the household responsibility system, which replaced
1700:
1178:
since the Jiang Zemin administration, it has done so particularly strongly since 2017, especially in the technology sector.
1110:
during his delivery of the Annual Report of the State Council. This initiative was added to the Politburo's agenda in 2006.
847:
While market reforms prior to 1993 focused generally on reform within the larger context of the planned economy, after 1993
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Beginning in 1978 and running through 2007, China's economy grew by 10% annually and per capita income increased tenfold.
549:? We were not quite clear about this in the past. Marxism attaches utmost importance to developing the productive forces.
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Following the CCP's Third Plenum, held in October 2003, Chinese legislators unveiled several proposed amendments to the
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under the slogan "Learn from the Soviet Union." The Soviet approach to economic development was manifested in the First
125:(CCP) came to power in 1949, its leaders' fundamental long-range goals were to transform China into a modern, powerful,
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5600:
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3166:
Li, Xiaobing (2024). "Beijing's Military Power and East Asian-Pacific Hot Spots". In Fang, Qiang; Li, Xiaobing (eds.).
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1130:. Based on these figures, in 2007 China recorded its fastest growth since 1994 when the GDP grew by 13.1 percent.
1123:
910:
897:
affected China at the margin, mainly through decreased foreign direct investment and a sharp drop in the growth of its
773:
steel (although its price was both important had carried symbolic weight) as well as partial tax and financial reform.
19:
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Everyday Lives in China's Cold War Military Industrial Complex: Voices from the Shanghai Small Third Front, 1964-1988
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The People's Bank of China suspended its commercial banking service during the Cultural Revolution. In 1969, the
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had dismantled about half the machinery in the major industrial areas of the northeast and shipped it to the
48:
1543:
Eyferth, Jacob (2022). "One Country, Two Material Cultures". In Altehenger, Jennifer; Ho, Denise Y. (eds.).
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299:, and other revolutionary veterans was prepared to embark on an intensive program of industrial growth and
266:
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rights. Legislators also indicated there would be a new emphasis on certain aspects of overall government
440:
production and commodity exchange. In doing so, Mao affirmed the theoretical view previously expressed by
6887:
Lieberthal, Kenneth. Governing China: from Revolution Through Reform. 2d edition.New York: Norton, 2004.
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2439:Šebeňa, Martin (2023). "Chinese Economic Miracle". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.).
1786:. Vol. 2. Translated by Sun, Li; Bryant, Shelly. Montreal, Quebec: Royal Collins Publishing Group.
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China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace
683:, marking a major shift in the thinking of Chinese policymakers with regard to market mechanisms. The
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China's Vulnerability Paradox: How the World's Largest Consumer Transformed Global Commodity Markets
3042:
2973:
Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector
2468:
1037:
in which China is a major source of clean energy technology transfer to other developing countries.
448:
because in socialism the money economy is designed to consolidate and develop socialist production.
378:
The industrial working class grew from 6 million to 10 million. Industrial work places organized as
311:(1953–57), which Soviet planners helped formulate. As in the Soviet economy, priority was placed on
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The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order
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which had begun before the CCP victory and continued afterwards, titles to about 45 percent of the
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1504:
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691:, reform focused on building a socialist planned commodity economy with Chinese characteristics.
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122:
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China's Rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's Alternative World Order
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Revolution and Its Narratives: China's Socialist Literary and Cultural Imaginaries (1949-1966)
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1095:. The plan called for a relatively conservative 45% increase in GDP and a 20% reduction in
925:
411:
86:
8:
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3310:
Korolev, Alexander S. (2023). "Political and Economic Security in Multipolar Eurasia".
2895:
2887:
2857:
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1412:
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1182:
1148:'s administration began in 2003, increased further after the global financial crisis.
1119:
905:
754:
407:
166:
In 1949, China's economy was suffering from the debilitating effects of decades of the
138:
63:
2708:
The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy
742:
plan while legitimizing the leadership of the CPC over the Chinese state and people."
357:, and increase government access to agricultural products, the authorities encouraged
113:, a process that has influenced every aspect of China's society, culture and economy.
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3253:
3243:
3214:
3175:
3146:
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2335:
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2212:
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2151:
2082:
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1984:
1974:
1914:
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1508:
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industrial development are no longer confined within a few isolated urban enclaves."
170:. Many mines and factories had been damaged or destroyed. At the end of the war with
167:
2806:
1971:
Revolution and Counterrevolution: China's Continuing Class Struggle Since Liberation
1068:. The National People's Congress approved the amendments when it met in March 2004.
483:
in 1976. During this period, there were several distinct phases of economic policy.
353:
To facilitate the mobilization of agricultural resources, improve the efficiency of
6826:
6813:
6652:
6645:
6544:
6539:
6465:
6393:
6312:
6227:
6217:
6188:
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5797:
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4359:
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4012:
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3373:
2869:
2605:
2500:
2202:
2143:
1672:
1631:
1583:
1386:
1250:
1189:
1188:
During the Xi Jinping administration, China has emphasized an economic strategy of
1096:
1045:
829:
828:
China's economy saw continuous real GDP growth of at least 5% since 1991. During a
608:
520:
382:(danwei) provided subsidized housing, permanent jobs, education, and medical care.
371:
129:
nation. In economic terms these objectives meant industrialization, improvement of
47:
describes the changes and developments in China's economy from the founding of the
30:
1575:"Path to prosperity: Chinas transition to market economy in the last four decades"
244:
Another of the CCP's early steps was to nationalize enterprises that the defeated
6852:
6260:
6255:
6178:
6129:
6090:
5754:
5336:
5142:
5029:
3585:
3111:
1574:
1275:
1049:
886:
747:
723:
456:
130:
1587:
1027:
By 2002, the profits of industrial state-owned enterprises had grown by 163.6%.
593:
3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
436:
In 1958, Mao criticized leftists within the CCP who sought to abolish socialist
6661:
6593:
6516:
6363:
6317:
6302:
6297:
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6265:
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5406:
5401:
5331:
4917:
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3929:
3665:
3423:
1892:
1435:
1379:
Sovereign Funds: How the Communist Party of China Finances its Global Ambitions
312:
252:(SOEs) accounted for more than 40% of industrial production. As the industrial
201:
3333:
3257:
3092:
2729:
2631:
2524:
2420:
2312:
2207:
2188:
1988:
1918:
1677:
1660:
6893:
6862:
6626:
6373:
6207:
6046:
5848:
5169:
5157:
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4609:
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3818:
3757:
3535:
2780:
2703:
2383:
2262:
2216:
1765:
1686:
1645:
1522:
957:
945:
567:
441:
300:
102:
6677:
2165:
2056:
1461:
928:
during the past two decades, reforming the state sector and modernizing the
97:
period in 1978, China has been transitioning from a state dominated planned
6666:
6551:
6423:
6388:
4994:
4989:
4984:
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4959:
4877:
4872:
2891:
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1475:
1053:
731:
480:
328:
279:
179:
1636:
1408:
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5162:
5147:
4954:
4912:
4907:
4855:
4086:
3202:
3066:
3030:
3005:
2147:
1818:
Building for Oil: Daqing and the Formation of the Chinese Socialist State
1021:
969:
848:
769:
395:
363:
347:
270:
2873:
2646:
890:
second largest economy in the world after the US when measuring in PPP.
444:
that commodity production should not necessarily be identified with the
6418:
5326:
5137:
4865:
2652:
2505:
1390:
1159:
1103:
1060:
between urban and rural regions, and to maintain economic growth while
1044:. One of the most significant was a proposal to provide protection for
852:
797:
792:
578:
463:
429:
320:
296:
292:
2610:
Accidental Conflict: America, China, and the Clash of False Narratives
1744:
Mao Zedong and China in the Twentieth-Century World: A Concise History
1618:
6857:
6428:
6383:
5321:
5262:
4575:
4504:
3315:
3283:
China Incorporated: The Politics of a World Where China is Number One
2976:
2444:
1900:
1619:"Return to the Cage: Monetary Policy in China's First Five-Year Plan"
1443:
1145:
980:
604:
585:
542:
379:
324:
183:
126:
98:
55:
35:
2189:"Markets under Mao: Measuring Underground Activity in the Early PRC"
1661:"Markets under Mao: Measuring Underground Activity in the Early PRC"
6503:
6496:
5809:
4096:
3342:
2574:
2362:
The Cultural Revolution at the Margins: Chinese Socialism in Crisis
711:
607:
but to make it work better by substantially increasing the role of
527:
316:
274:
226:
210:
90:
816:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4679:
4615:
2493:
CPC Futures The New Era of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics
715:
546:
354:
214:
1144:
State ownership of the economy, which had been increasing since
6598:
3071:
China's Good War: How World War II is Shaping a New Nationalism
2862:
Red Swan: How Unorthodox Policy-Making Facilitated China's Rise
898:
719:
367:
358:
94:
59:
22:. For The economic history of China between 1912 and 1949, see
4418:
Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement
2943:. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK:
4710:
3001:
China Revises Figures, 'Becomes World's Number Three Economy'
1151:
In 2010, China became the largest shipbuilder in the world.
1091:. In March 2006, the National People's Congress approved the
844:
Private business ownership gained full legal status in 1992.
832:
in early 1992, China's paramount leader Deng Xiaoping made a
750:
who returned from rural to urban areas during 1978 and 1979.
291:
Having restored a viable economic base, the leadership under
171:
4246:
State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission
584:
Chinese reformers were more critical, however. For example,
4075:
National Fund for Technology Transfer and Commercialisation
808:
enterprises lost the protections of being state employees.
4423:
Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement
2136:
Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise
866:
adopted the landmark Corporation Law. It provides that in
2546:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 320.
1897:
How China Escaped Shock Therapy: The Market Reform Debate
973:
66:
famine negatively impacted the economy. The chaos of the
1300:
China's Public Finance: Reforms, Challenges, and Options
1113:
On January 14, 2009, as confirmed by the World Bank the
670:
2579:
The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism
2291:
Mao's Third Front: The Militarization of Cold War China
2079:
China's Revolution and the Quest for a Socialist Future
1122:
GDP was US$ 3.3 trillion for 2007. This made China the
1079:
through more balanced wealth distribution and improved
1056:(now in the 8–10% range in urban areas), to re-balance
4196:
China Council for the Promotion of International Trade
1784:
An Ideological History of the Communist Party of China
524:
foundation for the success of the subsequent reforms.
470:
938:
15th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party
603:
The purpose of the reform program was not to abandon
3197:
3195:
3193:
3191:
388:
8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party
76:
Institutional Foundations of Chinese Economic Growth
2941:
The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History
1030:In 2003, China became a financial creditor nation.
976:
increase, 1990–98 and 1990–2006, in major countries
6900:Economic history of the People's Republic of China
6848:History of trade of the People's Republic of China
1617:
1573:
630:
303:. For this purpose the administration adopted the
206:Chinese People's Political consultative Conference
4060:China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund
3188:
3073:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of
1167:and increasing wealth distribution to the poor.
6891:
1973:(2nd ed.). Paris: Foreign Languages Press.
528:Reform of the economic system, beginning in 1978
286:
196:Governing China: from Revolution Through Reform.
157:Governing China: from Revolution Through Reform.
147:Governing China: from Revolution Through Reform.
20:Economic history of Taiwan § Modern history
4221:Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
4045:China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation
2243:. Rebecca E. Karl, Xueping Zhong, 钟雪萍. Durham:
1170:In 2013, China became a middle-income country.
624:political struggles over the program's future.
337:Governing China: from Revolution Through Reform
116:
1099:(energy consumption per unit of GDP) by 2010.
1071:The Fifth Plenum in October 2005 approved the
401:
6707:
6693:
6346:
4695:
4186:All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce
3358:
3036:
2540:"The succession to Mao and the end of Maoism"
2399:Cultural Revolution and Revolutionary Culture
956:In March 2000, Jiang announced the policy of
681:Decision on the Reform of the Economic System
161:
4226:National Financial Regulatory Administration
3124:"China economy growing again while US limps"
1824:monograph series. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
1501:China's Economy: What Everyone Needs to Know
1154:
4438:Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
3455:Grasping the large, letting go of the small
3201:
3039:"China revises 2007 GDP growth rate to 13%"
3013:"China passes Germany in economic rankings"
2915:"Most Americans Rate China's Economy First"
2822:
2537:
2491:Pieke, Frank N; Hofman, Bert, eds. (2022).
2490:
2130:
1440:The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth
1281:Grasping the large, letting go of the small
315:and capital goods. Large numbers of Soviet
6700:
6686:
4702:
4688:
4659:
4413:Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macau Greater Bay Area
4251:State Administration for Market Regulation
4236:National Development and Reform Commission
3365:
3351:
3141:. New York, NY, United States of America:
1615:
4120:National Equities Exchange and Quotations
2866:The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press
2504:
2206:
1676:
1635:
706:Beginning in May 1980, China established
4256:State Administration of Foreign Exchange
3168:China under Xi Jinping: A New Assessment
2856:
2434:
2432:
2430:
2288:
2187:Frost, Adam K.; Li, Zeren (2023-07-31).
2072:
2070:
2068:
2066:
1659:Frost, Adam K.; Li, Zeren (2023-07-31).
1571:
1434:
1222:Economic history of China (1949–present)
979:
968:
815:
513:
34:
3309:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3267:
2966:
2964:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2648:Economic growth and employment in China
2569:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2272:
2186:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2076:
2035:The Transformation of Chinese Socialism
1964:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1782:Zheng, Qian (2020). Zheng, Qian (ed.).
1737:
1658:
1542:
1498:
204:approved in late September 1949 by the
6892:
5637:Socialism with Chinese characteristics
4231:National Bureau of Statistics of China
4201:China Securities Regulatory Commission
3233:
3136:
3065:
3061:
3059:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2698:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2644:
2497:National University of Singapore Press
2438:
2325:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1777:
1775:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1545:Material Contradictions in Mao's China
1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1336:
335:movements made all that work go away.
6681:
4683:
3346:
3277:
2970:
2938:
2932:
2818:
2816:
2604:
2600:
2598:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2441:Contemporary China: a New Superpower?
2427:
2396:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2238:
2063:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1968:
1891:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1781:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
679:In October 1984, the CCP adopted its
671:Reform and opening, beginning in 1982
24:Economic history of China (1912–1949)
6782:Technological and industrial history
4448:Western Taiwan Straits Economic Zone
4393:Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
4191:All-China Federation of Trade Unions
3372:
3264:
2961:
2845:
2702:
2560:
2269:
1800:
1741:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1196:maintained continuously since 2010.
1135:Global financial crisis of 2008–2009
6333:Major Historical and Cultural Sites
3925:Hong Kong Trade Development Council
3207:The Political Thought of Xi Jinping
3159:
3130:
3056:
2912:
2779:
2736:
2681:
2573:
2319:
2223:
2095:
2032:
1925:
1815:
1772:
1714:
1529:
1376:
471:Cultural Revolution period, 1966–76
13:
5471:
4709:
3429:Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns
3165:
2823:Curtis, Simon; Klaus, Ian (2024).
2813:
2785:How China Escaped the Poverty Trap
2595:
2479:
2359:
2348:
2326:Xu, Youwei; Wang, Y. Yvon (2022).
1995:
1842:
1313:
1291:
14:
6926:
6841:History of foreign trade in China
5628:Political Consultative Conference
4453:Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone
4206:General Administration of Customs
4070:China Reform Holdings Corporation
3461:Scientific Outlook on Development
2542:. In Roderick MacFarquhar (ed.).
1492:
1423:
6915:21st century in economic history
6910:20th century in economic history
6414:Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty
6409:Four Masters of the Ming dynasty
4658:
4649:
4648:
4500:2008–2009 economic stimulus plan
4261:State Administration of Taxation
4149:Stock Exchange Executive Council
4003:
4002:
3616:
3615:
3383:
3382:
2975:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The
2913:Chu, Kathy (February 14, 2011).
1075:(2006–2010) aimed at building a
759:township and village enterprises
537:
241:and international transactions.
6905:Contemporary history by country
6797:History of agriculture in China
6404:Four Paragons of the Early Tang
5601:Political parties and movements
4965:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
4950:Northern and Southern dynasties
4510:2015–16 stock market turbulence
4433:Pearl River Delta Economic Zone
3303:
3227:
3116:
3099:
2993:
2906:
2638:
2531:
2461:
2390:
2180:
1572:Yifu Lin, Justin (2021-04-22),
1271:History of agriculture in China
1176:its national champion companies
1108:The Rise of the Central Regions
1073:11th Five-Year Economic Program
857:Socialist Market Economy System
649:household responsibility system
631:Period of readjustment, 1979–81
250:China's state-owned enterprises
4428:Northeast China Revitalization
4065:China Internet Investment Fund
4050:China Government Guidance Fund
2651:. New York: Published for the
2538:MacFarquhar, Roderick (1987).
2134:; Qiao, Kunyuan (2022-11-15).
1826:Harvard University Asia Center
1652:
1609:
1565:
1549:University of Washington Press
1468:
1052:, including efforts to reduce
950:9th National People's Congress
728:China's special economic zones
422:On the Ten Major Relationships
93:in 2005. Since the end of the
1:
6804:China–United States trade war
6787:History of transport in China
4520:China–United States trade war
4385:Regional economic initiatives
4338:National economic initiatives
4055:China-Africa Development Fund
3449:Deng Xiaoping's southern tour
2293:. Cambridge, United Kingdom:
1307:
1303:. Cambridge University Press.
1205:China–United States trade war
1124:world's third largest economy
446:capitalist mode of production
287:First Five-Year Plan, 1953–57
39:Chinese inflation 1987 - 2022
5706:Ministry of National Defense
5045:Chinese Communist Revolution
4621:List of Chinese by net worth
4604:China Compulsory Certificate
4515:Protein export contamination
4166:Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange
4082:China Investment Corporation
3546:Business process outsourcing
2289:Meyskens, Covell F. (2020).
2081:. New York, NY: 1804 Books.
1616:Lowenstein, Matthew (2019).
1236:Resources in other libraries
1077:socialist harmonious society
964:
811:
636:its elements were retained.
117:Economic policies, 1949–1989
7:
6750:Modern China (1912–present)
6369:Flowers of the Four Seasons
6354:Four Treasures of the Study
5973:Water supply and sanitation
5701:Central Military Commission
5696:Outline of military history
5446:Province-level subdivisions
3935:Water supply and sanitation
3314:. Mher Sahakyan. New York:
3041:. Xinhuanet. Archived from
1588:10.4337/9781800374980.00009
1582:, Edward Elgar Publishing,
1266:History of banking in China
1210:
948:in euphemistic terms). The
924:Despite China's impressive
895:1997 Asian financial crisis
778:International Monetary Fund
566:— Chinese paramount leader
402:Great Leap Forward, 1958–61
137:, and production of modern
10:
6931:
5642:Primary stage of socialism
5584:National People's Congress
5052:People's Republic of China
4443:Rise of Central China Plan
4241:National Energy Commission
2645:Rawski, Thomas G. (1979).
2397:Russo, Alessandro (2020).
2295:Cambridge University Press
1822:Harvard-Yenching Institute
1499:Kroeber, Arthur R (2016).
1377:Liu, Zongyuan Zoe (2023).
1062:protecting the environment
864:National People's Congress
776:In 1981, China joined the
531:
405:
162:Recovery from war, 1949–52
49:People's Republic of China
28:
17:
6840:
6812:
6791:History of rail transport
6749:
6715:
6709:Economic history of China
6639:
6607:
6525:
6446:
6226:
6032:
6023:
5981:
5941:
5783:
5774:
5686:
5537:
5467:
5458:
5421:
5392:UNESCO Biosphere Reserves
5347:
5281:
5190:
5128:
5100:
5091:
5020:
4898:
4846:
4806:
4730:
4721:
4639:
4533:
4476:2005–2011 property bubble
4466:
4408:China Western Development
4383:
4337:
4269:
4176:
4115:Dalian Commodity Exchange
3989:
3953:
3871:
3804:
3766:
3484:
3394:
3380:
3240:Stanford University Press
3205:; Cheung, Olivia (2024).
2971:Lewis, Joanna I. (2023).
2712:Stanford University Press
2208:10.1017/S0305741023001133
1742:Karl, Rebecca E. (2010).
1678:10.1017/s0305741023001133
1231:Resources in your library
1155:Xi Jinping administration
1012:After its entry into the
911:foreign exchange reserves
661:foreign direct investment
248:had controlled. By 1952,
45:economic history of China
6567:Catholic Church in China
5711:People's Liberation Army
5678:One country, two systems
4350:Belt and Road Initiative
4329:Rural credit cooperative
4102:Foreign exchange reserve
4035:Beijing Financial Street
3444:Socialist market economy
3238:. Stanford, California:
3234:Murphy, Dawn C. (2022).
3137:Massot, Pascale (2024).
3075:Harvard University Press
3037:Mo Hong'e (2009-01-15).
2827:. New Haven and London:
2789:Cornell University Press
2710:. Stanford, California:
2366:Harvard University Press
1383:Harvard University Press
1276:Regional Policy in China
1014:World Trade Organization
933:and privates companies.
273:were redistributed from
186:rates in world history.
6399:Four Pillars of Destiny
6184:Regional discrimination
5606:Chinese Communist Party
4592:Globalization and women
4458:Zhongyuan Economic Zone
4398:Beibu Gulf Economic Rim
4178:Government institutions
4154:Shenzhen Stock Exchange
4144:Shanghai Metal Exchange
4132:Shanghai Stock Exchange
3796:Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park
3781:Megalopolises in China
3211:Oxford University Press
3172:Leiden University Press
3143:Oxford University Press
3110:April 15, 2009, at the
2939:Crean, Jeffrey (2024).
2657:Oxford University Press
2473:academics.wellesley.edu
2239:Cai, Xiang; 蔡翔 (2016).
1624:Twentieth-Century China
1505:Oxford University Press
1381:. The Belknap Press of
1297:Lin, Shuanglin (2022).
1261:Historical GDP of China
1246:Chinese economic reform
1035:South-South cooperation
868:state owned enterprises
824:trend from 1952 to 2015
534:Chinese economic reform
346:ability to profit from
123:Chinese Communist Party
6152:Science and technology
5825:Special economic zones
5077:persecution of Uyghurs
5005:Century of humiliation
4631:Science and technology
4525:2020–2021 reform spree
4279:International rankings
4125:Beijing Stock Exchange
3791:Suzhou Industrial Park
3786:Special Economic Zones
1969:Ching, Pao-Yu (2021).
1256:Globalization in China
1139:Economic Stimulus Plan
1128:gross domestic product
1093:11th Five-Year Program
1009:
977:
913:, and its creation of
883:Asian Financial Crisis
825:
736:century of humiliation
730:are located in former
708:special economic zones
416:Before the end of the
238:People's Bank of China
40:
6767:1949–1976 wage reform
6359:Four Great Inventions
5743:People's Armed Police
3981:Intellectual property
3476:1949–1976 wage reform
3419:Industrial Revolution
2829:Yale University Press
2614:Yale University Press
2544:The Politics of China
2403:Duke University Press
2245:Duke University Press
2140:Yale University Press
2077:Hammond, Ken (2023).
2039:Duke University Press
1748:Duke University Press
1637:10.1353/tcc.2019.0003
1286:Trade policy of China
1137:, China launched its
1064:and improving social
983:
972:
906:reform and opening up
819:
740:reform and opening-up
656:profit-making basis.
596:Mao's death in 1976.
514:Gang of Four, 1974–76
453:Second Five-Year Plan
451:In the middle of the
305:Soviet economic model
82:Reform and Opening Up
38:
6814:Contemporary economy
6338:World Heritage Sites
5866:Foreign aid received
5574:Environmental policy
5372:Environmental policy
5367:Environmental issues
4669:Economy of East Asia
4375:Youth Business China
4211:Ministry of Commerce
4159:SZSE Component Index
3776:Dalian Software Park
2807:10.7591/j.ctt1zgwm1j
2581:. New York: Viking.
2364:. Cambridge, Mass.:
2360:Wu, Yiching (2014).
2148:10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k
2132:Marquis, Christopher
1507:. pp. 210–214.
1442:. Cambridge, Mass.:
926:economic development
418:First Five-Year Plan
412:Great Chinese Famine
267:land reform movement
6873:Chinese exploration
6584:History of religion
6579:Freedom of religion
6434:Four Pests campaign
6379:Four Classic Novels
5991:Automotive industry
5871:Foreign aid program
5562:Pro-democratisation
5057:Cultural Revolution
4216:Ministry of Finance
4137:SSE Composite Index
4107:Hedge fund industry
3954:Law and regulations
3661:academic publishing
3439:Four Modernizations
3287:Bloomsbury Academic
3045:on January 16, 2009
2945:Bloomsbury Academic
2874:10.2307/j.ctv2n7q6b
2858:Heilmann, Sebastian
2194:The China Quarterly
1665:The China Quarterly
1133:In response to the
1058:income distribution
477:Cultural Revolution
265:Under a nationwide
254:means of production
68:Cultural Revolution
6491:Population history
6471:Internal migration
6086:Harmonious Society
5961:Telecommunications
5918:Standard of living
5837:Online advertising
5589:Standing Committee
4626:Chinese economists
4599:National Standards
4495:2007 slave scandal
4403:Bohai Economic Rim
4370:Made in China 2025
4319:Internal migration
4304:Standard of living
4092:Financial services
3966:Labor contract law
3920:Illegal drug trade
3890:World Trade Center
3726:Telecommunications
3674:equipment industry
3506:Advanced materials
3471:Population history
3434:Great Leap Forward
3388:Companies of China
3019:. January 15, 2009
2506:10.56159/eai.52060
2332:Palgrave MacMillan
2033:Lin, Chun (2006).
1899:. Abingdon, Oxon:
1580:China and the West
1480:data.worldbank.org
1391:10.2307/jj.2915805
1183:Made in China 2025
1042:state constitution
1010:
995: 10 year bond
989: 30 year bond
984:China bond yields
978:
875:1994 fiscal reform
826:
755:collective farming
507:Nixon's China trip
408:Great Leap Forward
139:military equipment
135:income differences
64:Great Leap Forward
41:
6881:
6880:
6868:China Association
6772:Industrialization
6675:
6674:
6635:
6634:
6442:
6441:
6019:
6018:
6006:Shipping industry
5770:
5769:
5736:Strategic Support
5611:General Secretary
5596:National security
5579:Foreign relations
5533:
5532:
5454:
5453:
5417:
5416:
5120:Natural disasters
5087:
5086:
5040:Chinese Civil War
5035:Republic of China
5010:Taiping Rebellion
4883:Spring and Autumn
4788:Foreign relations
4677:
4676:
4490:2007 stock bubble
4355:Common prosperity
4345:Beijing Consensus
4299:Income inequality
3768:Development Zones
3325:978-1-003-35258-7
3296:978-1-350-26724-4
3249:978-1-5036-3060-4
3152:978-0-19-777140-2
3084:978-0-674-98426-4
2986:978-0-262-54482-5
2954:978-1-350-23394-2
2883:978-962-996-827-4
2798:978-1-5017-0020-0
2721:978-1-5036-3415-2
2623:978-0-300-26901-7
2606:Roach, Stephen S.
2588:978-1-9848-7828-1
2516:978-981-18-5206-0
2454:978-1-03-239508-1
2412:978-1-4780-1218-4
2375:978-0-674-41985-8
2304:978-1-108-78478-8
2254:978-0-8223-7461-9
2157:978-0-300-26883-6
2048:978-0-8223-3785-0
1980:978-2-491182-89-2
1910:978-1-138-59219-3
1835:978-0-674-26022-1
1793:978-1-4878-0391-9
1757:978-0-8223-4780-4
1597:978-1-80037-498-0
1558:978-0-295-75085-9
1217:Library resources
1165:common prosperity
1007: 1 year bond
1001: 2 year bond
887:monetary policies
609:market mechanisms
591:At the milestone
574:
573:
570:on June 30, 1984
560:less communism."
168:Chinese Civil War
107:industrialization
6922:
6702:
6695:
6688:
6679:
6678:
6655:
6648:
6545:Tibetan Buddhism
6540:Chinese Buddhism
6394:Four Holy Beasts
6344:
6343:
6196:Social relations
6125:Standard Chinese
6120:Chinese language
6030:
6029:
5815:Economic history
5781:
5780:
5760:Maritime Militia
5469:
5468:
5465:
5464:
5436:Border crossings
5431:Baseline islands
5126:
5125:
5098:
5097:
5062:Tiananmen Square
4945:Sixteen Kingdoms
4753:Military history
4728:
4727:
4704:
4697:
4690:
4681:
4680:
4664:Outline of China
4662:
4661:
4652:
4651:
4485:pet food recalls
4360:Dual circulation
4111:Stock Exchanges
4040:Financial system
4006:
4005:
3945:Trading partners
3691:Renewable energy
3619:
3618:
3386:
3385:
3374:Economy of China
3367:
3360:
3353:
3344:
3343:
3338:
3337:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3275:
3262:
3261:
3231:
3225:
3224:
3199:
3186:
3185:
3163:
3157:
3156:
3134:
3128:
3127:
3120:
3114:
3103:
3097:
3096:
3063:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3050:
3034:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3024:
3009:
3003:
2999:The World bank.
2997:
2991:
2990:
2968:
2959:
2958:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2854:
2843:
2842:
2820:
2811:
2810:
2777:
2734:
2733:
2700:
2679:
2678:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2602:
2593:
2592:
2571:
2558:
2557:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2508:
2488:
2477:
2476:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2436:
2425:
2424:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2357:
2346:
2345:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2286:
2267:
2266:
2236:
2221:
2220:
2210:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2128:
2093:
2092:
2074:
2061:
2060:
2030:
1993:
1992:
1966:
1923:
1922:
1889:
1840:
1839:
1816:Hou, Li (2021).
1813:
1798:
1797:
1779:
1770:
1769:
1739:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1708:
1697:
1691:
1690:
1680:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1639:
1621:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1604:
1577:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1540:
1527:
1526:
1503:. New York, NY:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1487:
1486:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1432:
1421:
1420:
1374:
1251:Economy of China
1190:dual circulation
1097:energy intensity
1046:private property
1006:
1000:
994:
988:
830:Chinese New Year
820:China's nominal
748:sent-down youths
538:
521:developmentalist
372:collectivization
131:living standards
31:Economy of China
6930:
6929:
6925:
6924:
6923:
6921:
6920:
6919:
6890:
6889:
6882:
6877:
6853:Old China Trade
6836:
6808:
6777:Economic Reform
6745:
6711:
6706:
6676:
6671:
6658:
6651:
6644:
6631:
6603:
6521:
6481:Life expectancy
6438:
6342:
6222:
6142:Public holidays
6130:Written Chinese
6115:Intellectualism
6067:Sex trafficking
6015:
5977:
5937:
5766:
5682:
5529:
5520:Nationality law
5503:Law enforcement
5481:Judicial system
5450:
5413:
5387:Nature reserves
5377:Protected areas
5343:
5314:Water resources
5277:
5186:
5124:
5083:
5067:Economic reform
5030:1911 Revolution
5016:
4980:Jin (1115–1234)
4894:
4842:
4802:
4717:
4708:
4678:
4673:
4635:
4529:
4462:
4379:
4333:
4265:
4172:
3985:
3971:Labor relations
3949:
3867:
3800:
3762:
3648:Pharmaceuticals
3480:
3414:Five-year plans
3390:
3376:
3371:
3341:
3326:
3308:
3304:
3297:
3276:
3265:
3250:
3232:
3228:
3221:
3200:
3189:
3182:
3174:. p. 261.
3164:
3160:
3153:
3135:
3131:
3122:
3121:
3117:
3112:Wayback Machine
3104:
3100:
3085:
3064:
3057:
3048:
3046:
3035:
3031:
3022:
3020:
3011:
3010:
3006:
2998:
2994:
2987:
2969:
2962:
2955:
2937:
2933:
2923:
2921:
2911:
2907:
2884:
2855:
2846:
2839:
2821:
2814:
2799:
2778:
2737:
2722:
2701:
2682:
2667:
2643:
2639:
2624:
2603:
2596:
2589:
2572:
2561:
2554:
2536:
2532:
2517:
2489:
2480:
2469:"Deng Xiaoping"
2467:
2466:
2462:
2455:
2437:
2428:
2413:
2405:. p. 264.
2395:
2391:
2376:
2368:. p. 205.
2358:
2349:
2342:
2324:
2320:
2305:
2287:
2270:
2255:
2237:
2224:
2185:
2181:
2158:
2129:
2096:
2089:
2075:
2064:
2049:
2031:
1996:
1981:
1967:
1926:
1911:
1893:Weber, Isabella
1890:
1843:
1836:
1814:
1801:
1794:
1780:
1773:
1758:
1740:
1715:
1706:
1704:
1699:
1698:
1694:
1657:
1653:
1614:
1610:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1570:
1566:
1559:
1541:
1530:
1515:
1497:
1493:
1484:
1482:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1454:
1436:Naughton, Barry
1433:
1424:
1401:
1375:
1314:
1310:
1294:
1292:Further reading
1242:
1241:
1240:
1225:
1224:
1220:
1213:
1157:
1089:social security
1050:economic policy
1008:
1004:
1002:
998:
996:
992:
990:
986:
967:
917:beginning with
915:sovereign funds
814:
724:Fujian Province
673:
633:
536:
530:
516:
473:
457:Maurice Meisner
414:
406:Main articles:
404:
289:
264:
164:
133:, narrowing of
119:
33:
27:
12:
11:
5:
6928:
6918:
6917:
6912:
6907:
6902:
6879:
6878:
6876:
6875:
6870:
6865:
6860:
6855:
6850:
6844:
6842:
6838:
6837:
6835:
6834:
6829:
6824:
6818:
6816:
6810:
6809:
6807:
6806:
6801:
6800:
6799:
6794:
6784:
6779:
6774:
6769:
6759:
6753:
6751:
6747:
6746:
6744:
6743:
6738:
6733:
6728:
6722:
6720:
6717:Imperial China
6713:
6712:
6705:
6704:
6697:
6690:
6682:
6673:
6672:
6670:
6669:
6664:
6657:
6656:
6649:
6641:
6640:
6637:
6636:
6633:
6632:
6630:
6629:
6624:
6619:
6613:
6611:
6605:
6604:
6602:
6601:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6575:
6574:
6569:
6559:
6554:
6549:
6548:
6547:
6542:
6531:
6529:
6523:
6522:
6520:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6508:
6507:
6500:
6488:
6483:
6478:
6473:
6468:
6463:
6458:
6452:
6450:
6444:
6443:
6440:
6439:
6437:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6396:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6366:
6364:Four Gentlemen
6361:
6356:
6350:
6348:
6347:Fours of China
6341:
6340:
6335:
6330:
6325:
6320:
6315:
6310:
6305:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6284:
6283:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6243:
6238:
6232:
6230:
6224:
6223:
6221:
6220:
6215:
6210:
6205:
6204:
6203:
6193:
6192:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6176:
6166:
6161:
6160:
6159:
6149:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6133:
6132:
6127:
6117:
6112:
6111:
6110:
6105:
6104:
6103:
6088:
6083:
6082:
6081:
6071:
6070:
6069:
6064:
6059:
6049:
6044:
6039:
6033:
6027:
6021:
6020:
6017:
6016:
6014:
6013:
6008:
6003:
5998:
5996:Civil aviation
5993:
5987:
5985:
5979:
5978:
5976:
5975:
5970:
5969:
5968:
5958:
5957:
5956:
5945:
5943:
5942:Infrastructure
5939:
5938:
5936:
5935:
5930:
5925:
5920:
5915:
5910:
5909:
5908:
5903:
5898:
5896:Semiconductors
5893:
5888:
5878:
5876:Historical GDP
5873:
5868:
5863:
5862:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5841:
5840:
5839:
5829:
5828:
5827:
5822:
5812:
5807:
5806:
5805:
5795:
5790:
5784:
5778:
5772:
5771:
5768:
5767:
5765:
5764:
5763:
5762:
5752:
5751:
5750:
5740:
5739:
5738:
5733:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5692:
5690:
5684:
5683:
5681:
5680:
5675:
5674:
5673:
5668:
5658:
5657:
5656:
5654:Vice President
5646:
5645:
5644:
5634:
5633:
5632:
5631:
5630:
5620:
5619:
5618:
5613:
5598:
5593:
5592:
5591:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5566:
5565:
5564:
5554:
5549:
5543:
5541:
5535:
5534:
5531:
5530:
5528:
5527:
5522:
5517:
5512:
5511:
5510:
5500:
5499:
5498:
5493:
5483:
5477:
5475:
5462:
5456:
5455:
5452:
5451:
5449:
5448:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5427:
5425:
5419:
5418:
5415:
5414:
5412:
5411:
5410:
5409:
5404:
5394:
5389:
5384:
5382:National parks
5379:
5374:
5369:
5364:
5362:Climate policy
5359:
5357:Climate change
5353:
5351:
5345:
5344:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5339:
5334:
5329:
5324:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5285:
5283:
5279:
5278:
5276:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5263:Central Plains
5252:
5247:
5246:
5245:
5240:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5194:
5192:
5188:
5187:
5185:
5184:
5183:
5182:
5177:
5167:
5166:
5165:
5160:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5134:
5132:
5123:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5110:Extreme points
5107:
5101:
5095:
5089:
5088:
5085:
5084:
5082:
5081:
5080:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5049:
5048:
5047:
5042:
5032:
5026:
5024:
5018:
5017:
5015:
5014:
5013:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4936:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4918:Three Kingdoms
4915:
4910:
4904:
4902:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4892:
4891:
4890:
4888:Warring States
4885:
4880:
4870:
4869:
4868:
4858:
4852:
4850:
4844:
4843:
4841:
4840:
4839:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4818:
4812:
4810:
4804:
4803:
4801:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4779:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4748:Historiography
4745:
4740:
4734:
4732:
4725:
4719:
4718:
4707:
4706:
4699:
4692:
4684:
4675:
4674:
4672:
4671:
4666:
4656:
4640:
4637:
4636:
4634:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4595:
4594:
4584:
4579:
4572:
4571:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4550:
4545:
4539:
4537:
4535:Related topics
4531:
4530:
4528:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4478:
4472:
4470:
4464:
4463:
4461:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4389:
4387:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4341:
4339:
4335:
4334:
4332:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4284:Social welfare
4281:
4275:
4273:
4267:
4266:
4264:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4182:
4180:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4168:
4163:
4162:
4161:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4140:
4139:
4129:
4128:
4127:
4117:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4078:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4031:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4010:
3999:
3997:
3987:
3986:
3984:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3957:
3955:
3951:
3950:
3948:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3905:Postal history
3902:
3900:Communications
3897:
3892:
3887:
3881:
3879:
3877:infrastructure
3869:
3868:
3866:
3865:
3864:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3843:
3838:
3837:
3836:
3834:Oil refineries
3831:
3821:
3816:
3810:
3808:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3772:
3770:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3739:
3738:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3677:
3676:
3668:
3663:
3654:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3576:Electric power
3573:
3571:Electric motor
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3502:
3501:
3490:
3488:
3482:
3481:
3479:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3466:Historical GDP
3463:
3458:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3424:Iron rice bowl
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3400:
3398:
3392:
3391:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3370:
3369:
3362:
3355:
3347:
3340:
3339:
3324:
3318:. p. 19.
3302:
3295:
3263:
3248:
3226:
3219:
3187:
3180:
3158:
3151:
3145:. p. 34.
3129:
3115:
3098:
3083:
3055:
3029:
3004:
2992:
2985:
2960:
2953:
2931:
2905:
2882:
2844:
2837:
2812:
2797:
2781:Ang, Yuen Yuen
2735:
2720:
2704:Zhao, Suisheng
2680:
2665:
2637:
2622:
2594:
2587:
2559:
2552:
2530:
2515:
2478:
2460:
2453:
2426:
2411:
2389:
2374:
2347:
2340:
2318:
2303:
2268:
2253:
2222:
2179:
2156:
2094:
2087:
2062:
2047:
1994:
1979:
1924:
1909:
1841:
1834:
1799:
1792:
1771:
1756:
1713:
1692:
1651:
1608:
1596:
1564:
1557:
1528:
1513:
1491:
1476:"China | Data"
1467:
1453:978-0262640640
1452:
1422:
1399:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1239:
1238:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1156:
1153:
1003:
997:
991:
985:
966:
963:
930:banking system
919:Central Huijin
813:
810:
672:
669:
632:
629:
572:
571:
563:
562:
532:Main article:
529:
526:
515:
512:
472:
469:
403:
400:
313:heavy industry
309:Five-Year Plan
288:
285:
219:Five-Year Plan
202:Common Program
163:
160:
118:
115:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6927:
6916:
6913:
6911:
6908:
6906:
6903:
6901:
6898:
6897:
6895:
6888:
6885:
6874:
6871:
6869:
6866:
6864:
6863:Canton System
6861:
6859:
6856:
6854:
6851:
6849:
6846:
6845:
6843:
6839:
6833:
6830:
6828:
6825:
6823:
6820:
6819:
6817:
6815:
6811:
6805:
6802:
6798:
6795:
6792:
6788:
6785:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6764:
6763:
6760:
6758:
6755:
6754:
6752:
6748:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6714:
6710:
6703:
6698:
6696:
6691:
6689:
6684:
6683:
6680:
6668:
6665:
6663:
6660:
6659:
6654:
6650:
6647:
6643:
6642:
6638:
6628:
6625:
6623:
6620:
6618:
6615:
6614:
6612:
6610:
6606:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6573:
6572:Protestantism
6570:
6568:
6565:
6564:
6563:
6560:
6558:
6557:Folk religion
6555:
6553:
6550:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6537:
6536:
6533:
6532:
6530:
6528:
6524:
6518:
6515:
6513:
6510:
6505:
6501:
6498:
6494:
6493:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6477:
6474:
6472:
6469:
6467:
6464:
6462:
6461:Ethnic groups
6459:
6457:
6454:
6453:
6451:
6449:
6445:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6400:
6397:
6395:
6392:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6374:Four Beauties
6372:
6370:
6367:
6365:
6362:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6351:
6349:
6345:
6339:
6336:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6282:
6279:
6278:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6233:
6231:
6229:
6225:
6219:
6216:
6214:
6213:Urban society
6211:
6209:
6206:
6202:
6199:
6198:
6197:
6194:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6180:
6177:
6175:
6172:
6171:
6170:
6169:Social issues
6167:
6165:
6162:
6158:
6155:
6154:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6147:Rural society
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6131:
6128:
6126:
6123:
6122:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6109:
6106:
6102:
6099:
6098:
6097:
6094:
6093:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6080:
6077:
6076:
6075:
6072:
6068:
6065:
6063:
6060:
6058:
6055:
6054:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6047:Chinese Dream
6045:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6035:
6034:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6022:
6012:
6011:Space program
6009:
6007:
6004:
6002:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5988:
5986:
5984:
5980:
5974:
5971:
5967:
5964:
5963:
5962:
5959:
5955:
5952:
5951:
5950:
5947:
5946:
5944:
5940:
5934:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5924:
5921:
5919:
5916:
5914:
5911:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5883:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5850:
5847:
5846:
5845:
5842:
5838:
5835:
5834:
5833:
5830:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5817:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5804:
5801:
5800:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5785:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5773:
5761:
5758:
5757:
5756:
5753:
5749:
5746:
5745:
5744:
5741:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5713:
5712:
5709:
5707:
5704:
5702:
5699:
5697:
5694:
5693:
5691:
5689:
5685:
5679:
5676:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5663:
5662:
5661:State Council
5659:
5655:
5652:
5651:
5650:
5647:
5643:
5640:
5639:
5638:
5635:
5629:
5626:
5625:
5624:
5621:
5617:
5614:
5612:
5609:
5608:
5607:
5604:
5603:
5602:
5599:
5597:
5594:
5590:
5587:
5586:
5585:
5582:
5580:
5577:
5575:
5572:
5570:
5567:
5563:
5560:
5559:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5547:Civil service
5545:
5544:
5542:
5540:
5536:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5509:
5506:
5505:
5504:
5501:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5488:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5478:
5476:
5474:
5470:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5457:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5428:
5426:
5424:
5420:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5399:
5398:
5395:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5385:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5354:
5352:
5350:
5346:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5319:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5286:
5284:
5280:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5260:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5235:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5195:
5193:
5189:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5172:
5171:
5168:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5155:
5154:
5153:South Central
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5131:
5127:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5102:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5054:
5053:
5050:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5037:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5027:
5025:
5023:
5019:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4997:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4940:Jin (266–420)
4938:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4920:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4905:
4903:
4901:
4897:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4875:
4874:
4871:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4853:
4851:
4849:
4845:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4823:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4813:
4811:
4809:
4805:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4783:Ethnic groups
4781:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4705:
4700:
4698:
4693:
4691:
4686:
4685:
4682:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4657:
4655:
4647:
4646:
4642:
4641:
4638:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4611:
4610:Made in China
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4593:
4590:
4589:
4588:
4587:Globalization
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4555:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4540:
4538:
4536:
4532:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4473:
4471:
4469:
4465:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4390:
4388:
4386:
4382:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4365:Go Out policy
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4336:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4276:
4274:
4272:
4268:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4183:
4181:
4179:
4175:
4167:
4164:
4160:
4157:
4156:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4138:
4135:
4134:
4133:
4130:
4126:
4123:
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4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4108:
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4103:
4100:
4098:
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4093:
4090:
4088:
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4083:
4080:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
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4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4052:
4051:
4048:
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4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4015:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
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3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3885:Trade history
3883:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3826:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3814:Energy policy
3812:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3803:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3769:
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3749:
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3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
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3699:
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3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3675:
3672:
3671:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3643:Pearl farming
3641:
3639:
3638:Online gaming
3636:
3634:
3631:
3627:
3624:
3623:
3622:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
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3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
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3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3541:Biotechnology
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
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3447:
3445:
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3216:
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3183:
3181:9789087284411
3177:
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3140:
3133:
3125:
3119:
3113:
3109:
3106:
3102:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3080:
3077:. p. 8.
3076:
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2666:0-19-520151-5
2662:
2659:. p. 6.
2658:
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2641:
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2612:. New Haven:
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2549:
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2495:. Singapore:
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1703:. Photius.com
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1023:
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1015:
982:
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962:
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954:
951:
947:
946:privatization
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916:
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896:
891:
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860:
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616:recognition.
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582:
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569:
568:Deng Xiaoping
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301:socialization
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257:enterprises.
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103:mixed economy
101:economy to a
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6883:
6762:1949–present
6761:
6741:Qing dynasty
6736:Ming dynasty
6731:Song dynasty
6562:Christianity
6552:Confucianism
6512:Urbanization
6448:Demographics
6424:Gang of Four
6389:Four Symbols
6288:Martial arts
6062:Prostitution
5949:Architecture
5814:
5803:Central bank
5671:Vice Premier
5623:United front
5552:Constitution
5508:Penal system
5486:Human rights
5423:Subdivisions
5261: /
5257: /
5180:Southwestern
5175:Northwestern
4878:Western Zhou
4826:Yellow River
4776:1949–present
4775:
4644:
4643:
4608:
4582:Demographics
4574:
4568:Largest SOEs
4314:Urbanization
4023:Central bank
3753:Video gaming
3633:Mobile phone
3403:
3311:
3305:
3282:
3279:Brown, Kerry
3235:
3229:
3206:
3203:Tsang, Steve
3167:
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3118:
3101:
3070:
3067:Mitter, Rana
3047:. Retrieved
3043:the original
3032:
3021:. Retrieved
3016:
3007:
2995:
2972:
2940:
2934:
2922:. Retrieved
2918:
2908:
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2707:
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1705:. Retrieved
1695:
1668:
1664:
1654:
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1627:
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1611:
1601:, retrieved
1579:
1567:
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1479:
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1070:
1054:unemployment
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732:treaty ports
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545:and what is
517:
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489:The state's
488:
485:
481:Gang of Four
474:
461:
450:
435:
426:
421:
415:
398:in control.
392:
384:
377:
364:cooperatives
352:
344:
340:
336:
333:
329:Soviet Union
290:
263:
259:
246:Nationalists
243:
235:
231:
223:
199:
195:
192:
188:
180:Soviet Union
165:
156:
154:
150:
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143:
120:
111:urbanization
79:
75:
72:
53:
44:
42:
15:
6726:Han dynasty
6328:Variety art
6323:Tea culture
6251:Calligraphy
6236:Archaeology
6096:Food safety
5891:Gold mining
5793:Aquaculture
5788:Agriculture
5748:Coast Guard
5515:Naming laws
5349:Environment
5337:South China
4816:Paleolithic
4808:Prehistoric
4766:before 1912
4543:Agriculture
4481:2007 export
4309:Foreign aid
4271:Development
4087:CITIC Group
4028:Other banks
3976:Food safety
3686:Real estate
3626:gold mining
3581:Electronics
3511:Aquaculture
2892:j.ctv2n7q6b
2201:: 309–328.
2037:. Durham :
1746:. Durham :
1671:: 309–328.
1547:. Seattle:
1022:value chain
936:During the
849:Jiang Zemin
793:free-market
770:Zhao Ziyang
491:Third Front
396:proletariat
348:speculation
321:technicians
271:arable land
6894:Categories
6719:(pre-1912)
6589:Irreligion
6486:Statistics
6456:Emigration
6419:Four Wangs
6308:Philosophy
6293:Mass media
6276:Literature
6174:Patriarchy
6137:Propaganda
6057:Corruption
6042:Censorship
5832:E-commerce
5539:Government
5332:East China
5304:Waterfalls
5250:Peninsulas
5218:Grasslands
4548:Bankruptcy
4324:Emigration
4294:Corruption
4008:Accounting
3961:Tax system
3861:Geothermal
3731:Television
3696:Securities
3681:Rare earth
3657:Publishing
3601:Hedge fund
3516:Automotive
3486:Industries
3334:1353290533
3285:. London:
3258:1249712936
3093:1141442704
3049:2009-01-15
3023:2009-01-15
2730:1332788951
2653:World Bank
2632:1347023475
2525:1354535847
2421:1156439609
2401:. Durham:
2313:1145096137
1989:1325647379
1919:1226397524
1707:2013-09-22
1603:2023-11-28
1485:2020-07-27
1409:jj.2915805
1308:References
1160:Xi Jinping
1106:announced
1104:Wen Jiabao
942:feigongyou
853:Zhu Rongji
798:Hu Yaobang
782:World Bank
714:, Zhuhai,
697:CCP cadres
579:World Bank
464:Liu Shaoqi
430:Iron Women
380:work units
350:in grain.
325:scientists
297:Zhou Enlai
293:Mao Zedong
80:Since the
29:See also:
6858:Silk Road
6822:Hong Kong
6757:1912–1949
6476:Languages
6429:Four Olds
6384:Four arts
6271:Libraries
6201:Structure
6164:Sexuality
6101:incidents
6074:Education
5983:Transport
5859:Renewable
5854:Petroleum
5649:President
5616:Politburo
5569:Elections
5557:Democracy
5525:Terrorism
5273:Volcanoes
5255:Northeast
5233:Mountains
5143:Northeast
5093:Geography
5000:High Qing
4821:Neolithic
4793:Dynasties
4771:1912–1949
4762:Economic
4731:Overviews
4645:See also:
4576:The Hongs
4553:Companies
4505:2010 Expo
3895:Transport
3846:Renewable
3829:Oil shale
3561:Container
3531:Aerospace
3316:Routledge
2977:MIT Press
2924:March 25,
2919:USA Today
2900:158420253
2575:Jin, Keyu
2445:Routledge
2384:881183403
2263:932368688
2217:0305-7410
2174:253067190
1901:Routledge
1766:503828045
1687:0305-7410
1646:1940-5065
1523:945553795
1444:MIT Press
1417:259402050
1146:Hu Jintao
1120:Germany's
1081:education
965:From 2001
958:Going Out
812:1990–2000
605:communism
586:Hu Qiaomu
543:socialism
541:"What is
438:commodity
317:engineers
275:landlords
184:inflation
174:in 1945,
127:socialist
121:When the
99:socialist
56:socialism
6662:Category
6535:Buddhism
6527:Religion
6504:Post-90s
6497:Post-80s
6241:Archives
6108:HIV/AIDS
6079:Literacy
6037:Abortion
5966:Internet
5923:Taxation
5906:Textiles
5886:Chemical
5881:Industry
5810:Currency
5688:Military
5496:in Tibet
5460:Politics
5397:Wildlife
5309:Wetlands
5072:COVID-19
4900:Imperial
4798:Monarchs
4758:Language
4743:Timeline
4715:articles
4654:Category
4097:Renminbi
3915:Shipping
3748:Textiles
3716:Software
3706:Shipping
3701:Sex toys
3670:Railway
3652:pharmacy
3606:Internet
3596:Gambling
3526:Aircraft
3521:Aviation
3494:Industry
3281:(2023).
3108:Archived
3069:(2020).
2860:(2018).
2783:(2016).
2706:(2023).
2608:(2022).
2577:(2023).
2057:63178961
1895:(2021).
1462:70839809
1438:(2007).
1211:See also
873:China's
780:and the
712:Shenzhen
689:Decision
685:Decision
227:currency
211:Chen Yun
91:trillion
6646:Outline
6609:Symbols
6466:Eunuchs
6313:Smoking
6261:Cuisine
6228:Culture
6218:Welfare
6189:Suicide
6157:history
6025:Society
5954:Housing
5928:Tourism
5913:Poverty
5798:Banking
5776:Economy
5755:Militia
5666:Premier
5268:Valleys
5228:Islands
5213:Deserts
5203:Canyons
5191:Terrain
5170:Western
5158:Central
5130:Regions
5115:Geology
5105:Borders
4848:Ancient
4831:Yangtze
4738:History
4723:History
4616:Mingong
4563:Top 500
4558:Largest
4289:Poverty
4018:History
4013:Banking
3995:banking
3991:Finance
3940:Exports
3910:Tourism
3841:Nuclear
3743:Tourism
3736:digital
3591:Fishing
3499:history
3404:History
3396:History
2675:5310549
899:exports
716:Shantou
547:Marxism
359:farmers
355:farming
215:Bo Yibo
6832:Taiwan
6667:Portal
6622:Emblem
6617:Anthem
6599:Taoism
6281:Poetry
6256:Cinema
6179:Racism
6091:Health
5844:Energy
5820:Reform
5731:Rocket
5716:Ground
5441:Cities
5327:Yellow
5299:Rivers
5289:Canals
5243:passes
5238:ranges
5022:Modern
4713:
4468:Events
3806:Energy
3621:Mining
3566:Cotton
3556:Coffee
3551:Cement
3409:Reform
3332:
3322:
3293:
3256:
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1219:about
1087:, and
1066:equity
1005:
999:
993:
987:
720:Xiamen
505:After
368:shares
323:, and
95:Maoist
89:2.286
60:Maoism
6827:Macau
6653:Index
6594:Islam
6517:Women
6318:Sport
6303:Names
6298:Music
6266:Dance
6052:Crime
5933:Trade
5901:Steel
5407:Flora
5402:Fauna
5322:Bohai
5318:Seas
5294:Lakes
5282:Water
5259:North
5223:Hills
5208:Caves
5163:South
5148:North
4861:Shang
4711:China
3930:Ports
3873:Trade
3856:Solar
3721:Steel
3666:Radio
3611:Media
2896:S2CID
2888:JSTOR
2803:JSTOR
2170:S2CID
2162:JSTOR
1413:S2CID
1405:JSTOR
722:, in
172:Japan
6627:Flag
6208:Time
6001:Rail
5849:Coal
5721:Navy
5491:LGBT
5198:Bays
5138:East
4995:Qing
4990:Ming
4985:Yuan
4975:Song
4970:Liao
4960:Tang
4873:Zhou
4866:Late
4836:Liao
3993:and
3875:and
3851:Wind
3819:Coal
3758:Wine
3711:Silk
3659:and
3650:and
3586:Film
3536:Beer
3330:OCLC
3320:ISBN
3291:ISBN
3254:OCLC
3244:ISBN
3215:ISBN
3176:ISBN
3147:ISBN
3089:OCLC
3079:ISBN
2981:ISBN
2949:ISBN
2926:2011
2878:ISBN
2833:ISBN
2793:ISBN
2726:OCLC
2716:ISBN
2671:OCLC
2661:ISBN
2628:OCLC
2618:ISBN
2583:ISBN
2548:ISBN
2521:OCLC
2511:ISBN
2449:ISBN
2417:OCLC
2407:ISBN
2380:OCLC
2370:ISBN
2336:ISBN
2309:OCLC
2299:ISBN
2259:OCLC
2249:ISBN
2213:ISSN
2152:ISBN
2083:ISBN
2053:OCLC
2043:ISBN
1985:OCLC
1975:ISBN
1915:OCLC
1905:ISBN
1830:ISBN
1788:ISBN
1762:OCLC
1752:ISBN
1683:ISSN
1642:ISSN
1592:ISBN
1553:ISBN
1519:OCLC
1509:ISBN
1458:OCLC
1448:ISBN
1395:ISBN
1203:The
893:The
851:and
718:and
475:The
410:and
280:Qing
213:and
200:The
109:and
87:US$
43:The
6246:Art
5726:Air
5473:Law
4955:Sui
4928:Han
4923:Wei
4913:Han
4908:Qin
4856:Xia
3824:Oil
3017:CNN
2870:doi
2655:by
2501:doi
2203:doi
2199:258
2144:doi
1673:doi
1669:258
1632:doi
1584:doi
1387:doi
1126:by
1115:NBS
974:GDP
944:or
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