Gallic Wars - Knowledge

2106: 1565:—but the Britons had kept pace and fielded an impressive force, including cavalry and chariots. The legions were hesitant to go ashore. Eventually, the X legion's standard bearer jumped into the sea and waded to shore. To have the legion's standard fall in combat was the greatest humiliation, and the men disembarked to protect the standard bearer. After some delay, a battle line was finally formed, and the Britons withdrew. Because the Roman cavalry had not made the crossing, Caesar could not chase down the Britons. The Romans' luck did not improve, and a Roman foraging party was ambushed. The Britons took this as a sign of Roman weakness and amassed a large force to assault them. A short battle ensued, though Caesar provides no details beyond indicating the Romans prevailed. Again, the lack of cavalry to chase down the fleeing Britons prevented a decisive victory. The campaigning season was now nearly over, and the legions were in no condition to winter on the coast of Kent. Caesar withdrew back across the Channel. 1268:, lying in wait for the Romans who arrived and started setting up camp. The Romans detected the Nervii, and the battle began with the Romans sending a light cavalry and infantry force across the river to keep the Nervii at bay while the main force fortified its camp. The Nervii easily repulsed the attack. In an uncharacteristic move for Caesar, he made a serious tactical error by not setting up an infantry screen to protect the entrenching force. The Nervii took ample advantage of this, and their entire force crossed the river quickly and caught the Romans off-guard and unprepared. As the battle began, two legions had not even arrived, whereas the Nervii had at least 60,000 fighters. The reserve legions were stuck at the end of the column, 15 km (9.3 mi) back, with the 8,000 animals of the baggage train. However, because the soldiers could operate independently of the train, the forwards legions were still ready for battle. 1549: 1173:, son of Marcus Crassus. As the Germanic tribesmen began to drive back the Roman left flank, Crassus led his cavalry in a charge to restore balance and ordered up the cohorts of the third line. As a result, the whole Germanic line broke and began to flee. Caesar claims that most of Ariovistus' one-hundred and twenty thousand men were killed. He and what remained of his troops escaped and crossed the Rhine, never to engage Rome in battle again. The Suebi camping near the Rhine returned home. Caesar was victorious. In one year he had defeated two of Rome's most feared enemies. After this busy campaigning season, he returned to Transalpine Gaul to deal with the non-military aspects of his governorship. At this point it is possible he had already decided he would conquer all of Gaul. 1272:

Romans, the right wing was in serious trouble. It had been outflanked, its line of battle had become too tight to swing a sword, and multiple officers were dead. The situation was so critical Caesar took up his shield and joined the front line of the legion. His mere presence greatly increased morale, and he ordered his men to form a defensive square to open the ranks and protect them from all sides. What turned the tide of battle was Caesar's reinforcements, the X legion which returned from chasing the Atrebates, and the two straggler legions that finally arrived. The strong stand by the X legion and the timely arrival of reinforcements enabled Caesar to regroup, redeploy and eventually repulse the Nervii once the Atrebates and Viromandui were put to flight.

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more lenient than most generals of his time. Whether true or not, Caesar seems to go to great lengths to appear as having the moral high ground. This allows Caesar to compare himself favorably to the "barbarian" Gauls, and present himself, as Raaflaub puts it, as the "perfect Roman citizen". Raaflaub contends that Caesar's work is certainly full of propaganda, but that it has more truth to it than most authors believe. Above all, he argues that it shows how Caesar envisioned himself, and how he thought a leader ought to rule. Raaflaub notes that Caesar's subjugation of the Gauls would have been received favorably at home, and have been considered a just peace.

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Over the span of a month, the Romans built some 25 miles (40 km) of fortifications. These included a trench for soldiers, an anti-cavalry moat, towers at regular intervals, and booby traps in front of the trenches. The fortifications were dug in two lines, one to protect from the defenders and one to protect from the relievers. Archeological evidence suggests the lines were not continuous as Caesar claims, and made much use of the local terrain, but it is apparent that they worked. Vercingetorix's relieving army arrived quickly, yet concerted coordinated attacks by both the defenders and relievers failed to oust the Romans.

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to seven legions, he needed more men. Two more legions were recruited, and one was borrowed from Pompey. The Romans now had 40,000–50,000 men. Caesar began the brutal campaign early, before the weather had warmed. He focused on a non-traditional campaign, demoralizing populations and attacking civilians. He assaulted the Nervii and focused his energy on raiding, burning villages, stealing livestock, and taking prisoners. This strategy worked, and the Nervii promptly surrendered. The legions returned to their wintering spots until the campaign season started fully. Once the weather warmed, Caesar pulled a surprise attack on the

1333:, fortifying their hill settlements, and preparing a fleet. The Veneti and the other peoples along the Atlantic coast were versed in sailing and had vessels suitable for the rough waters of the Atlantic. By comparison, the Romans were hardly prepared for naval warfare on the open ocean. The Veneti also had sails, whereas the Romans relied on oarsmen. Rome was a feared naval power in the Mediterranean, but there the waters were calm, and less sturdy ships could be used. Regardless, the Romans understood that to defeat the Veneti they would need a fleet: many of the Venetic settlements were isolated and best accessible by sea. 1861: 1430: 2065: 1533: 1647:. Ambiorix attacked the Roman camp and told Sabinus (falsely) that all of Gaul was revolting and that the Germanic tribes were also invading. He offered to give the Romans safe passage if they abandoned their camp and returned to Rome. In what Gilliver describes as an incredibly foolish move, Sabinus believed Ambiorix. As soon as Sabinus left the camp, his forces were ambushed in a steep valley. Sabinus had not chosen an appropriate formation for the terrain, and the green troops panicked. The Gauls won decisively, both Sabinus and Cotta were killed, and only a handful of Romans survived. 1099:, which the Romans easily repulsed. However, the Boii and Tulingi then outmaneuvered the Romans and attacked their right flank. At this point, the Romans were surrounded. A heated battle ensued. The men in the legion's last line were ordered to turn their backs around. They now fought on two fronts instead of just being attacked in the rear, which Gilliver describes as a brilliant tactical decision. Eventually, the Helvetii were routed and fled. The Romans chased the now outnumbered Boii and Tulingi back to their encampments, killing the fighters as well as slaying the women and children. 764: 2133:, writing in 1947. Lot was one of the first modern authors who directly questioned the validity of these numbers, finding a fighting force of 430,000 to have been unbelievable for the time. Gilliver also considers 430,000 to be absurd, but does note that it was likely the Romans killed tens of thousands, and finds the claim of zero Roman losses possible. Still, the action to annihilate a non-combatant camp was exceptionally brutal, even by Roman standards. Ben Kiernan, while noting the 430,000 to be exaggerated, otherwise accepts Caesar's account and describes the action as 1257: 5873: 750:, who were governed by republics, had enjoyed stable political alliances with Rome in the past. During the first century, parts of Gaul were becoming urbanized, which concentrated wealth and population centers, inadvertently making Roman conquest easier. Though the Romans considered the Gauls to be barbarians, their cities mirrored those of the Mediterranean. They struck coins and traded extensively with Rome, providing iron, grain, and many slaves. In exchange, the Gauls accumulated much wealth and developed a taste for Roman wine. The contemporary writer 1475:

Romans. Poor weather worsened the situation, and Caesar could do little more than raid the countryside. Realizing he would not meet the Gauls in battle, he withdrew for the winter. This was a setback for Caesar, as not pacifying the tribes would slow his campaigns the next year. The legions overwintered between the rivers Saône and Loire on the lands which they had conquered during the year. This was Caesar's punishment to the tribes for having fought against the Romans. Non-military business for Caesar during the year included the politically pivotal

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were combatants. But Henige points out that such a census would have been difficult to achieve by the Gauls, that it made no sense to be written in Greek by non-Greek tribes, and that carrying such a large quantity of stone or wood tablets on their migration would have been a monumental feat. Henige finds it oddly convenient that exactly one quarter were combatants, suggesting that the numbers were more likely exaggerated by Caesar than counted by census. Contemporary authors also estimated the population of the Helvetii and their allies was lower;

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Germanic tribesmen, and he did this by crossing the Rhine in style. Instead of using boats or pontoons as he had in earlier campaigns, he built a timber bridge in a mere ten days. He walked across, raided the Suebic countryside, and retreated across the bridge before the Suebic army could mobilize. He then burned the bridge and turned his attentions to another feat no Roman army had accomplished before—landing in Britain. The nominal reason to attack Britain was the Britonic tribes had been assisting the Gauls, but like most of Caesar's

1023: 1624: 1967:, and disrupting Gallic access to water. A series of tunnels (of which archeological evidence has been found) were dug to the spring that fed the city. The Gauls attempted to burn down the Roman siege works, but to no avail. Eventually, the Roman tunnels reached the spring and diverted the water supply. Not realizing the Roman action, the Gauls believed the spring going dry was a sign from the Gods and surrendered. Caesar chose not to slaughter the defenders, and instead just cut off their hands as an example. 1925: 1126: 1662:. They then assaulted the Romans nearly continuously for more than two weeks. Cicero's message finally reached Caesar, and he immediately took two legions and cavalry to relieve the siege. They went on a forced march through the lands of the Nervii, making some 20 miles (32 km) a day. Caesar defeated the 60,000 strong Gallic army and finally rescued Cicero's legion. The siege resulted in a more than 90% casualty rate for Cicero's men. Caesar's praise of Quintus Cicero's tenacity was unending. 1376: 1987: 1848: 772: 1840:, and that he then sounded a retreat. But no such retreat occurred, and the Romans assaulted the settlement directly. Gilliver finds it probable that Caesar did not actually sound a retreat, and that it was his plan all along to take the settlement. Caesar's dubious claim was likely intended to distance himself from the ensuing and overwhelming Roman failure. Greatly outnumbered, the Roman assault ended in clear defeat. Caesar claims that 700 of his men died, including 46 1387:. They engaged in a battle that lasted from late in the morning until sundown. On paper, the Veneti appeared to have the superior fleet. Their ships' sturdy oak beam construction meant they were effectively immune to ramming, and their high-profile protected their occupants from projectiles. The Veneti had some 220 ships, although Gilliver notes many were likely not much more than fishing boats. Caesar did not report the number of Roman ships. The Romans had one advantage— 796:. Unlike the Romans, the Gauls were a warrior culture. They prized acts of bravery and individual courage; frequent raiding of neighboring tribes kept their fighting skills sharp. Compared to the Romans, the Gauls carried longer swords and had far superior cavalry. The Gauls were generally taller than the Romans (a fact that seems to have embarrassed the Romans) and this combined with their longer swords gave them a reach advantage in combat. Both sides used archers and 2145:

the barbarity of the Gauls (which was important, as Caesar had been the aggressor contrary to his claims). By making it appear that he had won against overwhelming odds and suffered minimal casualties, he further reinforced the belief that he and the Romans were protected by the gods and destined to win against the heathen barbarians of Gaul. Overall, Henige concludes that, "Julius Caesar must be considered one of history's earliest – and most durably successful –

5349: 1654:, brother to Marcus Cicero – the famed orator and a key political player whom Caesar wished to keep as a loyal ally. They also told Cicero the story that Ambiorix had related to Sabinus, but Cicero was not as gullible as Sabinus. He fortified the camp's defenses and attempted to get a messenger to Caesar. The Gauls began a fierce siege. Having previously captured a number of Roman troops as prisoners, they used the knowledge of the Romans' tactics to build 1892: 1207:(main settlement) from the Remi but were unsuccessful and chose instead to raid the nearby countryside. Each side tried to avoid battle, as both were short on supplies (a continuing theme for Caesar, who gambled and left his baggage train behind several times). Caesar ordered fortifications built, which the Belgae understood would give them a disadvantage. Instead of making battle, the Belgic army simply disbanded, as it could be re-assembled easily. 1600:. The Britonic army had superior mobility due to its cavalry and chariots, which easily allowed them to evade and harass the Romans. The Britons attacked a foraging party, hoping to pick off the isolated group, but the party fought back fiercely and thoroughly defeated the Britons. They mostly gave up resistance at this point, and a great many tribes surrendered and offered tribute. The Romans assaulted Cassivellaunus' stronghold (likely modern day 287: 1723:

had exacted widespread surrender through a vicious retaliatory campaign that focused on destruction over battle. Northern Gaul was essentially flattened. At the end of the year, six legions were wintered, two each on the lands of the Senones, the Treveri, and the Lingones. Caesar aimed to prevent a repeat of the previous disastrous winter, but given the brutality of Caesar's actions that year, an uprising could not be stopped by garrisons alone.

1719:, and the Treveri took the bait. However, Labienus had made sure to feint up a hill, requiring the Treveri to run up it, so by the time they reached the top, they were exhausted. Labienus dropped the pretense of withdrawing and gave battle defeating the Treveri in minutes; the tribe surrendered shortly after. In the rest of Belgium, three legions raided the remaining tribes and forced widespread surrender, including the Eburones under Ambiorix. 689:. Rome hailed Caesar as a hero upon his return from Britain, though he had achieved little beyond landing because his army had been too small. The next year, he returned with a proper army and conquered much of Britain. Tribes rose up on the continent, and the Romans suffered a humiliating defeat. 53 BC saw a brutal pacification campaign. This failed, and Vercingetorix led a revolt in 52 BC. Gallic forces won a notable victory at the 1146:, the head of the Aeduan government and spokesmen for the Gallic delegation, expressed concern over Ariovistus' conquests and for the hostages he had taken. Not only did Caesar have a responsibility to protect the longstanding allegiance of the Aedui, but this proposition presented an opportunity to expand Rome's borders, strengthen loyalty within Caesar's army and establish him as the commander of Rome's troops abroad. With the attack of the 1695: 836:, each legionary was required to carry a substantial amount of his own gear, including weapons, and rations enough to operate independently of the baggage train for a few days. This reduced the size of the baggage train greatly and allowed for a legion to temporarily march well ahead of its baggage. Still, a legion usually had around a thousand beasts of burden to carry the tents, siege equipment, reserve food, entrenching tools, records, 1391:. These allowed them to shred the rigging and sails of the Venetic ships that got close enough rendering them inoperable. The hooks also allowed them to pull ships close enough to board. The Veneti realized the grappling hooks were an existential threat and retreated. However, the wind dropped, and the Roman fleet (which did not rely on sails) was able to catch up. The Romans could now use their superior soldiers to board ships 1161:, his trusted friend, and Caius Mettius, a merchant who had traded successfully with Ariovistus. Insulted, Ariovistus threw the envoys in chains. Ariovistus marched for two days and made camp two miles (3.2 km) miles behind Caesar, thus cutting off his communication and supply lines with the allied tribes. Unable to entice Ariovistus into battle, Caesar ordered a second smaller camp built near Ariovistus' position. 1157:, the largest Sequani town, Caesar marched towards it and arrived before Ariovistus. Ariovistus sent emissaries to Caesar requesting a meeting. They met under a truce at a knoll outside of town. The truce was violated when Germanic horsemen edged towards the knoll and threw stones at Caesar's mounted escort. Two days later, Ariovistus requested another meeting. Hesitant to send senior officials, Caesar dispatched 840:, and all other items a large army needed. While on march, the average legion with train stretched out for about 2.5 mi (4.0 km). Such a large number of animals also required a great deal of grazing or fodder; this limited campaigning to times when there was grass or adequate supplies. The logistical challenges of the baggage train forced the Romans' hand many times during the wars. 1777:(the Boii had been allied to Rome since their defeat at Roman hands in 58 BC). However, it was still winter, and he realized the reason Caesar had detoured was that the Romans were low on supplies. Thus, Vercingetorix set out a strategy to starve the Romans. He avoided attacking them outright and raided foraging parties and supply trains instead. Vercingetorix abandoned a great many 1059:

lands. Caesar entertained the request but ultimately denied it. The Gauls turned north instead, entirely avoiding Roman lands. The threat to Rome was seemingly over, but Caesar led his army over the border and attacked the Helvetii unprovoked. So began what historian Kate Gilliver describes as "an aggressive war of expansion led by a general who was seeking to advance his career".

654:'s attempt to unite the Gauls under a single banner came too late. Caesar portrayed the invasion as being a preemptive and defensive action, but historians agree that he fought the wars primarily to boost his political career and to pay off his debts. Still, Gaul was of significant military importance to the Romans. Native tribes in the region, both Gallic and 800:. Little is known about Gallic battle strategy, and the effectiveness of Gallic slingers and archers is unknown. What is known indicates that battle strategy varied between tribes, although engagement in pitched battle was frequent, to prove bravery. Not all tribes engaged the Romans directly, as Rome was a formidable enemy. The Gauls frequently used 1471:

had only fortified the front of the camp, and Crassus simply circled it and attacked the rear. Taken by surprise, the Gauls attempted to flee. However, Crassus' cavalry pursued them. According to Crassus, only 12,000 survived the overwhelming Roman victory. The tribes surrendered, and Rome now controlled most of southwest Gaul.

1071:. He followed the Helvetii, but chose not to engage in combat, waiting for ideal conditions. The Gauls attempted to negotiate, but Caesar's terms were draconian (likely on purpose, as he may have used it as another delaying tactic). Caesar's supplies ran thin on 20 June, forcing him to travel towards allied territory in 821:

the ranks by combining men from different socio-economic ranks: unlike in the maniple system, rich and poor fought alongside each other in a single uniform unit, greatly increasing overall morale by removing resentment. A cohort held 480 men. Ten cohorts, combined with a small cavalry unit, engineers, and officers, made a

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defeat is a testament to the leadership of Vercingetorix. Even after losing Avaricum, the Aedui were willing to revolt and join the coalition. This was yet another setback to Caesar's supply lines, as he could no longer get supplies through the Aedui (though the taking of Avaricum had supplied the army for the moment).

1883:. He assembled some 70,000–100,000 warriors. After the poor performance at Gergovia, Caesar felt a direct assault on the Gauls was no longer a viable solution, so he opted to simply besiege the settlement and starve out the defenders. Vercingetorix was fine with this, as he intended to use Alesia as a trap to lay a 2052:

Very few sources about the Gallic Wars survive. The Gauls did not record the history of their peoples and thus any Gallic perspective has been lost to time. The writings of Julius Caesar remain the main source of information, which complicates the task of historians as it is biased in his favor. Only

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Gallic existential concerns came to a head in 52 BC and caused the widespread revolt the Romans had long feared. The campaigns of 53 BC had been particularly harsh, and the Gauls feared for their prosperity. Previously, they had not been united, which had made them easy to conquer. But this

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The winter uprising of 54 BC had been a fiasco for the Romans. One legion had been lost entirely, and another almost destroyed. The revolts had shown the Romans were not truly in command of Gaul. Caesar set out on a campaign to subjugate the Gauls completely and forestall future resistance. Down

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Things did not run so smoothly back on the continent during 54 BC. Harvests had failed in Gaul that year, but Caesar still wintered his legions there, and expected the Gauls to feed his troops. He did at least realize harvests had failed and spread his troops out so they would not overburden one

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Caesar's approach towards Britain in 54 BC was far more comprehensive and successful than his initial expedition. New ships had been built over the winter, and Caesar now took five legions and 2,000 cavalry. He left the rest of his army in Gaul to keep order. Gilliver notes that Caesar took with

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Caesar's first trip into Britain was less of a full scale invasion than an expedition. He took only two legions from his army; however, his cavalry auxiliaries were unable to make the crossing despite several attempts. Caesar crossed late in the season, and in great haste, leaving well after midnight

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Historian Kate Gilliver considers all of Caesar's actions in 55 BC to be a "publicity stunt" and suggests that the basis for continuing the Celtic/Germanic campaign was a desire to gain prestige. This also explains the campaign's brief time span. Caesar wanted to impress the Romans and scare the

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below), but it is apparent that Caesar killed a great many Celts. So cruel were his actions, his enemies in the Senate wished to prosecute him for war crimes once his tenure as governor was up and he was no longer immune from prosecution. After the massacre, Caesar led the first Roman army across the

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Caesar finished the campaign season by trying to take out the coastal tribes who had allied with the Veneti. However, they outmaneuvered the Romans. Due to superior knowledge of the local terrain, which was heavily forested and marshy, and a strategy of withdrawing there, they avoided battle with the

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The Veneti held the upper hand for much of the campaign. Their ships were well-suited to the region, and when their hill forts were under siege, they could simply evacuate them by sea. The less sturdy Roman fleet was stuck in harbor for much of the campaign. Despite having the superior army and great

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The Romans' superior discipline and experience came in use and they quickly formed lines of battle. Their center and left wings were successful and chased the Atrebates across the river. To the tribes' advantage, this exposed the half-built camp, and they took it easily. To make matters worse for the

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and laid siege to it. The Belgic army nullified Caesar's advantage by sneaking back into the city under cover of darkness. The Roman siege preparations proved to be the decisive factor: grand Roman-style siege warfare was unknown to the Gauls, and the might of the Romans' preparations drove the Gauls

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explains that part of the conception of Gallic barbarity was because they drank their wine straight, unlike the supposedly civilized Romans who watered down their wine first. However, the Romans realized the Gauls were a powerful fighting force, and considered some of the most "barbaric" tribes to be

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Having crushed the revolt, Caesar set his legions to winter across the lands of the defeated tribes to prevent further rebellion. He sent troops to protect the Remi, who had been steadfast allies to the Romans throughout the campaign. But resistance was not entirely over: Caesar had not yet pacified

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on the Romans and sent a call for a relieving army at once. Vercingetorix likely did not expect the intensity of the Roman siege preparations. Although modern archeology suggests that Caesar's preparations were not as complete as he describes, it is apparent that he laid some incredible siege works.

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fed Rome a steady update of Caesar's exploits (with his own personal spin on events). Caesar's goal of prestige and publicity succeeded enormously: upon his return to Rome, he was hailed as a hero and given an unprecedented 20-day thanksgiving. He now began planning for a proper invasion of Britain.

1095:, the Gauls and Romans fought for the better part of the day. After a hotly contested battle, the Romans eventually gained victory. Caesar had set up his legions on the slope of a hill, which put the Gauls at a disadvantage as they had to fight uphill. The Helvetii started the battle with a probable 820:

as an administrative unit that was used in a battle in 206 BC, it had become a tactical unit by the 130s. Typically a quarter the size of a cohort, the maniple had proved too small and ineffective. The cohort was an effective counterbalance to Gallic and Germanic tactics. The system diversified

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In 51 and 50 BC, there was limited resistance, and Caesar's troops mainly engaged in mop-up operations. Gaul was conquered, although it would not become a Roman province until 27 BC, and resistance would continue until as late as 70 AD. There is no precise end date to the war, but the

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battered the walls. Eventually, the artillery broke a hole in a wall, and the Gauls could not stop the Romans from taking the settlement. The Romans then looted and pillaged Avaricum; Caesar took no prisoners and claims the Romans slew 40,000. That the Gallic coalition did not fall apart after this

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Caesar now sought to punish the Germanic tribes for daring to help the Gauls. He took his legions over the Rhine once more by building a bridge. But again, Caesar's supplies failed him, forcing him to withdraw to avoid engaging with the still mighty Suebi while short on supplies. Regardless, Caesar

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charged Sabinus while he was entrenched atop a hill. This was a poor tactical move by the tribes. By the time they had reached the top, they were exhausted, and Sabinus defeated them with ease. The tribes consequently surrendered, yielding up all of Normandy to the Romans. Crassus did not have such

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Caesar wished to sail as soon as the weather permitted and ordered new boats and recruited oarsmen from the already conquered regions of Gaul to ensure the fleet would be ready as soon as possible. The legions were dispatched by land, but not as a single unit. Gilliver regards this as evidence that

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Caesar's cockiness had nearly ended in defeat, but the legions' experience combined with his personal role in combat turned a disaster into an incredible victory. The Belgae were broken, and most of the Germanic tribes offered submission to Rome. The end of the campaigning season saw Caesar conquer

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Caesar's army rested for three days to tend to the wounded. They then gave chase to the Helvetii, who surrendered. Caesar ordered them back on their lands to provide a buffer between Rome and the even more feared Germanic tribes. In the captured Helvetian camp Caesar claims that a census written in

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region of modern France, a route that would have taken them around the Alps and through lands of the Aedui (a Roman ally) into the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul. As word of the migration spread, neighboring tribes grew concerned, and Rome sent ambassadors to several tribes to convince them not

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were fielded from the less disciplined Roman allies, which as the war progressed would include some Gauls. By comparison, the Gauls were an irregular and less disciplined fighting force. Individual Gauls outfitted themselves, as did Romans, a practice that continued into the early Empire. Wealthier

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as a very clever piece of propaganda written by Caesar, built to make Caesar appear far grander than he was. Henige notes that Caesar's matter-of-fact tone and easy-to-read writing made it all the easier to accept his outlandish claims. He sought to portray his fight as a justified defense against

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During the campaign against the Usipetes and the Tenceri, Caesar makes the incredible claim that the Romans attacked a camp of 430,000, their victory was total, they lost not a single soldier, and that upon losing the tribes committed mass suicide. Henige finds this entire story impossible, as did

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took over the writing of Caesar's reports on the war. The campaigns might have continued into Germanic lands, if not for the impending Roman civil war. The legions in Gaul were eventually pulled out in 50 BC as the civil war drew near, for Caesar would need them to defeat his enemies in Rome.

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summed up Roman sentiment by saying, "It's also been established that there isn't a scrap of silver in the island and no hope of booty except for slaves – and I don't suppose you're expecting them to know much about literature or music!" Regardless, this second trip to Britain was a true invasion,

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A need for prestige more than tactical concerns likely determined Caesar's campaigns in 55 BC, due to Pompey and Crassus' consulship. On the one hand, they were Caesar's political allies, and Crassus's son had fought under him the year before. But they were also his rivals, and had formidable

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in 70 BC, these tribes were well versed in Roman combat, and had learned guerilla tactics from the war. They avoided frontal battle and harassed supply lines and the marching Romans. Crassus realized he would have to force battle and located the Gallic encampment of some 50,000. However, they

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Caesar's stunning victories in 58 BC had unsettled the Gallic tribes. Many rightly predicted Caesar would seek to conquer all of Gaul, and some sought alliance with Rome. As the campaigning season of 57 BC dawned, both sides were busy recruiting new soldiers. Caesar set off with two more

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Caesar's consideration of the Gallic request to enter Rome was not indecision, but a play for time. He was in Rome when news of the migration arrived, and he rushed to Transalpine Gaul, raising two legions and some auxiliaries along the way. He delivered his refusal to the Gauls, and then promptly

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argues, in contrast to Henige and Gilliver, that Caesar's campaign was not in fact exceptionally brutal compared to the standards of the day, even if it is considered ghoulish by modern standards. Raaflaub notes that Caesar generally tried to avoid battle where it was unnecessary, and tried to be

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takes issue with the supposed population and warrior counts. Caesar claims that he could estimate the population of the Helvetii because in their camp there was a census, written in Greek on tablets, which would have showed 263,000 Helvetii and 105,000 allies, of whom exactly one quarter (92,000)

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from their lands, who resultingly had crossed the Rhine in search of a new home. Caesar, however, had denied their earlier request to settle in Gaul, and the issue turned to war. The Celtic tribes sent out a cavalry force of 800 against a Roman auxiliary force of 5,000 made up of Gauls, and won a

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Bibracte, then the commercial hub of the Gallic Aedui tribe, would again play a crucial role during the Gallic uprising of 52 BC. Vercingetorix himself met with other Gallic leaders there to plot the rebellion against Caesar and the Romans. After Vercingetorix's revolt failed, Bibracte was slowly

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It is the primary source for the conflict, but modern historians consider it prone to exaggeration. Caesar makes impossible claims about the number of Gauls killed (over a million), while claiming almost zero Roman casualties. Modern historians believe that Gallic forces were far smaller than the

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On 28 March in 58 BC, the Helvetii began their migration, bringing along all their peoples and livestock. They burned their villages and stores to ensure the migration could not be reversed. Upon reaching Transalpine Gaul, where Caesar was governor, they asked permission to cross the Roman

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After numerous attacks, the Gauls realized they could not overcome the impressive Roman siege works. At this point, it became clear that the Romans would be able to outlast the defenders and that the revolt was doomed. The relieving army melted away. Vercingetorix surrendered and was held as a

1288:, where local tribes fought back fiercely; he abandoned the campaign. But overall, Caesar had seen monumental success in 57 BC. He had accumulated great wealth to pay off his debts and increased his stature to heroic levels. Upon his return, the senate granted him a 15-day thanksgiving ( 1800:

had persuaded him otherwise. The Gallic army was camped outside the settlement. Even while defending, Vercingetorix wished to abandon the siege and outrun the Romans. But the warriors of Avaricum were unwilling to leave it. Upon his arrival, Caesar promptly began construction of a defensive

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Gilliver notes that Caesar once again narrowly escaped disaster. Taking an understrength army with few provisions to a far-off land was a poor tactical decision, which easily could have led to Caesar's defeat – yet he survived. While he had achieved no significant gains in Britain, he had

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Greek was found and studied: of a total of 368,000 Helvetii, of whom 92,000 were able-bodied men, only 110,000 survivors remained to return home. Historians believe the total was likely between 20,000–50,000, with the excess exaggerated by Caesar for propaganda purposes. (See

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reputations (Pompey was a great general, and Crassus was fabulously wealthy). Since the consuls could easily sway and buy public opinion, Caesar needed to stay in the public eye. His solution was to cross two water bodies no Roman army had attempted before: the Rhine and the

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fortification. The Gauls continuously harassed the Romans and their foraging parties while they built their camp and attempted to burn it down. But not even the fierce winter weather could stop the Romans, and they built a very sturdy camp in just 25 days. The Romans built

1844:, although the actual numbers are likely much higher. Caesar withdrew from the siege, and Vercingetorix's victory attracted many more Gallic tribes to his cause. Despite their loss, the Romans still convinced numerous Germanic tribes to join them after the battle. 1609:

and Caesar achieved his goals. He had beaten the Britons and extracted tribute; they were now effectively Roman subjects. Caesar was lenient towards the tribes as he needed to leave before the stormy season set in, which would make crossing the channel impossible.

1294:), longer than any before. His political reputation was now formidable. Again, he returned to Transalpine Gaul for the winter to see to the civil affairs of the province. He wintered his troops in northern Gaul, where the tribes were forced to house and feed them. 1345:

Caesar's claims the prior year that Gaul was at peace were untrue, as the legions were apparently being dispatched to prevent or deal with rebellion. A cavalry force was sent to hold down the Germanic and Belgic tribes. Troops under Publius Crassus were sent to

1063:

returned to Italy to gather the legions he had raised on his previous trip and three veteran legions. Caesar now had between 24,000 and 30,000 legionary troops, and some quantity of auxiliaries, many of whom were themselves Gauls. He marched north to the river

1743:

changed in 53 BC, when Caesar announced that Gaul was now being treated as a Roman province, subject to Roman laws and religion. This was a subject of immense concern for the Gauls, who feared the Romans would destroy the Gallic holy land, which the

953:. In the law granting him command of the provinces, Caesar was given a five-year term as proconsul. This was longer than the traditional one-year term that consuls received, enabling him to engage in a military campaign without fear of command turnover. 2007:

in 27 BC. Several rebellions happened subsequently, and Roman troops were kept stationed throughout Gaul. Historian Gilliver thinks there could have been unrest in the region as late as 70 AD, but not to the level of Vercingetorix's revolt.

1589:

him a good number of Gallic chiefs whom he considered untrustworthy so he could keep an eye on them, a further sign that he had not comprehensively conquered Gaul. A series of revolts there late in the year were proof of continued Gallic instability.

1129:

The campaigns of 58 BC (In Italian). Note the Roman territory in yellow does not yet include modern day France, the Low Countries, or Germany. Caesar's expeditions are a red line, with battles noted. Celtic cities are in green, Germanic cities in

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an easy time in facing the Aquitania. With only one legion and some cavalry, he was outnumbered. He raised additional forces from Provence and marched south to what is now the border of modern Spain and France. Along the way, he fought off the

804:

against them. While the Gauls had much more flair in combat (such as fighting in intricately decorated armor, or even in the nude), the superior discipline and formation of the Romans, generally gave them an advantage in hand-to-hand fighting.

1978:

In the span of eight years, Caesar had conquered all of Gaul and part of Britain. He had become fabulously wealthy and achieved a legendary reputation. The Gallic Wars provided enough gravitas to Caesar that subsequently he was able to wage

1210:

Caesar realized an opportunity was presenting itself: if he could beat the men from the army home, he could take their lands with ease. His armies' travel speed proved to be a crucial aspect of his ensuing victories. He rushed to the Belgic

701:

led to the withdrawal of Caesar's troops in 50 BC. Caesar's wild successes in the war had made him wealthy and provided a legendary reputation. The Gallic Wars were a key factor in Caesar's ability to win the Civil War and make himself

1524:

surprising victory. Caesar retaliated by attacking the defenseless Celtic camp, and slaughtering the men, women, and children. Caesar claims he killed 430,000 people in the camp. Modern historians find this number impossibly high (see

1280:, who were allies of the Nervii but had broken the terms of surrender. Caesar punished the Atuatuci by selling 53,000 of them into slavery. By law, the profits were Caesar's alone. He saw a minor setback towards winter as he sent 1134:

Caesar then turned his attention to the Germanic Suebi, whom he also wished to conquer. The Senate had declared Ariovistus, king of the Suebi, a "friend and ally of the Roman people" in 59 BC, so Caesar needed a convincing

2011:

The conquest of Gaul marked the beginning of almost five centuries of Roman rule, which would have profound cultural and historical impacts. Roman rule brought with it Latin, the language of the Romans. This would evolve into

2175:

prose. It has consequently been a subject of intense study for Latinists and is one of the classic prose sources traditionally used as a standard teaching text in modern Latin education. It begins with the oft-quoted phrase

1715:). The Germanic tribes had promised aid to the Treveri, and Labienus realized that his relatively small force would be at a serious disadvantage. Thus, he sought to bait the Treveri into an attack on his terms. He did so by 1698:

Campaign map of 53 BC. Again, revolting tribes are shown with flame icons. Despite having been conquered the prior year, Britain is not shaded in red, as it was not a territorial acquisition: the Britons had only been made

1751:

met there to mediate between the tribes on the lands considered the center of Gaul. A threat to their sacred lands was an issue that finally united the Gauls. Over the winter the charismatic king of the Arverni tribe,

1412:

The Veneti, now without a navy, had been bested. They surrendered, and Caesar made an example of the tribal elders by executing them. He sold the rest of the Veneti into slavery. Caesar now turned his attention to the

1479:

in April, which gave him another 5 years as governor, allowing time to finish his conquest of Gaul. In exchange, Pompey and Crassus would share the consulship for 55 BC, which further cemented the First Triumvirate.

1168:

were given command of a legion. Caesar lined up on the right flank. Ariovistus countered by lining up his seven tribal formations. Caesar was victorious in the ensuing battle due in large part to the charge made by

2053:

a handful of other contemporary works refer to the conflict but none as in-depth as Caesar's, and most rely on Caesar's account. The fact that he conquered Gaul is certain. The details, however, are less clear.

1361:

siege equipment, the Romans were making little progress. Caesar realized that the campaign could not be won on land and halted the campaign until the seas calmed enough for the Roman vessels to be most useful.

1150:(an apparent Suebi ally) on the Aedui and the report that a hundred clans of Suebi were trying to cross the Rhine into Gaul, Caesar had the justification he needed to wage war against Ariovistus in 58 BC. 1691:, the Senones also surrendered. Attention turned to the Menapii, where Caesar followed the same strategy of raiding he had used on the Nervii. It worked just as well on the Menapii, who surrendered quickly. 3181: 1592:

Caesar landed without resistance and immediately went to find the Britonic army. The Britons used guerilla tactics to avoid a direct confrontation. This allowed them to gather a formidable army under

1329:, a group of tribes in northwest Gaul, but the Veneti had other ideas and captured the officers. This was a calculated move: they knew this would anger Rome and prepared by allying with the tribes of 995:

His ambition was to conquer and plunder some territories to get himself out of debt. It is possible that Gaul was not his initial target; he may have been planning a campaign against the Kingdom of

1142:

He found his excuse following victory over the Helvetii. A group of Gallic tribes congratulated him and sought to meet in a general assembly, hoping to leverage the Romans against other Gauls.

1182:

legions than the year before, with 32,000 to 40,000 men, along with a contingent of auxiliaries. The exact number of men the Gauls raised is unknown, but Caesar claims he would fight 200,000.

1783:, seeking only to defend the strongest, and to ensure the others and their supplies could not fall into Roman hands. Once again, a lack of supplies forced Caesar's hand, and he besieged the 1536:

Campaign map of 55 BC. Note Caesar's crossing of the Rhine, with Germanic counter movements in orange. Aside from the crossing of the Channel, few other actions were carried out that year.

1038:. They had come under increased pressure from Germanic tribes to the north and the east and began planning for a migration around 61 BC. They intended to travel across Gaul to the 1932:

The spring of 51 BC saw the legions campaign among the Belgic tribes to snuff out any thoughts of an uprising, and the Romans achieved peace. But two chiefs in southwest Gaul,

907:(the highest office in the Roman Republic) in 59 BC, Caesar had incurred significant debts. To strengthen Rome's position among the Gauls, he had paid substantial money to 685:

in a naval battle and took most of northwest Gaul. In 55 BC, Caesar sought to boost his public image. He undertook first-of-their-kind expeditions across the Rhine and the

650:

over the whole of Gaul. Though the collective Gallic armies were as strong as the Roman forces, the Gallic tribes' internal divisions eased victory for Caesar. Gallic chieftain

1999:

The Gauls had not been entirely subjugated and were not yet a formal part of the empire. But that task was not Caesar's, and he left that to his successors. Gaul would not be

1828:

finally became available, which somewhat eased supply issues. As usual, Caesar promptly set about building a fortification for the Romans. He captured territory closer to the

1067:, where he caught the Helvetii in the middle of crossing. Some three-quarters had crossed; he slaughtered those who had not. Caesar then crossed the river in one day using a 5701: 2105: 6529: 847:, which left an existential dread of barbarian conquest the Romans never forgot. In 121 BC, Rome conquered a group of southern Gauls, and established the province of 1899:

built by Caesar in Alesia Inset: cross shows location of Alesia in Gaul (modern France). The circle shows the weakness in the north-western section of the fortifications

1627:

Campaign map of 54 BC. Tribes that revolted have flame icons near their name. Note the Gallic victory over Sabinus in northern Gaul, and Caesar's rush to relieve Cicero.

2180:, meaning "Gaul is a whole divided into three parts". The introduction is world-famed for its overview of Gaul. The Gallic Wars have become a popular setting in modern 6949: 4950: 1970:

The legions were again wintered in Gaul, but little unrest occurred. All of the tribes had surrendered to the Romans, and little campaigning took place in 50 BC.

1632:

tribe. But this isolated his legions, making them easier to attack. Gallic anger boiled over shortly after the legions made camp for the winter, and tribes rebelled.

1164:

The next morning Caesar assembled his allied troops in front of the second camp and advanced his legions in towards Ariovistus. Each of Caesar's five legates and his

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wrote a comprehensive history of Gaul and took Caesar's account as unerring. But after World War II, historians began to question if Caesar's claims stood up.

725:

regards the entire account as clever propaganda meant to boost Caesar's image, and suggests it is of minimal historical accuracy. Regardless of the accuracy of the

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estimates that there were at most 20,000 migrating Helvetii, of whom 12,000 were warriors. Gilliver thinks there were no more than 50,000 Helvetii and allies.

1433:

Campaign map of 56 BC. Note Caesar's foray into the north of Gaul, Crassus' campaigns in the south, and the Battle of Morbihan off the west Atlantic coast.

1864:

Modern recreation of the Alesia fortifications, featuring rows of stakes in front of a moat, a high banked approach, and regular towers for Roman sentries

1604:), and he surrendered. Caesar extracted payment of grain, slaves, and an annual tribute to Rome. However, Britain was not particularly rich at the time; 7002: 1851:

Campaign map 52 BC. Most of south and central Gaul is in revolt. Note the Gallic victory at the battle of Gergovia, and Caesar's rush north from Rome.

1232:

surrendered immediately afterward, realizing the Romans had defeated a powerful army without any combat. Not all the tribes were so cowed though. The

7027: 1759:

Caesar was still in Rome when news of the revolt reached him. He rushed to Gaul in an attempt to prevent the revolt from spreading, heading first to

1075:. While his army had easily crossed the Saône, his supply train still had not. The Helvetii could now outmaneuver the Romans and had time to pick up 489: 3893: 1047:

would fill in the lands vacated by the Helvetii. The Romans much preferred the Gauls to the Germanic tribes as neighbors. One of the consuls of 60 (

6464: 3111: 950: 859:(uncle and father figure to Julius Caesar) only after several bloody and costly battles. Around 63 BC, when a Roman client state, the Gallic 729:, the campaign was still exceptionally brutal. Untold numbers of Gauls were killed, enslaved, or mutilated, including large numbers of civilians. 6459: 4338: 4195: 4137: 3932: 1569:

accomplished a monumental feat simply by landing there. It was a fabulous propaganda victory as well, which was chronicled in Caesar's ongoing

1325:

The Gauls were embittered at being forced to feed the Roman troops over the winter. The Romans sent out officers to requisition grain from the

3765: 1353:

took forces to Normandy. Caesar led the remaining four legions overland to meet up with his recently raised fleet near the mouth of the river

1034:

were a confederation of about five related Gallic tribes that lived on the Swiss plateau, hemmed in by the mountains and the rivers Rhine and

875:

to attack the Gallic Aedui, a strong Roman ally, Rome turned a blind eye. The Sequani and the Arverni defeated the Aedui in 63 BC at the

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The total defeat of Sabinus spread revolutionary fervor, and the Atuatuci, Nervii, and their allies also rebelled. They attacked the camp of

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Olson, D. W.; Doescher, R. L.; Beicker, K. N.; Gregory, A. F. (August 2008). "Moon and tides at Caesar's invasion of Britain in 55 B.C.".

7022: 6969: 6904: 6129: 1459: 4592: 6894: 6811: 6519: 5887: 2016:, giving the modern French language its Latin roots. Conquering Gaul enabled further expansion of the Empire into Northwestern Europe. 1674:

Denarius minted by L. Hostilius Saserna, 48 BC, showing the head of a captive Gaul, and a Britonic chariot on the reverse. Coin Expert

1170: 212: 3411: 6409: 6399: 5902: 1933: 3304: 7317: 6899: 6384: 6149: 5809: 3041: 2201:

is set shortly after the Gallic Wars, where the titular character's village is the last holdout in Gaul against Caesar's legions.

6301: 6046: 5644: 5536: 5397: 5224: 4980: 4832: 4706: 3361: 1281: 227: 101: 3637: 2354: 980:, Caesar knew most, perhaps even all, of the legions personally. He also had the legal authority to levy additional legions and 5691: 5405: 4729: 1548: 7037: 5838: 5239: 4662: 4611: 4586: 4512: 4440: 4419: 4357: 4322: 4171: 4113: 4092: 4059: 4007: 3973: 3879: 3854: 3794: 3700: 3511: 1952: 482: 5267: 2353:

Webster, Jane (1996). "Ethnographic barbarity: colonial discourse and 'Celtic warrior societies'.". In Cooper, Nick (ed.).

1809:. He chose to attack during a rainstorm when the sentries were distracted. Siege towers were used to assault the fort, and 7307: 5730: 4766: 3086: 2152:". Gilliver also calls Caesar a "spin-doctor", noting that he realized the importance of keeping up appearances in Rome. 1193:. They had recently attacked a tribe allied with Rome and before marching with his army to meet them, Caesar ordered the 1409:

boarding device, a simple technological advantage—the grappling hook—allowed them to defeat the superior Venetic fleet.

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and other neighboring Gauls to investigate the Belgae's actions. The Belgae and the Romans encountered each other near

992:

and the adjoining regions had large numbers of Roman citizens, who could be enticed to sign up for legionary service.

7322: 5069: 4283: 3912: 3823: 949:, died unexpectedly, the province was also awarded to Caesar at the suggestion of Pompey and Caesar's father-in-law, 793: 767:

A modern re-enactor in 2012 wearing the gear that a VII legion standard bearer would have during the Gallic Wars era.

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During the Venetic campaign, Caesar's subordinates had been busy pacifying Normandy and Aquitania. A coalition of

3732: 1983:

and declare himself dictator, in a series of events that would eventually lead to the end of the Roman Republic.

5872: 5234: 4756: 4531: 3786: 3722: 2025: 1561:, but the Britons were waiting for him. He moved up the coast and landed—modern archeological finds suggest at 780: 1026:

Multi-year overview of the Gallic Wars. The general routes taken by Caesar's army are indicated by the arrows.

5435: 4890: 2118: 1334: 1310: 217: 7327: 5802: 5025: 3871: 2078: 1675: 1571: 1515:. Crossing the Rhine was a consequence of Germanic/Celtic unrest. The Suebi had recently forced the Celtic 981: 832:

would prove insufficient at times during the Wars. Following common practice of Roman generals as early as

715: 20: 4411:

On the Wings of Eagles: The Reforms of Gaius Marius and the Creation of Rome's First Professional Soldiers

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Campaign map of 51 BC. The last major revolts are put down, and mop-up operations occur in the southwest.

1824:, the capital of his own tribe, which he was eager to defend. Caesar arrived as the weather warmed, and 1302: 1051:) and one of 59 BC (Caesar) both wanted to lead a campaign against the Gauls, though neither had a 5229: 5198: 5182: 4910: 4496: 4079: 932: 887: 7282: 6929: 5735: 5718: 5460: 5259: 5172: 5111: 4774: 2589: 2029: 1813: 1731: 1644: 1493: 677:. By 57 BC, Caesar had resolved to conquer all of Gaul. He led campaigns in the east, where the 659: 260: 1735: 1670: 19:

This article is about Caesar's military campaigns of 58 to 50 BC. For Julius Caesar's writings, see

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surmised that there were 157,000 overall (though Henige still believes this number is inaccurate).

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was extremely disciplined, kept standing between conflicts, and made mostly of heavy infantry; any

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The Gallic Wars lack a clear end date. Legions continued to be active in Gaul through 50 BC, when

1383:

At last, the Roman fleet sailed, and encountered the Venetic fleet off the coast of Brittany near

742:

The tribes of Gaul were civilized and wealthy, constituting what is known to archeologists as the

7189: 5795: 5750: 5649: 5440: 5420: 4654: 4245:"He came, he saw, we counted : the historiography and demography of Caesar's gallic numbers" 4152: 3185: 3036: 1836:

remains somewhat unclear. Caesar claims that he had just ordered his men to take a hill near the

1552:

Illustration of the Romans landing in Britain, featuring the standard bearer of the X legion

916: 813: 576: 437: 237: 2064: 1860: 1767:

to counter the Gallic forces. Caesar took a winding route to the Gallic army to capture several

693:, but the Romans' indomitable siege works at the Battle of Alesia crushed the Gallic coalition. 7302: 5755: 5627: 5526: 5354: 5287: 5038: 5004: 4967: 4692: 4314: 4310: 4244: 1678:

rejects the theory of several historians that the head on the obverse is that of Vercingetorix.

1395:

and overwhelm the Gauls at their leisure. Just as the Romans had beaten the superior forces of

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was the Roman commander and agonist of the war. As a result of the financial burdens of being

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von Ungern-Sternberg, Jurgen (2014). "The Crisis of the Republic". In Flower, Harriet (ed.).

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The 58–50 BCE conflict is also named the "Second Transalpine War" to distinguish it from the

2041: 1980: 1659: 1285: 876: 851:

in the conquered lands. Only 50 years before the Gallic Wars, in 109 BC, Italy had been

698: 541: 511: 24: 4302: 2082:, which was largely taken as truthful and accurate until the 20th century. As late as 1908, 7277: 5612: 5514: 5504: 5430: 5328: 4857: 4837: 4749: 4368: 3941: 1960: 1618: 586: 556: 1707:

had with him 25 cohorts (about 12,000 men) and a good deal of cavalry in the lands of the

8: 7219: 5907: 5832: 4895: 4880: 4822: 4812: 4807: 4678: 4146: 3503:

Blood and soil : a world history of genocide and extermination from Sparta to Darfur

1802: 1643:, had been forced to winter a legion and five cohorts under Quintus Titurius Sabinus and 1245: 844: 639: 546: 536: 531: 41: 4542: 3300: 3031: 1003:

instead. However, a mass migration of Gallic tribes in 58 BC provided a convenient

6371: 5593: 5425: 5132: 4875: 4847: 4827: 4797: 4792: 4479: 4396: 4332: 4224: 4189: 4131: 3945: 3570: 2181: 2122: 1833: 1370: 1158: 1143: 1092: 1039: 961: 690: 566: 521: 516: 5936: 4606:. Translated by Handford, S. A. Revised by Jane F. Gardner. London: Penguin Classics. 763: 743: 6191: 5930: 5926: 5606: 5598: 5588: 5494: 5277: 5127: 4986: 4932: 4922: 4734: 4658: 4647: 4637: 4617: 4607: 4582: 4552: 4527: 4508: 4483: 4471: 4436: 4415: 4400: 4388: 4353: 4318: 4303: 4289: 4279: 4228: 4177: 4167: 4119: 4109: 4088: 4065: 4055: 4026: 4013: 4003: 3988: 3969: 3918: 3908: 3885: 3875: 3850: 3829: 3819: 3800: 3790: 3742: 3718: 3696: 3645: 3574: 3517: 3507: 3182:"In the Footsteps of Caesar: The archaeology of the first Roman invasions of Britain" 3105: 2146: 1773:

for food. Vercingetorix was forced to withdraw from his siege of the Boii capital of

1463: 1248:

was nearly a humiliating defeat for Caesar, and the Roman victory was very hard-won.

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prisoner for the next six years until he was paraded through Rome and ceremonially

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A modern re-enactor in 2018 with the typical panoply of a wealthier Gallic warrior.

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11 legions & 10,000+ auxiliaries, 60–75,000 troops total by the siege of Alesia

301: 264: 251: 157: 2099: 646:

in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the

286: 6306: 5723: 5561: 5499: 5487: 5477: 5333: 5091: 4937: 4900: 4347: 4045: 3957: 3736: 3641: 2083: 1964: 1884: 1880: 1716: 1512: 1476: 1400: 911:, king of the Suebi, to cement an alliance. Through his influence as part of the 706:, which culminated in the end of the Roman Republic and the establishment of the 686: 222: 4467: 7297: 6954: 6434: 6271: 6186: 6116: 5968: 5670: 5573: 5546: 5292: 5152: 5101: 5055: 4917: 3965: 1797: 1704: 1703:

Caesar's legions had been split up to put down more tribes, and his lieutenant

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Romans claimed, and that the Romans suffered significant casualties. Historian

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Proconsuls: Delegated Political-Military Leadership from Rome to America Today

4204: 4181: 3804: 2024:, though settled on the Rhine as the imperial border following the disastrous 1498: 1338: 755:

the fiercest warriors, as they were supposedly uncorrupted by Roman luxuries.

658:, had attacked Rome several times. Conquering Gaul allowed Rome to secure the 7271: 7174: 6568: 6356: 5681: 5659: 5556: 5551: 4715: 4475: 4392: 4123: 4017: 3846: 2362:. School of Archaeological Studies, University of Leicester. pp. 117–118 2155: 2130: 2037: 1995: 1896: 1876: 1753: 1467: 1326: 900: 829: 682: 651: 603: 280: 191: 97: 4621: 4069: 3922: 3889: 3521: 7179: 7147: 6979: 6494: 6414: 6206: 6041: 5843: 5676: 5583: 5578: 5531: 5450: 5137: 4504: 4293: 4161: 3833: 3682: 2090: 2036:

also built on Caesar's invasions. The Roman hegemony would last, with only

1712: 1597: 1442: 1384: 1260:

Campaign map of 57 BC. Territory conquered the previous year is shaded red.

1189:

tribal confederation, who inhabited the area roughly bounded by modern-day

1022: 923:, and himself) during his consulship, Caesar had secured his assignment as 856: 852: 822: 722: 707: 460: 297: 50: 4556: 4260: 4103: 3997: 3692: 1796:

Originally, Vercingetorix had been opposed to defending Avaricum, but the

1313:

in 48 BC, recalling his service in Gaul. The obverse features the head of

1185:

Intervening again in an intra-Gallic conflict, Caesar marched against the

345:

6 legions (understrength, 24–30,000 troops, including cavalry auxiliaries)

7085: 6419: 6261: 6181: 6163: 6101: 6081: 5568: 5455: 5313: 5096: 5032: 4739: 4084: 3902: 3865: 3501: 1948: 1940:, remained openly hostile to the Romans and had fortified the formidable 1655: 1562: 1290: 1005: 984:

as he saw fit. The assignment of the province that comprises what is now

977: 937: 848: 623: 202: 89: 4273: 3813: 3549:"Caesar and Genocide: Confronting the Dark Side of Caesar's Gallic Wars" 1375: 1017: 7229: 7142: 7065: 6776: 6646: 6636: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6586: 6576: 6552: 6509: 6489: 6389: 6361: 6276: 6211: 6175: 6171: 6124: 6106: 6086: 6001: 5861: 5472: 5308: 5142: 4974: 4220: 3949: 2013: 2000: 1805:, and Caesar waited for an opportunity to attack the heavily fortified 1545:

it was just an excuse to gain stature in the eyes of the Roman people.

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The Romans respected and feared the Gallic tribes. In 390 BC, the

784: 771: 315: 81: 2197: 1687:. Having had no time to prepare for a siege or even withdraw to their 1623: 1532: 1429: 1256: 1125: 7244: 7137: 7095: 7070: 7050: 7007: 6909: 6876: 6871: 6836: 6826: 6781: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6746: 6721: 6706: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6651: 6596: 6548: 6504: 6439: 6331: 6316: 6236: 6231: 6021: 6016: 5996: 5986: 5951: 5366: 5318: 5282: 5203: 4632: 4051: 3387:"Battle of the Teutoburg Forest | Summary, Facts, & Significance" 2542: 2540: 2028:. In addition to facilitating the conquest of parts of Germania, the 1937: 1909: 1841: 1774: 1764: 1346: 1237: 1225: 989: 924: 357:

2 legions (~10,000 troops) in Britain, the rest left on the continent

3930:

Ezov, Amiram (1996). "The 'Missing Dimension' of C. Julius Caesar".

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in 61 BC and had campaigned successfully with them against the

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Caesar had four veteran legions under his direct command initially:

638:

tribes fought to defend their homelands against an aggressive Roman

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proved a tougher task. Having allied with the rebel Roman general

1064: 1035: 7204: 7129: 7099: 7045: 6974: 6861: 6831: 6821: 6816: 6791: 6771: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6716: 6701: 6631: 6469: 6454: 6404: 6351: 6336: 6321: 6311: 6291: 6286: 6266: 6241: 6196: 6159: 6154: 6139: 6096: 6091: 6071: 6061: 6051: 6011: 5976: 5922: 5917: 5912: 4452:"Tactical reform in the late Roman republic: the view from Italy" 2076:

The main contemporary source for the conflict is Julius Caesar's

1941: 1905: 1769: 1708: 1684: 1446: 1438: 1418: 1229: 1203: 1190: 1147: 1080: 1000: 864: 860: 837: 788: 673:

in 58 BC, which drew in neighboring tribes and the Germanic

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The Magistrates of the Roman Republic: Volume II 99 B.C.–31 B.C

2185: 2069: 1919: 1825: 1605: 1414: 1379:

Battle of Morbihan (in French, Rome is in red, Veneti in green)

1318: 1265: 1233: 1198: 1186: 920: 904: 678: 611: 77: 47:

Vercingetorix Throws Down His Arms at the Feet of Julius Caesar

2865: 2841: 2829: 2781: 1891: 1557:

on 23 August. Initially, he planned to land somewhere in

746:. Most had contact with Roman merchants and some, such as the 467: 7258: 7239: 7109: 6671: 6134: 6036: 5946: 5897: 5818: 2747: 2745: 2572: 2570: 2193: 2189: 2172: 2171:

in Latin, is one of the best surviving examples of unadorned

1748: 1454:, who attacked while the Romans were marching. Defeating the 1354: 1096: 996: 872: 868: 747: 674: 663: 627: 430: 363:

5 legions (~25,000 troops) & 2,000 auxiliaries in Britain

152: 3528: 3343: 3341: 3328: 3326: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3271: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3217: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3209: 3207: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3057:"The conference at Lucca (56 BC) – Mary Beard: A don's life" 2987: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2657: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2649: 2636: 2634: 2557: 2555: 2374: 1986: 1924: 1847: 1694: 1224:

to surrender promptly. This had a ripple effect: the nearby

1083:

allies. They used this moment to attack Caesar's rearguard.

7055: 6479: 6076: 5892: 4105:

In the name of Rome : the men who won the Roman Empire

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were waged between 58 and 50 BC by the Roman general

3985:

Alesia 52 BC: The final struggle for Gaul (Campaign)

3338: 3323: 3268: 3251: 3227: 3204: 3118: 2972: 2913: 2793: 2757: 2694: 2646: 2631: 2552: 2402: 1251: 5787: 4163:

The Cambridge Companion to the Writings of Julius Caesar

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Rhine in a lightning campaign that lasted just 18 days.

1111:

abandoned for other more prosperous settlements nearby.

681:

almost defeated him. In 56 BC, Caesar defeated the

459:

All contemporary numbers are considered not credible by

3581: 3442: 3430: 2960: 2682: 2667: 2453: 2250: 1756:, assembled an unprecedented grand coalition of Gauls. 1424: 669:

The wars began with conflict over the migration of the

3652: 3143: 2901: 2619: 2607: 2489: 1484:

55 BC: Crossing the Rhine and the English Channel

3469: 3454: 2948: 2853: 2805: 2718: 2513: 2235: 1855: 1297: 1018:

Beginning of the Wars – campaign against the Helvetii

779:

The Gauls and the Romans had significantly different

4526:. Amsterdam: Time-Life Books Inc. 1988. p. 38. 4490: 2546: 2414: 2395:, pp. 32, 33, 83, the last of which cites Tac. 2336: 2334: 2332: 2330: 2328: 2291: 2289: 1043:

to join the Helvetii. Concern grew in Rome that the

713:

Julius Caesar described the Gallic Wars in his book

390:

20,000–50,000, of which 8,000 or more were civilians

128:

Local client kings and tributaries set up in Britain

3617: 2877: 2501: 2313: 2262: 1276:tribes along the Atlantic coast, and deal with the 4646: 4160:Grillo, Luca; Krebs, Christopher B., eds. (2018). 4028:Financing war in the Roman republic: 201 BCE–14 CE 3758:"Asterix at 50: The Comic Hero Conquers the World" 3311: 2936: 2301: 3999:Warlords of Republican Rome: Caesar versus Pompey 3605: 2325: 2286: 2274: 1920:51 and 50 BC: Pacification of the last Gauls 7269: 3506:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 59. 1726: 1244:, and planned to ambush the Romans. The ensuing 3638:"Book Review: The Druid King by Norman Spinrad" 1176: 23:. For the earlier Romano-Gallic conflicts, see 4432:Rome: The Greatest Empire of the Ancient World 3080: 5803: 5382: 4700: 4578:Delphi Complete Works of Appian (Illustrated) 4493:The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic 3741:. New York: American Philogical Association. 2356:Roman Imperialism: Post-Colonial Perspectives 1201:. The Belgae attempted to take the fortified 1114: 483: 5766:Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire 3780: 3110:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2576: 1963:, focusing on building a series of camps, a 1665: 1584:54 BC: Invading Britain, unrest in Gaul 1264:The Nervii set up an ambush along the river 4215:(1). Johns Hopkins University Press: 3–29. 4159: 4101: 4076: 3534: 3487: 3087:"Plutarch on the Lucca Conference – Livius" 2895: 2871: 2847: 2835: 2823: 2787: 2775: 2751: 2712: 2531: 2459: 1784: 1778: 1153:Learning that Ariovistus intended to seize 5810: 5796: 5389: 5375: 4707: 4693: 4547:. Translated by Craufurd, Emma. New York: 4337:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4194:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4136:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3755: 3684:Speech and Thought in Latin War Narratives 3658: 1107:section below for a detailed accounting). 490: 476: 4633:"De Bello Gallico" and Other Commentaries 4521: 3900: 3731: 3713:Geschichte der römischen Literatur Band 1 3564: 3475: 3448: 3003: 4366: 4271: 4205:"Why Did the Barbarian Cross the Rhine?" 4043: 4024: 3863: 3811: 3709: 3599: 3587: 3546: 3463: 3347: 3332: 3287: 3262: 3245: 3233: 3221: 3174: 3149: 3137: 2991: 2966: 2930: 2907: 2700: 2676: 2661: 2640: 2561: 2495: 2408: 2392: 2380: 2244: 2178:"Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres" 2104: 2063: 1985: 1923: 1890: 1859: 1846: 1730: 1693: 1669: 1622: 1547: 1531: 1497: 1428: 1374: 1301: 1255: 1124: 1021: 915:(the political alliance which comprised 886: 770: 762: 5537:Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula 4951:Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire 4644: 4428: 4407: 4202: 3962:Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant 3715:(History of Roman Literature, Volume 1) 3499: 3436: 3018: 2954: 2483: 2447: 2352: 2307: 2020:would push into Germania and reach the 1793:where Vercingetorix had sought refuge. 1738:in Alesia, where he made his last stand 1298:56 BC: Campaign against the Veneti 808:The Wars cemented the Roman use of the 7270: 5396: 4599: 4595:from the original on 25 November 2020. 4571: 4540: 4449: 4300: 4267:from the original on 11 November 2020. 4242: 3995: 3983:Fields, Nic (June 2014). "Aftermath". 3982: 3956: 3896:from the original on 25 November 2020. 3818:. London: Cambridge University Press. 3635: 3623: 3317: 2859: 2811: 2799: 2763: 2736: 2724: 2688: 2625: 2519: 2471: 2432: 2420: 2340: 2319: 2295: 2280: 2268: 1252:Nervii ambush: the battle of the Sabis 642:. The Wars culminated in the decisive 5839:Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe 5791: 5370: 4688: 4679:GIS maps of the campaigns and battles 4408:Matthew, Christopher Anthony (2009). 4345: 4144: 3840: 3768:from the original on 8 September 2014 3680: 3629: 3611: 3307:from the original on 17 October 2017. 3293: 3192:from the original on 30 November 2017 3155: 3074: 3054: 3048: 3024: 2883: 2613: 2590:"Province | ancient Roman government" 2507: 2256: 1364: 1086: 471: 7288:1st century BC in the Roman Republic 5645:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain 5268:Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar 3929: 3756:Cendrowicz, Leo (19 November 2009). 3673: 2942: 2140:Ultimately, modern scholars see the 2109:A page from an 1864 printing of the 1973: 1425:Caesar's subordinates and mopping up 3904:Nouvel atlas des monnaies gauloises 3566:10.52284/NECJ/48.1/article/raaflaub 3044:from the original on 1 August 2020. 1763:to see to its defense, and then to 1525: 1104: 396:180,000 Gallic combatants at Alesia 13: 4565: 4102:Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2016). 3907:. Saint-Germain-en-Laye: Commios. 3359: 2056: 2001:made formally into Roman provinces 1868:Vercingetorix chose to defend the 1856:Siege of Alesia, end of the revolt 1727:52 BC: Vercingetorix's revolt 1612: 988:was helpful to his ambitions: the 14: 7339: 5070:Ut est rerum omnium magister usus 4714: 4672: 4414:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 4249:Annales de Démographie Historique 3362:"The French language before 1200" 3301:"Revolt in Gaul: Siege of Alesia" 2047: 1177:57 BC: Campaigns in the east 951:Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus 737: 5871: 5778:Military history of ancient Rome 5348: 5347: 3841:Dodge, Theodore Ayrault (1997). 3733:Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon 2162: 882: 285: 40: 16:58–50 BC, Rome vs. Gallic tribes 7318:Wars involving Germanic peoples 5761:Civil wars of the Third Century 4275:Geschichte in Gestalten: Ceasar 4031:(PhD thesis). McGill University 3668: 3540: 3493: 3404: 3379: 3353: 2582: 2386: 2211: 1990:Gaul in 50 BC: fully conquered. 1879:next, in what would become the 1832:. What happened in the ensuing 1317:, and the reverse shows Gallic 1009:, and Caesar prepared for war. 497: 4645:Hammond, Carolyn, ed. (1996). 4352:. Cambridge University Press. 4047:Caesar's Gallic wars, 58–50 BC 3787:Johns Hopkins University Press 3710:Albrecht, Michael von (1994). 2346: 2026:Battle of the Teutoburg Forest 1820:Vercingetorix now withdrew to 1666:53 BC: Suppressing unrest 899:Rising politician and general 125:Gaul annexed by Roman Republic 1: 4367:Luibheid, Colm (April 1970). 3901:Delestrée, Louis-Pol (2004). 3812:Crawford, Michael H. (1974). 3781:Chrissanthos, Stefan (2019). 3553:New England Classical Journal 2228: 2169:Commentarii de Bello Gallico, 1490:Caesar's invasions of Britain 972:. As he had been governor of 927:(governor) to two provinces, 732: 436:1,000,000+ Celts captured or 369:10 legions (40–50,000 troops) 5225:Gaius Julius Caesar (father) 5026:Commentarii de Bello Gallico 4305:The Making of the Roman Army 4077:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2007). 4044:Gilliver, Catherine (2003). 3872:University of Nebraska Press 2079:Commentarii de Bello Gallico 1747:watched over. Each year the 1572:Commentarii de Bello Gallico 863:, conspired with the Gallic 828:The practices of the army's 716:Commentarii de Bello Gallico 557:Ambiorix's revolt (54–53 BC) 351:8 legions (32–40,000 troops) 21:Commentarii de Bello Gallico 7: 5019:Commentarii de Bello Civili 4468:10.25162/historia-2019-0004 4025:Gauthier, François (2015). 2072:of Vercingetorix, 53–52 BC. 758: 408:40,000+ (credible estimate) 10: 7344: 7308:Military history of France 4497:Cambridge University Press 4450:Taylor, Michael J (2019). 4080:Caesar, Life of a Colossus 4002:. Philadelphia: Casemate. 1616: 1502:Caesar's Rhine Bridge, by 1487: 1368: 1118: 1115:Campaign against the Suebi 1012: 18: 7293:1st-century BC rebellions 7253: 7165: 7128: 7036: 6993: 6885: 6567: 6370: 6115: 5967: 5960: 5880: 5869: 5825: 5817: 5774: 5719:Roman conquest of Britain 5690: 5404: 5342: 5301: 5252: 5217: 5191: 5160: 5151: 5120: 5084: 5047: 4996: 4959: 4866: 4783: 4765: 4722: 4301:Keppie, Lawrende (1998). 4209:Journal of Late Antiquity 3867:History of the art of war 2547:von Ungern-Sternberg 2014 2030:Roman conquest of Britain 1645:Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta 507: 402: 329: 261:Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta 181: 138: 56: 39: 34: 7323:Wars involving the Celts 5107:Temple of Venus Genetrix 4278:. Stuttgart: Steinkopf. 4145:Grant, Michael (1974) . 3815:Roman Republican coinage 3636:Snider, John C. (2003). 2204: 2115:Parrish & Willingham 1736:Vercingétorix's Memorial 1351:Quintus Titurius Sabinus 1221:Villeneuve-Saint-Germain 1121:Battle of Vosges (58 BC) 699:imminent Roman Civil War 248:Quintus Titurius Sabinus 213:Publius Licinius Crassus 5416:Roman conquest of Italy 4655:Oxford University Press 4600:Caesar, Julius (1982). 4549:Charles Scribner’s Sons 4541:Walter, Gérard (1952). 4272:Herzfeld, Hans (1960). 4203:Heather, Peter (2009). 4153:Weidenfeld and Nicolson 3864:Delbrück, Hans (1990). 3681:Adema, Suzanne (2017). 3547:Raaflaub, Kurt (2021). 3535:Grillo & Krebs 2018 3488:Grillo & Krebs 2018 3416:The Great Courses Daily 3391:Encyclopedia Britannica 3186:University of Leicester 3081:Seager, Robin, Trans.; 3037:Encyclopedia Britannica 2594:Encyclopedia Britannica 941:. When the governor of 917:Marcus Licinius Crassus 606:against the peoples of 238:Lucius Munatius Plancus 228:Servius Sulpicius Galba 5288:Julio-Claudian dynasty 5112:Caesar's Rhine bridges 5039:Poems by Julius Caesar 5005:Laudatio Iuliae amitae 4981:Constitutional reforms 4968:Lex Julia de maiestate 4649:Caesar: The Gallic War 4505:10.1017/CCOL0521807948 4429:McCarty, Nick (2008). 4346:Lord, Carnes (2012a). 4311:University of Oklahoma 4243:Henige, David (1998). 3303:. UNRV Roman History. 3032:"Veneti Celtic people" 2125: 2073: 1991: 1953:Gaius Caninius Rebilus 1929: 1900: 1865: 1852: 1785: 1779: 1739: 1700: 1679: 1639:, under the competent 1628: 1575:. The writings in the 1553: 1537: 1507: 1494:Caesar's Rhine bridges 1434: 1380: 1322: 1261: 1131: 1027: 896: 853:invaded from the north 776: 768: 442:800 villages destroyed 243:Lucius Roscius Fabatus 233:Gaius Caninius Rebilus 218:Decimus Brutus Albinus 208:Quintus Tullius Cicero 182:Commanders and leaders 5850:First Transalpine War 5746:Domitian's Dacian War 5665:Liberators' civil war 4730:Early life and career 4522:"The Roman Decline". 4369:"The Luca Conference" 4261:10.3406/adh.1998.2162 3693:10.1163/9789004347120 3500:Kiernan, Ben (2007). 2219:First Transalpine War 2184:, especially that of 2121:publisher during the 2108: 2067: 2042:Crossing of the Rhine 1989: 1927: 1894: 1863: 1850: 1734: 1717:feinting a withdrawal 1697: 1673: 1626: 1551: 1535: 1501: 1432: 1378: 1305: 1286:Great St Bernard Pass 1259: 1128: 1025: 966:Legio IX Hispana 890: 877:Battle of Magetobriga 845:Gauls had sacked Rome 825:of around 5,000 men. 816:. First described by 774: 766: 403:Casualties and losses 5751:Trajan's Dacian Wars 5436:Roman–Hernician wars 5329:Marcus Junius Brutus 5240:Julia Minor (sister) 5235:Julia Major (sister) 4833:Invasions of Britain 4750:Crossing the Rubicon 4681:at Dickinson College 4603:The Conquest of Gaul 3996:Fields, Nic (2010). 3942:Franz Steiner Verlag 3055:Beard, Mary (2017). 2739:, pp. 158, 161. 2383:, pp. 7, 13–15. 1961:siege of Uxellodunum 1139:to betray the Suebi. 935:, by passage of the 871:nations east of the 792:soldiers had better 547:Octodurus (57–56 BC) 425:Plutarch and Appian: 7328:Genocides in Europe 5908:Gallo-Roman culture 5833:Battle of the Allia 5650:Roman–Parthian Wars 5441:Roman–Volscian wars 5421:Roman–Etruscan Wars 5168:Cossutia (disputed) 4581:. Delphi Classics. 4544:Caesar: A Biography 4373:Classical Philology 3648:on 19 January 2012. 3602:, pp. 332–334. 3248:, pp. 463–464. 2874:, pp. 280–281. 2850:, pp. 279–280. 2838:, pp. 277–278. 2802:, pp. 173–176. 2790:, pp. 274–275. 2766:, pp. 163–165. 2474:, p. 79 n. 18. 2259:, pp. 276–295. 2192:. In addition, the 2003:until the reign of 1282:one of his officers 1246:battle of the Sabis 781:military strategies 587:Uxellodunum (51 BC) 512:Magetobriga (63 BC) 7190:Basel-Münsterhügel 5756:Roman–Persian Wars 5655:Caesar's civil war 5527:Roman–Seleucid war 5426:Roman-Aequian wars 5398:Ancient Roman wars 5209:Augustus (adopted) 5133:Chiaramonti Caesar 4911:Battle of the Nile 4767:Military campaigns 4745:Caesar's civil war 4221:10.1353/jla.0.0036 2435:, pp. 76, 82. 2182:historical fiction 2126: 2123:American Civil War 2074: 1992: 1930: 1901: 1866: 1853: 1834:Battle of Gergovia 1740: 1701: 1680: 1629: 1554: 1538: 1508: 1435: 1381: 1371:Battle of Morbihan 1365:Battle of Morbihan 1323: 1262: 1159:Valerius Procillus 1132: 1093:Battle of Bibracte 1087:Battle of Bibracte 1028: 897: 777: 769: 691:Battle of Gergovia 552:Britain (55-54 BC) 7265: 7264: 7161: 7160: 6192:Bituriges Vivisci 5785: 5784: 5741:Jewish–Roman wars 5613:Sulla's civil war 5607:Bellum Octavianum 5495:Illyro-Roman Wars 5468:Roman–Gallic wars 5446:Roman–Sabine wars 5364: 5363: 5248: 5247: 5128:Tusculum portrait 4987:Dictator perpetuo 4946: 4945: 4838:Ambiorix's revolt 4735:First Triumvirate 4723:Major life events 4664:978-0-19-283120-0 4638:Project Gutenberg 4613:978-0-14-044433-9 4588:978-1-78656-370-5 4514:978-1-139-00033-8 4442:978-1-4042-1366-1 4435:. Carlton Books. 4421:978-1-4438-1813-1 4359:978-0-521-25469-4 4324:978-0-415-15150-4 4173:978-1-107-02341-3 4166:. Cambridge, UK. 4115:978-0-300-22183-1 4094:978-0-300-12689-1 4061:978-0-203-49484-4 4009:978-1-935149-06-4 3989:Osprey Publishing 3975:978-0-306-80422-9 3881:978-0-8032-6584-4 3856:978-0-306-80787-9 3796:978-1-4214-2969-4 3785:. Baltimore, MD: 3783:Julius and Caesar 3702:978-90-04-34712-0 3674:Modern literature 3537:, pp. 20–27. 3513:978-0-300-10098-3 3350:, pp. 83–88. 3335:, pp. 60–65. 3290:, pp. 51–60. 3265:, pp. 50–51. 3236:, pp. 88–94. 3224:, pp. 49–50. 3164:Sky and Telescope 3140:, pp. 43–49. 3021:, pp. 60–61. 2994:, pp. 40–43. 2933:, pp. 36–40. 2703:, pp. 33–36. 2691:, pp. 25–29. 2664:, pp. 33–35. 2643:, pp. 30–32. 2616:, pp. 23–24. 2577:Chrissanthos 2019 2564:, pp. 16–17. 2411:, pp. 18–29. 1974:Caesar victorious 1619:Ambiorix's revolt 1464:Quintus Sertorius 1421:along the coast. 974:Hispania Ulterior 913:First Triumvirate 893:Tusculum portrait 867:and the Germanic 834:Scipio Aemilianus 802:attrition warfare 595: 594: 577:Vingeanne (52 BC) 466: 465: 382:Modern estimates: 337:Modern estimates: 134: 133: 51:Lionel Noel Royer 25:Roman–Gallic wars 7335: 7283:50s BC conflicts 5965: 5964: 5875: 5812: 5805: 5798: 5789: 5788: 5707:Marcomannic Wars 5618:Mithridatic Wars 5542:Celtiberian Wars 5431:Roman–Latin wars 5391: 5384: 5377: 5368: 5367: 5351: 5350: 5273:Temple of Caesar 5230:Aurelia (mother) 5158: 5157: 5063:Veni, vidi, vici 4781: 4780: 4709: 4702: 4695: 4686: 4685: 4668: 4652: 4640: 4625: 4596: 4560: 4537: 4524:Empires Besieged 4518: 4495:(2nd ed.). 4487: 4446: 4425: 4404: 4363: 4342: 4336: 4328: 4308: 4297: 4268: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4199: 4193: 4185: 4156: 4141: 4135: 4127: 4098: 4073: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4021: 3992: 3979: 3958:Fuller, J. F. C. 3953: 3926: 3897: 3860: 3837: 3808: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3752: 3728: 3717:(2nd ed.). 3706: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3649: 3644:. Archived from 3633: 3627: 3621: 3615: 3609: 3603: 3597: 3591: 3585: 3579: 3578: 3568: 3544: 3538: 3532: 3526: 3525: 3497: 3491: 3485: 3479: 3473: 3467: 3461: 3452: 3446: 3440: 3439:, pp. 3–29. 3434: 3428: 3427: 3425: 3423: 3408: 3402: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3383: 3377: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3360:Morcos, Hannah. 3357: 3351: 3345: 3336: 3330: 3321: 3315: 3309: 3308: 3297: 3291: 3285: 3266: 3260: 3249: 3243: 3237: 3231: 3225: 3219: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3178: 3172: 3171: 3159: 3153: 3147: 3141: 3135: 3116: 3115: 3109: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3078: 3072: 3071: 3069: 3067: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3028: 3022: 3016: 3007: 3001: 2995: 2989: 2970: 2964: 2958: 2952: 2946: 2940: 2934: 2928: 2911: 2905: 2899: 2896:Goldsworthy 2007 2893: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2872:Goldsworthy 2007 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2848:Goldsworthy 2007 2845: 2839: 2836:Goldsworthy 2007 2833: 2827: 2824:Goldsworthy 2007 2821: 2815: 2809: 2803: 2797: 2791: 2788:Goldsworthy 2007 2785: 2779: 2776:Goldsworthy 2007 2773: 2767: 2761: 2755: 2752:Goldsworthy 2007 2749: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2722: 2716: 2713:Goldsworthy 2007 2710: 2704: 2698: 2692: 2686: 2680: 2674: 2665: 2659: 2644: 2638: 2629: 2623: 2617: 2611: 2605: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2586: 2580: 2574: 2565: 2559: 2550: 2544: 2535: 2532:Goldsworthy 2007 2529: 2523: 2517: 2511: 2505: 2499: 2493: 2487: 2486:, p. 39–49. 2481: 2475: 2469: 2463: 2460:Goldsworthy 2016 2457: 2451: 2450:, p. 35–37. 2445: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2418: 2412: 2406: 2400: 2390: 2384: 2378: 2372: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2361: 2350: 2344: 2338: 2323: 2317: 2311: 2305: 2299: 2293: 2284: 2278: 2272: 2266: 2260: 2254: 2248: 2242: 2222: 2215: 2151: 2038:one interruption 2032:led in 43 AD by 1916:southwest Gaul. 1788: 1782: 1676:Michael Crawford 1236:allied with the 943:Transalpine Gaul 895:of Julius Caesar 849:Transalpine Gaul 838:personal effects 644:Battle of Alesia 567:Gergovia (52 BC) 562:Avaricum (52 BC) 542:Atuatuci (57 BC) 522:Bibracte (58 BC) 502: 492: 485: 478: 469: 468: 433:killed in battle 306: 289: 269: 256: 58: 57: 44: 32: 31: 7343: 7342: 7338: 7337: 7336: 7334: 7333: 7332: 7268: 7267: 7266: 7261: 7249: 7167: 7157: 7124: 7032: 6989: 6881: 6563: 6366: 6111: 5956: 5937:La Tène culture 5876: 5867: 5821: 5816: 5786: 5781: 5770: 5736:Civil war of 69 5724:Boudican revolt 5693: 5686: 5562:Cantabrian Wars 5500:Macedonian Wars 5407: 5400: 5395: 5365: 5360: 5338: 5334:Curia of Pompey 5297: 5244: 5213: 5187: 5147: 5116: 5092:Forum of Caesar 5080: 5043: 4992: 4955: 4942: 4901:Alexandrian war 4862: 4779: 4761: 4718: 4713: 4675: 4665: 4630: 4614: 4589: 4568: 4566:Ancient sources 4563: 4534: 4515: 4443: 4422: 4360: 4330: 4329: 4325: 4286: 4233: 4231: 4187: 4186: 4174: 4129: 4128: 4116: 4095: 4062: 4034: 4032: 4010: 3976: 3915: 3882: 3874:. p. 475. 3857: 3826: 3797: 3771: 3769: 3749: 3725: 3703: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3665: 3659:Cendrowicz 2009 3657: 3653: 3642:SciFiDimensions 3634: 3630: 3622: 3618: 3610: 3606: 3598: 3594: 3590:, pp. 214. 3586: 3582: 3545: 3541: 3533: 3529: 3514: 3498: 3494: 3486: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3462: 3455: 3447: 3443: 3435: 3431: 3421: 3419: 3410: 3409: 3405: 3395: 3393: 3385: 3384: 3380: 3370: 3368: 3366:British Library 3358: 3354: 3346: 3339: 3331: 3324: 3316: 3312: 3299: 3298: 3294: 3286: 3269: 3261: 3252: 3244: 3240: 3232: 3228: 3220: 3205: 3195: 3193: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3160: 3156: 3148: 3144: 3136: 3119: 3103: 3102: 3095: 3093: 3079: 3075: 3065: 3063: 3053: 3049: 3030: 3029: 3025: 3017: 3010: 3002: 2998: 2990: 2973: 2969:, pp. 466. 2965: 2961: 2953: 2949: 2941: 2937: 2929: 2914: 2906: 2902: 2894: 2890: 2882: 2878: 2870: 2866: 2858: 2854: 2846: 2842: 2834: 2830: 2822: 2818: 2810: 2806: 2798: 2794: 2786: 2782: 2774: 2770: 2762: 2758: 2750: 2743: 2735: 2731: 2723: 2719: 2711: 2707: 2699: 2695: 2687: 2683: 2679:, pp. 475. 2675: 2668: 2660: 2647: 2639: 2632: 2628:, p. 7-16. 2624: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2598: 2596: 2588: 2587: 2583: 2575: 2568: 2560: 2553: 2545: 2538: 2530: 2526: 2518: 2514: 2506: 2502: 2494: 2490: 2482: 2478: 2470: 2466: 2458: 2454: 2446: 2439: 2431: 2427: 2419: 2415: 2407: 2403: 2391: 2387: 2379: 2375: 2365: 2363: 2359: 2351: 2347: 2339: 2326: 2318: 2314: 2306: 2302: 2294: 2287: 2279: 2275: 2267: 2263: 2255: 2251: 2243: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2225: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2165: 2149: 2084:Camille Jullian 2062: 2050: 1976: 1965:circumvallation 1955:surrounded the 1922: 1912:in 46 BC. 1881:siege of Alesia 1858: 1729: 1668: 1621: 1615: 1613:Revolts in Gaul 1586: 1513:English Channel 1496: 1486: 1477:Luca Conference 1427: 1401:First Punic War 1389:grappling hooks 1373: 1367: 1300: 1254: 1219:at what is now 1179: 1171:Publius Crassus 1123: 1117: 1091:In the ensuing 1089: 1045:Germanic tribes 1020: 1015: 982:auxiliary units 962:Legio VIII 885: 812:instead of the 789:auxiliary units 761: 744:La Tène culture 740: 735: 687:English Channel 596: 591: 572:Lutetia (52 BC) 503: 498: 496: 458: 457: 418: 415:10,000+ wounded 325: 302: 273: 265: 252: 223:Gaius Trebonius 177: 119: 105: 45: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7341: 7331: 7330: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7305: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7263: 7262: 7254: 7251: 7250: 7248: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7171: 7169: 7163: 7162: 7159: 7158: 7156: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7134: 7132: 7126: 7125: 7123: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7042: 7040: 7038:Eastern Europe 7034: 7033: 7031: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 6999: 6997: 6991: 6990: 6988: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6891: 6889: 6883: 6882: 6880: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6573: 6571: 6565: 6564: 6562: 6561: 6556: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6376: 6374: 6368: 6367: 6365: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6187:Bituriges Cubi 6184: 6179: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6121: 6119: 6113: 6112: 6110: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5973: 5971: 5962: 5958: 5957: 5955: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5884: 5882: 5878: 5877: 5870: 5868: 5866: 5865: 5864:(50 BC–476 AD) 5859: 5853: 5847: 5841: 5836: 5829: 5827: 5823: 5822: 5815: 5814: 5807: 5800: 5792: 5783: 5782: 5775: 5772: 5771: 5769: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5727: 5726: 5716: 5715: 5714: 5709: 5698: 5696: 5688: 5687: 5685: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5671:Bellum Siculum 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5636: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5615: 5610: 5603: 5602: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5581: 5576: 5574:Jugurthine War 5571: 5566: 5565: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5547:Lusitanian War 5544: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5523: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5497: 5492: 5491: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5470: 5465: 5464: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5412: 5410: 5408:Roman Republic 5402: 5401: 5394: 5393: 5386: 5379: 5371: 5362: 5361: 5359: 5358: 5343: 5340: 5339: 5337: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5305: 5303: 5299: 5298: 5296: 5295: 5293:Caesar (title) 5290: 5285: 5280: 5278:Caesar's Comet 5275: 5270: 5265: 5261:Life of Caesar 5256: 5254: 5250: 5249: 5246: 5245: 5243: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5221: 5219: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5195: 5193: 5189: 5188: 5186: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5164: 5162: 5155: 5149: 5148: 5146: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5124: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5102:Basilica Julia 5099: 5094: 5088: 5086: 5082: 5081: 5079: 5078: 5073: 5066: 5059: 5056:Alea iacta est 5051: 5049: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5041: 5036: 5029: 5022: 5015: 5008: 5000: 4998: 4994: 4993: 4991: 4990: 4983: 4978: 4971: 4963: 4961: 4957: 4956: 4954: 4953: 4947: 4944: 4943: 4941: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4914: 4913: 4908: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4872: 4870: 4864: 4863: 4861: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4789: 4787: 4778: 4777: 4771: 4769: 4763: 4762: 4760: 4759: 4754: 4753: 4752: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4726: 4724: 4720: 4719: 4712: 4711: 4704: 4697: 4689: 4683: 4682: 4674: 4673:External links 4671: 4670: 4669: 4663: 4642: 4627: 4626: 4612: 4597: 4587: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4561: 4538: 4532: 4519: 4513: 4488: 4447: 4441: 4426: 4420: 4405: 4385:10.1086/365589 4364: 4358: 4343: 4323: 4298: 4284: 4269: 4255:(1): 215–242. 4240: 4200: 4172: 4157: 4142: 4114: 4099: 4093: 4074: 4060: 4041: 4022: 4008: 3993: 3980: 3974: 3966:Hachette Books 3954: 3927: 3913: 3898: 3880: 3861: 3855: 3838: 3824: 3809: 3795: 3778: 3753: 3748:978-0891308126 3747: 3729: 3723: 3707: 3701: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3664: 3663: 3651: 3628: 3616: 3604: 3592: 3580: 3539: 3527: 3512: 3492: 3480: 3476:Delestrée 2004 3468: 3453: 3451:, pp. 38. 3449:Time-Life 1988 3441: 3429: 3403: 3378: 3352: 3337: 3322: 3310: 3292: 3267: 3250: 3238: 3226: 3203: 3173: 3154: 3152:, pp. 46. 3142: 3117: 3091:www.livius.org 3073: 3047: 3023: 3008: 3006:, p. 213. 3004:Broughton 1951 2996: 2971: 2959: 2947: 2935: 2912: 2900: 2898:, p. 281. 2888: 2876: 2864: 2862:, p. 109. 2852: 2840: 2828: 2826:, p. 277. 2816: 2814:, p. 177. 2804: 2792: 2780: 2778:, p. 272. 2768: 2756: 2754:, p. 271. 2741: 2729: 2727:, p. 158. 2717: 2715:, p. 247. 2705: 2693: 2681: 2666: 2645: 2630: 2618: 2606: 2581: 2566: 2551: 2536: 2534:, p. 246. 2524: 2522:, p. 159. 2512: 2500: 2488: 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549: 544: 539: 534: 529: 527:Vosges (58 BC) 524: 519: 514: 508: 505: 504: 495: 494: 487: 480: 472: 464: 463: 456: 455: 448: 446:Julius Caesar: 443: 440: 434: 427: 421: 419: 417: 416: 413: 412:30,000+ killed 409: 405: 404: 400: 399: 398: 397: 391: 378: 377: 376: 370: 364: 358: 352: 346: 332: 331: 327: 326: 324: 323: 321:Cassivellaunus 318: 313: 308: 295: 290: 276: 274: 272: 271: 258: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 198:Titus Labienus 195: 187: 184: 183: 179: 178: 176: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 149: 147: 145:Roman Republic 141: 140: 136: 135: 132: 131: 130: 129: 126: 121: 115: 114: 111: 107: 106: 72: 70: 66: 65: 62: 54: 53: 37: 36: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7340: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7303:Julius Caesar 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7275: 7273: 7260: 7257: 7252: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 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5006: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4995: 4989: 4988: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4976: 4972: 4970: 4969: 4965: 4964: 4962: 4958: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4873: 4871: 4869: 4865: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4782: 4776: 4773: 4772: 4770: 4768: 4764: 4758: 4757:Assassination 4755: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4727: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4716:Julius Caesar 4710: 4705: 4703: 4698: 4696: 4691: 4690: 4687: 4680: 4677: 4676: 4666: 4660: 4656: 4651: 4650: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4634: 4629: 4628: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4609: 4605: 4604: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4584: 4580: 4579: 4574: 4570: 4569: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4545: 4539: 4535: 4529: 4525: 4520: 4516: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 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New Haven. 4107: 4106: 4100: 4096: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4081: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4048: 4042: 4030: 4029: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4005: 4001: 4000: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3981: 3977: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3934: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3914:2-9518364-0-6 3910: 3906: 3905: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3868: 3862: 3858: 3852: 3848: 3847:Da Capo Press 3844: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3825:0-521-07492-4 3821: 3817: 3816: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3779: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3744: 3740: 3739: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3685: 3679: 3678: 3660: 3655: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3632: 3625: 3620: 3613: 3608: 3601: 3600:Albrecht 1994 3596: 3589: 3588:Herzfeld 1960 3584: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3543: 3536: 3531: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3505: 3504: 3496: 3489: 3484: 3477: 3472: 3465: 3464:Gilliver 2003 3460: 3458: 3450: 3445: 3438: 3433: 3417: 3413: 3407: 3392: 3388: 3382: 3367: 3363: 3356: 3349: 3348:Gilliver 2003 3344: 3342: 3334: 3333:Gilliver 2003 3329: 3327: 3319: 3314: 3306: 3302: 3296: 3289: 3288:Gilliver 2003 3284: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3272: 3264: 3263:Gilliver 2003 3259: 3257: 3255: 3247: 3246:Crawford 1974 3242: 3235: 3234:Luibheid 1970 3230: 3223: 3222:Gilliver 2003 3218: 3216: 3214: 3212: 3210: 3208: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3177: 3169: 3165: 3158: 3151: 3150:Gilliver 2003 3146: 3139: 3138:Gilliver 2003 3134: 3132: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3113: 3107: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3077: 3062: 3058: 3051: 3043: 3039: 3038: 3033: 3027: 3020: 3015: 3013: 3005: 3000: 2993: 2992:Gilliver 2003 2988: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2968: 2967:Crawford 1974 2963: 2957:, p. 43. 2956: 2951: 2945:, p. 66. 2944: 2939: 2932: 2931:Gilliver 2003 2927: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2910:, p. 36. 2909: 2908:Gilliver 2003 2904: 2897: 2892: 2886:, p. 89. 2885: 2880: 2873: 2868: 2861: 2856: 2849: 2844: 2837: 2832: 2825: 2820: 2813: 2808: 2801: 2796: 2789: 2784: 2777: 2772: 2765: 2760: 2753: 2748: 2746: 2738: 2733: 2726: 2721: 2714: 2709: 2702: 2701:Gilliver 2003 2697: 2690: 2685: 2678: 2677:Delbrück 1990 2673: 2671: 2663: 2662:Gilliver 2003 2658: 2656: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2642: 2641:Gilliver 2003 2637: 2635: 2627: 2622: 2615: 2610: 2595: 2591: 2585: 2579:, p. 73. 2578: 2573: 2571: 2563: 2562:Gilliver 2003 2558: 2556: 2549:, p. 91. 2548: 2543: 2541: 2533: 2528: 2521: 2516: 2510:, p. 87. 2509: 2504: 2498:, p. 11. 2497: 2496:Gilliver 2003 2492: 2485: 2480: 2473: 2468: 2461: 2456: 2449: 2444: 2442: 2434: 2429: 2423:, p. 81. 2422: 2417: 2410: 2409:Gilliver 2003 2405: 2398: 2394: 2393:Gauthier 2015 2389: 2382: 2381:Gilliver 2003 2377: 2358: 2357: 2349: 2342: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2331: 2329: 2322:, p. 15. 2321: 2316: 2309: 2304: 2297: 2292: 2290: 2282: 2277: 2271:, p. 97. 2270: 2265: 2258: 2253: 2247:, p. 46. 2246: 2245:Delbrück 1990 2241: 2239: 2234: 2220: 2214: 2210: 2202: 2200: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2170: 2163:In literature 2160: 2157: 2156:Kurt Raaflaub 2153: 2148: 2147:'spin doctors 2143: 2138: 2136: 2132: 2131:Ferdinand Lot 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2107: 2103: 2101: 2100:Hans Delbrück 2097: 2092: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2080: 2071: 2066: 2060: 2054: 2045: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2009: 2006: 2002: 1997: 1996:Aulus Hirtius 1988: 1984: 1982: 1971: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1926: 1917: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1898: 1893: 1889: 1886: 1885:pincer attack 1882: 1878: 1874: 1871: 1862: 1849: 1845: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1803:siege engines 1799: 1794: 1792: 1787: 1781: 1776: 1772: 1771: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1755: 1754:Vercingetorix 1750: 1746: 1737: 1733: 1724: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1696: 1692: 1690: 1686: 1677: 1672: 1663: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1625: 1620: 1610: 1607: 1606:Marcus Cicero 1603: 1599: 1595: 1590: 1581: 1578: 1574: 1573: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1550: 1546: 1544: 1534: 1530: 1527: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1491: 1481: 1478: 1472: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1431: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1410: 1408: 1407: 1403:by using the 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1377: 1372: 1362: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1295: 1293: 1292: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1273: 1269: 1267: 1258: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1208: 1206: 1205: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1183: 1174: 1172: 1167: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1151: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1138: 1127: 1122: 1112: 1108: 1106: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1084: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1060: 1056: 1055:at the time. 1054: 1050: 1046: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1024: 1010: 1008: 1007: 1002: 998: 993: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 954: 952: 948: 944: 940: 939: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 901:Julius Caesar 894: 889: 883:Julius Caesar 880: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 855:and saved by 854: 850: 846: 841: 839: 835: 831: 830:baggage train 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224: 221: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 193: 192:Julius Caesar 189: 188: 186: 185: 180: 174: 173:and others... 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 150: 148: 146: 143: 142: 137: 127: 124: 123: 122: 117: 116: 113:Roman victory 112: 109: 108: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 76:(present-day 75: 71: 68: 67: 63: 60: 59: 55: 52: 48: 43: 38: 33: 30: 26: 22: 7255: 7180:Argentomagus 7148:Tolistobogii 6980:Vertamocorii 6530:Vertamocorii 6495:Segovellauni 6415:Budenicenses 6207:Coriosolites 6042:Mediomatrici 5855: 5852:(125–121 BC) 5844:Galatian War 5835:(ca. 387 BC) 5776: 5731:Armenian War 5694:Roman Empire 5677:Perusine War 5669: 5639: 5605: 5584:Servile Wars 5579:Cimbrian War 5532:Galatian War 5451:Samnite Wars 5353: 5346: 5260: 5138:Green Caesar 5068: 5061: 5054: 5031: 5024: 5017: 5010: 5003: 4985: 4973: 4966: 4784: 4648: 4631: 4602: 4577: 4543: 4523: 4492: 4462:(1): 76–94. 4459: 4455: 4431: 4410: 4379:(2): 88–94. 4376: 4372: 4348: 4304: 4274: 4252: 4248: 4232:. Retrieved 4212: 4208: 4162: 4147: 4104: 4078: 4050:. New York: 4046: 4033:. Retrieved 4027: 3998: 3984: 3961: 3937: 3931: 3903: 3866: 3845:. New York: 3842: 3814: 3782: 3770:. Retrieved 3761: 3737: 3714: 3711: 3683: 3669:Bibliography 3654: 3646:the original 3631: 3626:, p. 1. 3619: 3607: 3595: 3583: 3559:(1): 54–80. 3556: 3552: 3542: 3530: 3502: 3495: 3490:, p. 7. 3483: 3471: 3466:, p. 7. 3444: 3437:Heather 2009 3432: 3420:. Retrieved 3418:. 7 May 2020 3415: 3406: 3394:. Retrieved 3390: 3381: 3369:. Retrieved 3365: 3355: 3313: 3295: 3241: 3229: 3194:. Retrieved 3176: 3167: 3163: 3157: 3145: 3094:. Retrieved 3090: 3076: 3064:. Retrieved 3060: 3050: 3035: 3026: 3019:Hammond 1996 2999: 2962: 2955:Matthew 2009 2950: 2938: 2903: 2891: 2879: 2867: 2855: 2843: 2831: 2819: 2807: 2795: 2783: 2771: 2759: 2732: 2720: 2708: 2696: 2684: 2621: 2609: 2597:. Retrieved 2593: 2584: 2527: 2515: 2503: 2491: 2484:Matthew 2009 2479: 2467: 2455: 2448:Matthew 2009 2428: 2416: 2404: 2396: 2388: 2376: 2364:. Retrieved 2355: 2348: 2315: 2308:McCarty 2008 2303: 2276: 2264: 2252: 2213: 2196: 2177: 2168: 2166: 2154: 2141: 2139: 2127: 2110: 2091:David Henige 2088: 2077: 2075: 2058: 2051: 2040:, until the 2010: 1993: 1977: 1969: 1959:and set the 1956: 1944: 1931: 1914: 1902: 1872: 1867: 1837: 1829: 1819: 1806: 1795: 1768: 1758: 1741: 1721: 1713:Indutiomarus 1702: 1699:tributaries. 1688: 1681: 1656:siege towers 1649: 1634: 1630: 1598:Catuvellauni 1591: 1587: 1576: 1570: 1567: 1555: 1542: 1539: 1509: 1473: 1468:his uprising 1443:Coriosolites 1436: 1411: 1405: 1392: 1385:Quiberon Bay 1382: 1359: 1343: 1324: 1321:and shields. 1289: 1274: 1270: 1263: 1216: 1209: 1202: 1184: 1180: 1163: 1152: 1140: 1136: 1133: 1109: 1101: 1090: 1061: 1057: 1052: 1029: 1004: 994: 970:Legio X 955: 936: 898: 857:Gaius Marius 842: 827: 807: 778: 741: 726: 723:David Henige 714: 712: 708:Roman Empire 695: 668: 599: 597: 517:Arar (58 BC) 499: 445: 424: 393: 387: 381: 380: 372: 366: 360: 354: 348: 342: 336: 335: 303: 298:Indutiomarus 279: 266: 253: 190: 172: 139:Belligerents 46: 29: 7278:Gallic Wars 7168:settlements 7086:Hercuniates 6935:Gallianates 6925:Bromanenses 6420:Camactulici 6372:Narbonensis 6262:Nitiobroges 6182:Bodiocasses 6164:Brannovices 6102:Veliocasses 6082:Silvanectes 5856:Gallic Wars 5692:Wars of the 5640:Gallic Wars 5569:Achaean War 5456:Pyrrhic War 5406:Wars of the 5314:Mark Antony 5263:by Plutarch 5097:Curia Julia 5033:De analogia 4960:Legislation 4891:Dyrrhachium 4858:Uxellodunum 4785:Gallic Wars 4740:Gallic wars 4234:2 September 4085:Orion Books 3870:. Lincoln: 3772:7 September 3624:Caesar 1982 3318:Fields 2014 3196:30 November 3170:(2): 18–23. 2860:Fuller 1965 2812:Walter 1952 2800:Walter 1952 2764:Walter 1952 2737:Walter 1952 2725:Walter 1952 2689:Caesar 1982 2626:Caesar 1982 2599:2 September 2520:Walter 1952 2472:Taylor 2019 2433:Taylor 2019 2421:Taylor 2019 2341:Henige 1998 2320:Caesar 1982 2296:Fields 2010 2281:Appian 2016 2269:Keppie 1998 2142:Commentarii 2119:Confederate 2111:Commentarii 2059:Commentarii 2044:in 406 AD. 1981:a civil war 1949:Uxellodunum 1577:Commentarii 1563:Pegwell Bay 1543:casus belli 1291:supplicatio 1137:casus belli 1053:casus belli 1006:casus belli 978:Lusitanians 938:Lex Vatinia 727:Commentarii 624:Switzerland 600:Gallic Wars 500:Gallic Wars 203:Mark Antony 118:Territorial 90:Switzerland 49:, 1899, by 35:Gallic Wars 7272:Categories 7230:Magetobria 7143:Tectosages 7066:Cornacates 7061:Britolagai 7013:Lactorates 6985:Votodrones 6960:Montunates 6940:Gennanates 6777:Savincates 6697:Cosuanetes 6647:Bodiontici 6637:Benacenses 6617:Ausuciates 6612:Aneuniates 6607:Ambisontes 6587:Adunicates 6577:Acitavones 6559:Vulgientes 6553:Tectosages 6510:Tricastini 6490:Segobrigii 6390:Allobroges 6380:Agesinates 6362:Viducasses 6277:Petrocorii 6212:Durocasses 6176:Eburovices 6172:Diablintes 6125:Abrincatui 6107:Viromandui 6087:Suessiones 6002:Caeracates 5862:Roman Gaul 5858:(58–50 BC) 5712:Gothic War 5473:Punic Wars 5461:Social War 5309:Julia gens 5143:Arles bust 5076:Last words 4975:Lex Roscia 4881:Brundisium 4533:0705409740 4313:. p. 4182:1010620484 4151:. London: 4083:. London: 3964:. London: 3805:1057781585 3724:342330099X 3612:Adema 2017 2884:Grant 1974 2614:Lord 2012a 2508:Grant 1974 2257:Dodge 1997 2229:References 2113:, made by 2089:Historian 2014:Old French 1842:centurions 1660:earthworks 1617:See also: 1504:John Soane 1488:See also: 1309:minted by 1242:Viromandui 1213:Suessiones 1144:Diviciacus 909:Ariovistus 785:Roman army 733:Background 429:1,000,000 316:Ariovistus 82:Luxembourg 7245:Vertillum 7220:Entremont 7166:Pre-Roman 7138:Aigosages 7096:Scordisci 7071:Costoboci 7051:Arabiates 7023:Tarusates 7008:Cocosates 6995:Aquitania 6970:Subinates 6910:Arusnates 6905:Anesiates 6887:Cisalpina 6877:Vindelici 6872:Vesubiani 6837:Vediantii 6827:Triulatti 6782:Sebaginni 6767:Rucinates 6762:Quariates 6757:Nemeturii 6747:Nantuates 6722:Graioceli 6707:Eguiturii 6692:Ceutrones 6687:Caturiges 6682:Catubrini 6677:Catenates 6667:Calucones 6662:Brixentes 6657:Brigianii 6652:Brigantii 6597:Ambidravi 6549:Arecomici 6505:Tolosates 6440:Dexivates 6332:Tricasses 6317:Segusiavi 6237:Lemovices 6232:Latobrigi 6130:Ambiliati 6022:Catalauni 6017:Catuslugi 5997:Bellovaci 5987:Atrebates 5952:Vergobret 5927:Cisalpine 5319:Cleopatra 5283:Caesarism 5204:Caesarion 5183:Calpurnia 5121:Portraits 5085:Buildings 4896:Pharsalus 4876:Corfinium 4868:Civil War 4823:Octodurus 4484:165437350 4476:0018-2311 4401:162232759 4393:0009-837X 4333:cite book 4229:162494914 4190:cite book 4132:cite book 4124:936322646 4052:Routledge 4018:298185011 3944:: 64–94. 3687:. 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