183:
31:
2528:
382:(and optional hypergolic boosters on the Ariane 3 and 4) have been retired and replaced with the Ariane 5, which uses a first stage fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The Titan II, III and IV, with their hypergolic first and second stages, have also been retired for the Atlas V (RP-1/oxygen) and Delta IV (hydrogen/oxygen). Hypergolic propellants are still used in upper stages, when multiple burn-coast periods are required, and in
395:
437:
As hypergolic rockets do not need an ignition system, they can fire any number of times by simply opening and closing the propellant valves until the propellants are exhausted and are therefore uniquely suited for spacecraft maneuvering and well suited, though not uniquely so, as upper stages of such
79:. The main advantages of hypergolic propellants are that they can be stored as liquids at room temperature and that engines which are powered by them are easy to ignite reliably and repeatedly. Common hypergolic propellants are difficult to handle due to their extreme
266:
as oxidizer. The hypergolic rocket motor had the advantage of fast climb and quick-hitting tactics at the cost of being very volatile and capable of exploding with any degree of inattention. Other proposed combat rocket fighters like the
509:
has so far limited their practical use to space launch vehicles where they need to be stored only briefly. As the largest issue with the usage of cryogenic propellants in interplanetary space is boil-off, which is largely dependent on
430:. The propellants in turn flow through control valves into the combustion chamber; there, their instant contact ignition prevents a mixture of unreacted propellants from accumulating and then igniting in a potentially catastrophic
845:
are not hypergolic, but concentrated hydrogen peroxide (referred to as high-test peroxide or HTP) run over a catalyst produces free oxygen and steam at over 700 °C (1,300 °F) which is hypergolic with
955:) + all known fuels – Briefly considered as an oxidizer given its high hypergolicity with all standard fuels, but ultimately abandoned in the 70s due to the difficulty of handling the substance safely.
1410:
596:
of traditional hypergolics necessitate expensive safety precautions. Failure to follow adequate safety procedures with an exceptionally dangerous UDMH-nitric acid propellant mixture nicknamed
328:. But the difficulties of such corrosive and toxic materials, including injury-causing leaks and the explosion of a Titan-II in its silo, led to their near universal replacement with
1589:
414:
Hypergolically-fueled rocket engines are usually simple and reliable because they need no ignition system. Although larger hypergolic engines in some launch vehicles use
285:
vertical launch expendable fighter was ever flight-tested with the Walter rocket propulsion system as its primary sustaining thrust system for military-purpose aircraft.
1031:
substances, which ignite spontaneously in the presence of air, are also sometimes used as rocket fuels themselves or to ignite other fuels. For example a mixture of
549:, as the higher propellant density allows the size of their propellant tank to be reduced significantly, which in turn allows the probe to fit within a smaller
1404:
237:
which required external ignition, and lithergols were solid/liquid hybrids. Hypergolic propellants (or at least hypergolic ignition) were far less prone to
1005:
rocket engine. This propellant combination would have yielded a significant increase in performance, but was ultimately given up due to toxicity concerns.
1677:
1442:
320:
like liquid oxygen in a missile that had to be kept launch ready for months or years at a time led to a switch to hypergolic propellants in the U.S.
366:
The trend among
Western space launch agencies is away from large hypergolic rocket engines and toward hydrogen/oxygen engines or methane/oxygen and
1862:
2258:
446:, which must perform more than one burn. Restartable non-hypergolic rocket engines nevertheless exist, notably the cryogenic (oxygen/hydrogen)
199:
2376:
1313:
1776:
1585:
1171:
1554:
1997:
581:. A launch vehicle that uses hypergolic propellant must therefore carry a greater mass of fuel than one that uses these cryogenic fuels.
241:
than electric or pyrotechnic ignition. The "hypergole" terminology was coined by Dr. Wolfgang Nöggerath, at the
Technical University of
2274:
1525:
537:
fuel offers extremely high performance, yet its density only warrants its usage in the largest of rocket stages, while mixtures of
118:
of 80–83%. He was probably the first to discover this phenomenon, and set to work developing a fuel. Prof. Otto Lutz assisted the
90:
In contemporary usage, the terms "hypergol" and "hypergolic propellant" usually mean the most common such propellant combination:
1603:
371:
823:(toxic but stable), abandoned due to lack of reliable ignition. No engine with this combination ever went into mass production.
1269:
1216:
1165:
171:
and PBY bombers, but the project was disliked because of the toxic properties of both fuel and oxidizer, as well as the high
119:
1497:
1335:
1713:
1855:
1649:
182:
2179:
741:
1732:
2253:
1808:
1794:
1770:
1695:
1481:
1245:
667:
348:
136:. BMW developed engines burning a hypergolic mix of nitric acid with various combinations of amines, xylidines and
1673:
919:
721:
641:
542:
486:
2279:
2144:
1848:
1234:
Peenemünde West: Die
Erprobungsstelle der Luftwaffe für geheime Fernlenkwaffen und deren Entwicklungsgeschichte
2383:
2238:
2207:
2202:
1511:
1052:
711:
467:
1451:
1238:
Peenemünde West: The
Luftwaffe's test center for secret guided missiles and the history of their development
1828:
163:
worked on aniline/nitric acid engines in the early 1940s, for small missiles and jet assisted take-off (
2557:
1392:
1008:
677:
399:
17:
2338:
2197:
521:
Another advantage of hypergolic propellants is their high density compared to cryogenic propellants.
515:
352:
1039:(which are both separately and even more so together pyrophoric), was used for engine starts in the
2371:
2130:
2104:
2046:
2030:
2020:
1833:
203:
2303:
1309:
2427:
2400:
2355:
2343:
2323:
2089:
2051:
2025:
681:
670:
360:
1757:
1444:
Apollo 11 Mission Report - Performance of the
Command and Service Module Reaction Control System
1152:
2478:
2328:
2228:
1970:
1564:
1012:
960:
923:
913:
869:
810:
806:
796:
792:
788:
733:
451:
375:
148:
65:
1823:
710:– used during the ignition process of some rocket engines that use liquid oxygen, used by the
493:, are all liquid at ordinary temperatures and pressures. They are therefore sometimes called
2552:
2063:
1871:
834:
745:
689:
301:
1371:
175:
of aniline. The second problem was eventually solved by the addition of small quantities of
2174:
2169:
2073:
1987:
956:
948:
899:
383:
278:
were meant to use the Walter 509 series of rocket motors, but besides the Me 163, only the
249:
91:
143:
Hypergolic propellants were discovered independently, for the second time, in the U.S. by
8:
2333:
2318:
2233:
2120:
2099:
2068:
1044:
935:
736:, and supplied by them to France for the Ariane 1 first and second stages (replaced with
659:
633:
601:
511:
482:
455:
340:
234:
226:
1627:
1533:
1188:
Lutz, O. (1957). "BMW Developments". In
Benecke, T. H.; Quick, A.W.; Schulz, W. (eds.).
2532:
2498:
2463:
1262:
Command and control: nuclear weapons, the
Damascus Accident, and the illusion of safety
998:
982:
903:
885:
830:
725:
663:
625:
562:
530:
490:
289:
168:
115:
1610:
1194:. Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development-AG-20. Appelhans. p. 420.
147:
and Navy
Annapolis researchers in 1940. They developed engines powered by aniline and
2527:
2493:
2448:
2348:
2248:
1950:
1924:
1804:
1790:
1766:
1505:
1477:
1450:. NASA - Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. December 1971. pp. 4, 8. Archived from
1265:
1241:
1212:
1191:
History of German Guided
Missiles Development (Guided Missiles Seminar. 1956. Munich)
1161:
1113:
1036:
838:
778:
703:
379:
329:
133:
111:
57:
2513:
2503:
2453:
2159:
1912:
1753:
1709:
1375:
1354:
1353:. NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69. NIST Office of Data and Informatics.
1148:
994:
968:
802:
784:
597:
321:
293:
176:
525:
has a density of 1.14 g/ml, while on the other hand, hypergolic oxidizers such as
260:, a rocket motor which consumed methanol/hydrazine as fuel and high test peroxide
2125:
1929:
1895:
1736:
1469:
1327:
1206:
1189:
1040:
566:
550:
534:
502:
305:
156:
107:
316:. Although they are preferred in space launchers, the difficulties of storing a
30:
2458:
2393:
2094:
1934:
1726:
1032:
986:
978:
715:
699:
347:, employed hypergolic fuels in both the descent and ascent rocket engines. The
344:
325:
268:
230:
211:
172:
160:
152:
1386:
2546:
2468:
2388:
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2212:
1992:
1982:
1977:
1900:
1890:
853:
707:
693:
674:
578:
570:
522:
506:
356:
313:
279:
186:
An early hypergolic-propellant rocket engine, the Walter 109-509A of 1942–45.
84:
61:
1310:"Fuel Propellants - Storable, and Hypergolic vs. Ignitable by Mike Schooley"
497:. They are suitable for use in spacecraft missions lasting many years. The
2473:
2432:
2405:
2164:
1960:
1955:
1604:"Project SPECTRA - Experimental evaluation of a Liquid storable propellant"
927:
865:
849:
769:
600:, for example, resulted in the deadliest rocketry accident in history, the
561:
Relative to their mass, traditional hypergolic propellants possess a lower
427:
242:
191:
1691:
1424:
1372:
A Summary of NASA and USAF Hypergolic
Propellant Related Spills and Fires
2488:
2483:
2289:
1211:. Library of flight. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
931:
861:
820:
765:
637:
621:
585:
546:
545:
have a density at least ten times higher. This is of great importance in
526:
423:
257:
35:
1840:
2508:
1965:
1028:
909:
593:
498:
431:
317:
238:
167:). The project resulted in the successful assisted take off of several
574:
1559:
1117:
1105:
1016:
816:
729:
645:
538:
478:
415:
297:
95:
44:
39:
1358:
422:, is fed to the propellant tanks under pressure through a series of
1059:
1048:
990:
857:
842:
826:
685:
629:
589:
471:
459:
443:
439:
309:
195:
129:
80:
76:
1240:] (in German), Peene Münde West: Weltbildverlag, p. 220,
628:(NTO) – widely used in historical American rockets, including the
394:
2284:
1917:
1787:
Modern Engineering for Design of Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines
895:
891:
774:
761:
275:
262:
137:
124:
1907:
1885:
1529:
1056:
1002:
419:
144:
132:, and 13% water, and spontaneously ignited with high strength
737:
447:
463:
418:, most hypergolic engines are pressure-fed. A gas, usually
367:
333:
164:
72:
1759:
Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants
1154:
Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants
1106:"Investigation of Hypergolic Fuels with Hydrogen Peroxide"
1285:
1110:
3rd International Hydrogen Peroxide Propulsion Conference
837:, with the peroxide first decomposed by a catalyst. Cold
757:
Less-common or obsolete hypergolic propellants include:
666:(NTO) – smaller engines and reaction control thrusters:
533:
have a density of 1.55 g/ml and 1.45 g/ml respectively.
1765:. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
248:
The only rocket-powered fighter ever deployed was the
902:
World War II German rocket fighter aircraft, for its
359:(among others) used hypergolic propellants for their
868:derivatives (AK-2x group in the Soviet Union) e.g.
617:Common hypergolic propellant combinations include:
71:The two propellant components usually consist of a
1104:Melof, Brian M.; Grubelich, Mark C. (2000-11-15).
1674:"European space-rocket liquid-propellant engines"
1500:. Archived from the original on February 2, 2013.
1472:Development of the Shuttle, 1972–1981 - Volume 2.
2544:
221:or oil, later influenced by the chemical suffix
967:) presents the same hazards, but offers higher
938:Upper Stages, Isayev-built maneuvering engines.
1103:
336:and then in land-based U.S. and Soviet ICBMs.
1856:
194:, rocket propellants were broadly classed as
68:when they come into contact with each other.
565:than cryogenic propellant combinations like
1801:History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines
1518:
1208:History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines
942:
128:which contained 30% hydrazine hydrate, 57%
1863:
1849:
1498:"Space Launch Report: Ariane 5 Data Sheet"
1143:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
752:
607:
38:due to the hazards of the hypergolic fuel
1870:
1259:
993:, was studied by Soviet Rocket Scientist
898:(methanol, hydrazine, water, catalyst) –
2275:Atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion
1348:
514:of spacecraft, for larger craft such as
393:
181:
29:
1124:
916:(flown in French Diamant A first-stage)
14:
2545:
1789:, Huzel & Huang, pub. AIAA, 1992.
1204:
1181:
1015:– A sightly less toxic alternative to
959:is known to burn concrete and gravel.
190:In Germany from the mid-1930s through
1844:
1752:
1413:from the original on 15 November 2014
1231:
1198:
1147:
1023:
334:submarine-launched ballistic missiles
324:and in most Soviet ICBMs such as the
274:and reconnaissance aircraft like the
1592:from the original on 7 January 2022.
1467:
1342:
1187:
1264:. New York, NY: The Penguin Press.
768:(unstable, explosive), used in the
398:Hypergolic propellant tanks of the
378:1 through 4, with their hypergolic
24:
2180:Field-emission electric propulsion
1782:from the original on 10 July 2022.
1720:
1680:from the original on 23 July 2021.
1328:"PROPERTIES OF ROCKET PROPELLANTS"
1316:from the original on 24 July 2021.
1177:from the original on 10 July 2022.
477:The most common hypergolic fuels,
389:
351:used the same combination for the
25:
2569:
2254:Microwave electrothermal thruster
1816:
1716:from the original on 1 July 2022.
1698:from the original on 12 May 2022.
1476:. Smithsonian Institution Press.
1338:from the original on 26 May 2022.
668:Apollo command and service module
2526:
894:(stabilized >80% peroxide) +
556:
1702:
1684:
1666:
1642:
1620:
1596:
1578:
1547:
1490:
1461:
1435:
1417:
1406:The Nedelin Catastrophe, Part 1
1397:
1380:
1365:
1320:
722:Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine
487:unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine
2384:Pulsed nuclear thermal rocket
2280:High Power Electric Propulsion
1586:"WAC Corporal Sounding Rocket"
1302:
1278:
1253:
1225:
1097:
1071:
997:for usage in combination with
13:
1:
2239:Helicon double-layer thruster
2208:Electrodeless plasma thruster
2203:Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster
1803:, G. Sutton, pub. AIAA 2005.
1086:
409:
42:, here being loaded onto the
1829:The Periodic Table of Videos
1563:. 2014-03-23. Archived from
1532:. 2007-12-10. Archived from
1160:. Rutgers University Press.
372:advantages and disadvantages
370:/oxygen engines for various
7:
1468:T.A., Heppenheimer (2002).
781:(dust-sensitive, explosive)
728:(NTO) – frequently used by
712:SpaceX Merlin Engine Family
495:storable liquid propellants
355:. Those spacecraft and the
332:boosters, first in Western
233:, while non-hypergols were
34:The attendant wears a full
10:
2574:
1388:"Toxic Propellant Hazards"
1051:rocket and is used in the
1009:Tetramethylethylenediamine
860:) typically oxidized with
518:this is less of an issue.
400:Orbital Maneuvering System
101:
27:Type of rocket engine fuel
2524:
2441:
2420:
2364:
2311:
2302:
2267:
2221:
2198:Pulsed inductive thruster
2190:
2152:
2143:
2113:
2082:
2039:
2013:
2006:
1943:
1878:
1555:"ISRO tests Vikas engine"
1510:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1079:Oxford English Dictionary
612:
353:Service Propulsion System
2372:Nuclear pulse propulsion
2131:Electric-pump-fed engine
2031:Hybrid-propellant rocket
2021:Liquid-propellant rocket
1834:University of Nottingham
1349:Linstrom, Peter (2021).
1260:Schlosser, Eric (2013).
1065:
943:Proposed, remain unflown
811:white fuming nitric acid
361:reaction control systems
122:with the development of
2428:Beam-powered propulsion
2401:Fission-fragment rocket
2356:Nuclear photonic rocket
2324:Nuclear electric rocket
2090:Staged combustion cycle
2026:Solid-propellant rocket
1628:"Nitric acid/Hydrazine"
753:Less common or obsolete
608:Hypergolic combinations
474:can also be restarted.
438:space launchers as the
380:first and second stages
2479:Non-rocket spacelaunch
2329:Nuclear thermal rocket
2229:Pulsed plasma thruster
1351:NIST Chemistry WebBook
1205:Sutton, G. P. (2006).
961:Chlorine pentafluoride
797:Copenhagen Suborbitals
793:red fuming nitric acid
734:Proton (rocket family)
692:thrusters used by the
406:
187:
149:red fuming nitric acid
60:combination used in a
49:
2145:Electrical propulsion
1872:Spacecraft propulsion
1824:"Hypergolic Reaction"
1232:Botho, Stüwe (1998),
632:; all engines in the
397:
384:launch escape systems
292:, such as the Soviet
185:
54:hypergolic propellant
33:
2377:Antimatter-catalyzed
2175:Hall-effect thruster
1988:Solar thermal rocket
1650:"High Test Peroxide"
1425:"ROCKET PROPELLANTS"
1019:and its derivatives.
957:Chlorine trifluoride
949:Chlorine trifluoride
900:Messerschmitt Me 163
852:(TG-02, approx. 50%
640:is a mixture of 50%
250:Messerschmitt Me 163
210:is a combination of
114:was hypergolic with
92:dinitrogen tetroxide
66:spontaneously ignite
2319:Direct Fusion Drive
2234:Vacuum arc thruster
2121:Pressure-fed engine
2100:Gas-generator cycle
2007:Chemical propulsion
1944:Physical propulsion
1616:on 4 November 2013.
1409:, 28 October 2014,
660:Monomethylhydrazine
634:Apollo Lunar Module
602:Nedelin catastrophe
483:monomethylhydrazine
341:Apollo Lunar Module
217:or work, and Latin
64:, whose components
2533:Spaceflight portal
2499:Reactionless drive
2464:Aerogravity assist
2304:Nuclear propulsion
1735:2009-04-30 at the
1710:"Nitric Acid/UDMH"
1536:on January 4, 2011
1024:Related technology
999:nitrogen tetroxide
983:nitrogen tetroxide
831:high-test peroxide
726:nitrogen tetroxide
664:nitrogen tetroxide
626:nitrogen tetroxide
531:nitrogen tetroxide
491:nitrogen tetroxide
407:
290:ballistic missiles
256:. The Komet had a
229:. Monergols were
188:
116:high-test peroxide
50:
2558:Soviet inventions
2540:
2539:
2494:Atmospheric entry
2449:Orbital mechanics
2416:
2415:
2298:
2297:
2249:Resistojet rocket
2139:
2138:
2114:Intake mechanisms
2047:Liquid propellant
1951:Cold gas thruster
1630:. Astronautix.com
1271:978-1-59420-227-8
1218:978-1-56347-649-5
1167:978-0-8135-0725-5
1037:triethylaluminium
864:or its anhydrous
839:hydrogen peroxide
779:hydrogen peroxide
732:, such as in the
704:triethylaluminium
644:and 50% straight
402:of Space Shuttle
349:Apollo spacecraft
134:hydrogen peroxide
112:hydrazine hydrate
58:rocket propellant
16:(Redirected from
2565:
2530:
2514:Alcubierre drive
2504:Field propulsion
2454:Orbital maneuver
2442:Related concepts
2309:
2308:
2160:Colloid thruster
2150:
2149:
2011:
2010:
1913:Specific impulse
1865:
1858:
1851:
1842:
1841:
1837:
1783:
1781:
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1681:
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1661:
1659:
1654:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1624:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1609:. Archived from
1608:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1572:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1526:"SpaceX Updates"
1522:
1516:
1515:
1509:
1501:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1465:
1459:
1458:
1457:on 12 July 2022.
1456:
1449:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1401:
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1389:
1384:
1378:
1376:Internet Archive
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1185:
1179:
1178:
1176:
1159:
1145:
1122:
1121:
1101:
1081:
1075:
969:specific impulse
930:missile system,
803:Furfuryl alcohol
785:Furfuryl alcohol
489:, and oxidizer,
179:to the aniline.
177:furfuryl alcohol
110:discovered that
21:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2562:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2536:
2520:
2437:
2412:
2360:
2294:
2263:
2217:
2191:Electromagnetic
2186:
2135:
2126:Pump-fed engine
2109:
2078:
2035:
2002:
1939:
1930:Rocket equation
1896:Reaction engine
1874:
1869:
1822:
1819:
1814:
1779:
1773:
1762:
1743:
1737:Wayback Machine
1725:
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1381:
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1359:10.18434/T4D303
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1089:
1084:
1076:
1072:
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1055:engines on the
1047:engines on the
1041:SR-71 Blackbird
1026:
981:and diborane +
974:
966:
954:
945:
904:Walter 109-509A
883:
879:
875:
755:
655:
651:
615:
610:
598:"Devil's Venom"
594:carcinogenicity
563:calorific value
559:
551:payload fairing
503:liquid hydrogen
412:
392:
390:Characteristics
231:monopropellants
157:Reaction Motors
108:Hellmuth Walter
104:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2459:Gravity assist
2456:
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2394:Bussard ramjet
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2222:Electrothermal
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2110:
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2097:
2095:Expander cycle
2092:
2086:
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2079:
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2071:
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2064:Monopropellant
2061:
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2043:
2041:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2017:
2015:
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1995:
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1980:
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1973:
1963:
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1941:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1935:Thermal rocket
1932:
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1818:
1817:External links
1815:
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1149:Clark, John D.
1123:
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1083:
1082:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1033:triethylborane
1025:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1006:
989:, a so-called
987:Pentaborane(9)
979:Pentaborane(9)
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944:
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940:
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824:
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800:
799:SPECTRA Engine
782:
772:
754:
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749:
744:rockets using
719:
716:Rocketdyne F-1
700:Triethylborane
697:
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649:
614:
611:
609:
606:
558:
555:
411:
408:
391:
388:
343:, used in the
296:that launched
173:freezing point
161:Curtiss-Wright
153:Robert Goddard
120:Walter Company
103:
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2469:Oberth effect
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2105:Tap-off cycle
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
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2085:
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2074:Tripropellant
2072:
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2019:
2018:
2016:
2012:
2009:
2005:
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1993:Photon rocket
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1983:Magnetic sail
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1978:Electric sail
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1911:
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1906:
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1901:Reaction mass
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1891:Rocket engine
1889:
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1727:Astronautix:
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1581:
1567:on 2014-03-23
1566:
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995:V. P. Glushko
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890:
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867:
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855:
854:triethylamine
851:
848:
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808:
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720:
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713:
709:
708:liquid oxygen
705:
701:
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695:
694:SpaceX Dragon
691:
687:
683:
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676:
675:Space Shuttle
672:
669:
665:
661:
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619:
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605:
603:
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595:
591:
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582:
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576:
572:
568:
564:
557:Disadvantages
554:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
519:
517:
513:
508:
507:liquid oxygen
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
475:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
435:
433:
429:
428:safety valves
425:
421:
417:
405:
401:
396:
387:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
364:
362:
358:
357:Space Shuttle
354:
350:
346:
345:Moon landings
342:
337:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
314:liquid oxygen
311:
307:
303:
300:and the U.S.
299:
295:
291:
288:The earliest
286:
284:
281:
280:Bachem Ba 349
277:
273:
272:
265:
264:
259:
255:
251:
246:
244:
240:
236:
235:bipropellants
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
213:
209:
206:. The ending
205:
201:
200:non-hypergols
198:, hypergols,
197:
193:
184:
180:
178:
174:
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166:
162:
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109:
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97:
93:
88:
86:
85:corrosiveness
82:
78:
74:
69:
67:
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62:rocket engine
59:
55:
47:
46:
41:
37:
32:
19:
2553:Rocket fuels
2531:
2474:Space launch
2406:Fission sail
2334:Radioisotope
2165:Ion thruster
2083:Power cycles
2069:Bipropellant
2056:
1961:Steam rocket
1956:Water rocket
1827:
1800:
1786:
1758:
1746:Bibliography
1728:
1722:
1704:
1686:
1668:
1656:. Retrieved
1644:
1632:. Retrieved
1622:
1611:the original
1598:
1580:
1569:. Retrieved
1565:the original
1558:
1549:
1538:. Retrieved
1534:the original
1520:
1492:
1473:
1470:
1463:
1452:the original
1443:
1437:
1428:
1419:
1405:
1399:
1382:
1367:
1350:
1344:
1331:
1322:
1304:
1293:. Retrieved
1289:
1280:
1261:
1255:
1237:
1233:
1227:
1207:
1200:
1190:
1183:
1153:
1109:
1099:
1078:
1073:
1027:
928:MGM-52 Lance
866:nitric oxide
770:WAC Corporal
756:
746:Vikas engine
706:(TEA-TEB) +
616:
583:
560:
547:space probes
520:
494:
476:
436:
413:
403:
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338:
287:
282:
270:
261:
253:
247:
222:
218:
214:
207:
192:World War II
189:
142:
123:
105:
89:
70:
53:
51:
43:
2489:Aerocapture
2484:Aerobraking
2365:Open system
2349:"Lightbulb"
2290:Mass driver
2040:Propellants
1971:Diffractive
1754:Clark, John
1634:January 13,
1429:braeunig.us
1332:braeunig.us
1043:and in the
862:nitric acid
821:nitric acid
766:nitric acid
696:spacecraft.
638:Aerozine 50
622:Aerozine 50
586:corrosivity
527:nitric acid
258:HWK 109-509
245:, Germany.
239:hard starts
48:space probe
36:hazmat suit
2547:Categories
2509:Warp drive
2339:Salt-water
2057:Hypergolic
1966:Solar sail
1571:2019-07-29
1540:2010-02-03
1295:2021-12-29
1087:References
1077:"-ergol",
1029:Pyrophoric
910:Turpentine
499:cryogenity
432:hard start
416:turbopumps
410:Advantages
330:solid-fuel
204:lithergols
169:Martin PBM
18:Hypergolic
2052:Cryogenic
1560:The Hindu
1092:Citations
1062:rockets.
1017:Hydrazine
886:inhibitor
876:and 20% N
846:kerosene.
817:Hydrazine
730:Roscosmos
724:(UDMH) +
646:hydrazine
539:hydrazine
512:the scale
479:hydrazine
404:Endeavour
298:Sputnik 1
243:Brunswick
196:monergols
106:In 1935,
96:hydrazine
45:MESSENGER
40:hydrazine
2344:Gas core
1879:Concepts
1777:Archived
1756:(1972).
1733:Archived
1714:Archived
1696:Archived
1678:Archived
1658:July 11,
1590:Archived
1506:cite web
1411:archived
1336:Archived
1314:Archived
1286:"SpaceX"
1172:Archived
1151:(1972).
1060:Falcon 9
1049:Saturn V
991:Zip fuel
971:than ClF
872:(80% HNO
858:xylidine
856:and 50%
843:kerosene
827:Kerosene
686:Ariane 5
662:(MMH) +
630:Titan II
590:toxicity
516:Starship
472:Falcon 9
460:Saturn V
454:and the
444:Ariane 5
440:Delta II
322:Titan II
310:kerosene
269:Heinkel
151:(RFNA).
138:anilines
130:methanol
81:toxicity
77:oxidizer
2433:Tethers
2285:MagBeam
2170:Gridded
1925:Staging
1918:Delta-v
1836:. 2009.
1692:"P8E-9"
1393:YouTube
1003:RD-270M
1001:in the
906:engine.
896:C-Stoff
892:T-Stoff
775:Aniline
762:Aniline
470:on the
458:on the
452:Centaur
450:on the
318:cryogen
308:, used
306:Titan-1
276:DFS 228
263:T-Stoff
227:alcohol
125:C-Stoff
102:History
75:and an
2259:VASIMR
1908:Thrust
1886:Rocket
1807:
1793:
1769:
1729:RD-270
1530:SpaceX
1480:
1290:SpaceX
1268:
1244:
1215:
1164:
1118:767866
1116:
1057:SpaceX
1053:Merlin
870:AK-20F
613:Common
592:, and
468:Merlin
462:. The
420:helium
376:Ariane
283:Natter
159:, and
145:GALCIT
2268:Other
2014:State
1780:(PDF)
1763:(PDF)
1653:(pdf)
1614:(PDF)
1607:(PDF)
1455:(PDF)
1448:(PDF)
1236:[
1175:(PDF)
1158:(PDF)
1066:Notes
1013:IRFNA
932:Agena
924:IRFNA
914:IRFNA
884:with
850:Tonka
835:Gamma
789:IRFNA
738:UH 25
690:Draco
688:EPS;
466:/LOX
448:RL-10
424:check
302:Atlas
271:Julia
254:Komet
225:from
219:oleum
215:ergon
212:Greek
208:ergol
94:plus
56:is a
1998:WINE
1805:ISBN
1791:ISBN
1767:ISBN
1660:2014
1636:2023
1512:link
1478:ISBN
1266:ISBN
1242:ISBN
1213:ISBN
1162:ISBN
1114:OSTI
1035:and
963:(ClF
951:(ClF
936:Able
934:and
920:UDMH
841:and
809:(or
807:WFNA
795:) –
791:(or
742:ISRO
714:and
680:and
642:UDMH
584:The
575:LCH4
543:UDMH
541:and
505:and
485:and
464:RP-1
442:and
426:and
368:RP-1
339:The
326:R-36
312:and
304:and
202:and
165:JATO
73:fuel
1391:on
1355:doi
1045:F-1
829:+ (
740:);
682:RCS
678:OMS
671:RCS
579:LOX
573:or
571:LOX
567:LH2
535:LH2
529:or
523:LOX
501:of
456:J-2
294:R-7
223:-ol
83:or
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