4655:... (p. 173) the settlement at Lothal ... along the east side was a brick basin. It is claimed by its excavator to have been a dockyard, connected by channels to a neighbouring estuary. ... On its edge the excavator discovered several heavily-pierced stones, similar to modern anchor stones employed by traditional seafaring communities of Western India. This interpretation, however, has been challenged, and indeed the published levels of the basin and its entrance relative to the modern sea level seem to argue against it. Leshnik has cogently suggested that it was a tank for the reception of sweet water, channelled from higher ground inland to an area where the local water supplies were anciently, as still today, saline. We regard either interpretation as still unproven, but favour the latter. ... (p. 188–189) The discussion of trade focuses attention upon methods of transport. Several representations of ships are found on seals and graffiti at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (Figs. 7.15–7.16], etc, and a terracotta model of a ship, with a stick impressed socket for the mast and eyeholes for fixing rigging comes from Lothal. We have already seen above that the great brick tank, interpreted by Rao as a dock at Lothal, cannot yet be certainly identified. The evidence of sea trade and contact during the Harappan period is largely circumstantial, or derived from inferences from the Mesopotamian texts, as detailed above. (Figure 7. 15 had caption: Mohenjo-daro: representation of ship on a stone seal (length 4.3 cm) (after Mackay). Figure 7.16 Mohenjo-daro: representation of ship on terracotta amulet (length 4.5 cm) after Dales)
4695:, encompassing Central Asia, the Iranian Plateau, Mesopotamia and the northern Levant, the Persian Gulf, and the Oman Peninsula. The discovery of Indus trade tools (seals, weights, and containers) across the entire Middle Asia, complemented by information from Mesopotamian cuneiform texts, shows that entrepreneurs from the Indus Valley regularly ventured into these regions to transact with the local socioeconomic and political entities. However, Indus artifacts were also exchanged beyond this core region, eventually reaching as far the Nile River valley, Anatolia, and the Caucasus. On the contrary, only a handful of exotic trade tools and commodities have been found at sites in the Greater Indus Valley. The success of Indus trade in Central and Western Asia did not only rely on the dynamic entrepreneurialism of Indus merchants and the exotic commodities they offered. Specific products were proactively designed and manufactured in the Indus Valley to fulfill the particular needs of foreign markets, and Indus craftspeople moved beyond their native cultural sphere adapting their distinctive productions to the taste of foreign elites or reworking indigenous models. The adoption of specific seals and iconographies to regulate external trade activities suggests a conscious attempt at implementing a coordinated supraregional marketing strategy
6029:: "The prehistory of the Indo-Iranian borderlands shows a steady increase over time in the number and density of settlements based on farming and pastoralism. By contrast, the population of the Indus plains and adjacent regions lived mainly by hunting and gathering; the limited traces suggest their settlements were far fewer in number, and were small and widely scattered, though to some extent this apparent situation must reflect the difficulty of locating hunter-gatherer settlements. The presence of domestic animals in some hunter-gatherer settlements attests to contact with the people of the border-lands, probably in the context of pastoralists' seasonal movement from the hills into the plains. The potential for population expansion in the hills was severely limited, and so, from the fourth millennium into the third, settlers moved out from the borderlands into the plains and beyond into Gujarat, the first being pastoralists, followed later by farmers. The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity."
5792:, p. 296. "The story in Harappan India was somewhat different (see Figure 111.3). The Bronze Age village and urban societies of the Indus Valley are something of an anomaly, in that archaeologists have found little indication of local defense and regional warfare. It would seem that the bountiful monsoon rainfall of the Early to Mid-Holocene had forged a condition of plenty for all and that competitive energies were channeled into commerce rather than conflict. Scholars have long argued that these rains shaped the origins of the urban Harappan societies, which emerged from Neolithic villages around 2600 BC. It now appears that this rainfall began to slowly taper off in the third millennium, at just the point that the Harappan cities began to develop. Thus it seems that this "first urbanisation" in South Asia was the initial response of the Indus Valley peoples to the beginning of Late Holocene aridification. These cities were maintained for 300 to 400 years and then gradually abandoned as the Harappan peoples resettled in scattered villages in the eastern range of their territories, into Punjab and the Ganges Valley....' 17 (footnote):
4439:
5939:
or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the
Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene. ... The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5,400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4,300 y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900 y ago (33) (Fig. 2B). This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river."
3506:
4533:
1068:
601:, on the margins of the Indus alluvium. In the following millennia, settled life made inroads into the Indus plains, setting the stage for the growth of rural and urban settlements. The more organized sedentary life, in turn, led to a net increase in the birth rate. The large urban centres of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa very likely grew to containing between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and during the civilisation's florescence, the population of the subcontinent grew to between 4β6 million people. During this period the death rate increased, as the close living conditions of humans and domesticated animals led to an increase in contagious diseases. According to one estimate, the population of the Indus civilisation at its peak may have been between one and five million.
4874:
4151:
4128:
42:
3618:
4283:
3491:
5175:
4096:
910:(1924). In 1923, on his second visit to Mohenjo-daro, Baneriji wrote to Marshall about the site, postulating an origin in "remote antiquity", and noting a congruence of some of its artifacts with those of Harappa. Later in 1923, Vats, also in correspondence with Marshall, noted the same more specifically about the seals and the script found at both sites. On the weight of these opinions, Marshall ordered crucial data from the two sites to be brought to one location and invited Banerji and Sahni to a joint discussion. By 1924, Marshall had become convinced of the significance of the finds, and on 24 September 1924, made a tentative but conspicuous public intimation in the
7470:: Quote: "After Partition, the archaeological work on the early historic period in India and Pakistan developed differently. In India, while the colonial administrative structure remained intact, the ASI made a concerted effort to Indianise' the field. The early historic period was understood as an important chapter in the long, unified history of the Indian subcontinent, and this understanding supported Indian goals of national unity. In Pakistan, however, the project of nation building was focused more on promoting the rich Islamic archaeological heritage within its borders, and most early historic sites, therefore, were left to the spades of foreign missions."
4112:
4257:
3643:
4241:
3910:
4668:, a Harappan-style cubical stone weight, and a Harappan-style cylinder seal at Susa (Amiet 1986a, Figs. 92-94) may be evidence of maritime trade between Susa and the Indus Valley in the late 3rd millennium BCE. On the other hand, given that similar finds, particularly etched carnelian beads, are attested at landlocked sites including Tepe Hissar (Tappe HeαΉ£Δr), Shah Tepe (Ε Δh-Tappe), Kalleh Nisar (Kalla NisΔr), Jalalabad (JalΔlΔbΔd), Marlik (MΔrlik) and Tepe Yahya (Tappe YaαΈ₯yΔ) (Possehl 1996, pp. 153-54), other mechanisms, including overland traffic by peddlers or caravans, may account for their presence at Susa.
4303:
4451:
18187:
18053:
17212:
17145:
17014:
16397:
15999:
7454:. "More than 1,000 settlements belonging to the Integrated Era have been identified (Singh, 2008: 137), but there are only five significant urban sites at the peak of the settlement hierarchy (Smith, 2.006a: 110) (Figure 6.2). These are Mohenjo-daro in the lower Indus plain, Harappa in the western Punjab, Ganweriwala in Cholistan, Dholavira in western Gujarat and Rakhigarhi in Haryana. Mohenjo-daro covered an area of more than 250 hectares, Harappa exceeded 150 hectares, Dholavira 100 hectares and Ganweriwala and Rakhigarhi around 80 hectares each."
4475:
4487:
5949:
1,500 km (900 mi) up the Indus plain, with a core area of 30,000 to 100,000 km (12,000 to 39,000 sq mi) and with more ecologically diverse peripheral spheres of economic and cultural influence extending out to ten times that area. The cultural and technological uniformity of the Indus cities is especially striking in light of the relatively great distances among them, with separations of about 280 km (170 mi) whereas the
Mesopotamian cities, for example, only averaged about 20 to 25 km (12 to 16 mi) apart.
735:
4419:
5754:
in the
Larkana district of Sindh, by Rakhaldas Banerji in 1922. Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, used the term 'Indus civilization' for the culture discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a term doubly apt because of the geographical context implied in the name 'Indus' and the presence of cities implied in the word 'civilization'. Others, notably the Archaeological Survey of India after Independence, have preferred to call it 'Harappan', or 'Mature Harappan', taking Harappa to be its type-site."
6275:: "More recently, about 15,000β10,000 years before present (ybp), when agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent region that extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was another eastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a part of which also appears to have entered India. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew 1987). Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp."
705:
4729:, while Shaffer and Liechtenstein note that the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley. Gangal agrees that "Neolithic domesticated crops in Mehrgarh include more than 90% barley," noting that "there is good evidence for the local domestication of barley." Yet, Gangal also notes that the crop also included "a small amount of wheat," which "are suggested to be of Near-Eastern origin, as the modern distribution of wild varieties of wheat is limited to Northern Levant and Southern Turkey."
7482:, p. 85: Quote: "At the same time he continued to spend part of the years 1949 and 1950 in Pakistan as an adviser to the Government, overseeing the establishment of the government's Department of Archaeology in Pakistan and the National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi ... He returned to Pakistan in 1958 to carry out excavations at Charsadda and then joined the UNESCO team concerned with the preservation and conservation of Mohenjo-daro during the 1960s. Mohenjo-daro was eventually inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980."
6107:
varieties of wheat is limited to
Northern Levant and Southern Turkey. A detailed satellite map study of a few archaeological sites in the Baluchistan and Khybar Pakhtunkhwa regions also suggests similarities in early phases of farming with sites in Western Asia. Pottery prepared by sequential slab construction, circular fire pits filled with burnt pebbles, and large granaries are common to both Mehrgarh and many Mesopotamian sites. The postures of the skeletal remains in graves at Mehrgarh bear strong resemblance to those at
3660:
4517:
3675:
7506:, p. 109: Quote: "This model of population movement and agricultural diffusion, built on the evidence from Kili Gul Muhammad, was completely revised with the discovery of Mehrgarh at the entrance of the Bolan Pass in Baluchistan in the early 1970s by Jean-Francois Jarrige and his team (Jarrige, 1979). Noting an archaeological section exposed by flash flooding, they found a site covering two square kilometres which was occupied between circa 6500 and 2500 BCE."
218:
5190:
4979:
5371:
555:
4859:
and thus his claims, remain far from orthodoxy." Heggarty and
Renfrew conclude that several scenarios are compatible with the data, and that "the linguistic jury is still very much out." In a 2021 study, Bahata Ansumali Mukhopadhyay presented a linguistic analysis to posit a Proto-Dravidian presence in the ancient Indus area, using Dravidian root words for tooth, toothbrush and elephant in various contemporary ancient civilisations.
4331:
724:
4965:
7372:, pp. 7β8, "If in an ancient mound we find only one pot and two bead necklaces similar to those of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, with the bulk of pottery, tools and ornaments of a different type altogether, we cannot call that site Harappan. It is instead a site with Harappan contacts. ... Where the Sarasvati valley sites are concerned, we find that many of them are sites of local culture (with distinctive pottery,
4214:
mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged ... Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus.
186:
5400:", caused the decline of the Indus civilisation. As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in various parts of Mohenjo-daro, and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts. However, scholars soon started to reject Wheeler's theory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after the city's abandonment and none were found near the citadel. Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by
6137:(Tehran Plain) ceramic technology, forms and designs. Striking similarities in figurines and pottery styles, and mud-brick shapes, between widely separated early Neolithic sites in the Zagros Mountains of north-western Iran (Jarmo and Sarab), the Deh Luran Plain in southwestern Iran (Tappeh Ali Kosh and Chogha Sefid), Susiana (Chogha Bonut and Chogha Mish), the Iranian Central Plateau (
3105:β1900 BCE. With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor cultures β Early Harappan and Late Harappan, respectively β the entire Indus Valley Civilisation may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. It is part of the Indus Valley Tradition, which also includes the pre-Harappan occupation of Mehrgarh, the earliest farming site of the Indus Valley.
5483:, "excavations along the Gangetic plain show that cities began to arise there starting about 1200 BCE, just a few centuries after Harappa was deserted and much earlier than once suspected." According to Jim Shaffer there was a continuous series of cultural developments, just as in most areas of the world. These link "the so-called two major phases of urbanisation in South Asia".
848:, the Survey's first director-general, who had visited Harappa in 1853 and had noted the imposing brick walls, visited again to carry out a survey, but this time of a site whose entire upper layer had been stripped in the interim. Although his original goal of demonstrating Harappa to be a lost Buddhist city mentioned in the seventh century CE travels of the Chinese visitor,
594:. By the time of its mature phase, the civilisation had spread over an area larger than the others, which included a core of 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) up the alluvial plain of the Indus and its tributaries. In addition, there was a region with disparate flora, fauna, and habitats, up to ten times as large, which had been shaped culturally and economically by the Indus.
6547:, p. 29 "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people."
967:
speculated that the
Ghaggar-Hakra system might yield more sites than the Indus river basin. According to archaeologist Ratnagar, many Ghaggar-Hakra sites in India and Indus Valley sites in Pakistan are actually those of local cultures; some sites display contact with Harappan civilisation, but only a few are fully developed Harappan ones. As of 1977, about 90% of the
4908:
non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the Near East and other societies, to symbolise families, clans, gods, and religious concepts. Others have claimed on occasion that the symbols were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass-produced in
6281:: "The spread of these new technologies has been associated with the dispersal of Dravidian and Indo-European languages in southern Asia. It is hypothesized that the proto-Elamo-Dravidian language, most likely originated in the Elam province in southwestern Iran, spread eastwards with the movement of farmers to the Indus Valley and the Indian sub-continent."
3474:(Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the chalcolithic population did not descend from the neolithic population of Mehrgarh, which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow." Mascarenhas et al. (2015) note that "new, possibly West Asian, body types are reported from the graves of Mehrgarh beginning in the Togau phase (3800 BCE)."
5470:
shifting south, the floods grew too erratic for sustainable agricultural activities. The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow the development of trade, and the cities died out.
3859:
well-planned grid pattern, suggesting they were planned by a central authority; extraordinary uniformity of
Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks; presence of public facilities and monumental architecture; heterogeneity in the mortuary symbolism and in grave goods (items included in burials).
3699:
development of cities. The IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons leading to summer floods. Brooke further notes that the development of advanced cities coincides with a reduction in rainfall, which may have triggered a reorganisation into larger urban centres.
5969:
preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu and unhumped ). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well.
798:, chose for his wanderings some of the same towns that had featured in Alexander's campaigns, and whose archaeological sites had been noted by the campaign's chroniclers. Masson's major archaeological discovery in the Punjab was Harappa, a metropolis of the Indus civilisation in the valley of Indus's tributary, the
6129:
route south of the
Caspian sea is a part of the Silk Road, some sections of which were in use from at least 3,000 BCE, connecting Badakhshan (north-eastern Afghanistan and south-eastern Tajikistan) with Western Asia, Egypt and India. Similarly, the section from Badakhshan to the Mesopotamian plains (the
4921:, computer scientists, comparing the pattern of symbols to various linguistic scripts and non-linguistic systems, including DNA and a computer programming language, found that the Indus script's pattern is closer to that of spoken words, supporting the hypothesis that it codes for an as-yet-unknown language.
5979:
certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different to other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of
Nausharo (
11814:
The two main components (i.e., autochthonous South Asian and West
Eurasian) of Indian genetic variation form one of the deepest splits among non-African groups, which took place when South Asian populations separated from East Asian and Andamanese populations, shortly after having separated from West
9383:
To what extent such a reed-made river vessel would have been seaworthy is debatable. ... Did the flat-bottomed Indus river boats mutate into the crescent-shaped hull of Heyerdahl's reed boat before taking to the Arabian Sea? Did they reach as far as the coast of East Africa, as the Tigris did? No one
7357:
Immediately after the discovery of Harappan cities on the Indian side of the border, some nationalist-minded Indians began to speculate that the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed may have more sites than neighboring Pakistan's Indus Valley. ... Such claims may prove to be valid, but modern nationalist arguments
5995:
Dyson: "In the millennia which followed, farming developed and spread slowly into the Indus valley and adjacent areas. The transition to agriculture led to population growth and the eventual rise of the Indus civilisation. With the movement to settled agriculture, and the emergence of villages, towns
3477:
Gallego Romero et al. (2011) state that their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. (2009) principally reflects gene flow from Iran and the Middle East." They further note that "he earliest evidence of cattle herding in
6052:
Guha: "The intense explorations to locate sites related to the Indus civilisation along the Ghaggar-Hakra, mostly by the Archaeological Survey of India immediately after Indian independence (from the 1950s through the 1970s), although ostensibly following Sir Aurel Stein's explorations in 1942, were
6005:
Dyson: "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley
5938:
Giosan (2012): "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River,
5753:
Habib: "Harappa, in Sahiwal district of west Punjab, Pakistan, had long been known to archaeologists as an extensive site on the Ravi river, but its true significance as a major city of an early great civilization remained unrecognized until the discovery of Mohenjo-daro near the banks of the Indus,
5317:
The pottery of the Late Harappan period is described as "showing some continuity with mature Harappan pottery traditions", but also distinctive differences. Many sites continued to be occupied for some centuries, although their urban features declined and disappeared. Formerly typical artifacts such
4939:
The messages on the seals have proved to be too short to be decoded by a computer. Each seal has a distinctive combination of symbols and there are too few examples of each sequence to provide a sufficient context. The symbols that accompany the images vary from seal to seal, making it impossible to
4858:
also stated that proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent, but more recently Heggarty and Renfrew note that "a great deal remains to be done in elucidating the prehistory of Dravidian." They also note that "McAlpin's analysis of the language data,
4712:
According to Jean-Francois Jarrige, farming had an independent local origin at Mehrgarh, which he argues is not merely a "'backwater' of the Neolithic culture of the Near East", despite similarities between Neolithic sites from eastern Mesopotamia and the western Indus valley which are evidence of a
3465:
argues for an independent origin of Mehrgarh. Jarrige notes "the assumption that farming economy was introduced full-fledged from Near-East to South Asia," and the similarities between Neolithic sites from eastern Mesopotamia and the western Indus valley, which are evidence of a "cultural continuum"
966:
After the partition of India in 1947, when most excavated sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation lay in territory awarded to Pakistan, the Archaeological Survey of India, its area of authority reduced, carried out large numbers of surveys and excavations along the Ghaggar-Hakra system in India. Some
6377:
culture in the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain were small farming villages. However, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with
6335:
between the Elamite and Dravidic populations." According to Kumar (2004), referring to Quintan-Murci et al. (2001), "microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration
6038:
Masson: "A long march preceded our arrival at Haripah, through jangal of the closest description ... When I joined the camp I found it in front of the village and ruinous brick castle. Behind us was a large circular mound, or eminence, and to the west was an irregular rocky height, crowned with the
5926:
Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, used the term 'Indus civilization' for the culture discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a term doubly apt because of the geographical context implied in the name 'Indus' and the presence of cities implied in the word
5887:
Coningham and Young: "More than 1,000 settlements belonging to the Integrated Era have been identified (Singh, 2008: 137), but there are only five significant urban sites at the peak of the settlement hierarchy (Smith, 2.006a: 110) (Figure 6.2).These are: Mohenjo-daro in the lower Indus plain;
5469:
Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and scatter its population eastward. According to Giosan et al. (2012), the IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons leading to summer floods. As the monsoons kept
5093:
concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far. Despite the criticisms of Marshall's association of the seal with a proto-Shiva
4663:
It is generally assumed that most trade between the Indus Valley (ancient Meluhha?) and western neighbors proceeded up the Persian Gulf rather than overland. Although there is no incontrovertible proof that this was indeed the case, the distribution of Indus-type artifacts on the Oman peninsula, on
3710:
synthesis". He also says that, in the development of complexity, the site of Mohenjo-daro has priority, along with the Hakra-Ghaggar cluster of sites, "where Hakra wares actually precede the Kot Diji related material". He sees these areas as "catalytic in producing the fusion from Hakra, Kot Dijian
3108:
Several periodisations are employed for the IVC. The most commonly used classifies the Indus Valley Civilisation into Early, Mature and Late Harappan Phase. An alternative approach by Shaffer divides the broader Indus Valley Tradition into four eras, the pre-Harappan "Early Food Producing Era", and
6326:
Nevertheless, Kivisild et al. (1999) note that "a small fraction of the West Eurasian mtDNA lineages found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture." at c. 9,300Β±3,000 years before present, which coincides with "the arrival to India of cereals domesticated in the
6316:
Kumar: "The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India.
6128:
The Near East is separated from the Indus Valley by the arid plateaus, ridges and deserts of Iran and Afghanistan, where rainfall agriculture is possible only in the foothills and cul-de-sac valleys. Nevertheless, this area was not an insurmountable obstacle for the dispersal of the Neolithic. The
6096:
According to Gangal et al. (2014), there is strong archeological and geographical evidence that neolithic farming spread from the Near East into north-west India. Gangal et al. (2014): "There are several lines of evidence that support the idea of a connection between the Neolithic in the Near East
5968:
Fisher: "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in
5339:
During the later half of the 2nd millennium BCE, most of the post-urban Late Harappan settlements were abandoned altogether. Subsequent material culture was typically characterised by temporary occupation, "the campsites of a population which was nomadic and mainly pastoralist" and which used
5165:
at Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification. The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation are marked by fractional burial (in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment), and even cremation.
4776:
According to archeological finds, the Indus Valley civilisation had a diet dominated by meats of animals such as cattle, buffalo, goat, pig and chicken. Remnants of dairy products were also discovered. According to Akshyeta Suryanarayan et al., available evidence indicates culinary practices to be
4755:
Research by J. Bates et al. (2016) confirms that Indus populations were the earliest people to use complex multi-cropping strategies across both seasons, growing foods during summer (rice, millets and beans) and winter (wheat, barley and pulses), which required different watering regimes. Bates et
4552:
identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today;. An extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by
4007:
Many crafts including, "shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite bead making" were practised and the pieces were used in the making of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from all phases of Harappan culture. Some of these crafts are still practised in the subcontinent today. Some
1002:
Unlike India, in which after 1947, the ASI attempted to "Indianise" archaeological work in keeping with the new nation's goals of national unity and historical continuity, in Pakistan the national imperative was the promotion of Islamic heritage, and consequently archaeological work on early sites
6336:
originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran." According to Palanichamy et al. (2015), "The presence of mtDNA haplogroups (HV14 and U1a) and Y-chromosome haplogroup (
5978:
Coningham and Young: "Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of
5948:
Fisher: "This was the same broad period that saw the rise of the civilisations of Mesopotamia (between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers), Egypt (along the Nile), and northeast China (in the Yellow River basin). At its peak, the Indus was the most extensive of these ancient civilisations, extending
5743:
Wright: "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer-lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between
5502:
and dating from around 1200 BCE. This site provides evidence of multiple social groups occupying the same village but using different pottery and living in different types of houses: "over time the Late Harappan pottery was gradually replaced by Painted Grey ware pottery," and other cultural
5212:
Around 1900 BCE signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE most of the cities had been abandoned. Examination of human skeletons from the site of Harappa in the 2010s demonstrated that the end of the Indus civilisation saw an increase in inter-personal violence and in
4438:
3927:
The people of the Indus civilisation achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. A comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their smallest division,
6015:
Fisher: "Such an "agricultural revolution" enabled food surpluses that supported growing populations. Their, largely cereal diet did not necessarily make people healthier, however, since conditions like caries and protein deficiencies can increase. Further, infectious diseases spread faster with
5897:
Wright: "Five major Indus cities are discussed in this chapter. During the Urban period, the early town of Harappa expanded in size and population and became a major centre in the Upper Indus. Other cities emerging during the Urban period include Mohenjo-daro in the Lower Indus, Dholavira to the
809:
Two years later, the Company contracted Alexander Burnes to sail up the Indus to assess the feasibility of water travel for its army. Burnes, who also stopped in Harappa, noted the baked bricks employed in the site's ancient masonry, but noted also the haphazard plundering of these bricks by the
6106:
Neolithic domesticated crops in Mehrgarh include more than 90% barley and a small amount of wheat. There is good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the zebu cattle at Mehrgarh, but the wheat varieties are suggested to be of Near-Eastern origin, as the modern distribution of wild
4924:
Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel have disputed this finding, pointing out that Rao et al. did not actually compare the Indus signs with "real-world non-linguistic systems" but rather with "two wholly artificial systems invented by the authors, one consisting of 200,000 randomly ordered signs and
4003:
The terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly identified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to
5958:
Dyson: "The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000 years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then,
5888:
Harappa in the western Punjab; Ganweriwala in Cholistan; Dholavira in western Gujarat; and Rakhigarhi in Haryana. Mohenjo-daro covered an area of more than 250 hectares, Harappa exceeded 150 hectares, Dholavira 100 hectares and Ganweriwala and Rakhigarhi around 80 hectares each."
5441:
that is also signaled for the neighboring areas of the Middle East. As of 2016 many scholars believe that drought, and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia, caused the collapse of the Indus civilisation. The climate change which caused the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation was
5160:
civilisations, Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge. This may suggest that religious ceremonies if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air.
4907:
While the Indus Valley Civilisation is generally characterised as a literate society on the evidence of these inscriptions, this description has been challenged by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004) who argue that the Indus system did not encode language, but was instead similar to a variety of
4213:
When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early art, and culture. Modelling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some
3799:
The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced
6363:
Tripathi et al. (2004) found that the isotopes of sediments carried by the Ghaggar-Hakra system over the last 20 thousand years do not come from the glaciated Higher Himalaya but have a sub-Himalayan source, and concluded that the river system was rain-fed. They also concluded that this
5008:
that later developed in the area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective.
4717:
writes that the Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon" and that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanisation and complex social organisation in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated, cultural developments".
6353:
investigated how the courses of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago, to test whether climate or river reorganisations caused the decline of the Harappan. Using U-Pb dating of zircon sand grains they found that sediments typical of the Beas, Sutlej, and Yamuna rivers
5522:
and M.H. Raval write that although there are "obvious signs of cultural continuity" between the Harappan civilisation and later South Asian cultures, many aspects of the Harappan "sociocultural system" and "integrated civilization" were "lost forever," while the Second Urbanisation of India
3858:
Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power in Harappan society. But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented. For instance, the majority of the cities were constructed in a highly uniform and
3698:
According to Giosan et al. (2012), the slow southward migration of the monsoons across Asia initially allowed the Indus Valley villages to develop by taming the floods of the Indus and its tributaries. Flood-supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the
11724:
Shinde, Vasant; Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Mah, Matthew; Lipson, Mark; Nakatsuka, Nathan; Adamski, Nicole; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Ferry, Matthew; Lawson, Ann Marie; Michel, Megan; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Stewardson, Kristin; Jadhav, Nilesh (October 2019).
6559:, p. 387: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity."
6150:
They further noted that "the direct lineal descendents of the Neolithic inhabitants of Mehrgarh are to be found to the south and the east of Mehrgarh, in northwestern India and the western edge of the Deccan plateau," with neolithic Mehrgarh showing greater affinity with chalcolithic
3600:
The final stages of the Early Harappan period are characterised by the building of large walled settlements, the expansion of trade networks, and the increasing integration of regional communities into a "relatively uniform" material culture in terms of pottery styles, ornaments, and
11886:
Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya; Rohland, Nadin; Bernardos, Rebecca; Mallick, Swapan; Lazaridis, Iosif; Nakatsuka, Nathan; Olalde, IΓ±igo; Lipson, Mark; Kim, Alexander M.; Olivieri, Luca M.; Coppa, Alfredo; Vidale, Massimo; Mallory, James (6 September 2019).
4037:
was not anticipated until late in the process. The new Pakistani authorities requested the return of the Mohenjo-daro pieces excavated on their territory, but the Indian authorities refused. Eventually an agreement was reached, whereby the finds, totalling some 12,000 objects (most
5548:
Previously, scholars believed that the decline of the Harappan civilisation led to an interruption of urban life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus civilisation appear in later cultures. The
789:
of Punjab, gathering useful intelligence for the Company in return for a promise of clemency. An aspect of this arrangement was the additional requirement to hand over to the Company any historical artifacts acquired during his travels. Masson, who had versed himself in the
4374: in). In most cases they have a pierced boss at the back to accommodate a cord for handling or for use as personal adornment. In addition a large number of sealings have survived, of which only a few can be matched to the seals. The great majority of examples of the
4042:
of pottery), were split equally between the countries; in some cases this was taken very literally, with some necklaces and girdles having their beads separated into two piles. In the case of the "two most celebrated sculpted figures", Pakistan asked for and received the
4033:, but later moved to the ASI headquarters at New Delhi, where a new "Central Imperial Museum" was being planned for the new capital of the British Raj, in which at least a selection would be displayed. It became apparent that Indian independence was approaching, but the
5598:
In the aftermath of the Indus civilisation's localisation, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus civilisation. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the
806:. He dated the Harappa ruins to a period of recorded history, erroneously mistaking it to have been described earlier during Alexander's campaign. Masson was impressed by the site's extraordinary size and by several large mounds formed from long-existing erosion.
9522:
Maurizio Tosi, "Black Boats of Magan. Some Thoughts on Bronze Age Water Transport in Oman and beyond from the Impressed Bitumen Slabs of Ra's al-Junayz", in A. Parpola (ed), South Asian Archaeology 1993, Helsinki, 1995, pp. 745β761 (in collaboration with Serge
946:
was able to point to very similar seals found in Bronze Age levels in Mesopotamia and Iran, giving the first strong indication of their date; confirmations from other archaeologists followed. Systematic excavations began in Mohenjo-daro in 1924β25 with that of
4073:) classifies musical instruments into four groups based on their means of acoustical productionβstrings, membranes, solid materials and airβand it is probable that such instruments had existed since the IVC. Archeological evidence indicates the use of simple
3097:
The cities of the ancient Indus had "social hierarchies, their writing system, their large planned cities and their long-distance trade mark them to archaeologists as a full-fledged 'civilisation.'" The mature phase of the Harappan civilisation lasted from
3822:
Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among the
5331:
and glass making, and carving of stone beads. Urban amenities such as drains and the public bath were no longer maintained, and newer buildings were "poorly constructed". Stone sculptures were deliberately vandalised, valuables were sometimes concealed in
5132:
were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be eliminated. Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others show
6354:(Himalayan tributaries of the Indus) are actually present in former Ghaggar-Hakra channels. However, sediment contributions from these glacial-fed rivers stopped at least by 10,000 years ago, well before the development of the Indus civilisation.
6062:
Number of Indus script inscribed objects and seals obtained from various Harappan sites: 1540 from Mohanjodaro, 985 from Harappa, 66 from Chanhudaro, 165 from Lothal, 99 from Kalibangan, 7 from Banawali, 6 from Ur in Iraq, 5 from Surkotada, 4 from
4951:
and his colleagues. The most recent volume republished photos taken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few decades; formerly, researchers had to supplement the materials in the
5465:
at that time. The Indian monsoon declined and aridity increased, with the Ghaggar-Hakra retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya, leading to erratic and less extensive floods that made inundation agriculture less sustainable.
4704:
According to Gangal et al. (2014), there is strong archeological and geographical evidence that neolithic farming spread from the Near East into north-west India, but there is also "good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the
4777:
common over the region; food-constituents were dairy products (in low proportion), ruminant carcass meat, and either non-ruminant adipose fats, plants, or mixtures of these products. The dietary pattern remained same throughout the decline.
412:
of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east.
5419:, the god of death. This may indicate the introduction of new religious beliefs during this period, but the archaeological evidence does not support the hypothesis that the Cemetery H people were the destroyers of the Harappan cities.
3469:
Lukacs and Hemphill suggest an initial local development of Mehrgarh, with a continuity in cultural development but a change in population. According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the neolithic and
6053:
to a large extent initiated by a patriotic zeal to compensate for the loss of this more ancient civilisation by the newly freed nation; as apart from Rangpur (Gujarat) and Kotla Nihang Khan (Punjab), the sites remained in Pakistan."
4925:
another of 200,000 fully ordered signs, that they spuriously claim represent the structures of all real-world non-linguistic sign systems". Farmer et al. have also demonstrated that a comparison of a non-linguistic system like
4826:
concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. Today, the
3702:
According to J.G. Shaffer and D.A. Lichtenstein, the Mature Harappan civilisation was "a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Kot Diji traditions or 'ethnic groups' in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley on the borders of India and Pakistan".
13104:
Mukherjee, Namita; Nebel, Almut; Oppenheim, Ariella; Majumder, Partha P. (2001). "High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India".
11322:
6141:), and Turkmenistan (Jeitun) suggest a common incipient culture. The Neolithic dispersal across South Asia plausibly involved migration of the population. This possibility is also supported by Y-chromosome and mtDNA analyses.
9302:
The molded terra-cotta tablet shows a flat-bottomed Indus boat with a central cabin. Branches tied to the roof may have been used for protection from bad luck, and travelers took a pet bird along to help them guide them to
3459:. Mehrgarh was influenced by the Near Eastern Neolithic, with similarities between "domesticated wheat varieties, early phases of farming, pottery, other archaeological artefacts, some domesticated plants and herd animals."
4564:
and northern Iran which suggest considerable mobility and trade. During the Early Harappan period (about 3200β2600 BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc. document intensive caravan trade with
6317:
This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001)."
4095:
3951:
or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871 . However, as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The weights and measures later used in
3764:
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilisation, making them the first urban centre in the region. The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of
4784:") were found in intact form, along with two figurines of bulls and a hand-held copper adze, during excavations in 2017 from western Rajasthan. Dated to about 2600 BCE, they were likely composed of legumes, primarily
10006:
9447:
Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya; Rohland, Nadin; Bernardos, Rebecca; Mallick, Swapan; Lazaridis, Iosif; Nakatsuka, Nathan; Olalde, IΓ±igo; Lipson, Mark; Kim, Alexander M. (6 September 2019).
5518:. Its excavation started under an archaeological team from Gujarat State Department of Archaeology and the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania in 1982β83. In their report on archaeological excavations at Rojdi,
4940:
derive a meaning for the symbols from the images. There have, nonetheless, been a number of interpretations offered for the meaning of the seals. These interpretations have been marked by ambiguity and subjectivity.
4450:
8380:
5898:
south on the western edge of peninsular India in Kutch, Ganweriwala in Cholistan, and a fifth city, Rakhigarhi, on the Ghaggar-Hakra. Rakhigarhi will be discussed briefly in view of the limited published material."
5016:, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; a symbolic representation of the phallus (
5326:
which characterised the mature phase of the civilisation. Script is rare and confined to potsherd inscriptions. There was also a decline in long-distance trade, although the local cultures show new innovations in
5634:
In 2019, a study of the genome sequence of a Harappan individual from a cemetery near Rakhigarhi dating to around 2,800-2,300 BCE was published. Analysis suggested that the majority of the genome was related to
4150:
4615:
There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilisations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by "middlemen merchants from
4256:
3815:, no large monumental structures were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath (the "
7358:
complicate the task of South Asian archaeologists who must deal with the poor condition of Harappan sites. The high water table means the oldest sites are under water or waterlogged and difficult to access.
5478:
Archaeological excavations indicate that the decline of Harappa drove people eastward. According to Possehl, after 1900 BCE the number of sites in today's India increased from 218 to 853. According to
4111:
5651:-related ancestry that is found in modern (particularly in northern) South Asians. The genetic profile of IVC-related individuals is similar to the majority of the ancestry found in modern South Asians.
5124:. However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall's hypothesis to be "terribly robust". Some of the
3866:
There was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material.
3597:. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE, from where the mature Harappan phase started. The latest research shows that Indus Valley people migrated from villages to cities.
9803:
9773:
6097:
and in the Indian subcontinent. The prehistoric site of Mehrgarh in Baluchistan (modern Pakistan) is the earliest Neolithic site in the north-west Indian subcontinent, dated as early as 8500 BCE."
4282:
4004:
substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or not the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols.
4604:. Studies of tooth enamel from individuals buried at Harappa suggest that some residents had migrated to the city from beyond the Indus Valley. Ancient DNA studies of graves at Bronze Age sites at
4240:
3947:
weights were in a ratio of 5:2:1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English
14592:"Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists"
3466:
between those sites. But given the originality of Mehrgarh, Jarrige concludes that Mehrgarh has an earlier local background, and is not a "'backwater' of the Neolithic culture of the Near East".
13939:
Bar-Matthews, Miryam; Ayalon, Avner (2011). "Mid-Holocene climate variations revealed by high-resolution speleothem records from Soreq Cave, Israel and their correlation with cultural changes".
6039:
remains of buildings, in fragments of walls, with niches, after the eastern manner ... Tradition affirms the existence here of a city, so considerable that it extended to Chicha Watni, thirteen
4896:, small tablets, ceramic pots and more than a dozen other materials, including a "signboard" that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira. Typical
13375:
9009:
546:
as a snow-fed river, the Ghaggar-Hakra was a system of perennial monsoon-fed rivers, which became seasonal around the time that the civilisation diminished, approximately 4,000 years ago.
9425:
6119:
in Turkmenistan (the 6th millennium BCE). Strong arguments have been made for the Near-Eastern origin of some domesticated plants and herd animals at Jeitun in Turkmenistan (pp. 225β227).
5310:
region, but there was a general decrease of long-distance trade. On the other hand, the period also saw a diversification of the agricultural base, with a diversity of crops and the advent of
1003:
was left to foreign archaeologists. After the partition, Mortimer Wheeler, the Director of ASI from 1944, oversaw the establishment of archaeological institutions in Pakistan, later joining a
18627:
13747:
Staubwasser, M.; Sirocko, F.; Grootes, P. M.; Segl, M. (2003). "Climate change at the 4.2 ka BP termination of the Indus valley civilization and Holocene south Asian monsoon variability".
5461:
system was rain-fed, and water-supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus Valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the
4936:
yields results similar to those that Rao et al. obtained with Indus signs. They conclude that the method used by Rao et al. cannot distinguish linguistic systems from non-linguistic ones.
4127:
18622:
11827:
Maier, Robert; Flegontov, Pavel; Flegontova, Olga; IΕΔ±ldak, UlaΕ; Changmai, Piya; Reich, David (14 April 2023). Nordborg, Magnus; Przeworski, Molly; Balding, David; Wiuf, Carsten (eds.).
3570:
represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with the citadel representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Another town of this stage was found at
8641:
4474:
16992:
15001:
8700:
5691:
5128:
interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise
5004:
The religion and belief system of the Indus Valley people has received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of
12915:
Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927
12904:
Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927
11326:
408:
very likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and the civilisation may have contained between one and five million individuals during its florescence. A gradual
5927:'civilization'. Others, notably the Archaeological Survey of India after Independence, have preferred to call it 'Harappan', or 'Mature Harappan', taking Harappa to be its type-site.
5306:, which can be considered as urban, but they are smaller and few in number compared with the Mature Harappan cities. Bet Dwarka was fortified and continued to have contacts with the
4302:
5120:
Marshall hypothesised the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of
6181:
It has been noted that the courtyard pattern and techniques of flooring of Harappan houses has similarities to the way house-building is still done in some villages of the region.
14426:
Pamjav, Horolma; FehΓ©r, Tibor; NΓ©meth, Endre; PΓ‘dΓ‘r, Zsolt (2012). "Brief communication: new Y-chromosome binary markers improve phylogenetic resolution within haplogroup R1a1".
3804:, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.
16693:
10311:
7160:
521:
in northwest India and eastern Pakistan. The terms "Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation" and "Sindhu-Saraswati Civilisation" have also been employed in the literature by supporters of
11411:
4636:). Such long-distance sea trade became feasible with the development of plank-built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth.
938:, to light upon the remains of a long forgotten civilisation. It looks, however, at this moment, as if we were on the threshold of such a discovery in the plains of the Indus."
4664:
Bahrain and in southern Mesopotamia makes it plausible that a series of maritime stages linked the Indus Valley and the Gulf region. If this is accepted, then the presence of
802:. Masson made copious notes and illustrations of Harappa's rich historical artifacts, many lying half-buried. In 1842, Masson included his observations of Harappa in the book
751:, to whom belongs the credit of having discovered, if not Mohenjo-daro itself, at any rate its high antiquity, and his immediate successors in the task of excavation, Messrs.
11497:
7033:
Bisht, R.S. (1989). "A new model of the Harappan town planning as revealed at Dholavira in Kutch: A surface study of its plan and architecture". In Chatterjee Bhaskar (ed.).
9998:
5415:: for instance, peacocks with hollow bodies and a small human form inside, which has been interpreted as the souls of the dead, and a hound that can be seen as the hound of
9324:
4418:
14047:
9050:
3750:
in modern-day India. In total, more than 1,000 settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries.
3050:
9833:
8372:
6221:
A large proportion of data however remains ambiguous. Reliable local isotopic references for fats and oils are unavailable, and lipid levels in IVC vessels are quite low.
6084:, the discovery of Mehrgarh "changed the entire concept of the Indus civilisation ... There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life."
4012:
and a special three-in-one toiletry gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still have similar counterparts in modern India. Terracotta female figurines were found (
13142:
Palanichamy, Malliya Gounder (2015). "West Eurasian mtDNA lineages in India: an insight into the spread of the Dravidian language and the origins of the caste system".
10066:
5626:
The inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilisation migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of the Ganga-Yamuna basin.
4189:
adorned with bangles, found in Mohenjo-daro. Two other realistic incomplete statuettes have been found in Harappa in proper stratified excavations, which display near-
3535:
BCE until 2800 BCE. It started when farmers from the mountains gradually moved between their mountain homes and the lowland river valleys, and is related to the
9133:
4230:. A second rather similar grey stone torso of a dancing male was also found about 150 meters away in a secure Mature Harappan stratum. Overall, anthropologist
9191:
12039:
Clift PD, Carter A, Giosan L, Durcan J, et al. (March 2012). "U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River".
14472:
4956:
by study of the tiny photos in the excavation reports of Marshall (1931), MacKay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), or reproductions in more recent scattered sources.
517:
The term "Ghaggar-Hakra" figures prominently in modern labels applied to the Indus civilisation on account of a good number of sites having been found along the
3996:, bronze, and steatite have been found at excavation sites, the former probably mostly toys. The Harappans also made various toys and games, among them cubical
1067:
10468:
A Refutation of the Claimed Refutation of the Non-linguistic Nature of Indus Symbols: Invented Data Sets in the Statistical Paper of Rao et al. (Science, 2009)
5714:
9795:
15916:
9769:
5866:: "Today, the count of Harappan sites has risen to about 1,022, of which 406 are in Pakistan and 616 in India. Of these, only 97 have so far been excavated."
7322:
5069:(lord of all animals), an epithet of Shiva. While Marshall's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections.
5024:); and, use of baths and water in religious practice. Marshall's interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades.
759:. ... no one probably except myself can fully appreciate the difficulties and hardships which they had to face in the three first seasons at Mohenjo-daro."
4194:
3455:, which gave new insights on the emergence of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in
8563:
17402:
17318:
14883:
11442:
361:
in 1861. There were earlier and later cultures called Early Harappan and Late Harappan in the same area. The early Harappan cultures were populated from
12548:. International Seminar on the First Farmers in Global Perspective β Lucknow, India β 18β20 January 2006. Vol. 18. pp. 136β154. Archived from
9542:
7426:
4404:
also appears in the seals, in particular in a fighting scene with a horned tiger-like beast. This deity has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man
13334:
8976:
7376:
bangles, terracotta beads, and grinding stones), some of them showing Harappan contact, and comparatively few are full-fledged Mature Harappan sites."
4900:
are around five characters in length, most of which (aside from the Dholavira "signboard") are tiny; the longest on any single object (inscribed on a
4444:
Stamp seal and modern impression: unicorn and incense burner (?); 2600β1900 BC; burnt steatite; 3.8 Γ 3.8 Γ 1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
3109:
the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, which correspond roughly with the Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases.
17196:
11197:
9975:
9433:
9344:
6603:
3936:. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their
2960:
14553:
Semino, O; Passarino G, Oefner PJ (2000). "The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: A Y chromosome perspective".
9932:"Microscopic, biochemical and stable isotopic investigation of seven multi-nutritional food-balls from Indus archaeological site, Rajasthan (India)"
8315:"Evidence for Patterns of Selective Urban Migration in the Greater Indus Valley (2600β1900 BC): A Lead and Strontium Isotope Mortuary Analysis"
7522:
5012:
Early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harappan sites was that of
4218:
These statuettes remain controversial, due to their advanced style in representing the human body. Regarding the red jasper torso, the discoverer,
3020:
7763:
10197:"Ancestral Dravidian languages in Indus Civilization: ultraconserved Dravidian tooth-word reveals deep linguistic ancestry and supports genetics"
9614:
5986:β2000 BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)."
3505:
3084:
2990:
860:
10871:
4486:
17545:
17407:
16720:
16668:
14911:
10251:
8748:
8630:
5205:
1051:
13263:
12993:
Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab: Including a Residence in Those Countries from 1826 to 1838, Volume 1
8021:
Alizadeh A (2003). "Excavations at the prehistoric mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran. Technical report", University of Chicago, Illinois.
9589:
3000:
7265:
5744:
2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."
5340:"crude handmade pottery". However, there is greater continuity and overlap between Late Harappan and subsequent cultural phases at sites in
4873:
3992:
have been found, along with a very few stone sculptures and some gold jewellery and bronze vessels. Some anatomically detailed figurines in
416:
Although over a thousand Mature Harappan sites have been reported and nearly a hundred excavated, there are five major urban centres:
7170:
6133:) was apparently functioning by 4,000 BCE and numerous prehistoric sites are located along it, whose assemblages are dominated by the
5411:(the late Harappan phase in the Punjab region), some of the designs painted on the funerary urns have been interpreted through the lens of
4756:
al. (2016) also found evidence for an entirely separate domestication process of rice in ancient South Asia, based around the wild species
4576:
Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilisation artefacts, the trade networks economically integrated a huge area, including portions of
18287:
18222:
17412:
15473:
14991:
14671:
13482:"Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization"
13294:
11776:"Ancestry-Specific Analyses Reveal Differential Demographic Histories and Opposite Selective Pressures in Modern South Asian Populations"
5709:
3796:
and smaller lanes. The housebuilding in some villages in the region still resembles in some respects the housebuilding of the Harappans.
3781:
975:
Harappan cities and settlements had been reported, of which just under a hundred had been excavated, mainly in the general region of the
342:
13849:
9289:
8533:
741:, the director-general of the ASI from 1902 to 1928, who oversaw the excavations in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, shown in a 1906 photograph
17955:
17935:
13884:
5231:
During the period of approximately 1900 to 1700 BCE, multiple regional cultures emerged within the area of the Indus civilisation. The
5081:
also rejected Marshall's conclusions, with the former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with
4855:
971:
discovered were found at sites in Pakistan along the Indus river, while other sites accounts only for the remaining 10%. By 2002, over
15871:
13574:
10286:
6016:
denser living conditions of both humans and domesticated animals (which can spread measles, influenza, and other diseases to humans)."
4350:
seals have been recovered, and their physical character is fairly consistent. In size they range from squares of side 2 to 4 cm (
18023:
17068:
14916:
10809:
5696:
5228:, "the general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural ones."
4993:
4850:
with the spread of farming. According to David McAlpin, the Dravidian languages were brought to India by immigration into India from
4532:
3819:"), which may have been a public bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive.
1007:
effort tasked to conserve the site at Mohenjo-daro. Other international efforts at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa have included the German
11403:
7881:
Petrie, C.A.; Thomas, K.D. (2012). "The topographic and environmental context of the earliest village sites in western South Asia".
6043:
distant, and that it was destroyed by a particular visitation of Providence, brought down by the lust and crimes of the sovereign."
5494:), archaeological excavations have discovered an overlap between the final phase of Late Harappan pottery and the earliest phase of
17201:
12115:
Costantini, L. (2008). "The first farmers in Western Pakistan: The evidence of the Neolithic agropastoral settlement of Mehrgarh".
11489:
7706:
5161:
Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purposes, but at present only the
10269:
9219:
875:, who had been assigned by Marshall to survey Harappa, reported it to be of non-Buddhist origin, and by implication more ancient.
17611:
17105:
14876:
8904:
7390:
5686:
5576:
As of 2016, archaeological data suggests that the material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least
864:
685:
14058:
5734:
Wright: "Mesopotamia and Egypt ... co-existed with the Indus civilization during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 BC."
17945:
11252:
9825:
8437:
4401:
4202:
5336:, suggesting unrest, and the corpses of animals and even humans were left unburied in the streets and in abandoned buildings.
17472:
17191:
14645:
14543:
14466:
14361:
14296:
14165:
14143:
14124:
14093:
14036:
14002:
13892:
13843:
13725:
13665:
13557:
13470:
13451:
13323:
13288:
13082:
13061:
13040:
13012:
12923:
12722:
12641:
12515:
12490:
Heggarty, Paul; Renfrew, Collin (2014). "South and Island Southeast Asia; Languages". In Renfrew, Collin; Bahn, Paul (eds.).
12471:
12265:
12232:
12199:
12105:
12020:
11696:
11610:
11367:
11124:
10663:
10638:
10058:
9634:
9283:
9244:
9003:
8839:
8710:
8527:
8255:
7420:
7350:
7042:
7002:
6893:
6648:
4788:, and cereals. The authors speculated the food-balls to be of a ritualistic significance, given the finds of bull figurines,
730:, an officer of the ASI, visited Mohenjo-daro in 1919β1920, and again in 1922β1923, postulating the site's far-off antiquity.
13731:
13671:
13088:
12929:
12847:
12728:
12521:
12238:
12205:
11969:
7736:
6956:
955:(1927β1931). By 1931, much of Mohenjo-daro had been excavated, but occasional excavations continued, such as the one led by
17893:
14249:
13183:
5137:. One seal from Mohenjo-daro shows a half-human, a half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the
12793:
Madella, Marco; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2006). "Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilisation of South Asia: a reconsideration".
12504:"The Indus Valley "Proto-Εiva", Re-examined through Reflections on the Goddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism of vΔhanas"
10036:
17940:
17844:
17083:
12538:
7018:
Dales, George F. (1979). "The Balakot Project: Summary of four years excavations in Pakistan". In Maurizio Taddei (ed.).
4397:, below). This figure has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.
3846:. All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of a society with relatively low
3842:
Although some houses were larger than others, Indus civilisation cities were remarkable for their apparent, if relative,
3077:
2810:
9213:
18582:
14869:
14456:
10446:
3975:
999:. As of 2008, about 616 sites have been reported in India, whereas 406 sites have been reported in Pakistan.
12756:
MacDonald, Glen (2011). "Potential influence of the Pacific Ocean on the Indian summer monsoon and Harappan decline".
11002:
10940:
9389:
5996:
and cities, there was probably a modest rise in the average death rate and a slightly greater rise in the birth rate."
3835:
seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods), and other types of inscriptions, including the yet un-deciphered
18612:
18312:
17950:
17340:
13335:"Late Glacial to Holocene Indian Summer Monsoon Variability Based upon Sediment Records Taken from the Bay of Bengal"
12876:
12841:
11999:
11963:
10971:
10690:
10492:
10470:
9576:
9376:
9185:
9127:
8914:
8814:
6950:
4612:, Iran, have identified 11 individuals of South Asian descent, who are presumed to be of mature Indus Valley origin.
13536:(1992). "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". In R.W. Ehrich (ed.).
18607:
17975:
17882:
16842:
13589:
10541:
5117:
believe that there is a connection between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabhanatha and the Indus Valley Civilisation.
4901:
4234:
tends to consider that these statuettes probably form the pinnacle of Indus art during the Mature Harappan period.
4102:
3869:
There was no single ruler but several cities like Mohenjo-daro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth.
562:
The Indus Valley Civilisation was roughly contemporary with the other riverine civilisations of the ancient world:
17:
13426:
5569:
its successor. David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that
3901:, which was probably used for testing the purity of gold (such a technique is still used in some parts of India).
3577:
Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including
18617:
18215:
17702:
17053:
16678:
15820:
15466:
14951:
14048:"Origin of Early Harappan Cultures in the Sarasvati Valley: Recent Archaeological Evidence and Radiometric Dates"
10986:
9507:
Underwater archaeology proceedings of the Society for Historical Archaeology Conference at Kingston, Jamaica 1992
8578:
7291:
5640:
5503:
changes indicated by archaeology include the introduction of the horse, iron tools, and new religious practices.
4525:
539:
composed in the second-millennium BCE, which are unrelated to the mature phase of the Indus Valley Civilization.
488:
338:
15741:
9148:
9031:
8519:
Early Civilizations of the Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, The Levant, Mesopotamia, India and China
18637:
18382:
17692:
17099:
17078:
15430:
12087:
11663:
9250:
8555:
5604:
5566:
4074:
3314:
3070:
1319:
1077:
841:
712:
511:
354:
173:
17993:
13602:"Dissecting the influence of Neolithic demic diffusion on Indian Y-chromosome pool through J2-M172 haplogroup"
10356:
6247:
David McAlpin: "Linguistic prehistory: the Dravidian situation", in Madhav M. Deshpande and Peter Edwin Hook:
5437:
Suggested contributory causes for the localisation of the IVC include changes in the course of the river, and
18602:
18036:
18018:
17666:
16698:
15345:
12898:
12882:
11434:
11072:
7457:
6689:
5910:
5013:
4206:
2895:
868:
852:, proved elusive, Cunningham did publish his findings in 1875. For the first time, he interpreted a Harappan
738:
9534:
9308:
8749:
https://web.archive.org/web/20230920150807/https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/G_Robbins_Schug_Ritual_2020.pdf
8606:
7916:
Goring-Morris, A.N.; Belfer-Cohen, A. (2011). "Neolithization processes in the Levant: The outer envelope".
5876:: "More than 1,000 settlements belonging to the Integrated Era have been identified (Singh, 2008: 137)"
3706:
Also, according to a more recent summary by Maisels (2003), "The Harappan oecumene formed from a Kot Dijian/
18587:
18432:
17960:
17557:
17176:
17115:
16945:
16755:
15435:
6939:
Joshi, J.P.; Bala, M. (1982). "Manda: A Harappan site in Jammu and Kashmir". In Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.).
6383:
5524:
4801:
3711:
and Amri-Nal cultural elements that resulted in the gestalt we recognize as Early Harappan (Early Indus)."
3396:
1404:
9931:
7022:. Naples: Seminario di Studi Asiatici Series Minor 6. Instituto Universitario Orientate. pp. 241β274.
6599:
6378:
wooden palisades, albeit smaller and simpler than the elaborately fortified large cities which grew after
3617:
41:
18551:
18521:
18327:
18013:
17390:
17293:
16832:
16591:
11189:
10888:
Robbins-Schug, Gwen; Blevins, K. Elaine; Cox, Brett; Gray, Kelsey; Mushrif-Tripathy, V. (December 2013).
4601:
4480:
Seal with unicorn and inscription; 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.5 x 3.6 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art
4269:
3490:
3005:
2875:
8784:
7530:
6111:
in the Zagros Mountains of southern Iran. Clay figurines found in Mehrgarh resemble those discovered at
5959:
perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500 years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan."
5913:) named after the river system) artifacts differed from any known other civilizations in the region, ...
5174:
4748:), and are believed to have been independently domesticated on the Indian subcontinent, probably in the
4639:
However, the evidence of sea-borne trade involving the Harappan civilisation is not firm. In their book
3581:
and other materials for bead-making. By this time, villagers had domesticated numerous crops, including
18597:
18482:
18208:
17869:
17132:
16975:
16847:
16737:
15495:
15459:
14531:
7759:
6881:
6134:
5856:: "There are 1,056 Mature Harappan sites that have been reported of which 96 have been excavated."
5386:
4912:. No parallels to these mass-produced inscriptions are known in any other early ancient civilisations.
4744:
cattle. Zebu cattle are still common in India, and in Africa. They are different from European cattle (
4541:
4429:
4289:
4247:
4222:, claims a Harappan date, but Marshall considered this statuette is probably historical, dating to the
3914:
3894:
3055:
898:
had attracted notice. Marshall deputed a succession of ASI officers to survey the site. These included
421:
210:
1026:. Following a chance flash flood which exposed a portion of an archaeological site at the foot of the
18632:
18277:
18102:
18031:
17606:
17462:
17395:
16621:
15440:
14636:(1995). "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology". In George Erdosy (ed.).
14371:
Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Anthony, David; Mallory, James; Reich, David; et al. (September 2019).
14175:
14153:
12744:
11774:
Yelmen B, Mondal M, Marnetto D, Pathak AK, Montinaro F, Gallego Romero I, et al. (August 2019).
10832:
9858:
Suryanarayan, Akshyeta; Cubas, Miriam; Craig, Oliver E.; Heron, Carl P.; et al. (January 2021).
9711:"Approaching rice domestication in South Asia: New evidence from Indus settlements in northern India"
8272:
6340:) in Dravidian populations indicates the spread of the Dravidian language into India from west Asia."
6332:
5570:
5412:
4176:
A handful of realistic statuettes have been found at IVC sites, of which much the most famous is the
3807:
The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilisation's contemporaries,
3025:
2985:
2975:
2450:
2044:
1393:
948:
756:
676:, only 28 km (17 mi) from Delhi. The southernmost site of the Indus Valley Civilisation is
625:
473:
177:
17523:
8752:
3642:
18592:
18143:
17863:
17648:
17355:
16882:
16877:
16683:
16414:
15964:
15617:
15482:
14996:
14967:
13212:
9505:
Neyland, R.S. (1992). "The seagoing vessels on Dilmun seals". In Keith, D.H.; Carrell T.L. (eds.).
5636:
4310:
4185:
4171:
4052:
4044:
3932:
in Gujarat, was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the
3816:
2910:
1824:
1664:
202:
17750:
14692:"Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a"
9596:
7982:
Hiebert, FT; Dyson, RH (2002). "Prehistoric Nishapur and frontier between Central Asia and Iran".
7257:
3922:
3462:
1039:
734:
18516:
18092:
17965:
17621:
17569:
17272:
17063:
16970:
16857:
16492:
15843:
14979:
14490:"Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1,244 worldwide Y-chromosome sequences"
14349:
12651:
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In Historical Roots". In
12191:
11635:
Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times
8987:
6077:
4560:
period (copper age), the Indus Valley Civilisation area shows ceramic similarities with southern
4544:). Flat-bottomed river row-boats appear in two Indus seals, but their seaworthiness is debatable.
4457:
4263:
3015:
2980:
2815:
2595:
2144:
1696:
1625:
295:, and of the three, the most widespread, its sites spanning an area including much of modern day
268:
18008:
16432:
10385:
Rao, Rajesh P.N.; Yadav, Nisha; Vahia, Mayank N.; Joglekar, Hrishikesh; et al. (May 2009).
8806:
8483:; Lichtenstein, Diane A. (1989). "Ethnicity and Change in the Indus Valley Cultural Tradition".
8095:"Where West meets East: The complex mtDNA landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian corridor"
979:
and Ghaggar-Hakra rivers and their tributaries; however, there are only five major urban sites:
18130:
17998:
17643:
17452:
17447:
17377:
17267:
17110:
16982:
16715:
16145:
16096:
16039:
15984:
15838:
14656:
13566:
Singh, Kavita, "The Museum Is National", Chapter 4 in: Mathur, Saloni and Singh, Kavita (eds),
12945:
Mascarenhas, Desmond D.; Raina, Anupuma; Aston, Christopher E.; Sanghera, Dharambir K. (2015).
11688:
11116:
5671:
5661:
4665:
3948:
3824:
2930:
2905:
2855:
2795:
2380:
2316:
2114:
1330:
1205:
1009:
822:
13278:
12306:"Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence"
12275:
Fuller, D.Q. (2006). "Agricultural origins and frontiers in South Asia: a working synthesis".
11519:
Dixit, Yama; Hodell, David A.; Giesche, Alena; Tandon, Sampat K.; et al. (9 March 2018).
11012:
10950:
10551:
9399:
9338:
9334:
9158:
9117:
9064:
9060:
8995:
8588:
8517:
8468:
7451:
7410:
6726:
5873:
5863:
5825:
3909:
836:
In 1861, three years after the dissolution of the East India Company and the establishment of
688:
have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot (
18121:
18003:
17677:
17653:
17508:
16987:
16872:
16770:
16745:
16337:
16216:
16170:
16101:
16066:
15295:
14986:
14112:
13833:
13711:
13687:
13548:(1999). "Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology". In Bronkhorst; Deshpande (eds.).
13311:
12629:
12605:
12573:
11655:
11082:
10996:
9626:
9354:
9318:
9273:
9175:
9044:
8616:
7467:
5909:
Unable to state the age of the civilization, he went on to observe that the Indus (which he (
5648:
5401:
5365:
5268:
5244:
5070:
4809:
4760:. This led to the local development of a mix of "wetland" and "dryland" agriculture of local
4749:
4019:β2600 BCE) which had red colour applied to the "manga" (line of partition of the hair).
3759:
2965:
2935:
2800:
2755:
2585:
2224:
2214:
2184:
1916:
1896:
1757:
1126:
1088:
814:
510:, the first site to be excavated in the 1920s; this is notably true of usage employed by the
16302:
15810:
11680:
11108:
9770:"Rice farming in India much older than thought, used as 'summer crop' by Indus civilisation"
8906:
The Anti-War Wargame: a Comprehensive Analysis of the Origins of the Game of Chess 1989-1990
7340:
6699:
4524:
and the Indus were active during the 3rd millennium BCE, leading to the development of
279:
to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Together with
18467:
18397:
18097:
17970:
17910:
17763:
17697:
17540:
17528:
17372:
17181:
16940:
16935:
16837:
16797:
16601:
16497:
16487:
16480:
16034:
15350:
15285:
14797:
14562:
14384:
14208:
14200:
13948:
13792:
Sullivan, Herbert P. (1964). "A Re-Examination of the Religion of the Indus Civilization".
13756:
13613:
13571:
13493:
13480:
Sarkar, Anindya; Mukherjee, Arati Deshpande; Bera, M. K.; Das, B.; et al. (May 2016).
13349:
13227:
12802:
12765:
12673:
12560:
Jarrige, C. (2008b). "The figurines of the first farmers at Mehrgarh and their offshoots".
12405:
12352:
12141:
12076:
12048:
11532:
11279:
Lawler, A. (6 June 2008). "Indus Collapse: The End or the Beginning of an Asian Culture?".
10901:
10887:
10398:
9943:
9871:
9722:
8326:
5487:
5397:
4999:
3847:
3792:
was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner
3718:
the Early Harappan communities turned into large urban centres. Such urban centres include
3432:
3045:
2900:
2885:
2830:
2471:
845:
708:
17127:
14690:
Underhill, Peter A.; Myres, Natalie M; Rootsi, Siiri; Metspalu, Mait; et al. (2009).
14103:
Kathiroli; et al. (2004). "Recent Marine Archaeological Finds in Khambhat, Gujarat".
11521:"Intensified summer monsoon and the urbanization of Indus Civilization in northwest India"
10801:
9024:
5035:, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god
4456:
Seal with two-horned bull and inscription; 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.2 x 3.2 cm;
840:, archaeology on the subcontinent became more formally organised with the founding of the
8:
18392:
18322:
18282:
18262:
18159:
18087:
17915:
17905:
17876:
17744:
17577:
17518:
17088:
16997:
16897:
16887:
16827:
16822:
16817:
16807:
16802:
16787:
16782:
16703:
16559:
16437:
16382:
16307:
15731:
15695:
15300:
13362:
12608:(1997). "Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New Insights from Harappa, Pakistan".
10265:
7386:
6251:, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1979);
6130:
5681:
5666:
5592:
5515:
5404:
in 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls were caused by erosion, and not by violence.
5134:
4847:
4190:
4101:
Ceremonial vessel; 2600β2450 BC; terracotta with black paint; 49.53 Γ 25.4 cm;
3478:
south Asia comes from the Indus River Valley site of Mehrgarh and is dated to 7,000
3401:
2825:
2553:
2400:
2094:
2074:
1486:
1434:
952:
919:
795:
522:
518:
469:
320:
73:
14801:
14566:
14204:
13952:
13760:
13617:
13497:
13353:
13231:
13211:
Ponton, Camilo; Giosan, Liviu; Eglinton, Tim I.; Fuller, Dorian Q.; et al. (2012).
12806:
12769:
12677:
12409:
12356:
12145:
12052:
11863:
11828:
11536:
10905:
10402:
9947:
9875:
9726:
8330:
7702:
6115:
on the Qazvin plain south of the Elburz range in Iran (the 7th millennium BCE) and
5587:
culture. Harvard archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harappan settlement of
813:
Despite these reports, Harappa was raided even more perilously for its bricks after the
18546:
18541:
18292:
17856:
17513:
17313:
17298:
17093:
17048:
17043:
16892:
16442:
16054:
15096:
14946:
14838:
14767:
14734:
14716:
14691:
14616:
14591:
14514:
14489:
14409:
14372:
14332:
14307:
14231:
14188:
13972:
13817:
13809:
13780:
13699:
13690:(1975). "The so-called Proto-Εiva seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An iconological assessment".
13634:
13601:
13516:
13481:
13418:
13410:
13167:
13130:
12973:
12946:
12699:
12593:
12436:
12393:
12375:
12340:
12292:
12164:
12129:
12080:
11985:
11921:
11888:
11800:
11775:
11751:
11727:"An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers"
11726:
11561:
11520:
11304:
11244:
10924:
10889:
10863:
10424:
10338:"The Collapse of the Indus-Script Thesis: The Myth of a Literate Harappan Civilization"
10245:
10218:
9967:
9902:
9859:
9745:
9710:
9482:
9449:
8982:
8799:
8349:
8314:
8213:
8119:
8094:
8070:
8045:
7933:
7898:
7314:
6863:
5644:
5600:
5550:
5443:
5432:
5408:
5375:
5232:
5090:
4909:
4897:
4828:
4117:
Cubical weights, standardised throughout the Indus cultural zone; 2600β1900 BC; chert;
4034:
3563:
3536:
3228:
3030:
2890:
2870:
2515:
2124:
2034:
1804:
1794:
1727:
1676:
1382:
1298:
782:
498:
Following a tradition in archaeology, the civilisation is sometimes referred to as the
396:
systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and techniques of handicraft and
169:
165:
14308:"Y-Chromosome distribution within the geo-linguistic landscape of northwestern Russia"
12686:
12661:
12254:
Flora, Reis (2000). "Classification of Musical Instruments". In Arnold, Alison (ed.).
11323:"Collapse of civilizations worldwide defines youngest unit of the Geologic Time Scale"
10240:. Early Sites Research Society (West) Monograph Series. Vol. 2. Independence, MO.
8801:
Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus
5059:, and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as the
18457:
18452:
18407:
18357:
18302:
18297:
18267:
17776:
17437:
17385:
17367:
17308:
16930:
16867:
16862:
16792:
16688:
16648:
16643:
16626:
16596:
16262:
16206:
16200:
16049:
16026:
15848:
15778:
15736:
15370:
15017:
14825:
14820:
14785:
14772:
14754:
14721:
14641:
14621:
14578:
14539:
14519:
14462:
14443:
14414:
14357:
14337:
14292:
14236:
14161:
14139:
14120:
14089:
14032:
13998:
13976:
13964:
13888:
13839:
13821:
13784:
13772:
13721:
13661:
13657:
A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century
13639:
13553:
13521:
13466:
13447:
13422:
13367:
13319:
13312:"Harappans and hunters: economic interaction and specialization in prehistoric India"
13284:
13255:
13159:
13122:
13078:
13057:
13036:
13008:
12978:
12919:
12872:
12837:
12818:
12781:
12718:
12691:
12637:
12511:
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12441:
12423:
12380:
12327:
12296:
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12195:
12169:
12101:
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12016:
11995:
11959:
11926:
11908:
11868:
11850:
11805:
11756:
11692:
11681:
11659:
11606:
11566:
11548:
11308:
11296:
11248:
11236:
11120:
11109:
10929:
10855:
10686:
10659:
10634:
10416:
10348:
10222:
9971:
9959:
9907:
9889:
9750:
9630:
9572:
9487:
9469:
9372:
9279:
9240:
9181:
9177:
The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination
9123:
8999:
8910:
8835:
8810:
8771:
8706:
8681:
8523:
8501:
Bisht, R.S. (1982). "Excavations at Banawali: 1974β77". In Possehl Gregory L. (ed.).
8354:
8251:
8205:
8124:
8075:
7967:
Origins of Agriculture in Western Central Asia: An Environmental-Archaeological Study
7937:
7902:
7416:
7412:
A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century
7346:
7318:
7038:
6998:
6946:
6889:
6867:
6855:
6644:
6374:
5584:
5543:
5495:
5157:
5138:
4916:
4818:
linguistically, the break-up of proto-Dravidian corresponding to the break-up of the
4805:
4681:
4409:
3348:
3040:
3010:
2920:
2915:
2860:
2805:
2635:
2525:
2504:
2460:
2430:
2134:
2064:
2054:
2024:
1506:
1468:
1348:
1100:
704:
461:
14458:
Art of the Bronze Age: southeastern Iran, western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley
14285:
14029:
History of Humanity, Volume III, From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century BC
13171:
13134:
12902:
12814:
12597:
11366:
Tripathi, Jayant K.; Bock, Barbara; Rajamani, V.; Eisenhauer, A. (25 October 2004).
11220:
10830:
10630:
Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture
10428:
9826:"Indus Valley civilisation had meat-heavy diets, preference for beef, reveals study"
8422:
8046:"Y-chromosome lineages trace diffusion of people and languages in Southwestern Asia"
825:
being laid in the Punjab. Nearly 160 km (100 mi) of railway track between
604:
During its height the civilisation extended from Balochistan in the west to western
18531:
18526:
18472:
18437:
18402:
18387:
18337:
18317:
18307:
18272:
18257:
18082:
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16907:
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16710:
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16606:
16537:
16312:
16091:
15969:
15896:
15716:
15592:
15185:
15071:
14815:
14805:
14762:
14746:
14711:
14703:
14611:
14603:
14570:
14509:
14501:
14435:
14404:
14394:
14327:
14319:
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14218:
14024:
14012:
13956:
13801:
13764:
13629:
13621:
13511:
13501:
13437:
13402:
13357:
13245:
13235:
13151:
13114:
12968:
12958:
12810:
12773:
12703:
12681:
12617:
12585:
12508:
When the Goddess was a Woman: Mahabharata Ethnographies β Essays by Alf Hiltebeitel
12431:
12413:
12370:
12360:
12317:
12284:
12159:
12149:
12056:
11916:
11900:
11858:
11840:
11795:
11787:
11746:
11738:
11556:
11540:
11288:
11228:
10919:
10909:
10867:
10847:
10678:
10406:
10301:
10208:
9951:
9897:
9879:
9740:
9730:
9622:
9477:
9461:
8991:
8671:
8344:
8334:
8114:
8106:
8065:
8057:
7991:
7925:
7890:
7306:
6921:
6847:
6337:
6328:
6073:
5676:
5393:
5256:
5114:
5005:
4933:
4219:
4180:
4177:
4000:(with one to six holes on the faces), which were found in sites like Mohenjo-daro.
3594:
3035:
2970:
2940:
2925:
2880:
2865:
2850:
2820:
2715:
2410:
2194:
2104:
1983:
1973:
1926:
1855:
1834:
1424:
1414:
1253:
1188:
960:
956:
907:
899:
856:, with its unknown script, which he concluded to be of an origin foreign to India.
752:
437:
346:
17769:
17638:
14574:
12621:
12549:
12224:
An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century
11382:
11292:
10683:
The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies
8294:
Thapar, B.K. (1975). "Kalibangan: A Harappan metropolis beyond the Indus Valley".
5073:
has argued that the figure does not have three faces or yogic posture and that in
4691:
Indus-type and Indus-related artifacts were found over a large and differentiated
4081:, while iconographical evidence suggests early harps and drums were also used. An
3659:
747:"Three other scholars whose names I cannot pass over in silence, are the late Mr.
91:
18462:
18377:
18362:
18347:
17498:
16852:
16812:
16750:
15853:
15788:
15642:
15375:
13918:
13878:
13717:
Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art
13715:
13655:
13593:
13578:
13441:
13274:
13072:
13051:
13026:
13002:
12991:
12913:
12831:
12777:
12712:
12503:
12499:
12457:
12365:
12255:
12222:
12185:
12154:
12093:
12010:
11989:
11953:
11949:
11649:
11600:
10914:
10628:
10496:
10474:
10151:
10149:
9955:
8339:
8271:
Durrani, F.A. (1984). "Some Early Harappan sites in Gomal and Bannu Valleys". In
7728:
6940:
6638:
5553:
may be the manifestation of the Late Harappan over a large area in the region of
5519:
5311:
5287:
5142:
5110:
5078:
4840:
4815:
4648:
4644:
4609:
4570:
4231:
4227:
2493:
2482:
2440:
2420:
2338:
2305:
1886:
1814:
1774:
1686:
1646:
1608:
1526:
1023:
943:
872:
542:
Recent geophysical research suggests that unlike the Sarasvati, described in the
526:
300:
18372:
17550:
14264:
13190:
12662:"Deep common ancestry of Indian and western-Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages"
11991:
The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States
10890:"Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Process at the End of the Indus Civilization"
10287:"A New Type of Inscribed Copper Plate from Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilisation"
9999:"Harappan people ate multigrain, high-protein 'laddoos': Study β Times of India"
6166:
Animal domestication in the Middle East: a revised view from the eastern margin.
5044:
4886:
4846:
According to Heggarty and Renfrew, Dravidian languages may have spread into the
4839:, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the
337:, the first to be excavated early in the 20th century in what was then the
18536:
18506:
18477:
18412:
17804:
17738:
17493:
17252:
17120:
16925:
16920:
16631:
16584:
16502:
16447:
16175:
16081:
16044:
15891:
15753:
15587:
15225:
15141:
15116:
14974:
14790:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
14633:
13874:
13581:(nb this is different to the article by the same author with the same title in
13545:
13533:
11829:"On the limits of fitting complex models of population history to f-statistics"
11742:
11544:
11365:
10851:
10490:'Conditional Entropy' Cannot Distinguish Linguistic from Non-linguistic Systems
10213:
10196:
10098:
10028:
8676:
8659:
8480:
6138:
5612:
5438:
5060:
4986:
4970:
4832:
4733:
4714:
4625:
4386:
4339:
4118:
3985:
3843:
3766:
3684:
3339:
2703:
2655:
2349:
2327:
2295:
2273:
2234:
2164:
2154:
2014:
1747:
1557:
1059:
880:
859:
Archaeological work in Harappa thereafter lagged until a new viceroy of India,
786:
778:
536:
492:
381:
308:
13414:
13155:
12288:
12187:
A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day
11232:
10146:
10134:
9884:
9735:
8660:"Killing the Priest-King: Addressing Egalitarianism in the Indus Civilization"
7894:
7310:
6851:
5027:
One Indus Valley seal shows a seated figure with a horned headdress, possibly
4892:
Between 400 and as many as 600 distinct Indus symbols have been found on
4314:; 2400β1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; National Museum (New Delhi)
315:, which flows through the length of Pakistan, and along a system of perennial
18576:
18511:
18447:
18442:
18427:
18422:
18417:
18342:
18152:
17837:
17797:
17783:
17442:
17257:
17032:
16579:
16574:
16547:
16475:
16372:
15906:
15828:
15577:
15557:
15520:
15335:
14931:
14786:"The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity"
14758:
13968:
13960:
13923:
Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia
13829:
13776:
13651:
13371:
13259:
13022:
12822:
12785:
12427:
12068:
11912:
11854:
11630:
11552:
11325:. News and Meetings. International Commission on Stratigraphy. Archived from
11240:
10352:
9963:
9893:
9473:
8685:
8209:
7406:
6859:
5701:
5562:
5480:
5458:
5396:
proposed that the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central Asia, the "
5349:
5225:
5153:
5106:
5098:
4978:
4819:
4593:
4516:
4157:
4156:
Ram-headed bird mounted on wheels, probably a toy; 2600β1900 BC; terracotta;
4062:
4030:
3812:
3539:, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the
2625:
2565:
2390:
1784:
1737:
1717:
1591:
1574:
1536:
1516:
1451:
1235:
1225:
1215:
1158:
903:
876:
818:
748:
727:
613:
605:
563:
429:
409:
280:
17790:
16113:
14861:
14735:"The phylogenetic & geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a"
14399:
13053:
Archaeology and Religion in Early Northwest India: History, Theory, Practice
12947:"Genetic and Cultural Reconstruction of the Migration of an Ancient Lineage"
12418:
12322:
12305:
12257:
The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia: The Indian Subcontinent
12098:
The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE β 200 CE
11904:
11791:
10831:
Robbins-Schug, G.; Gray, K.M.; Mushrif, V.; Sankhyan, A.R. (November 2012).
10442:
10411:
10386:
10110:
9465:
7258:"Ahmad Hasan Dani: Pakistan's foremost archaeologist and author of 30 books"
6643:. Vol. 1: To 1500 (2nd ed.). India: Cengage Learning. p. 40.
6172:. New Delhi: Oxford University Press and India Book House. pp. 295β320.
5639:. The remaining portion of the genome was from a South Asian source, termed
4943:
Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the
4022:
Archeological remains from 2000 to 3000 BC have been found from the city of
3543:
Phase (2800β2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in northern
18241:
17898:
17588:
17582:
17488:
17483:
17422:
17303:
16658:
16532:
16507:
16459:
16452:
16377:
16292:
15928:
15863:
15721:
15659:
15582:
15540:
15340:
15265:
15205:
15111:
15101:
15091:
15046:
15022:
14941:
14936:
14829:
14810:
14776:
14725:
14657:"Ancient Stateless Civilization: Bronze Age India and the State in History"
14625:
14582:
14523:
14447:
14418:
14341:
14240:
13643:
13525:
13388:"Archaeology at the Heart of a Political Confrontation The Case of Ayodhya"
13179:
13163:
13126:
12982:
12695:
12463:
12445:
12384:
12331:
12173:
11930:
11872:
11809:
11760:
11570:
11399:
11300:
10933:
10859:
10420:
10335:
9911:
9754:
9491:
8971:
8556:"Indus re-enters India after two centuries, feeds Little Rann, Nal Sarovar"
8358:
8152:
8128:
8079:
6254:
David McAlpin, "Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and its Implications",
6240:
David McAlpin: "Elamite and Dravidian, Further Evidence of Relationships",
6112:
5499:
5361:
5323:
5318:
as stone weights and female figurines became rare. There are some circular
5307:
5248:
5218:
4948:
4878:
4868:
4823:
4633:
4585:
4581:
4566:
4561:
4557:
4549:
4537:
4382:
4375:
4335:
4325:
4223:
4133:
4078:
3981:
3958:
3836:
3784:. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from
3727:
3707:
3606:
3590:
3578:
3559:
3552:
3548:
3471:
3353:
2745:
2735:
2615:
2605:
2535:
2370:
2360:
2244:
2174:
1956:
1876:
1496:
1360:
1308:
1176:
984:
968:
895:
673:
657:
633:
587:
465:
417:
401:
393:
350:
264:
190:
137:
17823:
14707:
14306:
Mirabal S, Regueiro M, Cadenas AM, Cavalli-Sforza LL, et al. (2009).
13333:
Rashid, Harunur; England, Emily; Thompson, Lonnie; Polyak, Leonid (2011).
12963:
10963:
10489:
10467:
9860:"Lipid residues in pottery from the Indus Civilisation in northwest India"
9615:"Indus Valley: Early Commercial Connections with Central and Western Asia"
6006:
civilisation the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people."
5591:, which thrived continuously from 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of
723:
18332:
18137:
17720:
17659:
17478:
17432:
17417:
17345:
17073:
16552:
16357:
16252:
16059:
15795:
15726:
15632:
15550:
15535:
15396:
15255:
14906:
14750:
14081:
14069:
13768:
13240:
12453:
11629:
Shaffer, Jim (1993). "Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond". In
8702:
Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
6499:
6497:
6350:
5314:, as well as a shift of rural settlement towards the east and the south.
5303:
5276:
5263:. Other sites associated with the Late phase of the Harappan culture are
5095:
5089:(vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions. Writing in 2002,
5032:
5028:
4673:
4597:
4589:
4577:
4521:
4086:
3808:
3586:
2765:
2725:
2685:
2084:
1946:
1936:
1031:
931:
837:
804:
Narrative of Various Journeys in Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab
681:
653:
649:
598:
571:
485:
385:
370:
358:
312:
304:
284:
217:
206:
65:
18175:
16232:
14323:
14222:
13703:
13586:
11845:
8217:
7995:
5189:
4814:
It has often been suggested that the bearers of the IVC corresponded to
4008:
make-up and toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai), the use of
652:
which is the northernmost site of the Indus Valley Civilisation, in the
18492:
18249:
18231:
17672:
17503:
17362:
17350:
17262:
17171:
16760:
16512:
16180:
16155:
16134:
16076:
15938:
15911:
15627:
15507:
15260:
15230:
15210:
15200:
15190:
15170:
15131:
15106:
15061:
15056:
14439:
13813:
13552:. Cambridge: Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies.
13387:
13118:
12616:(2: "HighβDefinition Archaeology: Threads Through the Past"): 262β280.
12589:
11346:
11344:
8276:
7292:"Negotiating Evidence: History, Archaeology and the Indus Civilisation"
6040:
5447:
5428:
5319:
5291:
5162:
4893:
4605:
4288:
Male dancing torso; 2400β1900 BC; limestone; height: 9.9 cm;
4141:
3993:
3989:
3937:
3933:
3879:
3789:
3785:
3777:
3739:
3735:
3723:
3602:
3571:
3525:
3456:
3310:
2675:
2575:
2285:
1027:
996:
992:
879:
Harappa for the ASI under the Act, Marshall directed ASI archaeologist
853:
799:
716:
669:
661:
641:
453:
433:
397:
292:
276:
272:
261:
233:
145:
17427:
14590:
Sengupta, S; Zhivotovsky, LA; King, R; Mehdi, SQ; et al. (2005).
14189:"Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East"
13625:
13506:
8423:"Stepwells β Cosmology of Subterranean Architecture as seen in Adalaj"
6494:
6457:
6455:
6453:
6451:
6449:
6447:
6164:
Gallego romero et al. (2011) refer to (Meadow 1993): Meadow RH. 1993.
3828:
3776:
As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently partially excavated
3691:
steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed reservoirs.
3674:
17682:
17595:
16611:
16569:
16542:
16352:
16297:
16281:
16139:
15979:
15933:
15858:
15833:
15800:
15654:
15597:
15572:
15409:
15330:
15280:
15195:
15180:
15165:
15136:
15121:
13443:
Trading Encounters: From the Euphrates to the Indus in the Bronze Age
13250:
12181:
12082:
Archaeological Survey of India, Report for the Year 1872β1873, Vol. 5
12060:
11035:
11033:
10443:"Indus Script Encodes Language, Reveals New Study of Ancient Symbols"
10306:
9101:
Mackay, Ernest John Henry (1928β1929). "Excavations at Mohenjodaro".
6081:
5764:
5616:
5608:
5370:
5283:
5146:
5065:
5056:
4882:
4836:
4785:
4511:
4461:
4293:
4209:
reacted with surprise when he saw these two statuettes from Harappa:
4137:
4009:
3793:
3773:, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual.
3731:
3680:
3441:
2645:
988:
959:, a new director-general of the ASI appointed in 1944, and including
935:
887:
693:
645:
621:
575:
525:, after a posited identification of the Ghaggar-Hakra with the river
503:
464:
is not directly attested, and its affiliations are uncertain, as the
441:
362:
353:
was the culmination of work that had begun after the founding of the
331:
288:
141:
121:
15451:
14505:
14305:
14180:
The Earliest Civilisation of South Asia (Rise, Maturity and Decline)
12576:(1991). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India".
12030:
Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1994).
11341:
9234:
8044:
Quintana-Murci L, Krausz C, Zerjal T, Sayar SH, et al. (2001).
3769:
and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on
554:
18563:
18352:
17830:
16332:
16327:
16195:
16150:
16071:
15959:
15954:
15923:
15680:
15637:
15602:
15567:
15515:
15404:
15385:
15380:
15360:
15355:
15320:
15235:
15215:
15146:
15086:
15066:
15051:
15033:
14926:
14921:
14607:
14389:
14213:
13805:
13406:
13032:
11705:
11018:
10337:
9796:"Indus Valley civilization diet had dominance of meat, finds study"
8110:
8093:
Quintana-Murci L, Chaix R, Wells RS, Behar DM, et al. (2004).
8061:
7929:
7791:
7789:
7787:
7785:
7783:
7781:
6444:
6152:
6108:
5692:
List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation
5620:
5451:
5299:
5272:
5194:
5121:
4982:
4929:
4926:
4722:
4425:
4347:
4330:
4082:
3953:
3898:
3832:
3688:
3567:
3540:
3510:
3452:
3437:
3426:
3145:
3141:
2995:
1906:
1371:
1148:
1138:
1035:
918:"Not often has it been given to archaeologists, as it was given to
849:
791:
689:
677:
495:
the early sites of the civilisation were identified and excavated.
389:
366:
296:
198:
155:
113:
106:
77:
69:
16277:
13204:
The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilisation
12864:
12660:
Kivisild T, Bamshad MJ, Kaldma K, Metspalu M, et al. (1999).
11885:
11815:
Eurasian populations (Mondal et al. 2016; Narasimhan et al. 2018).
11490:"Migration of monsoons created, then killed Harappan civilization"
11030:
9518:
9516:
9446:
9215:
The Indus Script. Text, Concordance And Tables Iravathan Mahadevan
8487:. Wisconsin Archaeological Reports. Vol. 2. pp. 117β126.
8485:
Old Problems and New Perspectives in the Archaeology of South Asia
6838:
Dales, George F. (1962). "Harappan Outposts on the Makran Coast".
6364:
contradicted the idea of a Harappan-time mighty "Sarasvati" river.
4964:
4246:
Reclining mouflon; 2600β1900 BC; marble; length: 28 cm;
3687:, is one of the largest cities of Indus Valley civilisation, with
18115:
17562:
17058:
16950:
16347:
16317:
16272:
16257:
16242:
16237:
16190:
16160:
15883:
15690:
15685:
15622:
15562:
15525:
15425:
15325:
15315:
15310:
15290:
15275:
15126:
15076:
15041:
11050:
11048:
10758:
9509:. Tucson, AZ: Society for Historical Archaeology. pp. 68β74.
8373:"Indus Valley people migrated from villages to cities: New study"
8142:
8140:
8138:
5558:
5491:
5462:
5345:
5328:
5295:
5260:
5240:
5214:
5102:
4692:
4629:
4621:
4507:
4408:. Several seals also show a man fighting two lions or tigers, a "
4273:
3801:
3770:
3719:
3649:
2204:
1109:
980:
927:
617:
609:
591:
531:
507:
457:
445:
405:
334:
316:
241:
222:
126:
13316:
Forager-Traders in South and Southeast Asia: Long-Term Histories
12012:
Climate Change and the Course of Global History: A Rough Journey
11157:
10833:"A Peaceful Realm? Trauma and Social Differentiation at Harappa"
10770:
10387:"Entropic Evidence for Linguistic Structure in the Indus Script"
7778:
7760:"Mehrgarh, Pakistan and Life in the Indus Valley Before Harappa"
7135:
7133:
6806:
6804:
6567:
6565:
6297:
The origins and spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia
5077:
Rudra was not a protector of wild animals. Herbert Sullivan and
4672:
In the 1980s, important archaeological discoveries were made at
18166:
17811:
17632:
16616:
16522:
16367:
16322:
16267:
16227:
16211:
16185:
16129:
15974:
15901:
15805:
15773:
15763:
15711:
15612:
15545:
15305:
15270:
15250:
15220:
15175:
13463:
Understanding Harappa: Civilization in the Greater Indus Valley
13103:
13004:
Shipbuilding, Navigation and the Portuguese in Pre-modern India
12392:
Giosan L, Clift PD, Macklin MG, Fuller DQ, et al. (2012).
11826:
10608:
10116:
10088:
10086:
10084:
9513:
8171:
8169:
8167:
8043:
7685:
7683:
7550:
7548:
6272:
6116:
5772:
5768:
5554:
5534: BCE) "lies well outside this sociocultural environment".
5511:
5341:
5236:
5125:
5086:
5052:
4726:
4617:
4503:
4405:
4268:; 2400β1900 BC; low fired steatite; height: 17.5 cm;
4023:
3963:
3929:
3883:
3788:. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing,
3747:
3666:
3558:
The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by
2004:
1004:
923:
830:
826:
637:
579:
185:
14373:"The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia"
14086:
The Indus-Saraswati Civilization: Origins, Problems and Issues
13568:
No Touching, No Spitting, No Praying: The Museum in South Asia
12867:. In Gunawardhana, P.; Adikari, G.; Coningham, R.A.E. (eds.).
11889:"The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia"
11723:
11145:
11045:
10700:
10698:
10584:
10562:
10560:
9450:"The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia"
8135:
6821:
6819:
4732:
The cattle that are often portrayed on Indus seals are humped
3509:
Terracotta boat in the shape of a bull, and female figurines.
365:
cultures, the earliest and best-known of which is named after
18200:
16527:
16517:
16362:
16342:
16287:
16247:
16221:
16165:
15664:
15365:
15245:
15240:
15157:
15081:
14370:
14287:
A Peaceful Realm: The Rise And Fall of the Indus Civilization
13746:
12944:
12659:
11190:"Decline of Bronze Age 'megacities' linked to climate change"
10531:
10529:
10155:
10140:
8181:
8158:
8092:
7617:
7497:
7130:
6801:
6562:
6288:
Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins
5830:
5588:
5507:
5333:
5264:
5252:
5074:
5040:
5036:
5017:
4781:
4520:
Archaeological discoveries suggest that trade routes between
4385:
depicting a figure standing on its head, and another, on the
4039:
3944:
3743:
3544:
976:
891:
774:
665:
629:
583:
194:
81:
18628:
States and territories disestablished in the 16th century BC
14689:
14589:
11133:
10782:
10710:
10081:
8505:. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. pp. 113β124.
8164:
7806:
7804:
7680:
7560:
7545:
7473:
4680:), demonstrating maritime Indus Valley connections with the
4029:
The finds from Mohenjo-daro were initially deposited in the
3839:. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods.
3609:, leading into the transition to the Mature Harappan phase.
323:, a seasonal river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.
18623:
States and territories established in the 4th millennium BC
16124:
15783:
15768:
15748:
15649:
15530:
13332:
12339:
Gangal, Kavita; Sarson, Graeme R.; Shukurov, Anvar (2014).
12029:
11221:"Two-hundred-year drought doomed Indus Valley Civilization"
11060:
10695:
10557:
10176:
10104:
9857:
9690:
9669:
Jarrige, J.-F. (1986). "Excavations at Mehrgarh-Nausharo".
9565:
Die Indus-Zivilisation jenseits des indischen Subkontinents
7373:
7237:
6816:
6302:
5807:
5416:
5048:
5021:
4851:
4789:
4741:
4706:
4677:
4465:
4412:" motif common to civilisations in Western and South Asia.
4390:
3997:
3800:
architecture of the Harappans is shown by their dockyards,
2665:
942:
In the next issue, a week later, the British Assyriologist
833:, laid in the mid-1850s, was supported by Harappan bricks.
612:
state in the south. The largest number of sites are in the
608:
in the east, from northeastern Afghanistan in the north to
567:
237:
14855:
13210:
11773:
11457:
10526:
10502:
8878:
Keay, John, India, a History. New York: Grove Press, 2000.
8699:
Angelakis, Andreas N.; Rose, Joan B. (14 September 2014).
7395:. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 6β7.
5801:
951:, continuing with those of H. Hargreaves (1925β1926), and
205:
in the foreground. Mohenjo-daro, on the right bank of the
15758:
13929:
11088:
8951:
7915:
7801:
7658:
7656:
7088:
6679:
6677:
6526:
5583:β900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the
4536:
Boat with direction-finding birds to find land. Model of
3887:
3582:
3479:
330:
is sometimes applied to the Indus Civilisation after its
13540:(Second ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
13074:
History of Urban Form: Before the Industrial Revolutions
12391:
11518:
10658:. NY: Princeton University Press. pp. 60, 208β209.
10336:
Farmer, Steve; Sproat, Richard; Witzel, Michael (2004).
9272:
Kenoyer, Jonathan M.; Heuston, Kimberley Burton (2005).
9036:
9034:
8848:
7827:
7825:
7823:
7821:
7819:
7595:
7593:
7591:
7589:
7587:
7363:
7200:
7198:
7120:
7118:
7078:
7076:
7074:
7072:
7070:
7068:
7066:
6945:. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 185β195.
6582:
6580:
6461:
5795:
4713:"cultural continuum" between those sites. Archaeologist
12871:. Battaramulla: Neptune Publication. pp. 145β152.
12341:"The Near-Eastern roots of the Neolithic in South Asia"
12038:
11350:
10722:
10572:
10274:. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India. p. 9.
9650:
9233:
During-Caspers, GS Elisabeth; Reade, Julian E. (2008).
9082:
9070:
8731:
8729:
8404:
8402:
8400:
8398:
7850:
6791:
6789:
6787:
6785:
6749:
6747:
6664:
6662:
6660:
6618:
6550:
5637:
Caucasus hunter-gatherers and Iranian Neolithic Farmers
5615:. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for
5573:
derives partially from the Indus Valley Civilisations.
4492:
Seal painted on the first page of Constitution of India
4334:
Stamp seals and (right) impressions, some of them with
4085:
in the IVC contains the earliest known depiction of an
640:
in Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on the
558:
Major sites and extent of the Indus Valley Civilisation
14425:
13479:
12483:
The Making of History: Essays Presented to Irfan Habib
12260:. New York: Garland Publishing Inc. pp. 319β330.
11711:
11469:
11368:"Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? Geochemical Constraints"
10734:
7668:
7653:
7629:
7225:
7215:
7213:
7185:
7183:
7181:
7179:
7150:
7148:
7105:
7103:
7037:. New Delhi: Ramanand Vidya Bhawan. pp. 379β408.
6772:
6770:
6768:
6766:
6764:
6762:
6674:
6516:
6514:
6512:
5715:
Hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Civilization
3665:
Archaeological remains of washroom drainage system at
3524:
The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby
817:
in 1848β49. A considerable number were carted away as
699:
476:
language family is favoured by a section of scholars.
373:, Pakistan. Harappan civilisation is sometimes called
16015:
13314:. In Morrison, Kathleen D.; Junker, Laura L. (eds.).
10746:
10596:
10514:
10384:
10166:
10164:
10059:"Sanskrit has also contributed to Indus Civilization"
8939:
8886:
8884:
8594:
7944:
7816:
7641:
7605:
7584:
7572:
7195:
7115:
7063:
7051:
6902:
6577:
6472:
6470:
6419:
6417:
6415:
6155:, south of Mehrgarh, than with chalcolithic Mehrgarh.
4402:
human deity with the horns, hooves and tail of a bull
4060:
Though written considerably later, the arts treatise
3962:(4th century BCE) are the same as those used in
632:, and Balochistan. Coastal settlements extended from
380:
The cities of the ancient Indus were noted for their
319:-fed rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the
14158:
India 1947β1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization
12865:"Chronology and Culture-History in the Indus Valley"
12338:
11404:"An Ancient Civilization, Upended by Climate Change"
10122:
9426:"Surprising Discoveries From the Indus Civilization"
8726:
8395:
8032:
Environment and Ethnicity in the Ancient Middle East
7795:
7485:
7392:
MASI 77 Indus Script Texts Concordances & Tables
6782:
6744:
6657:
6434:
6432:
5259:(characterised by Lustrous Red Ware pottery) was in
10964:"Late Harappan Localization Era Map | Harappa"
9232:
9103:
Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India
8479:
7977:
7975:
7862:
7210:
7176:
7145:
7100:
6759:
6732:
6509:
5818:Compare with the very different interpretations in
5085:, the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with
3780:, this urban plan included the world's first known
468:has remained undeciphered. A relationship with the
448:(declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021 as "
14284:
13995:Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries
13938:
13280:The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective
12130:"Complete Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Iranians"
11487:
10161:
8975:
8881:
8860:
8798:
8200:Possehl, G.L. (2000). "The Early Harappan Phase".
7961:
7959:
7441:
6995:The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia
6482:
6467:
6412:
6256:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
4764:rice agriculture, before the truly "wetland" rice
14552:
14250:"Kashmir Neolithic and Early Harappan: A Linkage"
13988:. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. pp. 11β14.
13880:The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society
12394:"Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization"
11361:
11359:
10654:Zimmer, Heinrich (1969). Campbell, Joseph (ed.).
8503:Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective
8202:Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute
7516:
7514:
7512:
6429:
5842:
5840:
5838:
287:, it was one of three early civilisations of the
213:, the first site in South Asia to be so declared.
18574:
13446:(2nd ed.). India: Oxford University Press.
11687:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p.
11435:"Huge Ancient Civilization's Collapse Explained"
8872:
8420:
7972:
7285:
7283:
6924:(1970β1971). "Excavations in the Gomal Valley".
4915:In a 2009 study by P.N. Rao et al. published in
3593:, and cotton, as well as animals, including the
240:oxen for pulling a cart and the presence of the
14354:Ancient Cholistan, Archaeology and Architecture
14023:
12830:Mallory, J.P.; Adams, Douglas Q., eds. (1997).
12634:Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation
12489:
12398:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
11654:. Oxford & IBH Publishing Company. p.
10092:
9236:The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered
8969:
8460:
8458:
7956:
7305:(2). Cambridge University Press: 399β426, 419.
6982:. Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India. pp. 51β52.
6233:David McAlpin, "Toward Proto-Elamo-Dravidian",
5282:The largest Late Harappan sites are Kudwala in
4974:, showing a seated figure surrounded by animals
3837:writing system of the Indus Valley Civilisation
3451:) mountain site in the Balochistan province of
349:. The discovery of Harappa and soon afterwards
14836:
14136:The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilisation
14111:
13650:
13318:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 62β76.
12506:. In Adluri, Vishwa; Bagchee, Joydeep (eds.).
12303:
12092:
11955:The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan
11948:
11586:Kamandalu: The Seven Sacred Rivers of Hinduism
11356:
11151:
11054:
11039:
11024:
11008:
10946:
10271:The Indus Script: Text, Concordance And Tables
9696:
9395:
9350:
9271:
8187:
8175:
8146:
7689:
7623:
7566:
7554:
7509:
7503:
7479:
7447:
7255:
7139:
6810:
6722:
6636:
6571:
5869:
5859:
5835:
5785:
5783:
5781:
5498:pottery, the latter being associated with the
1052:Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation
1020:Harappa Archaeological Research Project (HARP)
785:'s army. In 1829, Masson traveled through the
18216:
15467:
14891:
14877:
14536:Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilisation
14074:The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilisation
13599:
13342:Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences
12792:
12085:. Calcutta: The Superintendent Of Government.
11463:
10626:
10201:Humanities and Social Sciences Communications
10029:"Deciphering the Indus Script | Harappa"
8805:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2003. pp.
8698:
8283:. Delhi: Books & Books. pp. 505β510.
7810:
7280:
6978:A. Ghosh (ed.). "Excavations at Alamgirpur".
6092:
6090:
5813:
5473:
5444:mega-drought and cooling 4,200 years ago
5422:
5193:Bronze Late Harappan figures from a hoard at
3913:Harappan weights found in the Indus Valley, (
3648:View of Granary and Great Hall on Mound F in
3420:
3078:
597:Around 6500 BCE, agriculture emerged in
377:to distinguish it from the earlier cultures.
14461:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
14119:. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
13585:, vol. 29, no. 3/4, 2002, pp. 176β196,
12829:
12714:Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent
11647:
11432:
11398:
11163:
11139:
11106:
10284:
10194:
9595:. Ras Al Jinz Visitor Center. Archived from
8455:
8430:Journal of Architecture and Building Science
8230:
7981:
7880:
6718:
6716:
6714:
6712:
6710:
6708:
6293:Language families and the spread of farming.
15002:Inventions of the Indus Valley Civilisation
14992:Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation
13992:
13930:Aronovsky, Ilona; Gopinath, Sujata (2005).
13141:
12498:
12304:Gallego Romero, Irene; et al. (2011).
11274:
11272:
11270:
10685:. Allworth Communications, Inc. 816 pages;
10614:
10182:
9169:
9167:
9100:
8496:
8494:
7521:Chandler, Graham (SeptemberβOctober 1999).
7332:
6942:Harappan Civilization: A recent perspective
6303:Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi & Piazza (1994)
5778:
5710:Sanitation of the Indus Valley civilisation
4548:The Indus Valley civilisation may have had
4497:
4389:, sitting cross-legged in what some call a
3928:which is marked on an ivory scale found in
3853:
484:The Indus civilisation is named after the
221:Miniature votive images or toy models from
18223:
18209:
18009:Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle
17956:International Congress of Maritime Museums
17936:Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology
17228:
15474:
15460:
14884:
14870:
13710:
13686:
13028:The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives
12114:
12075:
11624:
11622:
11111:The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture
10881:
10824:
10590:
10578:
10250:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
9936:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
9109:
8548:
7856:
7166:
6997:. Cambridge University Press. p. 95.
6198:
6189:
6187:
6087:
4862:
4641:Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan
4026:of pieces on a board that resemble chess.
3085:
3071:
894:province, the largely undisturbed site of
794:, especially in the military campaigns of
307:. The civilisation flourished both in the
40:
18069:
18024:National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology
14840:Method and Theory in American Archaeology
14819:
14809:
14766:
14733:Underhill, Peter A.; et al. (2015).
14732:
14715:
14615:
14513:
14428:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
14408:
14398:
14388:
14331:
14230:
14212:
14186:
14102:
13633:
13596:, which does not mention the IVC objects)
13515:
13505:
13460:
13436:
13361:
13249:
13239:
12972:
12962:
12869:Sirinimal Lakdusinghe Felicitation Volume
12755:
12685:
12435:
12417:
12374:
12364:
12321:
12163:
12153:
11920:
11862:
11844:
11799:
11750:
11648:Possehl, Gregory L.; Raval, M.H. (1989).
11560:
11475:
11115:. Oxford University Press, USA. pp.
10923:
10913:
10410:
10305:
10264:
10212:
10105:Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi & Piazza 1994
9929:
9901:
9883:
9744:
9734:
9481:
9371:, London: Reakton Books, pp. 89β91,
9360:
9115:
8903:Greenberg, Henry J. (30 September 2015).
8675:
8348:
8338:
8312:
8118:
8069:
7969:. Philadelphia: Univ. Pennsylvania Press.
7847:. Philadelphia: Univ. Pennsylvania Press.
7385:
7369:
6938:
6920:
6705:
6624:
5697:Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization
4994:Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization
4205:, both now in the Delhi National Museum.
3878:Harappans evolved some new techniques in
14654:
14282:
14160:. New Delhi: Aryan Books International.
13835:Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300
13791:
13385:
13309:
13021:
12911:
12897:
12559:
12536:
12032:The History and Geography of Human Genes
11994:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
11598:
11267:
11066:
10992:
10788:
10764:
10728:
10716:
10602:
10535:
10520:
10372:These and other issues are addressed in
10285:Shinde, Vasant; Willis, Rick J. (2014).
9366:
9330:
9164:
9154:
9040:
8854:
8834:(in French). Paris: Payot. p. 113.
8491:
8012:. Philadelphia: Univ. Pennsylvania Press
7950:
7831:
7520:
7415:. Pearson Education India. p. 169.
7057:
6980:Indian Archaeology, A Review (1958β1959)
6825:
6556:
6263:
6194:
5853:
5442:possibly due to "an abrupt and critical
5369:
5322:with geometric designs, but lacking the
5188:
5173:
4977:
4963:
4872:
4531:
4515:
4329:
4051:, while India retained the much smaller
3908:
3616:
3504:
3489:
969:Indus script seals and inscribed objects
733:
722:
703:
553:
216:
184:
17994:Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology
14632:
14454:
14045:
13917:
13544:
13532:
13273:
13201:
13178:
12650:
12628:
12604:
12572:
12127:
11984:
11628:
11619:
11100:
11094:
11078:
10840:International Journal of Paleopathology
10776:
10740:
10704:
10566:
10547:
10485:
10483:
10373:
10128:
9668:
9656:
9504:
9411:
9278:. Oxford University Press. p. 66.
9180:. Pearson Education India. p. 35.
9088:
9076:
9056:
8996:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.45738
8829:
8735:
8628:
8584:
8515:
8408:
8270:
8245:
8199:
7674:
7662:
7647:
7635:
7599:
7338:
7243:
6908:
6695:
6520:
6503:
6331:" and "lends credence to the suggested
6278:
6184:
5849:
5821:
5687:List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites
4843:), which lends credence to the theory.
4226:period, comparing it to the much later
865:Ancient Monuments Preservation Act 1904
777:of the Indus civilisation are those of
766:Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization
529:described in the early chapters of the
14:
18575:
17946:European Association of Archaeologists
14487:
14348:
14187:Lazaridis, Iosif; et al. (2016).
14133:
13983:
13873:
13864:
13828:
13070:
13049:
13000:
12989:
12862:
12652:
12274:
12220:
12008:
11278:
11218:
10974:from the original on 15 September 2018
10752:
10653:
10508:
10195:Mukhopadhyay, Bahata Ansumali (2021).
9996:
9925:
9923:
9921:
9853:
9851:
9627:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.595
9612:
9545:from the original on 27 September 2018
9535:"Maritime Trade i. Pre-Islamic Period"
9423:
9314:
8651:
8612:
8464:
8293:
7868:
7611:
7578:
7491:
7463:
7345:. Oxford University Press. p. 6.
7231:
7219:
7204:
7189:
7154:
7124:
7109:
7094:
7082:
6795:
6753:
6668:
6586:
6532:
6488:
6438:
6423:
6349:Geological research by a group led by
6210:
5789:
4985:seals of Indus Valley Civilisation in
4945:Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions
871:to lead the ASI. Several years later,
420:in the lower Indus Valley (declared a
18204:
18068:
17227:
17202:Pompey's campaign against the pirates
17160:
17030:
17029:
16412:
16014:
15493:
15481:
15455:
14865:
14856:Harappa and Indus Valley Civilization
14783:
14475:from the original on 26 December 2013
14080:
14068:
13538:Chronologies in Old World Archaeology
13091:from the original on 15 December 2023
13077:(3rd ed.). New York: Routledge.
12932:from the original on 23 December 2023
12850:from the original on 19 February 2023
12833:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
12710:
12480:
12452:
12253:
12180:
11972:from the original on 25 February 2024
11678:
11500:from the original on 19 November 2012
10362:from the original on 7 February 2005.
10235:
10170:
10069:from the original on 30 December 2010
10009:from the original on 19 February 2022
9767:
9708:
9687:Shaffer and Liechtenstein 1995, 1999.
9532:
9226:
9194:from the original on 23 December 2023
9173:
9136:from the original on 23 December 2023
8957:
8945:
8657:
8500:
8414:
7757:
7709:from the original on 14 November 2019
7429:from the original on 29 November 2022
7405:
7249:
7032:
7017:
6837:
6776:
6738:
6683:
6544:
6476:
6406:
5506:There is also a Harappan site called
5352:, primarily small rural settlements.
5141:of such a monster created by goddess
5094:icon, it has been interpreted as the
4687:Dennys Frenez recently regards that:
4393:-like pose (see image, the so-called
3555:date to the 3rd millennium BCE.
27:Bronze Age civilisation in South Asia
14677:from the original on 3 February 2010
14247:
14031:. New York/Paris: Routledge/UNESCO.
14011:
13852:from the original on 20 January 2023
13734:from the original on 20 January 2023
13583:India International Centre Quarterly
13297:from the original on 20 January 2023
12524:from the original on 20 January 2023
11255:from the original on 24 January 2023
10812:from the original on 14 January 2022
10480:
10317:from the original on 27 January 2024
10039:from the original on 6 November 2018
9768:Bates, Jennifer (21 November 2016).
9253:from the original on 14 January 2022
9012:from the original on 20 October 2021
8658:Green, Adam S. (16 September 2020).
8536:from the original on 1 November 2022
8443:from the original on 6 December 2003
7766:from the original on 29 October 2020
7739:from the original on 3 November 2020
7289:
6977:
6959:from the original on 21 October 2023
6640:Societies, Networks, and Transitions
4378:are short groups of signs on seals.
3923:Indian mathematics Β§ Prehistory
1287:
711:, the first director general of the
656:valley in northwestern Pakistan, at
514:after India's independence in 1947.
17941:Archaeological Institute of America
14530:
14174:
14152:
14105:Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology
14055:Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology
13600:Singh, Sakshi; et al. (2016).
13432:from the original on 21 April 2018.
13381:from the original on 10 March 2016.
13269:from the original on 12 March 2020.
12743:
11583:
11414:from the original on 7 October 2019
10877:from the original on 14 April 2021.
10449:from the original on 11 August 2009
10345:Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies
9990:
9918:
9848:
9122:. Marshall Cavendish. p. 732.
8890:
8866:
8705:. IWA Publishing. pp. 26, 40.
8647:from the original on 12 April 2020.
8600:
8566:from the original on 9 January 2018
6992:
6880:
5647:. The genome completely lacked the
5643:, that is distantly related to the
5374:Painted pottery urns from Harappa (
4904:) has a length of 34 symbols.
4165:
4089:, dated sometime before 1800 BCE.
1276:
883:to excavate the site's two mounds.
700:Discovery and history of excavation
24:
14739:European Journal of Human Genetics
14696:European Journal of Human Genetics
14596:American Journal of Human Genetics
14312:European Journal of Human Genetics
14017:Short History of Pakistan (Book 1)
13910:
13838:. University of California Press.
13674:from the original on 28 March 2024
12241:from the original on 28 March 2024
12208:from the original on 29 March 2024
11488:Thomas H. Maugh II (28 May 2012).
9776:from the original on 30 March 2019
9353:, pp. 188β189, listing of figures
8936:Singh (2015), 111-112 (112 quoted)
8664:Journal of Archaeological Research
7796:Gangal, Sarson & Shukurov 2014
7703:"Stone age man used dentist drill"
6606:from the original on 5 August 2018
6602:. Outlook India. 4 February 2022.
6027:Population Growth and Distribution
5355:
4792:and a seal in immediate vicinity.
4193:treatment of the human shape: the
3976:Pottery in the Indian subcontinent
3969:
3897:bearing gold streaks was found in
3612:
1034:, excavations were carried out in
768:, London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931.
764: β From, John Marshall (ed),
426:Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro
25:
18649:
17951:Institute of Nautical Archaeology
17341:Coastal defence and fortification
16716:Roman circumnavigation of Britain
16016:Navigation, and ports and harbors
14849:
14638:Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia
14076:. Jodhpur: Kusumanjali Prakashan.
13869:. New Delhi: National Book Trust.
13550:Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia
13213:"Holocene aridification of India"
12731:from the original on 9 April 2023
11200:from the original on 22 June 2018
9978:from the original on 24 June 2021
9930:Agnihotri, Rajesh (1 June 2021).
9864:Journal of Archaeological Science
9836:from the original on 22 July 2022
9806:from the original on 22 July 2022
9715:Journal of Archaeological Science
9292:from the original on 23 June 2022
8383:from the original on 25 July 2019
8235:. Oxford University. p. 372.
7729:"Archaeological Site of Mehrgarh"
7328:from the original on 24 May 2006.
7268:from the original on 5 April 2009
6888:. London: Asia Publishing House.
6886:Lothal and the Indus civilization
4831:family is concentrated mostly in
4721:Jarrige notes that the people of
4556:During 4300β3200 BCE of the
3827:discovered were beautiful glazed
3485:
1042:and his team in the early 1970s.
773:The first modern accounts of the
236:figurines indicate the yoking of
18185:
18051:
17976:Society for American Archaeology
17210:
17143:
17012:
16395:
15997:
13386:Ratnagar, Shereen (April 2004).
13363:10.3319/TAO.2010.09.17.02(TibXS)
12885:from the original on 5 June 2022
12537:Jarrige, Jean-Francois (2008a).
11879:
11820:
11767:
11717:
11672:
11641:
11592:
11588:. Mayur University. p. 125.
11577:
11512:
11481:
11426:
11392:
11315:
11212:
11182:
11169:
10956:
10794:
10672:
10647:
10620:
10461:
10435:
10378:
10366:
10329:
10278:
10258:
10238:An Introduction to Indus Writing
10229:
10188:
10051:
10021:
9997:Tewari, Mohita (25 March 2021).
9818:
9788:
9761:
9702:
9681:
9662:
9606:
9582:
9557:
9526:
9498:
9440:
9417:
9405:
9265:
9239:. Archaeopress. pp. 12β14.
9206:
9094:
8963:
8930:
8896:
8823:
8791:
8741:
8692:
8622:
8509:
8473:
8421:Shuichi Takezawa (August 2002).
8365:
8306:
8287:
8264:
8239:
8224:
8193:
8086:
8037:
8024:
8015:
8002:
7909:
7874:
7837:
7256:Lawrence Joffe (30 March 2009).
6367:
6357:
6343:
6320:
6310:
6224:
6215:
6203:
6175:
6158:
6144:
6122:
6100:
5767:products, seal carving, work in
5706: β 2018 book by Tony Joseph
5537:
5446:", which marks the onset of the
5169:
4600:, leading to the development of
4485:
4473:
4449:
4437:
4417:
4301:
4281:
4255:
4239:
4149:
4126:
4110:
4103:Los Angeles County Museum of Art
4094:
3673:
3658:
3641:
1066:
815:British annexation of the Punjab
692:), and on islands, for example,
17408:Phoenician discovery of America
14538:. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
12815:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.10.012
11941:
11780:Molecular Biology and Evolution
11651:Harappan Civilisation and Rojdi
11633:; Srinivasan, Doris M. (eds.).
11445:from the original on 1 May 2020
10499:Retrieved on 19 September 2009.
10477:Retrieved on 19 September 2009.
9424:Watson, Traci (29 April 2013).
8629:Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (2008).
8516:Maisels, Charles Keith (2003).
8281:Frontiers of Indus Civilisation
8010:The Prehistory of the Silk Road
7751:
7721:
7695:
7399:
7379:
7026:
7011:
6986:
6971:
6932:
6914:
6874:
6831:
6630:
6592:
6538:
6066:
6056:
6046:
6032:
6019:
6009:
5999:
5989:
5972:
5962:
5952:
5942:
5932:
5918:
5901:
5891:
5881:
5757:
5641:Ancient Ancestral South Indians
3862:These are some major theories:
3551:. The earliest examples of the
1016:Italian Mission to Mohenjo-daro
18383:Liaoning bronze dagger culture
18230:
17100:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
15431:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
14134:Lahiri, Nayanjot, ed. (2000).
12918:. Asian Educational Services.
12492:The Cambridge World Prehistory
12227:. Cambridge University Press.
12100:. Cambridge University Press.
12088:Archaeological Survey of India
12015:. Cambridge University Press.
11958:. Cambridge University Press.
9119:Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology
8250:. Cambridge University Press.
8008:Kuzmina EE, Mair V.H. (2008).
6400:
5747:
5737:
5728:
5605:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
5567:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
5206:Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay
4947:(1987, 1991, 2010), edited by
4699:
4197:who seems to be male, and the
4183:statuette of a slender-limbed
1320:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
842:Archaeological Survey of India
715:(ASI), interpreted a Harappan
713:Archaeological Survey of India
512:Archaeological Survey of India
355:Archaeological Survey of India
174:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
13:
1:
18019:Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa
16694:Phoenician maritime expansion
14575:10.1126/science.290.5494.1155
14117:The Ancient South Asian World
14088:. Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan.
13997:. Mumbai: Marg Publications.
13310:Possehl, Gregory L. (2002a).
12951:BioMed Research International
12912:Marshall, John, ed. (1996) .
12687:10.1016/s0960-9822(00)80057-3
12622:10.1080/00438243.1997.9980377
12494:. Cambridge University Press.
12034:. Princeton University Press.
11605:. Routledge. pp. 12β13.
11293:10.1126/science.320.5881.1281
11219:Marris, Emma (3 March 2014).
10633:. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan.
9369:The Indus: Lost Civilizations
9275:The Ancient South Asian World
6993:Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003).
6393:
5980:
5577:
5528:
5379:
5198:
5179:
4725:used domesticated wheats and
4338:; probably made of steatite;
4067:
4013:
3873:
3622:
3574:in India on the Hakra River.
3529:
3514:
3495:
3445:
3405:
3377:
3369:
3357:
3213:
3205:
3193:β3200 (Coningham & Young)
3187:
3179:
3099:
2250:
1989:
1962:
1861:
1840:
1763:
1702:
1631:
1614:
1597:
1580:
1563:
1542:
1457:
1440:
1194:
1045:
1012:Research Project Mohenjo-daro
586:in the drainage basin of the
244:, a domesticated jungle fowl.
226:
101:
18433:South-Western Iberian Bronze
17961:Nautical Archaeology Society
15436:Northern Black Polished Ware
14655:Thompson, Thomas J. (2005).
14115:; Heuston, Kimberly (2005).
14027:; Mohen, J-P., eds. (1996).
13865:Thapar, Romila, ed. (2006).
13749:Geophysical Research Letters
13220:Geophysical Research Letters
12907:. London: Arthur Probsthain.
12778:10.1016/j.quaint.2009.11.012
12366:10.1371/journal.pone.0095714
12155:10.1371/journal.pone.0080673
11679:White, David Gordon (2003).
11433:Charles Choi (29 May 2012).
10915:10.1371/journal.pone.0084814
9956:10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.102917
9116:Littleton, C. Scott (2005).
9025:UK public library membership
8640:. Vol. 1. p. 719.
8340:10.1371/journal.pone.0123103
8313:Valentine, Benjamin (2015).
8248:Deciphering the Indus Script
7733:UNESCO World Heritage Centre
7339:Gilbert, Marc Jason (2017).
7020:South Asian Archaeology 1977
6384:Northern Black Polished Ware
6249:Aryan and Non-Aryan in India
5525:Northern Black Polished Ware
5152:In contrast to contemporary
4822:culture. Finnish Indologist
4810:Origins of Dravidian peoples
4802:Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit
3904:
3730:in modern-day Pakistan, and
3397:Northern Black Polished Ware
3383:β600 (Coningham & Young)
3260:(Indus Valley Civilisation)
3164:Pre-Harappan/Early Harappan
1405:Northern Black Polished Ware
574:in the lands watered by the
479:
7:
18014:Museum of Ancient Seafaring
17391:Temple of Poseidon, Sounion
17197:Kidnapping of Julius Caesar
17054:IndusβMesopotamia relations
16413:
15494:
14952:IndusβMesopotamia relations
14640:. Berlin u.a.: de Gruyter.
14532:Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha
14291:. Boulder: Westview Press.
13660:. Pearson Education India.
13465:. New Delhi: Tulika Books.
13461:Ratnagar, Shereen (2006b).
13184:"Study of the Indus Script"
12636:. Oxford University Press.
12578:Journal of World Prehistory
12277:Journal of World Prehistory
12221:Fisher, Michael H. (2018).
12128:Derenko, Miroslava (2013).
11952:; Allchin, Raymond (1982).
10093:Heggarty & Renfrew 2014
8638:Encyclopedia of Archaeology
8233:The World's Writing Systems
7717:– via news.bbc.co.uk.
7342:South Asia in World History
6882:Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha
5814:Madella & Fuller (2006)
5654:
5629:
5450:, the present stage of the
4959:
4854:. In earlier publications,
4795:
4602:Indus-Mesopotamia relations
4526:IndusβMesopotamia relations
4270:National Museum of Pakistan
3001:Influence on Southeast Asia
535:, a collection of hymns in
428:"), Harappa in the western
10:
18654:
18483:Wilburton-Wallington Phase
17870:Phoenician Ship Expedition
17161:
16711:Pytheas' voyage to Britain
16704:Circumnavigation of Africa
14138:. Delhi: Permanent Black.
13993:Chakrabarti, D.K. (2004).
13885:Cambridge University Press
13206:. Oxford University Press.
12996:. London: Richard Bentley.
12795:Quaternary Science Reviews
11743:10.1016/j.cell.2019.08.048
11545:10.1038/s41598-018-22504-5
11152:Allchin & Allchin 1982
10852:10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.012
10214:10.1057/s41599-021-00868-w
9569:Vergessene StΓ€dte am Indus
9351:Allchin & Allchin 1982
8902:
8677:10.1007/s10814-020-09147-9
8522:. Routledge. p. 216.
8147:Coningham & Young 2015
7690:Coningham & Young 2015
7624:Coningham & Young 2015
7567:Coningham & Young 2015
7555:Coningham & Young 2015
7504:Coningham & Young 2015
7480:Coningham & Young 2015
7448:Coningham & Young 2015
7140:Coningham & Young 2015
6811:Coningham & Young 2015
6572:Coningham & Young 2015
5870:Coningham & Young 2015
5541:
5474:Continuity and coexistence
5426:
5423:Climate change and drought
5387:National Museum, New Delhi
5359:
5043:), who is associated with
4997:
4991:
4881:from the northern gate of
4866:
4799:
4542:National Museum, New Delhi
4501:
4430:Metropolitan Museum of Art
4424:Seal; 3000β1500 BC; baked
4323:
4248:Metropolitan Museum of Art
4169:
3973:
3920:
3915:National Museum, New Delhi
3757:
3430:
3424:
3421:Pre-Harappan era: Mehrgarh
3265:Harappan 3A (Nausharo II)
1383:Black and Red ware culture
1049:
636:in Western Baluchistan to
450:Dholavira: A Harappan City
422:UNESCO World Heritage Site
211:UNESCO World Heritage Site
18583:Indus Valley civilisation
18560:
18491:
18368:Indus Valley Civilisation
18278:Armorican Tumulus culture
18248:
18238:
18183:
18075:
18064:
18049:
17984:
17926:
17729:
17713:
17461:
17396:Samothrace temple complex
17331:
17286:
17245:
17238:
17234:
17223:
17208:
17167:
17156:
17141:
17039:
17025:
17010:
16963:
16916:
16769:
16736:
16729:
16667:
16468:
16425:
16421:
16408:
16393:
16112:
16025:
16021:
16010:
15995:
15947:
15882:
15819:
15704:
15673:
15506:
15502:
15489:
15441:Painted Grey Ware culture
15418:
15394:
15155:
15031:
15010:
14960:
14899:
14893:Indus Valley Civilisation
14837:Willey; Phillips (1958).
14488:Poznik, G. David (2016).
14263:: 229β247. Archived from
13986:The Wonder that was India
13867:the Making of 'the Aryan'
13198:(50th ICES Tokyo Session)
13156:10.1007/s00439-015-1547-4
12711:Kumar, Dhavendra (2004).
12289:10.1007/s10963-006-9006-8
11464:Madella & Fuller 2006
11233:10.1038/nature.2014.14800
9885:10.1016/j.jas.2020.105291
9736:10.1016/j.jas.2016.04.018
9533:Potts, Daniel T. (2009).
9367:Robinson, Andrew (2015),
8830:Sergent, Bernard (1997).
7895:10.1017/s0003598x00048249
7845:Indus Age: The Beginnings
7311:10.1017/S0026749X04001611
6852:10.1017/S0003598X00029689
5831:Staubwasser et al. (2003)
5619:; a practice dominant in
5213:infectious diseases like
4835:and northern and eastern
4768:arrived around 2000 BCE.
4738:Bos primigenius namadicus
4580:, the coastal regions of
4381:Seals have been found at
3753:
3336:
3318:
3309:
3301:
3269:
3257:
3201:
3175:
3163:
3156:Early Food Producing Era
3155:
3137:
1394:Painted Grey Ware culture
1266:Indus Valley Civilisation
886:Farther south, along the
549:
275:, lasting from 3300
250:Indus Valley Civilisation
178:Painted Grey Ware culture
161:
151:
132:
120:
97:
87:
60:
48:
39:
35:Indus Valley Civilisation
18613:Bronze Age civilizations
16684:Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul
14997:Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro
14350:Mughal, Mohammad Rafique
14019:. University of Karachi.
13961:10.1177/0959683610384165
13056:. Taylor & Francis.
12990:Masson, Charles (1842).
12836:. Taylor & Francis.
12758:Quaternary International
12009:Brooke, John L. (2014).
11599:Heitzman, James (2008).
11164:Mallory & Adams 1997
11140:Mallory & Adams 1997
10779:, pp. 152, 157β176.
10767:, pp. 275β277, 292.
7758:Hirst, K. Kris (2005) .
7262:The Guardian (newspaper)
6506:, I:441β464, II:425β446.
6382:in the more fully urban
6076:, professor emeritus at
5721:
5603:. At the same time, the
4740:), which are similar to
4659:Daniel T. Potts writes:
4498:Trade and transportation
4319:
4172:Dancing Girl (sculpture)
3854:Authority and governance
3782:urban sanitation systems
3621:Mature Harappan Period,
2045:Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
2025:Eastern Chalukya Kingdom
1626:Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire
1038:by French archaeologist
18608:Prehistoric Afghanistan
18328:DeverelβRimbury culture
17966:RPM Nautical Foundation
17703:Surviving ancient ships
17622:Marsala Punic shipwreck
14455:Pittman, Holly (1984).
14400:10.1126/science.aat7487
14283:McIntosh, Jane (2001).
13071:Morris, A.E.J. (1994).
13050:Michon, Daniel (2015).
12419:10.1073/pnas.1112743109
12192:Oxford University Press
11905:10.1126/science.aat7487
11179:. San Francisco: Harper
10412:10.1126/science.1170391
9613:Frenez, Dennys (2023).
9571:, Mainz am Rhein 1987,
9466:10.1126/science.aat7487
8988:Oxford University Press
8159:Mascarenhas et al. 2015
7529:: 34β42. Archived from
7290:Guha, Sudeshna (2005).
7035:History and Archaeology
6637:Lockard, Craig (2010).
6295:In: Harris DR, editor,
6273:Mukherjee et al. (2001)
6168:In: Possehl G, editor.
6078:Quaid-e-Azam University
5224:According to historian
4863:Possible writing system
4771:
4540:tablet, 2500β1750 BCE.(
4458:Cleveland Museum of Art
4071: 200 BCE β 200 CE
3494:Early Harappan Period,
2145:Western Chalukya Empire
1288:Mature Harappan culture
912:Illustrated London News
906:(1919, 1922β1923), and
18618:Cradle of civilization
17999:Giza Solar boat museum
17453:Underwater exploration
17448:Underwater archaeology
17413:Pre-Columbian theories
17268:John Sinclair Morrison
17229:Research and education
16679:Austronesian Expansion
15395:Indus Valley sites in
15156:Indus Valley sites in
15032:Indus Valley sites in
14811:10.1073/pnas.171305098
14664:The Independent Review
14113:Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark
14046:Dikshit, K.N. (2013).
13712:Srinivasan, Doris Meth
13202:Parpola, Asko (2015).
12749:The Sarasvati flows on
12630:Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark
12606:Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark
12574:Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark
12459:The Indus Civilization
12096:; Young, Ruth (2015).
11602:The City in South Asia
10627:Vilas Sangave (2001).
8246:Parpola, Asko (1994).
8030:Dolukhanov P. (1994).
7523:"Traders of the Plain"
6600:"We are all Harappans"
6139:Tappeh-Sang-e Chakhmaq
5672:History of Afghanistan
5662:Cradle of civilization
5389:
5209:
5186:
5178:Late Harappan Period,
4989:
4975:
4889:
4746:Bos primigenius taurus
4697:
4670:
4666:etched carnelian beads
4657:
4545:
4529:
4343:
4216:
3918:
3629:
3521:
3502:
3315:Ochre Coloured Pottery
3051:Science and technology
1435:Three Crowned Kingdoms
1277:Early Harappan culture
1092:(2,500,000β250,000 BC)
940:
781:, a deserter from the
761:
742:
731:
720:
559:
245:
214:
52:Harappan civilisation
18638:History of South Asia
18070:Legend and literature
18028:Viking ship museums:
18004:Grand Egyptian Museum
17764:Austronesian replicas
17739:Heyerdahl expeditions
17649:Caligula's Giant Ship
17509:Dover Bronze Age Boat
16171:Berenice Troglodytica
14987:Harappan architecture
14708:10.1038/ejhg.2009.194
13984:Basham, A.L. (1967).
13934:. Chicago: Heinemann.
13692:Archives of Asian Art
13592:12 April 2021 at the
13577:14 April 2021 at the
13001:Mathew, K.S. (2017).
12863:Manuel, Mark (2010).
12481:Habib, Irfan (2002).
12323:10.1093/molbev/msr190
12077:Cunningham, Alexander
11792:10.1093/molbev/msz037
11107:Edwin Bryant (2001).
10656:Philosophies of India
10117:Mukherjee et al. 2001
9602:on 10 September 2016.
9174:Singh, Vipul (2008).
8034:. Aldershot: Ashgate.
6333:linguistic connection
6258:vol. 71 pt. 3, (1981)
6244:vol. 16 no. 1 (1975);
6237:vol. 50 no. 1 (1974);
6170:Harappan civilization
5649:Western Steppe Herder
5373:
5366:Indo-Aryan migrations
5269:Balochistan, Pakistan
5245:Western Uttar Pradesh
5192:
5177:
5109:. Historians such as
4998:Further information:
4981:
4967:
4876:
4766:Oryza sativa japonica
4709:cattle at Mehrgarh."
4689:
4661:
4653:
4535:
4519:
4502:Further information:
4333:
4211:
4203:red jasper male torso
4195:statuette of a dancer
4170:Further information:
4136:beads; 2600β1900 BC;
3921:Further information:
3912:
3882:and produced copper,
3760:Harappan architecture
3620:
3508:
3493:
3463:Jean-Francois Jarrige
3149:(aceramic Neolithic)
3127:Post-Harappan phases
2954:Specialised histories
2225:Kalachuris of Kalyani
2215:Kalachuris of Tripuri
1897:Western Ganga Kingdom
1825:Indo-Sassanid Kingdom
1775:Western Satrap Empire
1758:Indo-Parthian Kingdom
1748:Indo-Scythian Kingdom
1299:Late Harappan culture
1060:History of South Asia
1040:Jean-François Jarrige
916:
863:, pushed through the
745:
737:
726:
707:
557:
256:), also known as the
220:
188:
92:Bronze Age South Asia
18603:Prehistoric Pakistan
18398:Mumun pottery period
17971:Sea Research Society
17373:Maritime archaeology
17182:Ameinias the Phocian
17177:Mediterranean piracy
14961:Art and architecture
14784:Wells, R.S. (2001).
14751:10.1038/ejhg.2014.50
13794:History of Religions
13769:10.1029/2002GL016822
13395:Current Anthropology
13241:10.1029/2011GL050722
12801:(11β12): 1283β1301.
12539:"Mehrgarh Neolithic"
11388:on 25 December 2004.
11175:David Knipe (1991),
11027:, pp. 181, 223.
10806:www.akg-images.co.uk
10495:17 July 2019 at the
10473:17 July 2019 at the
10266:Mahadevan, Iravatham
10156:Kivisild et al. 1999
10141:Kivisild et al. 1999
9832:. 10 December 2020.
9802:. 11 December 2020.
9671:Pakistan Archaeology
9539:Encyclopædia Iranica
8970:DeVale, Sue Carole;
8758:on 20 September 2023
8631:"Indus Civilization"
7965:Harris D.R. (2010).
7387:Mahadevan, Iravatham
7299:Modern Asian Studies
7246:, pp. 3 and 12.
6242:Current Anthropology
5808:Rashid et al. (2011)
5802:Ponton et al. (2012)
5796:Giosan et al. (2012)
5523:(beginning with the
5101:by some scholars of
5000:Prehistoric religion
4608:, Turkmenistan, and
3848:wealth concentration
3449: 2500 BCE
3433:Neolithic Revolution
3399:(Iron Age) (700β200)
3185:β2500/2300 (Shaffer)
3169:(ceramic Neolithic)
2472:Ahmadnagar Sultanate
2274:Late medieval period
2185:Eastern Ganga Empire
1917:Vishnukundina Empire
846:Alexander Cunningham
709:Alexander Cunningham
269:northwestern regions
230: 2500 BCE
18588:History of Hinduism
18393:Minoan civilization
18323:Deer stones culture
18283:Atlantic Bronze Age
18263:Aegean civilization
17064:Maritime Jade Route
16217:Kaveri Poompattinam
15011:Language and script
14900:History and culture
14802:2001PNAS...9810244W
14796:(18): 10244β10249.
14567:2000Sci...290.1155S
14561:(5494): 1155β1159.
14324:10.1038/ejhg.2009.6
14248:Mani, B.R. (2008).
14223:10.1038/nature19310
14205:2016Natur.536..419L
14064:on 18 January 2017.
14057:(9). Archived from
13953:2011Holoc..21..163B
13925:. New York: Viking.
13761:2003GeoRL..30.1425S
13618:2016NatSR...619157S
13572:PDF on academia.edu
13570:, 2015, Routledge,
13498:2016NatSR...626555S
13354:2011TAOS...22..215R
13283:. Rowman Altamira.
13275:Possehl, Gregory L.
13232:2012GeoRL..39.3704P
13107:Journal of Genetics
12964:10.1155/2015/651415
12807:2006QSRv...25.1283M
12770:2011QuInt.229..140M
12678:1999CBio....9.1331K
12410:2012PNAS..109E1688G
12404:(26): E1688βE1694.
12357:2014PLoSO...995714G
12146:2013PLoSO...880673D
12053:2012Geo....40..211C
11986:Allchin, F. Raymond
11846:10.7554/eLife.85492
11584:Warrier, Shrikala.
11537:2018NatSR...8.4225D
11381:(8). Archived from
11287:(5881): 1282β1283.
11166:, pp. 102β103.
11055:Singh, Upinder 2008
11042:, pp. 180β181.
11040:Singh, Upinder 2008
11025:Singh, Upinder 2008
11009:Singh, Upinder 2008
10947:Singh, Upinder 2008
10906:2013PLoSO...884814R
10791:, pp. 293β299.
10719:, pp. 286β287.
10707:, pp. 141β145.
10617:, pp. 399β432.
10593:, pp. 180β181.
10569:, pp. 141β144.
10511:, pp. 281β282.
10403:2009Sci...324.1165R
10107:, pp. 221β222.
9948:2021JArSR..37j2917A
9876:2021JArSc.125j5291S
9727:2017JArSc..78..193B
9697:Gallego Romero 2011
9430:National Geographic
9396:Singh, Upinder 2008
8960:, pp. 319β320.
8562:. 7 November 2011.
8331:2015PLoSO..1023103V
8188:Gallego Romero 2011
8176:Gallego Romero 2011
7996:10.2143/ia.37.0.120
7843:Possehl GL (1999).
7735:. 30 January 2004.
7533:on 18 February 2007
7173:β108 and pl. 32β33.
7097:, pp. 452β453.
6828:, pp. 186β187.
6723:Singh, Upinder 2008
6535:, pp. 115β125.
6131:Great Khorasan Road
5860:Singh, Upinder 2008
5682:History of Pakistan
5667:History of Hinduism
5593:Alexander the Great
4887:Dholavira signboard
4848:Indian subcontinent
4780:Seven food-balls ("
4762:Oryza sativa indica
3402:Second urbanisation
3176:Regionalisation Era
2554:Early modern period
2401:Vijayanagara Empire
2381:Chitradurga Kingdom
2075:Bhauma-Kara Kingdom
1487:Shaishunaga dynasty
953:Ernest J. H. Mackay
838:Crown rule in India
796:Alexander the Great
523:Indigenous Aryanism
519:Ghaggar-Hakra River
189:Excavated ruins of
74:Ghaggar-Hakra river
36:
18542:Leyla-Tepe culture
18499:and Transcaucasia)
18313:Chinese Bronze Age
18293:Bronze Age Britain
17612:Bajo de la Campana
17314:Peter Throckmorton
17299:Jean-Yves Empereur
17273:William L. Rodgers
17094:Maritime Silk Road
14947:Cemetery H culture
14440:10.1002/ajpa.22167
14383:(6457). eaat7487.
14270:on 18 January 2017
14025:Dani, Ahmad Hassan
14013:Dani, Ahmad Hassan
13606:Scientific Reports
13486:Scientific Reports
13119:10.1007/BF02717908
12590:10.1007/BF00978474
11737:(3): 729β735.e10.
11712:Sarkar et al. 2016
11683:Kiss of the Yogini
11525:Scientific Reports
11069:, pp. 91, 98.
10236:Wells, B. (1999).
10065:. 12 August 2012.
10003:The Times of India
9709:Bates, J. (1986).
9460:(6457): eaat7487.
8983:Grove Music Online
8231:Peter T. Daniels.
8204:. 60/61: 227β241.
7889:(334): 1055β1067.
7811:Singh, Sakshi 2016
7527:Saudi Aramco World
6922:Dani, Ahmad Hassan
6462:Giosan et al. 2012
6373:Most sites of the
6291:* Renfrew (1996),
6286:* Renfrew (1987),
6284:Derenko refers to:
5645:Andamanese peoples
5601:Cemetery H culture
5551:Cemetery H culture
5433:4.2-kiloyear event
5409:Cemetery H culture
5390:
5376:Cemetery H culture
5233:Cemetery H culture
5210:
5187:
5135:chimeric creations
5091:Gregory L. Possehl
4990:
4976:
4898:Indus inscriptions
4890:
4829:Dravidian language
4750:Baluchistan region
4546:
4530:
4344:
4035:Partition of India
3982:Indus Valley seals
3919:
3630:
3522:
3503:
3444:(7000 BCE to
3031:Partition of India
2896:Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
2844:Regional histories
2789:National histories
2676:Travancore Kingdom
2646:Thondaiman Kingdom
2516:Golkonda Sultanate
2125:Somavamshi Kingdom
2095:Rashtrakuta Empire
2035:Rashidun Caliphate
1957:Kabul Shahi Empire
1805:Nagas of Padmavati
1728:Indo-Greek Kingdom
1668:(230 BC β AD 1206)
1361:Vedic Civilisation
1309:Vedic Civilisation
1206:Ahar-Banas culture
934:in the deserts of
810:local population.
783:East India Company
743:
732:
721:
686:Indus Valley sites
560:
388:houses, elaborate
301:northwestern India
258:Indus Civilisation
246:
215:
170:Black and red ware
166:Cemetery H culture
61:Geographical range
56:Indus civilisation
34:
18598:Prehistoric India
18570:
18569:
18453:Terramare culture
18408:Nordic Bronze Age
18358:Hallstatt culture
18303:Canegrate culture
18298:Bronze Age Europe
18268:Andronovo culture
18198:
18197:
18194:
18193:
18060:
18059:
18047:
18046:
17667:Madrague de Giens
17386:Temple of Isthmia
17382:Maritime temples
17368:Marine navigation
17327:
17326:
17319:Shelley Wachsmann
17309:J. Richard Steffy
17219:
17218:
17152:
17151:
17021:
17020:
17008:
17007:
16959:
16958:
16689:Ocean exploration
16404:
16403:
16391:
16390:
16050:Rutter (nautical)
16006:
16005:
15993:
15992:
15849:Mortise and tenon
15483:Ancient seafaring
15449:
15448:
15371:Kotla Nihang Khan
15018:Harappan language
14647:978-3-11-014447-5
14545:978-81-85179-74-2
14468:978-0-87099-365-7
14363:978-969-0-01350-7
14318:(10): 1260β1273.
14298:978-0-8133-3532-2
14199:(7617): 419β424.
14167:978-81-7305-129-6
14145:978-81-7530-034-7
14126:978-0-19-517422-9
14095:978-81-85268-46-0
14038:978-0-415-09306-4
14004:978-81-85026-63-3
13894:978-0-521-57219-4
13845:978-0-520-24225-8
13727:978-90-04-10758-8
13688:Srinivasan, Doris
13667:978-81-317-1120-0
13626:10.1038/srep19157
13559:978-1-888789-04-1
13507:10.1038/srep26555
13472:978-81-89487-02-7
13453:978-0-19-566603-8
13438:Ratnagar, Shereen
13325:978-0-521-01636-0
13290:978-0-7591-1642-9
13084:978-0-582-30154-2
13063:978-1-317-32457-7
13042:978-1-57607-907-2
13014:978-1-351-58833-1
12925:978-81-206-1179-5
12724:978-1-4020-1215-0
12672:(22): 1331β1334.
12655:, pp. 21β49.
12643:978-0-19-577940-0
12610:World Archaeology
12517:978-90-04-19380-2
12473:978-93-82381-53-2
12267:978-0-8240-4946-1
12234:978-1-107-11162-2
12201:978-0-19-882905-8
12107:978-1-316-41898-7
12022:978-0-521-87164-8
11698:978-0-226-89483-6
11612:978-1-134-28963-9
11494:Los Angeles Times
11351:Clift et al. 2012
11196:. February 2014.
11126:978-0-19-513777-4
11097:, pp. 37β38.
10665:978-0-691-01758-7
10640:978-81-7154-839-2
10538:, pp. 48β78.
9636:978-0-19-027772-7
9285:978-0-19-522243-2
9246:978-1-4073-0312-3
9023:(subscription or
9005:978-1-56159-263-0
8841:978-2-228-89116-5
8779:Missing or empty
8712:978-1-78040-484-4
8603:, pp. 93β95.
8529:978-1-134-83730-4
8257:978-0-521-43079-1
7422:978-81-317-1120-0
7352:978-0-19-976034-3
7044:978-81-85205-46-5
7004:978-0-521-01109-9
6895:978-0-210-22278-2
6686:, pp. 13β14.
6650:978-1-4390-8535-6
6375:Painted Grey Ware
6209:Gangal refers to
6199:Costantini (2008)
6193:Gangal refers to
5595:in 325 BCE.
5585:Painted Grey Ware
5544:Iron Age in India
5496:Painted Grey Ware
5486:At sites such as
5385:β1300 BCE),
4934:natural languages
4806:Harappan language
4682:Arabian Peninsula
4584:connected by the
4553:H.-P. Francfort.
4428:; 2 Γ 2 cm;
4410:Master of Animals
4207:Sir John Marshall
3547:, Pakistan, near
3418:
3417:
3384:
3349:Painted Grey Ware
3319:Localisation Era
3220:
3194:
3095:
3094:
2780:
2779:
2774:
2773:
2694:
2693:
2596:Thanjavur Kingdom
2544:
2543:
2505:Bijapur Sultanate
2461:Deccan sultanates
2339:Tughlaq Sultanate
2286:Ghaznavid Dynasty
2264:
2263:
2135:Chaulukya Kingdom
2065:Mallabhum kingdom
2055:Umayyad Caliphate
1795:Bharshiva Dynasty
1691:(200 BC β AD 300)
1681:(230 BC β AD 220)
1677:Satavahana Empire
1655:
1654:
1651:(247 BC β AD 224)
1507:Macedonian Empire
1481:(450 BC β AD 489)
1469:Achaemenid Empire
1339:
1338:
1244:
1243:
1167:
1166:
1117:
1116:
1101:Madrasian culture
626:Jammu and Kashmir
624:, Uttar Pradesh,
462:Harappan language
183:
182:
80:and northwestern
72:and the seasonal
49:Alternative names
16:(Redirected from
18645:
18633:History of Sindh
18500:
18473:Urnfield culture
18438:Srubnaya culture
18403:Mycenaean Greece
18388:Lusatian culture
18338:Ewart Park Phase
18318:Cycladic culture
18308:Catacomb culture
18273:Apennine culture
18258:Abashevo culture
18225:
18218:
18211:
18202:
18201:
18189:
18188:
18083:Ark of bulrushes
18066:
18065:
18055:
18054:
17693:Oldest surviving
17403:Nusantao network
17278:Chester G. Starr
17243:
17242:
17236:
17235:
17225:
17224:
17214:
17213:
17187:Cilician pirates
17158:
17157:
17147:
17146:
17084:Sa Huynh-Kalanay
17079:Iron Age Britain
17027:
17026:
17016:
17015:
16734:
16733:
16423:
16422:
16410:
16409:
16399:
16398:
16313:Ptolemais Theron
16023:
16022:
16012:
16011:
16001:
16000:
15593:Single-outrigger
15504:
15503:
15491:
15490:
15476:
15469:
15462:
15453:
15452:
15072:Lakhueen-jo-daro
14927:Mehrgarh culture
14922:Bhirrana culture
14886:
14879:
14872:
14863:
14862:
14844:
14833:
14823:
14813:
14780:
14770:
14729:
14719:
14686:
14684:
14682:
14676:
14661:
14651:
14629:
14619:
14586:
14549:
14527:
14517:
14484:
14482:
14480:
14451:
14422:
14412:
14402:
14392:
14367:
14345:
14335:
14302:
14290:
14279:
14277:
14275:
14269:
14254:
14244:
14234:
14216:
14183:
14171:
14149:
14130:
14108:
14099:
14077:
14065:
14063:
14052:
14042:
14020:
14008:
13989:
13980:
13935:
13932:The Indus Valley
13926:
13919:Allchin, Bridget
13905:
13903:
13901:
13870:
13861:
13859:
13857:
13825:
13788:
13743:
13741:
13739:
13707:
13683:
13681:
13679:
13647:
13637:
13563:
13541:
13529:
13519:
13509:
13476:
13457:
13433:
13431:
13392:
13382:
13380:
13365:
13339:
13329:
13306:
13304:
13302:
13270:
13268:
13253:
13243:
13217:
13207:
13197:
13196:on 6 March 2006.
13195:
13189:. Archived from
13188:
13175:
13138:
13100:
13098:
13096:
13067:
13046:
13018:
12997:
12986:
12976:
12966:
12941:
12939:
12937:
12908:
12894:
12892:
12890:
12859:
12857:
12855:
12826:
12789:
12764:(1β2): 140β148.
12752:
12740:
12738:
12736:
12707:
12689:
12656:
12647:
12625:
12601:
12569:
12556:
12555:on 3 March 2016.
12554:
12543:
12533:
12531:
12529:
12500:Hiltebeitel, Alf
12495:
12486:
12477:
12449:
12439:
12421:
12388:
12378:
12368:
12335:
12325:
12300:
12271:
12250:
12248:
12246:
12217:
12215:
12213:
12177:
12167:
12157:
12124:
12111:
12094:Coningham, Robin
12086:
12072:
12061:10.1130/G32840.1
12035:
12026:
12005:
11981:
11979:
11977:
11950:Allchin, Bridget
11935:
11934:
11924:
11883:
11877:
11876:
11866:
11848:
11824:
11818:
11817:
11803:
11786:(8): 1628β1642.
11771:
11765:
11764:
11754:
11721:
11715:
11709:
11703:
11702:
11686:
11676:
11670:
11669:
11645:
11639:
11638:
11626:
11617:
11616:
11596:
11590:
11589:
11581:
11575:
11574:
11564:
11516:
11510:
11509:
11507:
11505:
11485:
11479:
11473:
11467:
11461:
11455:
11454:
11452:
11450:
11430:
11424:
11423:
11421:
11419:
11396:
11390:
11389:
11387:
11372:
11363:
11354:
11348:
11339:
11338:
11336:
11334:
11319:
11313:
11312:
11281:Science Magazine
11276:
11265:
11264:
11262:
11260:
11216:
11210:
11209:
11207:
11205:
11186:
11180:
11173:
11167:
11161:
11155:
11149:
11143:
11137:
11131:
11130:
11114:
11104:
11098:
11092:
11086:
11076:
11070:
11064:
11058:
11052:
11043:
11037:
11028:
11022:
11016:
11006:
11000:
10990:
10984:
10983:
10981:
10979:
10960:
10954:
10944:
10938:
10937:
10927:
10917:
10885:
10879:
10878:
10876:
10846:(2β3): 136β147.
10837:
10828:
10822:
10821:
10819:
10817:
10798:
10792:
10786:
10780:
10774:
10768:
10762:
10756:
10750:
10744:
10738:
10732:
10726:
10720:
10714:
10708:
10702:
10693:
10679:Thomas McEvilley
10676:
10670:
10669:
10651:
10645:
10644:
10624:
10618:
10615:Hiltebeitel 2011
10612:
10606:
10600:
10594:
10588:
10582:
10576:
10570:
10564:
10555:
10545:
10539:
10533:
10524:
10518:
10512:
10506:
10500:
10487:
10478:
10465:
10459:
10458:
10456:
10454:
10439:
10433:
10432:
10414:
10382:
10376:
10370:
10364:
10363:
10361:
10342:
10333:
10327:
10326:
10324:
10322:
10316:
10309:
10307:10.5334/aa.12317
10291:
10282:
10276:
10275:
10262:
10256:
10255:
10249:
10241:
10233:
10227:
10226:
10216:
10192:
10186:
10183:Palanichamy 2015
10180:
10174:
10168:
10159:
10153:
10144:
10138:
10132:
10126:
10120:
10114:
10108:
10102:
10096:
10090:
10079:
10078:
10076:
10074:
10055:
10049:
10048:
10046:
10044:
10025:
10019:
10018:
10016:
10014:
9994:
9988:
9987:
9985:
9983:
9927:
9916:
9915:
9905:
9887:
9855:
9846:
9845:
9843:
9841:
9822:
9816:
9815:
9813:
9811:
9792:
9786:
9785:
9783:
9781:
9765:
9759:
9758:
9748:
9738:
9706:
9700:
9694:
9688:
9685:
9679:
9678:
9666:
9660:
9654:
9648:
9647:
9645:
9643:
9610:
9604:
9603:
9601:
9594:
9586:
9580:
9561:
9555:
9554:
9552:
9550:
9530:
9524:
9520:
9511:
9510:
9502:
9496:
9495:
9485:
9444:
9438:
9437:
9432:. Archived from
9421:
9415:
9409:
9403:
9393:
9387:
9386:
9364:
9358:
9348:
9342:
9328:
9322:
9312:
9306:
9305:
9299:
9297:
9269:
9263:
9262:
9260:
9258:
9230:
9224:
9223:
9210:
9204:
9203:
9201:
9199:
9171:
9162:
9152:
9146:
9145:
9143:
9141:
9113:
9107:
9106:
9098:
9092:
9086:
9080:
9074:
9068:
9054:
9048:
9038:
9029:
9028:
9021:
9019:
9017:
8979:
8977:"Harp: IV. Asia"
8967:
8961:
8955:
8949:
8943:
8937:
8934:
8928:
8927:
8925:
8923:
8900:
8894:
8888:
8879:
8876:
8870:
8864:
8858:
8852:
8846:
8845:
8832:Genèse de l'Inde
8827:
8821:
8820:
8804:
8795:
8789:
8788:
8782:
8777:
8775:
8767:
8765:
8763:
8757:
8751:. Archived from
8745:
8739:
8733:
8724:
8723:
8721:
8719:
8696:
8690:
8689:
8679:
8655:
8649:
8648:
8646:
8635:
8626:
8620:
8610:
8604:
8598:
8592:
8582:
8576:
8575:
8573:
8571:
8552:
8546:
8545:
8543:
8541:
8513:
8507:
8506:
8498:
8489:
8488:
8477:
8471:
8462:
8453:
8452:
8450:
8448:
8442:
8427:
8418:
8412:
8406:
8393:
8392:
8390:
8388:
8369:
8363:
8362:
8352:
8342:
8310:
8304:
8303:
8291:
8285:
8284:
8268:
8262:
8261:
8243:
8237:
8236:
8228:
8222:
8221:
8197:
8191:
8185:
8179:
8173:
8162:
8156:
8150:
8144:
8133:
8132:
8122:
8090:
8084:
8083:
8073:
8041:
8035:
8028:
8022:
8019:
8013:
8006:
8000:
7999:
7979:
7970:
7963:
7954:
7948:
7942:
7941:
7913:
7907:
7906:
7878:
7872:
7866:
7860:
7854:
7848:
7841:
7835:
7829:
7814:
7808:
7799:
7793:
7776:
7775:
7773:
7771:
7755:
7749:
7748:
7746:
7744:
7725:
7719:
7718:
7716:
7714:
7705:. 6 April 2006.
7699:
7693:
7687:
7678:
7672:
7666:
7660:
7651:
7645:
7639:
7633:
7627:
7621:
7615:
7609:
7603:
7597:
7582:
7576:
7570:
7564:
7558:
7552:
7543:
7542:
7540:
7538:
7518:
7507:
7501:
7495:
7489:
7483:
7477:
7471:
7461:
7455:
7445:
7439:
7438:
7436:
7434:
7403:
7397:
7396:
7383:
7377:
7367:
7361:
7360:
7336:
7330:
7329:
7327:
7296:
7287:
7278:
7277:
7275:
7273:
7253:
7247:
7241:
7235:
7234:, pp. 9β10.
7229:
7223:
7217:
7208:
7202:
7193:
7187:
7174:
7164:
7158:
7152:
7143:
7137:
7128:
7122:
7113:
7107:
7098:
7092:
7086:
7080:
7061:
7055:
7049:
7048:
7030:
7024:
7023:
7015:
7009:
7008:
6990:
6984:
6983:
6975:
6969:
6968:
6966:
6964:
6936:
6930:
6929:
6926:Ancient Pakistan
6918:
6912:
6906:
6900:
6899:
6878:
6872:
6871:
6835:
6829:
6823:
6814:
6808:
6799:
6793:
6780:
6774:
6757:
6751:
6742:
6736:
6730:
6720:
6703:
6693:
6687:
6681:
6672:
6666:
6655:
6654:
6634:
6628:
6622:
6616:
6615:
6613:
6611:
6596:
6590:
6584:
6575:
6569:
6560:
6554:
6548:
6542:
6536:
6530:
6524:
6518:
6507:
6501:
6492:
6486:
6480:
6474:
6465:
6459:
6442:
6436:
6427:
6421:
6410:
6404:
6387:
6381:
6371:
6365:
6361:
6355:
6347:
6341:
6329:Fertile Crescent
6324:
6318:
6314:
6308:
6267:
6261:
6228:
6222:
6219:
6213:
6207:
6201:
6191:
6182:
6179:
6173:
6162:
6156:
6148:
6142:
6126:
6120:
6104:
6098:
6094:
6085:
6074:Ahmad Hasan Dani
6070:
6064:
6060:
6054:
6050:
6044:
6036:
6030:
6023:
6017:
6013:
6007:
6003:
5997:
5993:
5987:
5985:
5982:
5976:
5970:
5966:
5960:
5956:
5950:
5946:
5940:
5936:
5930:
5922:
5916:
5905:
5899:
5895:
5889:
5885:
5879:
5846:Reported sites:
5844:
5833:
5787:
5776:
5775:, lead, and tin.
5761:
5755:
5751:
5745:
5741:
5735:
5732:
5677:History of India
5582:
5579:
5533:
5530:
5413:Vedic literature
5394:Mortimer Wheeler
5384:
5381:
5203:
5200:
5184:
5181:
5115:Thomas McEvilley
5075:Vedic literature
5071:Doris Srinivasan
5055:; regarded as a
5006:Indian religions
4879:Indus characters
4816:proto-Dravidians
4489:
4477:
4453:
4441:
4421:
4373:
4372:
4368:
4365:
4359:
4358:
4354:
4305:
4285:
4259:
4243:
4178:lost-wax casting
4166:Human statuettes
4153:
4144:; British Museum
4130:
4114:
4098:
4072:
4069:
4018:
4015:
3717:
3677:
3662:
3645:
3627:
3624:
3534:
3531:
3519:
3516:
3500:
3497:
3450:
3447:
3410:
3407:
3382:
3379:
3374:
3371:
3368:
3362:
3359:
3270:Integration Era
3246:(Kot Diji Phase,
3218:
3215:
3210:
3207:
3204:
3192:
3189:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3124:Harappan phases
3121:Mehrgarh phases
3112:
3111:
3104:
3101:
3087:
3080:
3073:
3036:Pakistan studies
2876:Himachal Pradesh
2716:Portuguese India
2712:
2711:
2708:
2666:Sikh Confederacy
2562:
2561:
2558:
2411:Bengal Sultanate
2350:Sayyid Sultanate
2328:Khalji Sultanate
2317:Mamluk Sultanate
2282:
2281:
2278:
2259:
2255:
2252:
2195:Kakatiya Kingdom
2105:Paramara Kingdom
1998:
1994:
1991:
1967:
1964:
1907:Kamarupa Kingdom
1870:
1866:
1863:
1856:Kalabhras Empire
1849:
1845:
1842:
1768:
1765:
1752:(50 BC β AD 400)
1732:(180 BC β AD 10)
1711:
1707:
1704:
1673:
1672:
1669:
1640:
1636:
1633:
1619:
1616:
1602:
1599:
1585:
1582:
1568:
1565:
1551:
1547:
1544:
1462:
1459:
1445:
1442:
1425:Haryanka dynasty
1415:Pradyota dynasty
1357:
1356:
1353:
1262:
1261:
1258:
1199:
1196:
1189:Anarta tradition
1185:
1184:
1181:
1149:Mehrgarh culture
1139:Bhirrana culture
1135:
1134:
1131:
1130:(10,800β3300 BC)
1097:
1096:
1093:
1083:
1082:
1070:
1056:
1055:
974:
961:Ahmad Hasan Dani
957:Mortimer Wheeler
900:D. R. Bhandarkar
890:of the Indus in
867:, and appointed
769:
537:archaic Sanskrit
438:Cholistan Desert
347:Punjab, Pakistan
231:
228:
116:
109:
103:
44:
37:
33:
21:
18:Harappan culture
18653:
18652:
18648:
18647:
18646:
18644:
18643:
18642:
18593:Bronze Age Asia
18573:
18572:
18571:
18566:
18556:
18552:KhojalyβGadabay
18522:Shulaveri-Shomu
18498:
18497:(North Caucasus
18496:
18495:
18487:
18468:ΓnΔtice culture
18463:Tumulus culture
18378:Karasuk culture
18363:Helladic period
18353:Argaric culture
18348:Glazkov culture
18244:
18234:
18229:
18199:
18190:
18186:
18181:
18071:
18056:
18052:
18043:
17986:
17980:
17928:
17927:Institutes and
17922:
17877:Viking replicas
17818:Balangay Voyage
17731:
17725:
17709:
17464:
17457:
17333:
17323:
17282:
17230:
17215:
17211:
17206:
17163:
17148:
17144:
17139:
17035:
17017:
17013:
17004:
16955:
16912:
16765:
16725:
16670:
16663:
16464:
16417:
16400:
16396:
16387:
16263:Mueang Phra Rot
16117:
16108:
16017:
16002:
15998:
15989:
15943:
15917:Triangular sail
15878:
15815:
15789:Sail components
15700:
15669:
15643:Tessarakonteres
15498:
15485:
15480:
15450:
15445:
15414:
15390:
15376:Kerala-no-dhoro
15151:
15027:
15006:
14956:
14895:
14890:
14852:
14847:
14680:
14678:
14674:
14659:
14648:
14634:Shaffer, Jim G.
14546:
14506:10.1038/ng.3559
14494:Nature Genetics
14478:
14476:
14469:
14364:
14299:
14273:
14271:
14267:
14252:
14168:
14146:
14127:
14096:
14061:
14050:
14039:
14005:
13913:
13911:Further reading
13908:
13899:
13897:
13895:
13875:Wright, Rita P.
13855:
13853:
13846:
13737:
13735:
13728:
13677:
13675:
13668:
13594:Wayback Machine
13579:Wayback Machine
13560:
13546:Shaffer, Jim G.
13534:Shaffer, Jim G.
13473:
13454:
13429:
13390:
13378:
13337:
13326:
13300:
13298:
13291:
13266:
13215:
13193:
13186:
13182:(19 May 2005).
13094:
13092:
13085:
13064:
13043:
13015:
12935:
12933:
12926:
12888:
12886:
12879:
12853:
12851:
12844:
12734:
12732:
12725:
12644:
12552:
12541:
12527:
12525:
12518:
12485:. Anthem Press.
12474:
12310:Mol. Biol. Evol
12268:
12244:
12242:
12235:
12211:
12209:
12202:
12108:
12023:
12002:
11975:
11973:
11966:
11944:
11939:
11938:
11884:
11880:
11825:
11821:
11772:
11768:
11722:
11718:
11710:
11706:
11699:
11677:
11673:
11666:
11646:
11642:
11627:
11620:
11613:
11597:
11593:
11582:
11578:
11517:
11513:
11503:
11501:
11486:
11482:
11474:
11470:
11462:
11458:
11448:
11446:
11431:
11427:
11417:
11415:
11410:. LiveScience.
11402:(28 May 2012).
11397:
11393:
11385:
11375:Current Science
11370:
11364:
11357:
11349:
11342:
11332:
11330:
11329:on 15 July 2018
11321:
11320:
11316:
11277:
11268:
11258:
11256:
11217:
11213:
11203:
11201:
11188:
11187:
11183:
11174:
11170:
11162:
11158:
11150:
11146:
11138:
11134:
11127:
11105:
11101:
11093:
11089:
11077:
11073:
11065:
11061:
11053:
11046:
11038:
11031:
11023:
11019:
11007:
11003:
10991:
10987:
10977:
10975:
10968:www.harappa.com
10962:
10961:
10957:
10945:
10941:
10886:
10882:
10874:
10835:
10829:
10825:
10815:
10813:
10800:
10799:
10795:
10787:
10783:
10775:
10771:
10763:
10759:
10751:
10747:
10739:
10735:
10727:
10723:
10715:
10711:
10703:
10696:
10677:
10673:
10666:
10652:
10648:
10641:
10625:
10621:
10613:
10609:
10601:
10597:
10591:Srinivasan 1997
10589:
10585:
10579:Srinivasan 1975
10577:
10573:
10565:
10558:
10546:
10542:
10534:
10527:
10519:
10515:
10507:
10503:
10497:Wayback Machine
10488:
10481:
10475:Wayback Machine
10466:
10462:
10452:
10450:
10441:
10440:
10436:
10383:
10379:
10371:
10367:
10359:
10340:
10334:
10330:
10320:
10318:
10314:
10289:
10283:
10279:
10263:
10259:
10243:
10242:
10234:
10230:
10193:
10189:
10181:
10177:
10169:
10162:
10158:, p. 1333.
10154:
10147:
10143:, p. 1331.
10139:
10135:
10127:
10123:
10115:
10111:
10103:
10099:
10091:
10082:
10072:
10070:
10057:
10056:
10052:
10042:
10040:
10033:www.harappa.com
10027:
10026:
10022:
10012:
10010:
9995:
9991:
9981:
9979:
9928:
9919:
9856:
9849:
9839:
9837:
9824:
9823:
9819:
9809:
9807:
9794:
9793:
9789:
9779:
9777:
9766:
9762:
9721:(22): 193β201.
9707:
9703:
9695:
9691:
9686:
9682:
9667:
9663:
9655:
9651:
9641:
9639:
9637:
9611:
9607:
9599:
9592:
9588:
9587:
9583:
9563:Maurizio Tosi:
9562:
9558:
9548:
9546:
9531:
9527:
9521:
9514:
9503:
9499:
9445:
9441:
9422:
9418:
9410:
9406:
9394:
9390:
9379:
9365:
9361:
9349:
9345:
9329:
9325:
9313:
9309:
9295:
9293:
9286:
9270:
9266:
9256:
9254:
9247:
9231:
9227:
9212:
9211:
9207:
9197:
9195:
9188:
9172:
9165:
9153:
9149:
9139:
9137:
9130:
9114:
9110:
9099:
9095:
9087:
9083:
9075:
9071:
9055:
9051:
9039:
9032:
9022:
9015:
9013:
9006:
8968:
8964:
8956:
8952:
8944:
8940:
8935:
8931:
8921:
8919:
8917:
8901:
8897:
8889:
8882:
8877:
8873:
8865:
8861:
8853:
8849:
8842:
8828:
8824:
8817:
8797:
8796:
8792:
8780:
8778:
8769:
8768:
8761:
8759:
8755:
8747:
8746:
8742:
8734:
8727:
8717:
8715:
8713:
8697:
8693:
8656:
8652:
8644:
8633:
8627:
8623:
8611:
8607:
8599:
8595:
8583:
8579:
8569:
8567:
8554:
8553:
8549:
8539:
8537:
8530:
8514:
8510:
8499:
8492:
8481:Shaffer, Jim G.
8478:
8474:
8463:
8456:
8446:
8444:
8440:
8425:
8419:
8415:
8407:
8396:
8386:
8384:
8371:
8370:
8366:
8325:(4): e0123103.
8311:
8307:
8292:
8288:
8269:
8265:
8258:
8244:
8240:
8229:
8225:
8198:
8194:
8186:
8182:
8174:
8165:
8157:
8153:
8145:
8136:
8091:
8087:
8042:
8038:
8029:
8025:
8020:
8016:
8007:
8003:
7984:Iranica Antiqua
7980:
7973:
7964:
7957:
7949:
7945:
7918:Curr. Anthropol
7914:
7910:
7879:
7875:
7867:
7863:
7857:Costantini 2008
7855:
7851:
7842:
7838:
7830:
7817:
7809:
7802:
7794:
7779:
7769:
7767:
7756:
7752:
7742:
7740:
7727:
7726:
7722:
7712:
7710:
7701:
7700:
7696:
7688:
7681:
7673:
7669:
7661:
7654:
7646:
7642:
7634:
7630:
7622:
7618:
7610:
7606:
7598:
7585:
7577:
7573:
7565:
7561:
7553:
7546:
7536:
7534:
7519:
7510:
7502:
7498:
7490:
7486:
7478:
7474:
7462:
7458:
7446:
7442:
7432:
7430:
7423:
7404:
7400:
7384:
7380:
7368:
7364:
7353:
7337:
7333:
7325:
7294:
7288:
7281:
7271:
7269:
7254:
7250:
7242:
7238:
7230:
7226:
7218:
7211:
7207:, pp. 8β9.
7203:
7196:
7188:
7177:
7167:Cunningham 1875
7165:
7161:
7153:
7146:
7138:
7131:
7127:, pp. 6β7.
7123:
7116:
7108:
7101:
7093:
7089:
7085:, pp. 5β6.
7081:
7064:
7056:
7052:
7045:
7031:
7027:
7016:
7012:
7005:
6991:
6987:
6976:
6972:
6962:
6960:
6953:
6937:
6933:
6919:
6915:
6907:
6903:
6896:
6879:
6875:
6836:
6832:
6824:
6817:
6809:
6802:
6794:
6783:
6775:
6760:
6752:
6745:
6737:
6733:
6721:
6706:
6694:
6690:
6682:
6675:
6667:
6658:
6651:
6635:
6631:
6623:
6619:
6609:
6607:
6598:
6597:
6593:
6585:
6578:
6570:
6563:
6555:
6551:
6543:
6539:
6531:
6527:
6519:
6510:
6502:
6495:
6487:
6483:
6475:
6468:
6460:
6445:
6437:
6430:
6422:
6413:
6405:
6401:
6396:
6391:
6390:
6379:
6372:
6368:
6362:
6358:
6348:
6344:
6325:
6321:
6315:
6311:
6300:
6290:
6285:
6283:
6282:
6268:
6264:
6229:
6225:
6220:
6216:
6208:
6204:
6195:Jarrige (2008a)
6192:
6185:
6180:
6176:
6163:
6159:
6149:
6145:
6127:
6123:
6105:
6101:
6095:
6088:
6071:
6067:
6061:
6057:
6051:
6047:
6037:
6033:
6024:
6020:
6014:
6010:
6004:
6000:
5994:
5990:
5983:
5977:
5973:
5967:
5963:
5957:
5953:
5947:
5943:
5937:
5933:
5923:
5919:
5906:
5902:
5896:
5892:
5886:
5882:
5845:
5836:
5828:
5819:
5817:
5811:
5805:
5799:
5793:
5788:
5779:
5762:
5758:
5752:
5748:
5742:
5738:
5733:
5729:
5724:
5719:
5657:
5632:
5580:
5546:
5540:
5531:
5520:Gregory Possehl
5476:
5435:
5425:
5402:Kenneth Kennedy
5382:
5368:
5358:
5356:Aryan migration
5312:double-cropping
5257:Rangpur culture
5201:
5182:
5172:
5111:Heinrich Zimmer
5079:Alf Hiltebeitel
5057:lord of animals
5002:
4996:
4962:
4871:
4865:
4841:Brahui language
4812:
4798:
4774:
4702:
4649:Raymond Allchin
4645:Bridget Allchin
4643:archaeologists
4632:located in the
4610:Shahr-e Sukhteh
4592:, northern and
4571:Iranian plateau
4514:
4500:
4493:
4490:
4481:
4478:
4469:
4454:
4445:
4442:
4433:
4432:(New York City)
4422:
4370:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4356:
4352:
4351:
4328:
4322:
4315:
4306:
4297:
4290:National Museum
4286:
4277:
4260:
4251:
4250:(New York City)
4244:
4232:Gregory Possehl
4228:Lohanipur torso
4174:
4168:
4161:
4154:
4145:
4131:
4122:
4115:
4106:
4099:
4070:
4016:
3978:
3972:
3970:Arts and crafts
3925:
3907:
3876:
3856:
3762:
3756:
3715:
3696:
3695:
3694:
3693:
3692:
3678:
3670:
3669:
3663:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3646:
3637:
3636:
3635:Mature Harappan
3625:
3615:
3613:Mature Harappan
3532:
3517:
3498:
3488:
3448:
3435:
3429:
3423:
3408:
3400:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3367:
3366:Regionalisation
3360:
3352:
3338:
3313:
3259:
3258:Mature Harappan
3247:
3245:
3226:
3219:β2800 (Kenoyer)
3216:
3212:
3208:
3203:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3177:
3168:
3148:
3102:
3091:
3062:
3061:
3060:
2955:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2845:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2790:
2782:
2781:
2776:
2775:
2709:
2706:
2704:Colonial states
2696:
2695:
2586:Madurai Kingdom
2559:
2556:
2546:
2545:
2494:Bidar Sultanate
2483:Berar sultanate
2451:Ladakh Kingdom
2441:Gajapati Empire
2421:Garhwal Kingdom
2306:Delhi Sultanate
2279:
2276:
2266:
2265:
2257:
2253:
2235:Chutiya Kingdom
2205:Zamorin Kingdom
1996:
1992:
1984:Maukhari Empire
1974:Chalukya Empire
1965:
1927:Maitraka Empire
1868:
1864:
1847:
1843:
1835:Vakataka Empire
1815:Sasanian Empire
1766:
1709:
1705:
1687:Kuninda Kingdom
1670:
1667:
1665:Middle Kingdoms
1657:
1656:
1647:Parthian Empire
1638:
1634:
1617:
1600:
1583:
1566:
1549:
1545:
1460:
1443:
1354:
1351:
1341:
1340:
1259:
1256:
1246:
1245:
1197:
1182:
1179:
1169:
1168:
1159:Edakkal culture
1132:
1129:
1119:
1118:
1110:Soanian culture
1094:
1091:
1080:
1054:
1048:
1024:George F. Dales
972:
944:Archibald Sayce
873:Hiranand Sastri
771:
763:
702:
552:
493:alluvial plains
482:
474:Elamo-Dravidian
375:Mature Harappan
339:Punjab province
229:
176:
172:
168:
111:
104:
55:
53:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
18651:
18641:
18640:
18635:
18630:
18625:
18620:
18615:
18610:
18605:
18600:
18595:
18590:
18585:
18568:
18567:
18561:
18558:
18557:
18555:
18554:
18549:
18544:
18539:
18537:Maykop culture
18534:
18529:
18524:
18519:
18514:
18509:
18503:
18501:
18489:
18488:
18486:
18485:
18480:
18478:Wessex culture
18475:
18470:
18465:
18460:
18455:
18450:
18445:
18440:
18435:
18430:
18425:
18420:
18415:
18413:Okunev culture
18410:
18405:
18400:
18395:
18390:
18385:
18380:
18375:
18370:
18365:
18360:
18355:
18350:
18345:
18340:
18335:
18330:
18325:
18320:
18315:
18310:
18305:
18300:
18295:
18290:
18285:
18280:
18275:
18270:
18265:
18260:
18254:
18252:
18246:
18245:
18239:
18236:
18235:
18228:
18227:
18220:
18213:
18205:
18196:
18195:
18192:
18191:
18184:
18182:
18180:
18179:
18172:
18171:
18170:
18163:
18156:
18149:
18141:
18134:
18127:
18119:
18109:
18108:
18107:
18106:
18105:
18100:
18095:
18085:
18076:
18073:
18072:
18062:
18061:
18058:
18057:
18050:
18048:
18045:
18044:
18042:
18041:
18040:
18039:
18034:
18026:
18021:
18016:
18011:
18006:
18001:
17996:
17990:
17988:
17982:
17981:
17979:
17978:
17973:
17968:
17963:
17958:
17953:
17948:
17943:
17938:
17932:
17930:
17924:
17923:
17921:
17920:
17919:
17918:
17913:
17908:
17903:
17896:
17888:
17887:
17886:
17874:
17873:
17872:
17867:
17860:
17852:Mediterranean
17850:
17849:
17848:
17841:
17834:
17827:
17820:
17815:
17808:
17805:Alingano Maisu
17801:
17794:
17787:
17780:
17773:
17761:
17760:
17759:
17748:
17735:
17733:
17727:
17726:
17724:
17723:
17717:
17715:
17711:
17710:
17708:
17707:
17706:
17705:
17700:
17695:
17687:
17686:
17685:
17680:
17675:
17670:
17663:
17656:
17654:De Meern ships
17651:
17646:
17641:
17636:
17626:
17625:
17624:
17616:
17615:
17614:
17609:
17601:
17600:
17599:
17592:
17585:
17580:
17572:
17567:
17566:
17565:
17555:
17554:
17553:
17548:
17538:
17537:
17536:
17531:
17526:
17524:Cape Gelidonya
17521:
17516:
17511:
17506:
17501:
17496:
17491:
17486:
17481:
17469:
17467:
17459:
17458:
17456:
17455:
17450:
17445:
17440:
17435:
17430:
17425:
17420:
17415:
17410:
17405:
17400:
17399:
17398:
17393:
17388:
17380:
17375:
17370:
17365:
17360:
17359:
17358:
17348:
17343:
17337:
17335:
17329:
17328:
17325:
17324:
17322:
17321:
17316:
17311:
17306:
17301:
17296:
17290:
17288:
17287:Archaeologists
17284:
17283:
17281:
17280:
17275:
17270:
17265:
17260:
17255:
17253:David Blackman
17249:
17247:
17240:
17232:
17231:
17221:
17220:
17217:
17216:
17209:
17207:
17205:
17204:
17199:
17194:
17192:Jewish pirates
17189:
17184:
17179:
17174:
17168:
17165:
17164:
17154:
17153:
17150:
17149:
17142:
17140:
17138:
17137:
17136:
17135:
17125:
17124:
17123:
17113:
17108:
17103:
17096:
17091:
17086:
17081:
17076:
17071:
17066:
17061:
17056:
17051:
17046:
17040:
17037:
17036:
17023:
17022:
17019:
17018:
17011:
17009:
17006:
17005:
17003:
17002:
17001:
17000:
16990:
16985:
16980:
16979:
16978:
16967:
16965:
16961:
16960:
16957:
16956:
16954:
16953:
16948:
16943:
16938:
16933:
16928:
16923:
16917:
16914:
16913:
16911:
16910:
16905:
16900:
16895:
16890:
16885:
16880:
16878:Lake Trasimene
16875:
16870:
16865:
16860:
16855:
16850:
16845:
16840:
16835:
16830:
16825:
16820:
16815:
16810:
16805:
16800:
16795:
16790:
16785:
16779:Mediterranean:
16775:
16773:
16767:
16766:
16764:
16763:
16758:
16753:
16748:
16742:
16740:
16731:
16727:
16726:
16724:
16723:
16718:
16713:
16708:
16707:
16706:
16701:
16691:
16686:
16681:
16675:
16673:
16665:
16664:
16662:
16661:
16656:
16651:
16646:
16641:
16640:
16639:
16634:
16624:
16619:
16614:
16609:
16604:
16599:
16594:
16589:
16588:
16587:
16582:
16577:
16567:
16562:
16557:
16556:
16555:
16550:
16545:
16540:
16535:
16530:
16525:
16520:
16515:
16510:
16505:
16500:
16495:
16485:
16484:
16483:
16472:
16470:
16466:
16465:
16463:
16462:
16457:
16456:
16455:
16450:
16440:
16435:
16429:
16427:
16419:
16418:
16406:
16405:
16402:
16401:
16394:
16392:
16389:
16388:
16386:
16385:
16380:
16375:
16370:
16365:
16360:
16355:
16350:
16345:
16340:
16335:
16330:
16325:
16320:
16315:
16310:
16305:
16300:
16295:
16290:
16285:
16275:
16270:
16265:
16260:
16255:
16250:
16245:
16240:
16235:
16230:
16225:
16219:
16214:
16209:
16204:
16198:
16193:
16188:
16183:
16178:
16173:
16168:
16163:
16158:
16153:
16148:
16143:
16137:
16132:
16127:
16121:
16119:
16110:
16109:
16107:
16106:
16105:
16104:
16099:
16094:
16086:
16085:
16084:
16082:Maritime pilot
16079:
16069:
16064:
16063:
16062:
16052:
16047:
16045:Portolan chart
16042:
16037:
16031:
16029:
16019:
16018:
16008:
16007:
16004:
16003:
15996:
15994:
15991:
15990:
15988:
15987:
15982:
15977:
15972:
15967:
15962:
15957:
15951:
15949:
15945:
15944:
15942:
15941:
15936:
15931:
15926:
15921:
15920:
15919:
15914:
15909:
15904:
15894:
15888:
15886:
15880:
15879:
15877:
15876:
15875:
15874:
15866:
15861:
15856:
15851:
15846:
15841:
15836:
15831:
15825:
15823:
15817:
15816:
15814:
15813:
15808:
15803:
15798:
15793:
15792:
15791:
15781:
15776:
15771:
15766:
15761:
15756:
15751:
15746:
15745:
15744:
15734:
15729:
15724:
15719:
15714:
15708:
15706:
15702:
15701:
15699:
15698:
15693:
15688:
15683:
15677:
15675:
15671:
15670:
15668:
15667:
15662:
15657:
15652:
15647:
15646:
15645:
15640:
15635:
15630:
15625:
15620:
15618:Oared warships
15615:
15607:
15606:
15605:
15600:
15595:
15585:
15580:
15575:
15570:
15565:
15560:
15555:
15554:
15553:
15543:
15538:
15533:
15528:
15523:
15518:
15512:
15510:
15500:
15499:
15487:
15486:
15479:
15478:
15471:
15464:
15456:
15447:
15446:
15444:
15443:
15438:
15433:
15428:
15422:
15420:
15419:Related topics
15416:
15415:
15413:
15412:
15407:
15401:
15399:
15392:
15391:
15389:
15388:
15383:
15378:
15373:
15368:
15363:
15358:
15353:
15348:
15343:
15338:
15333:
15328:
15323:
15318:
15313:
15308:
15303:
15298:
15293:
15288:
15283:
15278:
15273:
15268:
15263:
15258:
15253:
15248:
15243:
15238:
15233:
15228:
15223:
15218:
15213:
15208:
15203:
15198:
15193:
15188:
15183:
15178:
15173:
15168:
15162:
15160:
15153:
15152:
15150:
15149:
15144:
15142:Judeir-jo-daro
15139:
15134:
15129:
15124:
15119:
15117:Pir Shah Jurio
15114:
15109:
15104:
15099:
15094:
15089:
15084:
15079:
15074:
15069:
15064:
15059:
15054:
15049:
15044:
15038:
15036:
15029:
15028:
15026:
15025:
15020:
15014:
15012:
15008:
15007:
15005:
15004:
14999:
14994:
14989:
14984:
14977:
14975:Pashupati seal
14972:
14964:
14962:
14958:
14957:
14955:
14954:
14949:
14944:
14939:
14934:
14929:
14924:
14919:
14914:
14909:
14903:
14901:
14897:
14896:
14889:
14888:
14881:
14874:
14866:
14860:
14859:
14858:at harappa.com
14851:
14850:External links
14848:
14846:
14845:
14834:
14781:
14745:(1): 124β131.
14730:
14702:(4): 479β484.
14687:
14670:(3): 365β384.
14652:
14646:
14630:
14608:10.1086/499411
14602:(2): 202β221.
14587:
14550:
14544:
14528:
14500:(6): 593β599.
14485:
14467:
14452:
14434:(4): 611β615.
14423:
14390:10.1101/292581
14368:
14362:
14356:. Ferozesons.
14346:
14303:
14297:
14280:
14245:
14214:10.1101/059311
14184:
14172:
14166:
14150:
14144:
14131:
14125:
14109:
14100:
14094:
14078:
14072:, ed. (1995).
14066:
14043:
14037:
14021:
14009:
14003:
13990:
13981:
13947:(1): 163β171.
13936:
13927:
13914:
13912:
13909:
13907:
13906:
13893:
13871:
13862:
13844:
13830:Thapar, Romila
13826:
13806:10.1086/462498
13800:(1): 115β125.
13789:
13744:
13726:
13708:
13684:
13666:
13652:Singh, Upinder
13648:
13597:
13564:
13558:
13542:
13530:
13477:
13471:
13458:
13452:
13434:
13415:10.1086/381044
13407:10.1086/381044
13401:(2): 239β259.
13383:
13348:(2): 215β228.
13330:
13324:
13307:
13289:
13271:
13208:
13199:
13176:
13150:(6): 637β647.
13144:Human Genetics
13139:
13113:(3): 125β135.
13101:
13083:
13068:
13062:
13047:
13041:
13023:McIntosh, Jane
13019:
13013:
12998:
12987:
12942:
12924:
12909:
12901:, ed. (1931).
12899:Marshall, John
12895:
12877:
12860:
12842:
12827:
12790:
12753:
12741:
12723:
12708:
12657:
12648:
12642:
12626:
12602:
12570:
12557:
12534:
12516:
12496:
12487:
12478:
12472:
12450:
12389:
12336:
12316:(1): 249β260.
12301:
12272:
12266:
12251:
12233:
12218:
12200:
12178:
12125:
12112:
12106:
12090:
12073:
12047:(3): 211β214.
12036:
12027:
12021:
12006:
12000:
11988:, ed. (1995).
11982:
11964:
11945:
11943:
11940:
11937:
11936:
11878:
11819:
11766:
11716:
11704:
11697:
11671:
11664:
11640:
11631:Spodek, Howard
11618:
11611:
11591:
11576:
11511:
11480:
11476:MacDonald 2011
11468:
11456:
11439:New York Times
11425:
11408:New York Times
11391:
11355:
11340:
11314:
11266:
11211:
11181:
11168:
11156:
11154:, p. 246.
11144:
11142:, p. 102.
11132:
11125:
11099:
11087:
11071:
11059:
11057:, p. 211.
11044:
11029:
11017:
11001:
10985:
10955:
10939:
10900:(12). e84814.
10880:
10823:
10802:"akg-images -"
10793:
10781:
10769:
10757:
10745:
10733:
10721:
10709:
10694:
10671:
10664:
10646:
10639:
10619:
10607:
10595:
10583:
10571:
10556:
10540:
10525:
10513:
10501:
10479:
10460:
10434:
10397:(5931): 1165.
10377:
10374:Parpola (2005)
10365:
10328:
10277:
10257:
10228:
10187:
10185:, p. 645.
10175:
10160:
10145:
10133:
10121:
10109:
10097:
10080:
10050:
10020:
9989:
9917:
9847:
9817:
9787:
9760:
9701:
9689:
9680:
9661:
9659:, p. 245.
9649:
9635:
9605:
9581:
9556:
9525:
9512:
9497:
9439:
9436:on 2 May 2013.
9416:
9414:, pp. 2β3
9404:
9388:
9377:
9359:
9343:
9323:
9307:
9284:
9264:
9245:
9225:
9205:
9186:
9163:
9147:
9128:
9108:
9093:
9091:, p. 127.
9081:
9079:, p. 111.
9069:
9049:
9030:
9004:
8962:
8950:
8948:, p. 319.
8938:
8929:
8915:
8895:
8880:
8871:
8859:
8857:, p. 248.
8847:
8840:
8822:
8815:
8790:
8740:
8725:
8711:
8691:
8670:(2): 153β202.
8650:
8621:
8605:
8593:
8577:
8547:
8528:
8508:
8490:
8472:
8454:
8413:
8394:
8377:Times of India
8364:
8305:
8286:
8263:
8256:
8238:
8223:
8192:
8180:
8163:
8151:
8149:, p. 114.
8134:
8111:10.1086/383236
8105:(5): 827β845.
8099:Am J Hum Genet
8085:
8062:10.1086/318200
8056:(2): 537β542.
8050:Am J Hum Genet
8036:
8023:
8014:
8001:
7971:
7955:
7943:
7930:10.1086/658860
7908:
7873:
7861:
7849:
7836:
7815:
7800:
7777:
7750:
7720:
7694:
7679:
7677:, p. 336.
7667:
7665:, p. 333.
7652:
7640:
7638:, p. 335.
7628:
7626:, p. 145.
7616:
7614:, p. 149.
7604:
7583:
7581:, p. 148.
7571:
7559:
7544:
7508:
7496:
7484:
7472:
7456:
7440:
7421:
7407:Singh, Upinder
7398:
7378:
7370:Ratnagar 2006b
7362:
7351:
7331:
7279:
7248:
7236:
7224:
7209:
7194:
7175:
7159:
7144:
7142:, p. 180.
7129:
7114:
7099:
7087:
7062:
7050:
7043:
7025:
7010:
7003:
6985:
6970:
6951:
6931:
6913:
6901:
6894:
6873:
6846:(142): 86β92.
6830:
6815:
6813:, p. 138.
6800:
6781:
6758:
6743:
6731:
6704:
6688:
6673:
6656:
6649:
6629:
6625:Ratnagar 2006a
6617:
6591:
6589:, p. 107.
6576:
6574:, p. 192.
6561:
6549:
6537:
6525:
6508:
6493:
6481:
6466:
6443:
6428:
6411:
6398:
6397:
6395:
6392:
6389:
6388:
6366:
6356:
6342:
6319:
6309:
6307:
6306:
6279:Derenko (2013)
6276:
6262:
6260:
6259:
6252:
6245:
6238:
6223:
6214:
6202:
6183:
6174:
6157:
6143:
6121:
6099:
6086:
6065:
6055:
6045:
6031:
6018:
6008:
5998:
5988:
5971:
5961:
5951:
5941:
5931:
5917:
5900:
5890:
5880:
5878:
5877:
5867:
5857:
5852:, p. 20;
5834:
5822:Possehl (2002)
5777:
5763:These covered
5756:
5746:
5736:
5726:
5725:
5723:
5720:
5718:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5669:
5664:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5631:
5628:
5613:Gangetic Plain
5607:expanded from
5571:Vedic religion
5542:Main article:
5539:
5536:
5475:
5472:
5448:Meghalayan Age
5439:climate change
5424:
5421:
5357:
5354:
5348:, and western
5249:Jhukar culture
5185:β1300 BCE
5171:
5168:
5061:Pashupati Seal
4992:Main article:
4987:British Museum
4971:Pashupati seal
4961:
4958:
4930:heraldic signs
4867:Main article:
4864:
4861:
4833:southern India
4797:
4794:
4773:
4770:
4734:Indian aurochs
4715:Jim G. Shaffer
4701:
4698:
4626:Eastern Arabia
4499:
4496:
4495:
4494:
4491:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4472:
4470:
4455:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4436:
4434:
4423:
4416:
4387:Pashupati seal
4340:British Museum
4324:Main article:
4321:
4318:
4317:
4316:
4307:
4300:
4298:
4287:
4280:
4278:
4261:
4254:
4252:
4245:
4238:
4167:
4164:
4163:
4162:
4155:
4148:
4146:
4132:
4125:
4123:
4119:British Museum
4116:
4109:
4107:
4100:
4093:
3971:
3968:
3949:Imperial ounce
3906:
3903:
3875:
3872:
3871:
3870:
3867:
3855:
3852:
3844:egalitarianism
3767:urban planning
3758:Main article:
3755:
3752:
3685:Gujarat, India
3679:
3672:
3671:
3664:
3657:
3656:
3655:
3647:
3640:
3639:
3638:
3634:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3628:β1900 BCE
3614:
3611:
3528:, lasted from
3501:β2600 BCE
3487:
3486:Early Harappan
3484:
3425:Main article:
3422:
3419:
3416:
3415:
3412:
3394:
3392:
3390:
3386:
3385:
3375:β300 (Kenoyer)
3364:
3346:
3344:
3342:
3340:Iron Age India
3335:
3331:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3321:
3320:
3317:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3302:Late Harappan
3300:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3272:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3256:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3242:
3239:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3223:
3221:
3211:β2800 (Mughal)
3202:Early Harappan
3200:
3196:
3195:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3167:Mehrgarh IIβVI
3165:
3162:
3158:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3150:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3089:
3082:
3075:
3067:
3064:
3063:
3059:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2957:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2792:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2778:
2777:
2772:
2771:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2718:
2710:
2702:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2691:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2658:
2656:Maratha Empire
2652:
2651:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2638:
2636:Sikkim Kingdom
2632:
2631:
2628:
2626:Marava Kingdom
2622:
2621:
2618:
2612:
2611:
2608:
2602:
2601:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2588:
2582:
2581:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2568:
2560:
2552:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2541:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2528:
2526:Keladi Kingdom
2522:
2521:
2518:
2511:
2510:
2507:
2500:
2499:
2496:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2478:
2477:
2474:
2467:
2466:
2463:
2457:
2456:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2433:
2431:Mysore Kingdom
2427:
2426:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2363:
2361:Lodi Sultanate
2356:
2355:
2352:
2345:
2344:
2341:
2334:
2333:
2330:
2323:
2322:
2319:
2312:
2311:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2298:
2296:Ghurid Dynasty
2292:
2291:
2288:
2280:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2262:
2261:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2167:
2165:Hoysala Empire
2161:
2160:
2157:
2155:Lohara Kingdom
2151:
2150:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2137:
2131:
2130:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2057:
2051:
2050:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2017:
2015:Tibetan Empire
2011:
2010:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1899:
1893:
1892:
1889:
1887:Kadamba Empire
1883:
1882:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1699:
1693:
1692:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1679:
1671:
1663:
1662:
1659:
1658:
1653:
1652:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1628:
1622:
1621:
1611:
1609:Pallava Empire
1605:
1604:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1560:
1554:
1553:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1527:Seleucid India
1523:
1522:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1479:
1475:
1474:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1454:
1452:Maha Janapadas
1448:
1447:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1407:
1400:
1399:
1396:
1389:
1388:
1387:(1300β1000 BC)
1385:
1378:
1377:
1374:
1367:
1366:
1363:
1355:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1337:
1336:
1333:
1326:
1325:
1324:(2000β1600 BC)
1322:
1315:
1314:
1311:
1305:
1304:
1303:(1900β1300 BC)
1301:
1294:
1293:
1292:(2600β1900 BC)
1290:
1283:
1282:
1281:(3300β2600 BC)
1279:
1272:
1271:
1270:(3300β1300 BC)
1268:
1260:
1257:(3300β1300 BC)
1252:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1242:
1241:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1230:(1600β1300 BC)
1228:
1222:
1221:
1218:
1212:
1211:
1210:(3000β1500 BC)
1208:
1202:
1201:
1191:
1183:
1180:(3500β1500 BC)
1175:
1174:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1164:
1163:(5000β3000 BC)
1161:
1155:
1154:
1153:(7000β3300 BC)
1151:
1145:
1144:
1143:(7570β6200 BC)
1141:
1133:
1125:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1115:
1114:
1112:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1095:
1087:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1063:
1062:
1050:Main article:
1047:
1044:
881:Daya Ram Sahni
787:princely state
779:Charles Masson
744:
701:
698:
551:
548:
481:
478:
382:urban planning
309:alluvial plain
303:and northeast
201:, showing the
181:
180:
163:
159:
158:
153:
149:
148:
134:
130:
129:
124:
118:
117:
99:
95:
94:
89:
85:
84:
64:Basins of the
62:
58:
57:
54:ancient Indus
50:
46:
45:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
18650:
18639:
18636:
18634:
18631:
18629:
18626:
18624:
18621:
18619:
18616:
18614:
18611:
18609:
18606:
18604:
18601:
18599:
18596:
18594:
18591:
18589:
18586:
18584:
18581:
18580:
18578:
18565:
18559:
18553:
18550:
18548:
18545:
18543:
18540:
18538:
18535:
18533:
18530:
18528:
18525:
18523:
18520:
18518:
18515:
18513:
18510:
18508:
18505:
18504:
18502:
18494:
18490:
18484:
18481:
18479:
18476:
18474:
18471:
18469:
18466:
18464:
18461:
18459:
18456:
18454:
18451:
18449:
18446:
18444:
18443:Tagar culture
18441:
18439:
18436:
18434:
18431:
18429:
18428:Samus culture
18426:
18424:
18423:Penard Period
18421:
18419:
18418:Ordos culture
18416:
18414:
18411:
18409:
18406:
18404:
18401:
18399:
18396:
18394:
18391:
18389:
18386:
18384:
18381:
18379:
18376:
18374:
18371:
18369:
18366:
18364:
18361:
18359:
18356:
18354:
18351:
18349:
18346:
18344:
18343:Ezero culture
18341:
18339:
18336:
18334:
18331:
18329:
18326:
18324:
18321:
18319:
18316:
18314:
18311:
18309:
18306:
18304:
18301:
18299:
18296:
18294:
18291:
18289:
18286:
18284:
18281:
18279:
18276:
18274:
18271:
18269:
18266:
18264:
18261:
18259:
18256:
18255:
18253:
18251:
18247:
18243:
18237:
18233:
18226:
18221:
18219:
18214:
18212:
18207:
18206:
18203:
18178:
18177:
18173:
18169:
18168:
18164:
18162:
18161:
18157:
18155:
18154:
18153:Metamorphoses
18150:
18148:
18146:
18145:The Histories
18142:
18140:
18139:
18135:
18133:
18132:
18128:
18126:
18124:
18123:The Histories
18120:
18118:
18117:
18113:
18112:
18110:
18104:
18101:
18099:
18096:
18094:
18091:
18090:
18089:
18086:
18084:
18081:
18080:
18078:
18077:
18074:
18067:
18063:
18038:
18035:
18033:
18030:
18029:
18027:
18025:
18022:
18020:
18017:
18015:
18012:
18010:
18007:
18005:
18002:
18000:
17997:
17995:
17992:
17991:
17989:
17983:
17977:
17974:
17972:
17969:
17967:
17964:
17962:
17959:
17957:
17954:
17952:
17949:
17947:
17944:
17942:
17939:
17937:
17934:
17933:
17931:
17925:
17917:
17914:
17912:
17909:
17907:
17904:
17902:
17901:
17897:
17895:
17892:
17891:
17889:
17885:
17884:
17880:
17879:
17878:
17875:
17871:
17868:
17866:
17865:
17861:
17859:
17858:
17854:
17853:
17851:
17847:
17846:
17842:
17840:
17839:
17838:Marumaru Atua
17835:
17833:
17832:
17828:
17826:
17825:
17821:
17819:
17816:
17814:
17813:
17809:
17807:
17806:
17802:
17800:
17799:
17798:Samudra Raksa
17795:
17793:
17792:
17788:
17786:
17785:
17784:Te Au o Tonga
17781:
17779:
17778:
17774:
17772:
17771:
17767:
17766:
17765:
17762:
17758:
17757:
17753:
17749:
17747:
17746:
17742:
17741:
17740:
17737:
17736:
17734:
17728:
17722:
17719:
17718:
17716:
17712:
17704:
17701:
17699:
17696:
17694:
17691:
17690:
17688:
17684:
17681:
17679:
17676:
17674:
17671:
17669:
17668:
17664:
17662:
17661:
17657:
17655:
17652:
17650:
17647:
17645:
17644:Blackfriars I
17642:
17640:
17639:Arles RhΓ΄ne 3
17637:
17635:
17634:
17630:
17629:
17627:
17623:
17620:
17619:
17617:
17613:
17610:
17608:
17605:
17604:
17602:
17598:
17597:
17593:
17591:
17590:
17586:
17584:
17581:
17579:
17576:
17575:
17573:
17571:
17568:
17564:
17561:
17560:
17559:
17556:
17552:
17549:
17547:
17544:
17543:
17542:
17539:
17535:
17532:
17530:
17527:
17525:
17522:
17520:
17517:
17515:
17512:
17510:
17507:
17505:
17502:
17500:
17497:
17495:
17492:
17490:
17487:
17485:
17482:
17480:
17477:
17476:
17474:
17471:
17470:
17468:
17466:
17460:
17454:
17451:
17449:
17446:
17444:
17443:Thalassocracy
17441:
17439:
17436:
17434:
17431:
17429:
17428:Shell middens
17426:
17424:
17421:
17419:
17416:
17414:
17411:
17409:
17406:
17404:
17401:
17397:
17394:
17392:
17389:
17387:
17384:
17383:
17381:
17379:
17378:Naval warfare
17376:
17374:
17371:
17369:
17366:
17364:
17361:
17357:
17354:
17353:
17352:
17349:
17347:
17344:
17342:
17339:
17338:
17336:
17330:
17320:
17317:
17315:
17312:
17310:
17307:
17305:
17302:
17300:
17297:
17295:
17292:
17291:
17289:
17285:
17279:
17276:
17274:
17271:
17269:
17266:
17264:
17261:
17259:
17258:Lionel Casson
17256:
17254:
17251:
17250:
17248:
17244:
17241:
17237:
17233:
17226:
17222:
17203:
17200:
17198:
17195:
17193:
17190:
17188:
17185:
17183:
17180:
17178:
17175:
17173:
17170:
17169:
17166:
17159:
17155:
17134:
17131:
17130:
17129:
17126:
17122:
17119:
17118:
17117:
17114:
17112:
17109:
17107:
17104:
17102:
17101:
17097:
17095:
17092:
17090:
17089:Incense trade
17087:
17085:
17082:
17080:
17077:
17075:
17072:
17070:
17067:
17065:
17062:
17060:
17057:
17055:
17052:
17050:
17047:
17045:
17042:
17041:
17038:
17034:
17028:
17024:
16999:
16996:
16995:
16994:
16993:South America
16991:
16989:
16986:
16984:
16981:
16977:
16974:
16973:
16972:
16969:
16968:
16966:
16962:
16952:
16949:
16947:
16944:
16942:
16941:Sailing ships
16939:
16937:
16936:Oared vessels
16934:
16932:
16929:
16927:
16924:
16922:
16919:
16918:
16915:
16909:
16906:
16904:
16901:
16899:
16896:
16894:
16891:
16889:
16886:
16884:
16881:
16879:
16876:
16874:
16871:
16869:
16866:
16864:
16861:
16859:
16858:Cape Hermaeum
16856:
16854:
16851:
16849:
16846:
16844:
16841:
16839:
16836:
16834:
16831:
16829:
16826:
16824:
16821:
16819:
16816:
16814:
16811:
16809:
16806:
16804:
16801:
16799:
16796:
16794:
16791:
16789:
16786:
16784:
16780:
16777:
16776:
16774:
16772:
16768:
16762:
16759:
16757:
16754:
16752:
16749:
16747:
16744:
16743:
16741:
16739:
16735:
16732:
16728:
16722:
16719:
16717:
16714:
16712:
16709:
16705:
16702:
16700:
16697:
16696:
16695:
16692:
16690:
16687:
16685:
16682:
16680:
16677:
16676:
16674:
16672:
16669:Migration and
16666:
16660:
16657:
16655:
16652:
16650:
16647:
16645:
16642:
16638:
16635:
16633:
16630:
16629:
16628:
16625:
16623:
16620:
16618:
16615:
16613:
16610:
16608:
16605:
16603:
16600:
16598:
16595:
16593:
16590:
16586:
16583:
16581:
16578:
16576:
16573:
16572:
16571:
16568:
16566:
16563:
16561:
16558:
16554:
16551:
16549:
16546:
16544:
16541:
16539:
16536:
16534:
16531:
16529:
16526:
16524:
16521:
16519:
16516:
16514:
16511:
16509:
16506:
16504:
16501:
16499:
16496:
16494:
16491:
16490:
16489:
16486:
16482:
16479:
16478:
16477:
16476:Ancient Egypt
16474:
16473:
16471:
16469:Civilizations
16467:
16461:
16458:
16454:
16451:
16449:
16446:
16445:
16444:
16441:
16439:
16436:
16434:
16431:
16430:
16428:
16424:
16420:
16416:
16411:
16407:
16384:
16381:
16379:
16376:
16374:
16371:
16369:
16366:
16364:
16361:
16359:
16356:
16354:
16351:
16349:
16346:
16344:
16341:
16339:
16336:
16334:
16331:
16329:
16326:
16324:
16321:
16319:
16316:
16314:
16311:
16309:
16306:
16304:
16301:
16299:
16296:
16294:
16291:
16289:
16286:
16283:
16279:
16276:
16274:
16271:
16269:
16266:
16264:
16261:
16259:
16256:
16254:
16251:
16249:
16246:
16244:
16241:
16239:
16236:
16234:
16231:
16229:
16226:
16223:
16220:
16218:
16215:
16213:
16210:
16208:
16205:
16202:
16199:
16197:
16194:
16192:
16189:
16187:
16184:
16182:
16179:
16177:
16174:
16172:
16169:
16167:
16164:
16162:
16159:
16157:
16154:
16152:
16149:
16147:
16144:
16141:
16138:
16136:
16133:
16131:
16128:
16126:
16123:
16122:
16120:
16115:
16111:
16103:
16100:
16098:
16095:
16093:
16090:
16089:
16087:
16083:
16080:
16078:
16075:
16074:
16073:
16070:
16068:
16065:
16061:
16058:
16057:
16056:
16053:
16051:
16048:
16046:
16043:
16041:
16038:
16036:
16033:
16032:
16030:
16028:
16024:
16020:
16013:
16009:
15986:
15983:
15981:
15978:
15976:
15973:
15971:
15968:
15966:
15963:
15961:
15958:
15956:
15953:
15952:
15950:
15946:
15940:
15937:
15935:
15932:
15930:
15927:
15925:
15922:
15918:
15915:
15913:
15910:
15908:
15905:
15903:
15900:
15899:
15898:
15895:
15893:
15890:
15889:
15887:
15885:
15881:
15873:
15870:
15869:
15867:
15865:
15862:
15860:
15857:
15855:
15852:
15850:
15847:
15845:
15844:Clinker built
15842:
15840:
15837:
15835:
15832:
15830:
15829:Boat building
15827:
15826:
15824:
15822:
15818:
15812:
15809:
15807:
15804:
15802:
15799:
15797:
15794:
15790:
15787:
15786:
15785:
15782:
15780:
15777:
15775:
15772:
15770:
15767:
15765:
15762:
15760:
15757:
15755:
15752:
15750:
15747:
15743:
15740:
15739:
15738:
15735:
15733:
15730:
15728:
15725:
15723:
15720:
15718:
15715:
15713:
15710:
15709:
15707:
15703:
15697:
15694:
15692:
15689:
15687:
15684:
15682:
15679:
15678:
15676:
15672:
15666:
15663:
15661:
15658:
15656:
15653:
15651:
15648:
15644:
15641:
15639:
15636:
15634:
15631:
15629:
15626:
15624:
15621:
15619:
15616:
15614:
15611:
15610:
15608:
15604:
15601:
15599:
15596:
15594:
15591:
15590:
15589:
15586:
15584:
15581:
15579:
15578:Navis lusoria
15576:
15574:
15571:
15569:
15566:
15564:
15561:
15559:
15556:
15552:
15549:
15548:
15547:
15544:
15542:
15539:
15537:
15534:
15532:
15529:
15527:
15524:
15522:
15519:
15517:
15514:
15513:
15511:
15509:
15505:
15501:
15497:
15492:
15488:
15484:
15477:
15472:
15470:
15465:
15463:
15458:
15457:
15454:
15442:
15439:
15437:
15434:
15432:
15429:
15427:
15424:
15423:
15421:
15417:
15411:
15408:
15406:
15403:
15402:
15400:
15398:
15393:
15387:
15384:
15382:
15379:
15377:
15374:
15372:
15369:
15367:
15364:
15362:
15359:
15357:
15354:
15352:
15349:
15347:
15344:
15342:
15339:
15337:
15334:
15332:
15329:
15327:
15324:
15322:
15319:
15317:
15314:
15312:
15309:
15307:
15304:
15302:
15299:
15297:
15294:
15292:
15289:
15287:
15284:
15282:
15279:
15277:
15274:
15272:
15269:
15267:
15264:
15262:
15259:
15257:
15254:
15252:
15249:
15247:
15244:
15242:
15239:
15237:
15234:
15232:
15229:
15227:
15224:
15222:
15219:
15217:
15214:
15212:
15209:
15207:
15204:
15202:
15199:
15197:
15194:
15192:
15189:
15187:
15184:
15182:
15179:
15177:
15174:
15172:
15169:
15167:
15164:
15163:
15161:
15159:
15154:
15148:
15145:
15143:
15140:
15138:
15135:
15133:
15130:
15128:
15125:
15123:
15120:
15118:
15115:
15113:
15110:
15108:
15105:
15103:
15100:
15098:
15095:
15093:
15090:
15088:
15085:
15083:
15080:
15078:
15075:
15073:
15070:
15068:
15065:
15063:
15060:
15058:
15055:
15053:
15050:
15048:
15045:
15043:
15040:
15039:
15037:
15035:
15030:
15024:
15021:
15019:
15016:
15015:
15013:
15009:
15003:
15000:
14998:
14995:
14993:
14990:
14988:
14985:
14983:
14982:
14978:
14976:
14973:
14971:
14970:
14966:
14965:
14963:
14959:
14953:
14950:
14948:
14945:
14943:
14940:
14938:
14935:
14933:
14932:Kulli culture
14930:
14928:
14925:
14923:
14920:
14918:
14915:
14913:
14912:Periodisation
14910:
14908:
14905:
14904:
14902:
14898:
14894:
14887:
14882:
14880:
14875:
14873:
14868:
14867:
14864:
14857:
14854:
14853:
14842:
14841:
14835:
14831:
14827:
14822:
14817:
14812:
14807:
14803:
14799:
14795:
14791:
14787:
14782:
14778:
14774:
14769:
14764:
14760:
14756:
14752:
14748:
14744:
14740:
14736:
14731:
14727:
14723:
14718:
14713:
14709:
14705:
14701:
14697:
14693:
14688:
14673:
14669:
14665:
14658:
14653:
14649:
14643:
14639:
14635:
14631:
14627:
14623:
14618:
14613:
14609:
14605:
14601:
14597:
14593:
14588:
14584:
14580:
14576:
14572:
14568:
14564:
14560:
14556:
14551:
14547:
14541:
14537:
14533:
14529:
14525:
14521:
14516:
14511:
14507:
14503:
14499:
14495:
14491:
14486:
14474:
14470:
14464:
14460:
14459:
14453:
14449:
14445:
14441:
14437:
14433:
14429:
14424:
14420:
14416:
14411:
14406:
14401:
14396:
14391:
14386:
14382:
14378:
14374:
14369:
14365:
14359:
14355:
14351:
14347:
14343:
14339:
14334:
14329:
14325:
14321:
14317:
14313:
14309:
14304:
14300:
14294:
14289:
14288:
14281:
14266:
14262:
14258:
14251:
14246:
14242:
14238:
14233:
14228:
14224:
14220:
14215:
14210:
14206:
14202:
14198:
14194:
14190:
14185:
14181:
14177:
14173:
14169:
14163:
14159:
14155:
14151:
14147:
14141:
14137:
14132:
14128:
14122:
14118:
14114:
14110:
14107:(1): 141β149.
14106:
14101:
14097:
14091:
14087:
14083:
14079:
14075:
14071:
14067:
14060:
14056:
14049:
14044:
14040:
14034:
14030:
14026:
14022:
14018:
14014:
14010:
14006:
14000:
13996:
13991:
13987:
13982:
13978:
13974:
13970:
13966:
13962:
13958:
13954:
13950:
13946:
13942:
13937:
13933:
13928:
13924:
13920:
13916:
13915:
13896:
13890:
13886:
13882:
13881:
13876:
13872:
13868:
13863:
13851:
13847:
13841:
13837:
13836:
13831:
13827:
13823:
13819:
13815:
13811:
13807:
13803:
13799:
13795:
13790:
13786:
13782:
13778:
13774:
13770:
13766:
13762:
13758:
13754:
13750:
13745:
13733:
13729:
13723:
13719:
13718:
13713:
13709:
13705:
13701:
13697:
13693:
13689:
13685:
13673:
13669:
13663:
13659:
13658:
13653:
13649:
13645:
13641:
13636:
13631:
13627:
13623:
13619:
13615:
13611:
13607:
13603:
13598:
13595:
13591:
13588:
13584:
13580:
13576:
13573:
13569:
13565:
13561:
13555:
13551:
13547:
13543:
13539:
13535:
13531:
13527:
13523:
13518:
13513:
13508:
13503:
13499:
13495:
13491:
13487:
13483:
13478:
13474:
13468:
13464:
13459:
13455:
13449:
13445:
13444:
13439:
13435:
13428:
13424:
13420:
13416:
13412:
13408:
13404:
13400:
13396:
13389:
13384:
13377:
13373:
13369:
13364:
13359:
13355:
13351:
13347:
13343:
13336:
13331:
13327:
13321:
13317:
13313:
13308:
13296:
13292:
13286:
13282:
13281:
13276:
13272:
13265:
13261:
13257:
13252:
13247:
13242:
13237:
13233:
13229:
13226:(3). L03704.
13225:
13221:
13214:
13209:
13205:
13200:
13192:
13185:
13181:
13180:Parpola, Asko
13177:
13173:
13169:
13165:
13161:
13157:
13153:
13149:
13145:
13140:
13136:
13132:
13128:
13124:
13120:
13116:
13112:
13108:
13102:
13090:
13086:
13080:
13076:
13075:
13069:
13065:
13059:
13055:
13054:
13048:
13044:
13038:
13034:
13030:
13029:
13024:
13020:
13016:
13010:
13007:. Routledge.
13006:
13005:
12999:
12995:
12994:
12988:
12984:
12980:
12975:
12970:
12965:
12960:
12956:
12952:
12948:
12943:
12931:
12927:
12921:
12917:
12916:
12910:
12906:
12905:
12900:
12896:
12884:
12880:
12878:9789550028054
12874:
12870:
12866:
12861:
12849:
12845:
12843:9781884964985
12839:
12835:
12834:
12828:
12824:
12820:
12816:
12812:
12808:
12804:
12800:
12796:
12791:
12787:
12783:
12779:
12775:
12771:
12767:
12763:
12759:
12754:
12750:
12746:
12742:
12730:
12726:
12720:
12716:
12715:
12709:
12705:
12701:
12697:
12693:
12688:
12683:
12679:
12675:
12671:
12667:
12663:
12658:
12654:
12653:Thapar (2006)
12649:
12645:
12639:
12635:
12631:
12627:
12623:
12619:
12615:
12611:
12607:
12603:
12599:
12595:
12591:
12587:
12583:
12579:
12575:
12571:
12567:
12563:
12558:
12551:
12547:
12540:
12535:
12523:
12519:
12513:
12509:
12505:
12501:
12497:
12493:
12488:
12484:
12479:
12475:
12469:
12465:
12461:
12460:
12455:
12451:
12447:
12443:
12438:
12433:
12429:
12425:
12420:
12415:
12411:
12407:
12403:
12399:
12395:
12390:
12386:
12382:
12377:
12372:
12367:
12362:
12358:
12354:
12351:(5). e95714.
12350:
12346:
12342:
12337:
12333:
12329:
12324:
12319:
12315:
12311:
12307:
12302:
12298:
12294:
12290:
12286:
12282:
12278:
12273:
12269:
12263:
12259:
12258:
12252:
12240:
12236:
12230:
12226:
12225:
12219:
12207:
12203:
12197:
12193:
12189:
12188:
12183:
12179:
12175:
12171:
12166:
12161:
12156:
12151:
12147:
12143:
12140:(11): 80673.
12139:
12135:
12131:
12126:
12122:
12118:
12113:
12109:
12103:
12099:
12095:
12091:
12089:
12084:
12083:
12078:
12074:
12070:
12066:
12062:
12058:
12054:
12050:
12046:
12042:
12037:
12033:
12028:
12024:
12018:
12014:
12013:
12007:
12003:
12001:9780521376952
11997:
11993:
11992:
11987:
11983:
11971:
11967:
11965:9780521285506
11961:
11957:
11956:
11951:
11947:
11946:
11932:
11928:
11923:
11918:
11914:
11910:
11906:
11902:
11898:
11894:
11890:
11882:
11874:
11870:
11865:
11860:
11856:
11852:
11847:
11842:
11838:
11834:
11830:
11823:
11816:
11811:
11807:
11802:
11797:
11793:
11789:
11785:
11781:
11777:
11770:
11762:
11758:
11753:
11748:
11744:
11740:
11736:
11732:
11728:
11720:
11713:
11708:
11700:
11694:
11690:
11685:
11684:
11675:
11667:
11661:
11657:
11653:
11652:
11644:
11636:
11632:
11625:
11623:
11614:
11608:
11604:
11603:
11595:
11587:
11580:
11572:
11568:
11563:
11558:
11554:
11550:
11546:
11542:
11538:
11534:
11530:
11526:
11522:
11515:
11499:
11495:
11491:
11484:
11477:
11472:
11465:
11460:
11444:
11440:
11436:
11429:
11413:
11409:
11405:
11401:
11395:
11384:
11380:
11376:
11369:
11362:
11360:
11352:
11347:
11345:
11328:
11324:
11318:
11310:
11306:
11302:
11298:
11294:
11290:
11286:
11282:
11275:
11273:
11271:
11254:
11250:
11246:
11242:
11238:
11234:
11230:
11226:
11222:
11215:
11199:
11195:
11191:
11185:
11178:
11172:
11165:
11160:
11153:
11148:
11141:
11136:
11128:
11122:
11118:
11113:
11112:
11103:
11096:
11091:
11084:
11080:
11075:
11068:
11067:McIntosh 2008
11063:
11056:
11051:
11049:
11041:
11036:
11034:
11026:
11021:
11014:
11010:
11005:
10998:
10994:
10993:McIntosh 2008
10989:
10973:
10969:
10965:
10959:
10952:
10948:
10943:
10935:
10931:
10926:
10921:
10916:
10911:
10907:
10903:
10899:
10895:
10891:
10884:
10873:
10869:
10865:
10861:
10857:
10853:
10849:
10845:
10841:
10834:
10827:
10811:
10807:
10803:
10797:
10790:
10789:McIntosh 2008
10785:
10778:
10773:
10766:
10765:McIntosh 2008
10761:
10755:, p. 85.
10754:
10749:
10743:, p. 18.
10742:
10737:
10731:, p. 67.
10730:
10729:Marshall 1931
10725:
10718:
10717:McIntosh 2008
10713:
10706:
10701:
10699:
10692:
10691:1-58115-203-5
10688:
10684:
10680:
10675:
10667:
10661:
10657:
10650:
10642:
10636:
10632:
10631:
10623:
10616:
10611:
10604:
10603:Sullivan 1964
10599:
10592:
10587:
10580:
10575:
10568:
10563:
10561:
10553:
10549:
10544:
10537:
10536:Marshall 1931
10532:
10530:
10522:
10521:Ratnagar 2004
10517:
10510:
10505:
10498:
10494:
10491:
10486:
10484:
10476:
10472:
10469:
10464:
10448:
10444:
10438:
10430:
10426:
10422:
10418:
10413:
10408:
10404:
10400:
10396:
10392:
10388:
10381:
10375:
10369:
10358:
10354:
10350:
10346:
10339:
10332:
10313:
10308:
10303:
10299:
10295:
10288:
10281:
10273:
10272:
10267:
10261:
10253:
10247:
10239:
10232:
10224:
10220:
10215:
10210:
10206:
10202:
10198:
10191:
10184:
10179:
10172:
10167:
10165:
10157:
10152:
10150:
10142:
10137:
10130:
10125:
10118:
10113:
10106:
10101:
10094:
10089:
10087:
10085:
10068:
10064:
10063:Deccan Herald
10060:
10054:
10038:
10034:
10030:
10024:
10008:
10004:
10000:
9993:
9977:
9973:
9969:
9965:
9961:
9957:
9953:
9949:
9945:
9941:
9937:
9933:
9926:
9924:
9922:
9913:
9909:
9904:
9899:
9895:
9891:
9886:
9881:
9877:
9873:
9869:
9865:
9861:
9854:
9852:
9835:
9831:
9827:
9821:
9805:
9801:
9797:
9791:
9775:
9771:
9764:
9756:
9752:
9747:
9742:
9737:
9732:
9728:
9724:
9720:
9716:
9712:
9705:
9698:
9693:
9684:
9677:(22): 63β131.
9676:
9672:
9665:
9658:
9653:
9638:
9632:
9628:
9624:
9620:
9619:Asian History
9616:
9609:
9598:
9591:
9590:"Ras Al Jinz"
9585:
9578:
9577:3-8053-0957-0
9574:
9570:
9566:
9560:
9544:
9540:
9536:
9529:
9519:
9517:
9508:
9501:
9493:
9489:
9484:
9479:
9475:
9471:
9467:
9463:
9459:
9455:
9451:
9443:
9435:
9431:
9427:
9420:
9413:
9408:
9401:
9397:
9392:
9385:
9380:
9378:9781780235417
9374:
9370:
9363:
9356:
9352:
9347:
9340:
9336:
9332:
9331:McIntosh 2008
9327:
9320:
9316:
9311:
9304:
9291:
9287:
9281:
9277:
9276:
9268:
9252:
9248:
9242:
9238:
9237:
9229:
9221:
9217:
9216:
9209:
9193:
9189:
9187:9788131717530
9183:
9179:
9178:
9170:
9168:
9160:
9156:
9155:Marshall 1996
9151:
9135:
9131:
9129:9780761475651
9125:
9121:
9120:
9112:
9104:
9097:
9090:
9085:
9078:
9073:
9066:
9062:
9058:
9053:
9046:
9042:
9041:Marshall 1931
9037:
9035:
9026:
9011:
9007:
9001:
8997:
8993:
8989:
8985:
8984:
8978:
8973:
8972:Lawergren, Bo
8966:
8959:
8954:
8947:
8942:
8933:
8918:
8916:9781491773536
8912:
8909:. iUniverse.
8908:
8907:
8899:
8893:, p. 82.
8892:
8887:
8885:
8875:
8869:, p. 89.
8868:
8863:
8856:
8855:McIntosh 2008
8851:
8843:
8837:
8833:
8826:
8818:
8816:9781588390431
8812:
8808:
8803:
8802:
8794:
8786:
8773:
8754:
8750:
8744:
8737:
8732:
8730:
8714:
8708:
8704:
8703:
8695:
8687:
8683:
8678:
8673:
8669:
8665:
8661:
8654:
8643:
8639:
8632:
8625:
8618:
8614:
8609:
8602:
8597:
8590:
8586:
8581:
8565:
8561:
8557:
8551:
8535:
8531:
8525:
8521:
8520:
8512:
8504:
8497:
8495:
8486:
8482:
8476:
8470:
8466:
8461:
8459:
8439:
8435:
8431:
8424:
8417:
8410:
8405:
8403:
8401:
8399:
8382:
8378:
8374:
8368:
8360:
8356:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8336:
8332:
8328:
8324:
8320:
8316:
8309:
8301:
8297:
8290:
8282:
8278:
8274:
8267:
8259:
8253:
8249:
8242:
8234:
8227:
8219:
8215:
8211:
8207:
8203:
8196:
8190:, p. 12.
8189:
8184:
8177:
8172:
8170:
8168:
8160:
8155:
8148:
8143:
8141:
8139:
8130:
8126:
8121:
8116:
8112:
8108:
8104:
8100:
8096:
8089:
8081:
8077:
8072:
8067:
8063:
8059:
8055:
8051:
8047:
8040:
8033:
8027:
8018:
8011:
8005:
7997:
7993:
7989:
7985:
7978:
7976:
7968:
7962:
7960:
7952:
7951:Jarrige 2008b
7947:
7939:
7935:
7931:
7927:
7924:: S195βS208.
7923:
7919:
7912:
7904:
7900:
7896:
7892:
7888:
7884:
7877:
7870:
7865:
7858:
7853:
7846:
7840:
7833:
7832:Jarrige 2008a
7828:
7826:
7824:
7822:
7820:
7812:
7807:
7805:
7797:
7792:
7790:
7788:
7786:
7784:
7782:
7765:
7762:. ThoughtCo.
7761:
7754:
7738:
7734:
7730:
7724:
7708:
7704:
7698:
7692:, p. 28.
7691:
7686:
7684:
7676:
7671:
7664:
7659:
7657:
7650:, p. 17.
7649:
7644:
7637:
7632:
7625:
7620:
7613:
7608:
7602:, p. 53.
7601:
7596:
7594:
7592:
7590:
7588:
7580:
7575:
7569:, p. 25.
7568:
7563:
7557:, p. 27.
7556:
7551:
7549:
7532:
7528:
7524:
7517:
7515:
7513:
7505:
7500:
7494:, p. 14.
7493:
7488:
7481:
7476:
7469:
7465:
7460:
7453:
7449:
7444:
7428:
7424:
7418:
7414:
7413:
7408:
7402:
7394:
7393:
7388:
7382:
7375:
7371:
7366:
7359:
7354:
7348:
7344:
7343:
7335:
7324:
7320:
7316:
7312:
7308:
7304:
7300:
7293:
7286:
7284:
7267:
7263:
7259:
7252:
7245:
7240:
7233:
7228:
7221:
7216:
7214:
7206:
7201:
7199:
7191:
7186:
7184:
7182:
7180:
7172:
7168:
7163:
7156:
7151:
7149:
7141:
7136:
7134:
7126:
7121:
7119:
7111:
7106:
7104:
7096:
7091:
7084:
7079:
7077:
7075:
7073:
7071:
7069:
7067:
7059:
7058:Marshall 1931
7054:
7046:
7040:
7036:
7029:
7021:
7014:
7006:
7000:
6996:
6989:
6981:
6974:
6958:
6954:
6952:9788120407794
6948:
6944:
6943:
6935:
6927:
6923:
6917:
6911:, p. 96.
6910:
6905:
6897:
6891:
6887:
6883:
6877:
6869:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6834:
6827:
6826:McIntosh 2008
6822:
6820:
6812:
6807:
6805:
6798:, p. 33.
6797:
6792:
6790:
6788:
6786:
6779:, p. 29.
6778:
6773:
6771:
6769:
6767:
6765:
6763:
6756:, p. 35.
6755:
6750:
6748:
6741:, p. 44.
6740:
6735:
6728:
6724:
6719:
6717:
6715:
6713:
6711:
6709:
6701:
6697:
6692:
6685:
6680:
6678:
6671:, p. 10.
6670:
6665:
6663:
6661:
6652:
6646:
6642:
6641:
6633:
6627:, p. 25.
6626:
6621:
6605:
6601:
6595:
6588:
6583:
6581:
6573:
6568:
6566:
6558:
6557:McIntosh 2008
6553:
6546:
6541:
6534:
6529:
6522:
6517:
6515:
6513:
6505:
6500:
6498:
6490:
6485:
6479:, p. 13.
6478:
6473:
6471:
6463:
6458:
6456:
6454:
6452:
6450:
6448:
6440:
6435:
6433:
6425:
6420:
6418:
6416:
6408:
6403:
6399:
6385:
6376:
6370:
6360:
6352:
6346:
6339:
6334:
6330:
6323:
6313:
6304:
6298:
6294:
6289:
6280:
6277:
6274:
6271:
6270:
6266:
6257:
6253:
6250:
6246:
6243:
6239:
6236:
6232:
6231:
6227:
6218:
6212:
6211:Fuller (2006)
6206:
6200:
6196:
6190:
6188:
6178:
6171:
6167:
6161:
6154:
6147:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6125:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6103:
6093:
6091:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6072:According to
6069:
6059:
6049:
6042:
6035:
6028:
6022:
6012:
6002:
5992:
5975:
5965:
5955:
5945:
5935:
5928:
5921:
5914:
5912:
5911:John Marshall
5904:
5894:
5884:
5875:
5871:
5868:
5865:
5861:
5858:
5855:
5854:Possehl 2002a
5851:
5848:
5847:
5843:
5841:
5839:
5832:
5827:
5823:
5815:
5809:
5803:
5797:
5791:
5790:Brooke (2014)
5786:
5784:
5782:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5760:
5750:
5740:
5731:
5727:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5705:
5704:
5703:Early Indians
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5660:
5659:
5652:
5650:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5618:
5614:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5596:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5574:
5572:
5568:
5564:
5563:Uttar Pradesh
5560:
5556:
5552:
5545:
5538:Post-Harappan
5535:
5526:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5504:
5501:
5500:Vedic culture
5497:
5493:
5489:
5484:
5482:
5481:Andrew Lawler
5471:
5467:
5464:
5460:
5459:Ghaggar-Hakra
5455:
5453:
5449:
5445:
5440:
5434:
5430:
5420:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5405:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5388:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5363:
5353:
5351:
5350:Uttar Pradesh
5347:
5343:
5337:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5321:
5315:
5313:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5293:
5289:
5285:
5280:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5229:
5227:
5226:Upinder Singh
5222:
5220:
5216:
5207:
5196:
5191:
5176:
5170:Late Harappan
5167:
5164:
5159:
5155:
5150:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5139:Sumerian myth
5136:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5118:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5107:Vilas Sangave
5104:
5100:
5099:Rishabhanatha
5097:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5067:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5031:and possibly
5030:
5025:
5023:
5020:) and vulva (
5019:
5015:
5014:John Marshall
5010:
5007:
5001:
4995:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4973:
4972:
4966:
4957:
4955:
4950:
4946:
4941:
4937:
4935:
4931:
4928:
4922:
4920:
4919:
4913:
4911:
4905:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4888:
4885:, dubbed the
4884:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4860:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4844:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4825:
4821:
4820:Late Harappan
4817:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4793:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4778:
4769:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4753:
4752:of Pakistan.
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4730:
4728:
4724:
4719:
4716:
4710:
4708:
4696:
4694:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4669:
4667:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4637:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4613:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4595:
4594:western India
4591:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4574:
4572:
4568:
4563:
4559:
4554:
4551:
4550:bullock carts
4543:
4539:
4534:
4527:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4488:
4483:
4476:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4452:
4447:
4440:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4420:
4415:
4414:
4413:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4398:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4379:
4377:
4349:
4346:Thousands of
4341:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4313:
4312:
4304:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4284:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4266:
4258:
4253:
4249:
4242:
4237:
4236:
4235:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4215:
4210:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4199:Harappa Torso
4196:
4192:
4188:
4187:
4182:
4179:
4173:
4159:
4158:Guimet Museum
4152:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4129:
4124:
4120:
4113:
4108:
4104:
4097:
4092:
4091:
4090:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4079:vessel flutes
4076:
4065:
4064:
4063:Natya Shastra
4058:
4056:
4055:
4050:
4048:
4041:
4036:
4032:
4031:Lahore Museum
4027:
4025:
4020:
4011:
4005:
4001:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3984:and items in
3983:
3977:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3960:
3955:
3950:
3946:
3941:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3924:
3916:
3911:
3902:
3900:
3896:
3891:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3868:
3865:
3864:
3863:
3860:
3851:
3849:
3845:
3840:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3820:
3818:
3814:
3813:ancient Egypt
3810:
3805:
3803:
3797:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3774:
3772:
3768:
3761:
3751:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3712:
3709:
3704:
3700:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3676:
3668:
3661:
3651:
3644:
3619:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3598:
3596:
3595:water buffalo
3592:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3566:in Pakistan.
3565:
3561:
3556:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3527:
3512:
3507:
3492:
3483:
3481:
3475:
3473:
3467:
3464:
3460:
3458:
3454:
3443:
3439:
3434:
3428:
3413:
3403:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3365:
3355:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3343:
3341:
3337:Post-Harappan
3333:
3332:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3316:
3312:
3306:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3254:
3253:
3250:
3243:
3241:Mehrgarh VII
3240:
3237:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3227:(Ravi Phase;
3224:
3222:
3198:
3197:
3173:
3171:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3153:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3140:
3138:Pre-Harappan
3134:
3133:
3129:
3126:
3123:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3110:
3106:
3088:
3083:
3081:
3076:
3074:
3069:
3068:
3066:
3065:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2951:
2950:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2911:Uttar Pradesh
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2841:
2840:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2786:
2785:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2733:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2705:
2700:
2699:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2653:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2603:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2583:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2569:
2567:
2566:Mughal Empire
2564:
2563:
2555:
2550:
2549:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2495:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2484:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2438:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2392:
2391:Reddy Kingdom
2389:
2388:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2368:
2364:
2362:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2351:
2347:
2346:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2331:
2329:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2318:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2275:
2270:
2269:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2202:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2116:
2115:Yadava Empire
2113:
2112:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2072:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2062:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2008:
2006:
2005:Harsha Empire
2003:
2002:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1884:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1812:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1786:
1785:Kushan Empire
1783:
1782:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1721:
1719:
1718:Shunga Empire
1716:
1715:
1700:
1698:
1697:Mitra Dynasty
1695:
1694:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1674:
1666:
1661:
1660:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1644:
1639: AD 500
1635: 250 BC
1629:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1618: 250 AD
1612:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1601: 300 BC
1595:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1584: 300 BC
1578:
1576:
1575:Chera Kingdom
1573:
1572:
1567: 300 BC
1561:
1559:
1558:Pandya Empire
1556:
1555:
1550: 300 AD
1546: 300 BC
1540:
1538:
1537:Sangam period
1535:
1534:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1520:
1518:
1517:Maurya Empire
1515:
1514:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1444: 600 BC
1438:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1412:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1401:
1398:(1200β600 BC)
1397:
1395:
1391:
1390:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1379:
1376:(1500β600 BC)
1375:
1373:
1369:
1368:
1365:(1500β500 BC)
1364:
1362:
1359:
1358:
1352:(1500β200 BC)
1350:
1345:
1344:
1335:(1600β500 BC)
1334:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1316:
1313:(2000β500 BC)
1312:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1300:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1289:
1285:
1284:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1273:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1255:
1250:
1249:
1240:(1400β700 BC)
1239:
1237:
1236:Jorwe culture
1234:
1233:
1229:
1227:
1226:Malwa culture
1224:
1223:
1220:(1600β750 BC)
1219:
1217:
1216:Pandu culture
1214:
1213:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1178:
1173:
1172:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1128:
1123:
1122:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1090:
1085:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1018:, and the US
1017:
1013:
1011:
1006:
1000:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
970:
964:
962:
958:
954:
950:
949:K. N. Dikshit
945:
939:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
915:
913:
909:
905:
904:R. D. Banerji
901:
897:
893:
889:
884:
882:
878:
877:Expropriating
874:
870:
869:John Marshall
866:
862:
857:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
834:
832:
828:
824:
823:railway lines
820:
819:track ballast
816:
811:
807:
805:
801:
797:
793:
788:
784:
780:
776:
770:
767:
760:
758:
754:
750:
749:R. D. Banerji
740:
739:John Marshall
736:
729:
728:R. D. Banerji
725:
718:
714:
710:
706:
697:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
614:Punjab region
611:
607:
606:Uttar Pradesh
602:
600:
595:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
564:Ancient Egypt
556:
547:
545:
540:
538:
534:
533:
528:
524:
520:
515:
513:
509:
505:
501:
496:
494:
490:
487:
477:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
430:Punjab region
427:
423:
419:
414:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
378:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
343:British India
340:
336:
333:
329:
324:
322:
321:Ghaggar-Hakra
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
281:ancient Egypt
278:
274:
270:
266:
263:
259:
255:
251:
243:
239:
235:
224:
219:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
187:
179:
175:
171:
167:
164:
160:
157:
154:
150:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
128:
125:
123:
119:
115:
108:
100:
96:
93:
90:
86:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
51:
47:
43:
38:
32:
30:
19:
18367:
18242:Chalcolithic
18174:
18165:
18158:
18151:
18144:
18136:
18131:On the Ocean
18129:
18122:
18114:
18111:Literature:
17899:
17881:
17862:
17855:
17845:Aotearoa One
17843:
17836:
17829:
17822:
17810:
17803:
17796:
17789:
17782:
17775:
17768:
17755:
17751:
17743:
17730:Experimental
17698:Museum ships
17665:
17658:
17631:
17603:Phoenician:
17594:
17589:Leontophoros
17587:
17551:Butuan boats
17546:Pontian boat
17484:Dufuna canoe
17423:Shipbuilding
17334:and theories
17304:Boris Rankov
17098:
17031:Economy and
16931:Incendiaries
16778:
16565:Indus Valley
16564:
16533:Tarumanagara
16460:Ubaid period
16378:Wadi al-Jarf
16293:Ostia Antica
15897:Fore-and-aft
15864:Shipbuilding
15839:Carvel built
15821:Construction
15779:Steering oar
15660:Sailing ship
15583:Obelisk ship
15541:Dugout canoe
15266:Lohari Ragho
15112:Tharro Hills
15102:Sutkagan Dor
15092:Rehman Dheri
15047:Mohenjo-daro
15023:Indus script
14980:
14969:Dancing Girl
14968:
14942:Bara culture
14937:Amri culture
14892:
14839:
14793:
14789:
14742:
14738:
14699:
14695:
14679:. Retrieved
14667:
14663:
14637:
14599:
14595:
14558:
14554:
14535:
14497:
14493:
14477:. Retrieved
14457:
14431:
14427:
14380:
14376:
14353:
14315:
14311:
14286:
14272:. Retrieved
14265:the original
14260:
14256:
14196:
14192:
14179:
14157:
14135:
14116:
14104:
14085:
14073:
14059:the original
14054:
14028:
14016:
13994:
13985:
13944:
13941:The Holocene
13940:
13931:
13922:
13900:29 September
13898:. Retrieved
13879:
13866:
13854:. Retrieved
13834:
13797:
13793:
13752:
13748:
13736:. Retrieved
13716:
13695:
13691:
13676:. Retrieved
13656:
13609:
13605:
13582:
13567:
13549:
13537:
13492:(1). 26555.
13489:
13485:
13462:
13442:
13398:
13394:
13345:
13341:
13315:
13299:. Retrieved
13279:
13223:
13219:
13203:
13191:the original
13147:
13143:
13110:
13106:
13093:. Retrieved
13073:
13052:
13027:
13003:
12992:
12954:
12950:
12934:. Retrieved
12914:
12903:
12887:. Retrieved
12868:
12852:. Retrieved
12832:
12798:
12794:
12761:
12757:
12748:
12733:. Retrieved
12717:. Springer.
12713:
12669:
12665:
12633:
12613:
12609:
12581:
12577:
12565:
12561:
12550:the original
12545:
12526:. Retrieved
12507:
12491:
12482:
12464:Tulika Books
12458:
12454:Habib, Irfan
12401:
12397:
12348:
12344:
12313:
12309:
12280:
12276:
12256:
12243:. Retrieved
12223:
12210:. Retrieved
12186:
12137:
12133:
12120:
12116:
12097:
12081:
12044:
12040:
12031:
12011:
11990:
11974:. Retrieved
11954:
11942:Bibliography
11896:
11892:
11881:
11836:
11832:
11822:
11813:
11783:
11779:
11769:
11734:
11730:
11719:
11707:
11682:
11674:
11650:
11643:
11634:
11601:
11594:
11585:
11579:
11528:
11524:
11514:
11502:. Retrieved
11493:
11483:
11471:
11459:
11447:. Retrieved
11438:
11428:
11416:. Retrieved
11407:
11400:Rachel Nuwer
11394:
11383:the original
11378:
11374:
11331:. Retrieved
11327:the original
11317:
11284:
11280:
11257:. Retrieved
11224:
11214:
11202:. Retrieved
11193:
11184:
11176:
11171:
11159:
11147:
11135:
11110:
11102:
11095:Allchin 1995
11090:
11079:Allchin 1995
11074:
11062:
11020:
11004:
10988:
10976:. Retrieved
10967:
10958:
10942:
10897:
10893:
10883:
10843:
10839:
10826:
10814:. Retrieved
10805:
10796:
10784:
10777:Possehl 2002
10772:
10760:
10748:
10741:Possehl 2002
10736:
10724:
10712:
10705:Possehl 2002
10682:
10674:
10655:
10649:
10629:
10622:
10610:
10598:
10586:
10574:
10567:Possehl 2002
10548:Possehl 2002
10543:
10516:
10504:
10463:
10451:. Retrieved
10445:. Newswise.
10437:
10394:
10390:
10380:
10368:
10344:
10331:
10319:. Retrieved
10297:
10294:Ancient Asia
10293:
10280:
10270:
10260:
10237:
10231:
10204:
10200:
10190:
10178:
10136:
10129:Derenko 2013
10124:
10112:
10100:
10071:. Retrieved
10062:
10053:
10041:. Retrieved
10032:
10023:
10011:. Retrieved
10002:
9992:
9980:. Retrieved
9939:
9935:
9867:
9863:
9838:. Retrieved
9829:
9820:
9808:. Retrieved
9799:
9790:
9778:. Retrieved
9772:. Research.
9763:
9718:
9714:
9704:
9692:
9683:
9674:
9670:
9664:
9657:Shaffer 1999
9652:
9640:. Retrieved
9618:
9608:
9597:the original
9584:
9579:, S. 132β133
9568:
9564:
9559:
9547:. Retrieved
9538:
9528:
9506:
9500:
9457:
9453:
9442:
9434:the original
9429:
9419:
9412:Parpola 2005
9407:
9391:
9382:
9368:
9362:
9346:
9326:
9310:
9301:
9294:. Retrieved
9274:
9267:
9255:. Retrieved
9235:
9228:
9214:
9208:
9196:. Retrieved
9176:
9150:
9138:. Retrieved
9118:
9111:
9102:
9096:
9089:Possehl 2002
9084:
9077:Possehl 2002
9072:
9057:Possehl 2002
9052:
9014:. Retrieved
8981:
8965:
8953:
8941:
8932:
8920:. Retrieved
8905:
8898:
8874:
8862:
8850:
8831:
8825:
8800:
8793:
8781:|title=
8760:. Retrieved
8753:the original
8743:
8736:Kenoyer 1997
8716:. Retrieved
8701:
8694:
8667:
8663:
8653:
8637:
8624:
8608:
8596:
8585:Possehl 2002
8580:
8568:. Retrieved
8559:
8550:
8538:. Retrieved
8518:
8511:
8502:
8484:
8475:
8445:. Retrieved
8436:(1492): 24.
8433:
8429:
8416:
8409:Kenoyer 2006
8385:. Retrieved
8376:
8367:
8322:
8318:
8308:
8299:
8295:
8289:
8280:
8266:
8247:
8241:
8232:
8226:
8201:
8195:
8183:
8178:, p. 9.
8161:, p. 9.
8154:
8102:
8098:
8088:
8053:
8049:
8039:
8031:
8026:
8017:
8009:
8004:
7987:
7983:
7966:
7946:
7921:
7917:
7911:
7886:
7882:
7876:
7864:
7852:
7844:
7839:
7768:. Retrieved
7753:
7741:. Retrieved
7732:
7723:
7711:. Retrieved
7697:
7675:Kenoyer 1991
7670:
7663:Kenoyer 1991
7648:Parpola 2015
7643:
7636:Kenoyer 1991
7631:
7619:
7607:
7600:Kenoyer 1997
7574:
7562:
7535:. Retrieved
7531:the original
7526:
7499:
7487:
7475:
7459:
7443:
7431:. Retrieved
7411:
7401:
7391:
7381:
7365:
7356:
7341:
7334:
7302:
7298:
7270:. Retrieved
7261:
7251:
7244:Possehl 2002
7239:
7227:
7222:, p. 9.
7192:, p. 8.
7162:
7157:, p. 7.
7112:, p. 6.
7090:
7060:, p. x.
7053:
7034:
7028:
7019:
7013:
6994:
6988:
6979:
6973:
6961:. Retrieved
6941:
6934:
6925:
6916:
6909:Kenoyer 1998
6904:
6885:
6876:
6843:
6839:
6833:
6734:
6696:Possehl 2002
6691:
6639:
6632:
6620:
6608:. Retrieved
6594:
6552:
6540:
6528:
6521:Kenoyer 1991
6504:Shaffer 1992
6491:, p. 2.
6484:
6426:, p. 1.
6409:, p. vi
6402:
6369:
6359:
6345:
6322:
6312:
6296:
6292:
6287:
6265:
6255:
6248:
6241:
6234:
6226:
6217:
6205:
6177:
6169:
6165:
6160:
6146:
6135:Cheshmeh-Ali
6124:
6113:Teppe Zagheh
6102:
6068:
6058:
6048:
6034:
6026:
6021:
6011:
6001:
5991:
5974:
5964:
5954:
5944:
5934:
5925:
5920:
5908:
5903:
5893:
5883:
5850:Possehl 2002
5759:
5749:
5739:
5730:
5702:
5633:
5625:
5597:
5575:
5561:and western
5547:
5514:district of
5505:
5485:
5477:
5468:
5456:
5436:
5406:
5392:In 1953 Sir
5391:
5362:Vedic period
5338:
5324:Indus script
5316:
5308:Persian Gulf
5281:
5230:
5223:
5219:tuberculosis
5211:
5158:Mesopotamian
5151:
5129:
5119:
5082:
5064:
5026:
5011:
5003:
4969:
4953:
4949:Asko Parpola
4944:
4942:
4938:
4923:
4917:
4914:
4906:
4902:copper plate
4891:
4869:Indus script
4845:
4824:Asko Parpola
4813:
4779:
4775:
4765:
4761:
4758:Oryza nivara
4757:
4754:
4745:
4737:
4731:
4720:
4711:
4703:
4690:
4686:
4671:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4640:
4638:
4634:Persian Gulf
4614:
4586:Gulf of Oman
4575:
4567:Central Asia
4562:Turkmenistan
4558:chalcolithic
4555:
4547:
4538:Mohenjo-daro
4399:
4394:
4383:Mohenjo-daro
4380:
4376:Indus script
4345:
4336:Indus script
4326:Indus script
4311:Dancing Girl
4309:
4264:
4217:
4212:
4198:
4186:Dancing Girl
4184:
4175:
4134:Mohenjo-daro
4061:
4059:
4054:Dancing Girl
4053:
4046:
4028:
4021:
4006:
4002:
3979:
3959:Arthashastra
3957:
3942:
3926:
3892:
3886:, lead, and
3877:
3861:
3857:
3841:
3821:
3806:
3798:
3775:
3763:
3728:Mohenjo-daro
3713:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3607:Indus script
3599:
3587:sesame seeds
3579:lapis lazuli
3576:
3560:Rehman Dheri
3557:
3553:Indus script
3549:Mohenjo-daro
3523:
3476:
3472:chalcolithic
3468:
3461:
3436:
3414:Integration
3354:Vedic period
3292:Harappan 3C
3280:Harappan 3B
3248:Nausharo I)
3115:Dates (BCE)
3107:
3096:
2976:Demographics
2966:Architecture
2746:French India
2736:Danish India
2616:Bengal Subah
2606:Bhoi dynasty
2536:Koch Kingdom
2371:Ahom Kingdom
2245:Deva Kingdom
1937:Huna Kingdom
1877:Gupta Empire
1779:(AD 35β405 )
1738:Kanva Empire
1710: 50 BC
1592:Chola Empire
1531:(312β303 BC)
1521:(321β184 BC)
1511:(330β323 BC)
1501:(380β321 BC)
1497:Nanda Empire
1491:(424β345 BC)
1473:(550β330 BC)
1429:(684β424 BC)
1419:(799β684 BC)
1409:(700β200 BC)
1331:Swat culture
1265:
1177:Chalcolithic
1089:Palaeolithic
1019:
1015:
1008:
1001:
985:Mohenjo-daro
973:1,000 Mature
965:
941:
917:
911:
896:Mohenjo-daro
885:
858:
835:
812:
808:
803:
772:
765:
762:
757:K.N. Dikshit
746:
674:Hindon River
658:Manda, Jammu
634:Sutkagan Dor
603:
596:
588:Yellow River
561:
543:
541:
530:
516:
499:
497:
489:river system
483:
466:Indus script
449:
425:
424:in 1980 as "
418:Mohenjo-daro
415:
402:Mohenjo-daro
394:water supply
379:
374:
351:Mohenjo-daro
327:
325:
265:civilisation
257:
253:
249:
247:
191:Mohenjo-daro
138:Mohenjo-daro
31:
29:
18517:KuraβAraxes
18448:Tarim Basin
18333:Elp culture
18138:Argonautica
18125:(Herodotus)
18088:Flood myths
17985:Museums and
17929:conferences
17894:Vital Alsar
17732:archaeology
17541:Austronesia
17534:Hjortspring
17529:Rochelongue
17479:Pesse canoe
17433:Ship burial
17418:Sea Peoples
17351:Lighthouses
17346:Grave goods
17294:George Bass
17074:Spice trade
16671:exploration
16493:Philippines
16488:Austronesia
16481:Old Kingdom
16358:Trincomalee
16308:Prosphorion
16253:Myos Hormos
16097:Micronesian
16088:By region:
16060:Lighthouses
15868:By region:
15633:Quinquereme
15558:Kunlun ship
15551:Penteconter
15536:Dragon boat
15397:Afghanistan
15351:Bhagwanpura
15256:Oriyo timbo
14981:Priest-king
14907:Indus River
14082:Gupta, S.P.
14070:Gupta, S.P.
13856:15 November
13755:(8): 1425.
13738:15 November
13678:15 November
13301:15 November
12889:16 December
12854:17 November
12735:25 November
12584:(4): 1β64.
12528:15 November
11976:17 November
11531:(1): 4225.
11259:14 February
10978:11 November
10753:Thapar 2004
10550:, pp.
10509:Wright 2009
9800:India Today
9780:21 November
9642:15 December
9549:14 February
9333:, pp.
9315:Mathew 2017
9059:, pp.
8718:27 February
8613:Morris 1994
8587:, pp.
8560:India Today
8540:14 February
8465:Brooke 2014
8447:18 November
8302:(2): 19β32.
8277:Gupta, S.P.
7990:: 113β149.
7869:Fuller 2006
7743:26 December
7612:Manuel 2010
7579:Manuel 2010
7537:11 February
7492:Wright 2009
7466:, pp.
7464:Michon 2015
7433:14 February
7232:Wright 2009
7220:Wright 2009
7205:Wright 2009
7190:Wright 2009
7155:Wright 2009
7125:Wright 2009
7110:Wright 2009
7095:Masson 1842
7083:Wright 2009
6928:(5): 1β177.
6796:Fisher 2018
6754:Fisher 2018
6698:, pp.
6669:Wright 2009
6587:Wright 2009
6533:Wright 2009
6489:Wright 2009
6439:Wright 2009
6424:Wright 2009
6351:Peter Clift
6299:, pp. 70β92
6025:McIntosh: "
5984: 2800
5824:, pp.
5581: 1000
5488:Bhagwanpura
5383: 1900
5320:stamp seals
5304:Maharashtra
5277:Maharashtra
5204: BCE (
5202: 2000
5183: 1900
5096:Tirthankara
5033:ithyphallic
5029:tricephalic
4894:stamp seals
4700:Agriculture
4674:Ras al-Jinz
4598:Mesopotamia
4590:Arabian Sea
4578:Afghanistan
4522:Mesopotamia
4265:Priest-King
4087:arched harp
4047:Priest-King
4017: 2800
3809:Mesopotamia
3790:waste water
3626: 2600
3603:stamp seals
3537:Hakra Phase
3533: 3300
3518: 2800
3499: 3300
3381: 1500
3373: 1200
3361: 1500
3329:Harappan 5
3307:Harappan 4
3217: 5000
3209: 3300
3191: 5000
3183: 4000
3118:Main phase
3103: 2600
2961:Agriculture
2931:South India
2906:Maharashtra
2856:Balochistan
2796:Afghanistan
2770:(1858β1947)
2766:British Raj
2760:(1757β1858)
2756:Company Raj
2750:(1759β1954)
2740:(1620β1869)
2730:(1605β1825)
2726:Dutch India
2720:(1510β1961)
2707:(1510β1961)
2690:(1799β1849)
2686:Sikh Empire
2680:(1729β1947)
2670:(1707β1799)
2660:(1674β1818)
2650:(1650β1948)
2640:(1642β1975)
2630:(1600β1750)
2620:(1576β1757)
2610:(1541β1804)
2600:(1532β1673)
2590:(1529β1736)
2580:(1540β1556)
2570:(1526β1858)
2557:(1526β1858)
2540:(1515β1947)
2530:(1499β1763)
2520:(1518β1687)
2509:(1492β1686)
2498:(1492β1619)
2487:(1490β1574)
2476:(1490β1636)
2465:(1490β1596)
2455:(1470β1842)
2445:(1434β1541)
2435:(1399β1947)
2425:(1358β1803)
2415:(1352β1576)
2405:(1336β1646)
2395:(1325β1448)
2385:(1300β1779)
2375:(1228β1826)
2365:(1451β1526)
2354:(1414β1451)
2343:(1320β1414)
2332:(1290β1320)
2321:(1206β1290)
2310:(1206β1526)
2300:(1170β1206)
2277:(1206β1526)
2258: 1300
2254: 1200
2239:(1187β1673)
2229:(1156β1184)
2209:(1102β1766)
2199:(1083β1323)
2189:(1078β1434)
2179:(1070β1230)
2175:Sena Empire
2169:(1040β1347)
2159:(1003β1320)
2085:Pala Empire
1947:Rai Kingdom
1789:(AD 60β240)
1722:(185β73 BC)
1478:Ror Dynasty
1198: 3950
1032:Balochistan
1022:founded by
861:Lord Curzon
682:Maharashtra
654:Gomal River
650:Afghanistan
616:, Gujarat,
599:Balochistan
572:Mesopotamia
444:in western
386:baked brick
371:Balochistan
359:British Raj
345:and is now
313:Indus River
305:Afghanistan
285:Mesopotamia
207:Indus River
162:Followed by
152:Preceded by
133:Major sites
66:Indus river
18577:Categories
18547:Jar-Burial
18493:Bronze Age
18373:Late Jomon
18250:Bronze Age
18232:Bronze Age
18147:(Polybius)
17791:HawaiΚ»iloa
17673:Nemi ships
17558:Black Seaβ
17504:Khufu ship
17465:and relics
17363:Marine art
17356:Alexandria
17263:Fik Meijer
17246:Historians
17133:Indo-Roman
16946:Greek navy
16848:Salamis II
16838:Hellespont
16798:Artemisium
16788:Nile Delta
16751:Achaemenid
16644:Achaemenid
16513:Langkasuka
16508:Micronesia
16426:Prehistory
16353:Sounagoura
16181:Chittagong
16156:Barbarikon
16135:Alexandria
16077:Pilot boat
16027:Navigation
15859:Sewn-plank
15854:Lashed-lug
15732:Figurehead
15705:Components
15674:Propulsion
15628:Quadrireme
15609:Polyremes
15588:Outriggers
15261:Dher Majra
15231:Rakhigarhi
15211:Alamgirpur
15201:Kalibangan
15191:Jognakhera
15171:Gola Dhoro
15132:Ganeriwala
15107:Sokhta Koh
15062:Ganweriwal
15057:Chanhudaro
14274:17 January
12666:Curr. Biol
12568:: 155β166.
12245:1 February
12212:1 February
12182:Dyson, Tim
12123:: 167β178.
11839:: e85492.
11665:8120404041
11204:31 October
11081:, p.
11011:, p.
10949:, p.
10816:14 January
10321:27 January
10171:Kumar 2004
9942:: 102917.
9870:. 105291.
9398:, p.
9317:, p.
9218:. p.
9157:, p.
9043:, p.
9016:20 October
8986:. Oxford:
8958:Flora 2000
8946:Flora 2000
8762:2 February
8615:, p.
8570:7 November
8467:, p.
8296:Expedition
7450:, p.
6777:Dyson 2018
6739:Habib 2002
6725:, p.
6684:Habib 2002
6545:Dyson 2018
6477:Habib 2015
6407:Dyson 2018
6394:References
6269:See also:
6063:Chandigarh
5872:, p.
5862:, p.
5565:, and the
5532: 600
5516:Saurashtra
5429:Bond event
5427:See also:
5360:See also:
5292:Bet Dwarka
5255:, and the
5163:Great Bath
5045:asceticism
4800:See also:
4620:" (modern
4606:Gonur Depe
4142:terracotta
4045:so-called
3994:terracotta
3990:terracotta
3974:See also:
3938:hexahedron
3934:Bronze Age
3895:touchstone
3880:metallurgy
3874:Metallurgy
3817:Great Bath
3794:courtyards
3778:Rakhigarhi
3740:Rakhigarhi
3736:Kalibangan
3724:Ganeriwala
3572:Kalibangan
3526:Ravi River
3520:β2600 BC).
3457:South Asia
3431:See also:
3409: 500
3351:(1200β600)
3324:1700β1300
3311:Cemetery H
3299:1900β1700
3287:2200β1900
3275:2450β2200
3255:2600β2450
3244:Harappan 2
3238:2800β2600
3229:Hakra Ware
3225:Harappan 1
3199:3300β2800
3161:5500β3300
3142:Mehrgarh I
3135:7000β5500
3041:Philosophy
3021:Metallurgy
3011:Literature
2936:Tamil Nadu
2801:Bangladesh
2576:Sur Empire
2290:(977β1186)
2256: β c.
2219:(675β1210)
2149:(973β1189)
2139:(942β1244)
2129:(882β1110)
2119:(850β1334)
2109:(800β1327)
2089:(750β1174)
2069:(694β1947)
2049:(650β1036)
2029:(624β1075)
1997: 700
1995: β c.
1993: 550
1966: 500
1911:(350β1100)
1901:(350β1000)
1869: 600
1867: β c.
1865: 250
1848: 500
1846: β c.
1844: 250
1767: 130
1742:(75β26 BC)
1708: β c.
1706: 150
1637: β c.
1603:β AD 1279)
1586:β AD 1102)
1569:β AD 1345)
1548: β c.
1461: 600
1446:β AD 1600)
1254:Bronze Age
1046:Chronology
1028:Bolan Pass
997:Rakhigarhi
993:Ganeriwala
920:Schliemann
908:M. S. Vats
854:stamp seal
800:Ravi river
717:stamp seal
670:Alamgirpur
662:Beas River
642:Oxus River
566:along the
502:after its
454:Rakhigarhi
434:Ganeriwala
398:metallurgy
293:South Asia
273:South Asia
262:Bronze Age
234:Terracotta
203:Great Bath
197:province,
146:Rakhigarhi
110: β c.
76:, eastern
18458:Trzciniec
18160:Geography
18098:Gilgamesh
17987:memorials
17911:Viracocha
17824:FaΚ»afaite
17777:Sarimanok
17683:Yassi Ada
17596:Syracusia
17519:Canaanite
17494:Moor Sand
16964:By region
16926:Grappling
16898:Naulochus
16888:Myonessus
16843:Echinades
16828:Arginusae
16823:Cynossema
16808:Naupactus
16803:Eurymedon
16637:Classical
16612:Phoenicia
16607:Mycenaean
16570:Tamilakam
16553:Polynesia
16543:Srivijaya
16338:Satingpra
16298:Palembang
16282:Cattigara
16224:(Kadaram)
16207:Jambukola
16201:Guangzhou
16142:(Podouke)
16140:Arikamedu
16102:Polynesia
16035:Celestial
15948:Armaments
15934:Spritsail
15892:Crab claw
15834:Careening
15801:Sternpost
15655:Reed boat
15598:Catamaran
15573:Multihull
15410:Shortugai
15331:Babar Kot
15296:Ganeshwar
15281:Loteshwar
15196:Surkotada
15181:Bhagatrav
15166:Dholavira
15137:Nindowari
15122:Allahdino
14759:1018-4813
14257:Pragdhara
14176:Lal, B.B.
14154:Lal, B.B.
13977:129380409
13969:0959-6836
13822:162278147
13785:129178112
13777:0094-8276
13720:. Brill.
13698:: 47β58.
13612:. 19157.
13440:(2006a).
13423:149773944
13372:1017-0839
13260:0094-8276
13251:1912/5100
12823:0277-3791
12786:1040-6182
12745:Lal, B.B.
12562:Pragdhara
12546:Pragdhara
12510:. Brill.
12428:0027-8424
12297:189952275
12117:Pragdhara
12069:0091-7613
11913:0036-8075
11855:2050-084X
11553:2045-2322
11309:206580637
11249:131063035
11241:1476-4687
10353:1084-7561
10347:: 19β57.
10246:cite book
10223:236901972
10073:14 August
10043:8 October
9972:233578846
9964:2352-409X
9894:0305-4403
9523:Cleuziou)
9474:0036-8075
9027:required)
8686:1573-7756
8273:Lal, B.B.
8210:0045-9801
7938:142928528
7903:131732322
7883:Antiquity
7319:145463239
6868:164175444
6860:0003-598X
6840:Antiquity
6082:Islamabad
5907:Wright: "
5765:carnelian
5617:cremation
5611:into the
5609:Rajasthan
5527:culture,
5284:Cholistan
5279:, India.
5147:Gilgamesh
5145:to fight
5066:Pashupati
4883:Dholavira
4837:Sri Lanka
4588:from the
4512:Shortugai
4462:Cleveland
4395:Pashupati
4294:New Delhi
4191:Classical
4138:carnelian
4010:collyrium
3940:weights.
3905:Metrology
3825:artefacts
3802:granaries
3732:Dholavira
3716:2600 BCE,
3681:Dholavira
3442:Neolithic
3334:1300β600
2991:Education
2981:Dynasties
2901:Rajasthan
2886:Karnataka
2831:Sri Lanka
2099:(753β982)
2079:(736β916)
2059:(661β750)
2039:(632β661)
2019:(618β841)
2009:(606β647)
1978:(543β753)
1951:(489β632)
1941:(475β576)
1931:(475β767)
1921:(420β624)
1891:(345β525)
1881:(280β550)
1829:(230β360)
1819:(224β651)
1809:(210β340)
1799:(170β350)
1762:(AD 21 β
1620:β AD 800)
1372:Janapadas
1200:β1900 BC)
1127:Neolithic
989:Dholavira
936:Turkestan
888:main stem
753:M.S. Vats
694:Dholavira
668:, and at
646:Shortugai
622:Rajasthan
576:Euphrates
527:Sarasvati
504:type site
500:Harappan,
491:in whose
480:Etymology
470:Dravidian
442:Dholavira
392:systems,
363:Neolithic
332:type site
326:The term
289:Near East
142:Dholavira
136:Harappa,
122:Type site
18564:Iron Age
18532:Trialeti
18527:Colchian
18176:TΔkitimu
18079:Legend:
18037:Roskilde
17916:Tangaroa
17857:Olympias
17831:Gaualofa
17770:HΕkΕ«leΚ»a
17745:Kon-Tiki
17578:Ashkelon
17514:Uluburun
17473:Earliest
17239:Scholars
17121:shipping
16921:Boarding
16833:Mytilene
16818:Syracuse
16783:Alashiya
16746:Egyptian
16730:Military
16721:Timeline
16699:Sardinia
16622:Carthage
16538:Kalingga
16498:Sa Huα»³nh
16433:Timeline
16383:Zanzibar
16333:Sarapion
16328:Rhacotis
16258:Martaban
16203:(Canton)
16196:Godavaya
16191:Giao Chα»
16161:Barygaza
16151:Avalites
16072:Piloting
15960:Catapult
15955:Ballista
15929:Mast-aft
15742:Planking
15681:Paddling
15638:Hexareme
15603:Trimaran
15568:Longship
15516:Balangay
15405:Mundigak
15386:Desalpur
15381:Mitathal
15361:Banawali
15356:Bhirrana
15321:Pabumath
15236:Rupnagar
15216:Daimabad
15147:Dabarkot
15087:Kot Diji
15067:Mehrgarh
15052:Nausharo
15034:Pakistan
14917:Religion
14830:11526236
14777:24667786
14726:19888303
14672:Archived
14626:16400607
14583:11073453
14534:(1991).
14524:27111036
14473:Archived
14448:23115110
14419:31488661
14352:(1997).
14342:19259129
14241:27459054
14178:(1997).
14156:(1998).
14084:(1996).
14015:(1984).
13921:(1997).
13877:(2009).
13850:Archived
13832:(2004).
13732:Archived
13714:(1997).
13704:20062578
13672:Archived
13654:(2008).
13644:26754573
13590:Archived
13575:Archived
13526:27222033
13427:Archived
13376:Archived
13295:Archived
13277:(2002).
13264:Archived
13172:14202246
13164:25832481
13135:13267463
13127:11988631
13089:Archived
13033:ABC-Clio
13025:(2008).
12983:26491681
12957:: 1β16.
12936:24 April
12930:Archived
12883:Archived
12848:Archived
12747:(2002).
12729:Archived
12696:10574762
12632:(1998).
12598:41175522
12522:Archived
12502:(2011).
12456:(2015).
12446:22645375
12385:24806472
12345:PLOS ONE
12332:21836184
12283:: 1β86.
12239:Archived
12206:Archived
12184:(2018).
12174:24244704
12134:PLOS ONE
12079:(1875).
11970:Archived
11931:31488661
11899:(6457).
11873:37057893
11864:10310323
11810:30952160
11761:31495572
11571:29523797
11498:Archived
11443:Archived
11412:Archived
11301:18535222
11253:Archived
11198:Archived
11194:phys.org
11177:Hinduism
10972:Archived
10934:24358372
10894:PLOS ONE
10872:Archived
10860:29539378
10810:Archived
10493:Archived
10471:Archived
10447:Archived
10429:15565405
10421:19389998
10357:Archived
10312:Archived
10268:(1977).
10067:Archived
10037:Archived
10007:Archived
9976:Archived
9912:33519031
9834:Archived
9804:Archived
9774:Archived
9755:33414573
9543:Archived
9492:31488661
9290:Archived
9251:Archived
9198:24 April
9192:Archived
9140:24 April
9134:Archived
9105:: 74β75.
9010:Archived
8974:(2001).
8891:Lal 2002
8867:Lal 2002
8772:cite web
8642:Archived
8601:Lal 2002
8564:Archived
8534:Archived
8438:Archived
8387:30 April
8381:Archived
8359:25923705
8319:PLOS ONE
8279:(eds.).
8218:42936617
8129:15077202
8080:11133362
7764:Archived
7737:Archived
7713:24 March
7707:Archived
7427:Archived
7409:(2008).
7389:(1977).
7323:Archived
7272:29 April
7266:Archived
6957:Archived
6884:(1973).
6610:5 August
6604:Archived
6386:culture.
6235:Language
6153:Inamgaon
6109:Ali Kosh
5924:Habib: "
5655:See also
5630:Genetics
5621:Hinduism
5452:Holocene
5300:Daimabad
5273:Daimabad
5195:Daimabad
5154:Egyptian
5122:Shaktism
5063:, after
4983:Swastika
4960:Religion
4927:medieval
4796:Language
4723:Mehrgarh
4569:and the
4426:steatite
4348:steatite
4342:(London)
4121:(London)
4083:ideogram
3954:Kautilya
3899:Banawali
3833:Steatite
3708:Amri-Nal
3689:stepwell
3568:Kot Diji
3541:Kot Diji
3513:period (
3511:Kot Diji
3453:Pakistan
3438:Mehrgarh
3427:Mehrgarh
3389:600β300
3146:Bhirrana
3056:Timeline
3046:Religion
3026:Military
3016:Maritime
3006:Language
2996:Indology
2826:Pakistan
2816:Maldives
2514: β
2503: β
2492: β
2481: β
2470: β
2359: β
2348: β
2337: β
2326: β
2315: β
1463:β300 BC)
1403: β
1392: β
1381: β
1370: β
1349:Iron Age
1329: β
1318: β
1297: β
1286: β
1275: β
1036:Mehrgarh
930:, or to
902:(1911),
850:Xuanzang
821:for the
792:classics
719:in 1875.
690:Kot Bala
678:Daimabad
628:states,
590:and the
578:and the
452:"), and
390:drainage
367:Mehrgarh
328:Harappan
297:Pakistan
260:, was a
199:Pakistan
156:Mehrgarh
114:1300 BCE
78:Pakistan
70:Pakistan
18116:Odyssey
18093:Genesis
17890:Others
17689:Lists:
17678:Marausa
17628:Roman:
17618:Punic:
17583:Kyrenia
17574:Greek:
17570:Marsala
17563:Sinop D
17438:Tacking
17172:History
17059:Meluhha
17049:Fishing
17044:Whaling
16951:Ramming
16873:Aegates
16868:Drepana
16863:Ecnomus
16793:Salamis
16781:
16771:Battles
16649:Nabatea
16632:Archaic
16602:Nuragic
16592:Somalia
16443:Oceania
16438:Britain
16415:History
16348:Socotra
16318:Qandala
16303:Piraeus
16273:Muziris
16243:Madurai
16238:Manthai
16176:Canopus
16146:Arsinoe
16118:harbors
16067:History
16055:Coastal
15985:Sambuca
15970:Dolphin
15884:Rigging
15696:Poling
15686:Sailing
15623:Trireme
15563:Liburna
15526:Coracle
15496:Vessels
15426:Meluhha
15346:Bargaon
15326:Nagwada
15316:Sanghol
15311:Sanauli
15291:Farmana
15276:Kuntasi
15186:Rangpur
15127:Balakot
15077:Larkana
15042:Harappa
14798:Bibcode
14768:4266736
14717:2987245
14617:1380230
14563:Bibcode
14555:Science
14515:4884158
14479:17 July
14410:6822619
14385:bioRxiv
14377:Science
14333:2986641
14232:5003663
14209:bioRxiv
14201:Bibcode
13949:Bibcode
13814:1061875
13757:Bibcode
13635:4709632
13614:Bibcode
13517:4879637
13494:Bibcode
13350:Bibcode
13228:Bibcode
12974:4605215
12803:Bibcode
12766:Bibcode
12704:2821966
12674:Bibcode
12437:3387054
12406:Bibcode
12376:4012948
12353:Bibcode
12165:3828245
12142:Bibcode
12049:Bibcode
12041:Geology
11922:6822619
11893:Science
11801:6657728
11752:6800651
11562:5844871
11533:Bibcode
11333:15 July
10925:3866234
10902:Bibcode
10868:3933522
10681:(2002)
10552:141β156
10399:Bibcode
10391:Science
10013:21 June
9982:21 June
9944:Bibcode
9903:7829615
9872:Bibcode
9840:22 July
9810:22 July
9746:7773629
9723:Bibcode
9483:6822619
9454:Science
9296:24 June
9257:5 April
8922:21 June
8350:4414352
8327:Bibcode
8120:1181978
8071:1235289
7770:9 March
6380:600 BCE
5826:237β245
5623:today.
5559:Haryana
5492:Haryana
5463:monsoon
5407:In the
5346:Haryana
5329:faience
5296:Gujarat
5261:Gujarat
5251:was in
5241:Haryana
5235:was in
5215:leprosy
5126:baetyls
5103:Jainism
5087:vahanas
5083:Mahisha
4918:Science
4856:Renfrew
4693:ecumene
4651:write:
4630:Failaka
4622:Bahrain
4508:Meluhha
4369:⁄
4355:⁄
4274:Karachi
4160:(Paris)
4075:rattles
3986:pottery
3831:beads.
3829:faΓ―ence
3771:hygiene
3720:Harappa
3650:Harappa
2986:Economy
2971:Coinage
2891:Kashmir
2871:Gujarat
1968:β 1026)
1078:Outline
981:Harappa
928:Mycenae
844:(ASI).
672:on the
660:on the
618:Haryana
610:Gujarat
592:Yangtze
544:Rigveda
532:Rigveda
508:Harappa
458:Haryana
446:Gujarat
436:in the
406:Harappa
357:in the
335:Harappa
317:monsoon
311:of the
267:in the
242:chicken
223:Harappa
209:, is a
127:Harappa
112:
105:
18507:Kurgan
18167:Aeneid
17883:Viking
17864:Regina
17633:Alkedo
17489:Abydos
17463:Wrecks
17332:Topics
17162:Piracy
17116:Greece
16976:Odisha
16908:Actium
16903:Mycale
16738:Navies
16627:Greece
16617:Olmecs
16585:Pandya
16560:Minoan
16523:Champa
16503:Lapita
16448:Remote
16368:Tyndis
16323:Quilon
16268:Muscat
16233:Lothal
16228:Korkai
16212:Jeddah
16186:Essina
16130:Adulis
16040:Charts
15975:Harpax
15965:Corvus
15939:Square
15907:Settee
15902:Lateen
15811:Tiller
15806:Strake
15774:Rudder
15764:Paddle
15712:Anchor
15691:Towing
15613:Bireme
15546:Galley
15521:Bangka
15306:Siswal
15271:Dwarka
15251:Kanmer
15221:Malwan
15176:Lothal
14828:
14818:
14775:
14765:
14757:
14724:
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