History of the Jews in Tunisia

2691:, the study of Judaism in Tunisia has grown rapidly during the progressive dissolution of the Jewish community in the context of decolonization and the evolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict while Habib Kazdaghli believes that the departure of the Jewish community is the cause of the low number of studies related to the topic. Kazdaghli, however, points out that their production increases since the 1990s, due to the authors attached to this community, and that the associations of Jews originating from one or another community (Ariana, Bizerte, etc.) or Tunisia multiply. As for the fate of the Jewish community during the period of the German occupation of Tunisia (1942–1943), it remains relatively uncommon, and the Symposium on the Jewish Community of Tunisia held at the University of La Manouba in February 1998 (the first of its kind on this research theme) does not mention it. However, the work of memory of the community exists, with the testimonies of Robert Borgel and Paul Ghez, the novels "The Statue of Salt" by 2717: 3929:

the mint and regulate the coinage of money, they keep the bey's jewels and valuable articles, and are his treasurers, secretaries, and interpreters; the little known of arts, science, and medicine is confined to the Jews. If a Jew commits a crime, if the punishment affects his life, these people, so national, always purchase his pardon; the disgrace of one affects the whole community; they are ever in the presence of the bey, every minister has two or three Jewish agents, and when they unite to attain an object, it cannot be prevented. These people, then, whatever may be said of their oppression, possess a very controlling influence, their friendship is worthy of being preserved by public functionaries, and their opposition is to be dreaded.

3104:), distinguish them from the rest of the population. On the intellectual level, they devote themselves to translation for Christian clients and to the study of the Law, many Rabbis were originally from Carthage. From an economic point of view, they worked in agriculture, livestock and trade. Their situation is modified from the edict of Milan (313) which legalized Christianity. Jews were gradually excluded from most public functions and proselytism was severely punished. The construction of new synagogues was forbidden towards the end of the fourth century and their maintenance without the agreement of the authorities, under a law of 423. However, various councils held by the 4306: 3345:, the Tunisian Jews joined his army under the leadership of their chief, Benjamin ben Joshaphat ben Abiezer. They soon withdrew, however; primarily because they were loath to fight against their coreligionists of other parts of Mauritania, who remained faithful to the caliphate of Baghdad; and secondarily, because of some indignities committed by Idris against Jewish women. The victorious Idris avenged this defection by attacking the Jews in their cities. The Jews were required to pay a capitation-tax and provide a certain number of virgins annually for Idris' 4459:; His protest to his consul led to a strong reaction from the United Kingdom. This situation was beneficial to the Granas, who obtained permission to pay to replace the chechia with a white cap (kbîbes) and the wearing of a sefseri specific for their women, as a way to distinguish themselves from the Tuansa who still had to wear the black cap. However, this concession contradicted with a relative hardening of the authorities during the first decades of the century, as reported by the doctor of the bey, Louis Franck, or the consul of the United States 4728: 3183: 3055: 19: 3819: 4713: 4077:

indigenous coreligionists, the Tuansa, who were considered less "civilized". The Granas were an important contributions whereas they represented only a minority of the Jews of Tunisia. On the other hand, indigenous elites didn't wish to give up their power to newcomers, unlike their Maghreb neighbors, probably due to the later arrival of the Granas in Tunisia. The Granas also differed geographically from the Tuansa, settling in the European district of Tunis, thus avoiding the

3449:. Of the three principal Jewish communities that came into prominence by the 10th century, Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia) was the first to flourish, beginning with the establishment of the Shi'ite caliphate of the Fatimids in 909. The Fatimids, in general, were more tolerant towards dhimmi subjects than interpretations in orthodox Sunni Islam. Jews were employed in the civil service, sumptuary laws for non-Muslims were repealed, and the discriminatory tariffs were not imposed. 5276: 4876: 4908: 4467: 3705:. Jewish practices disappeared from the Maghreb from 1165 to 1230; Still they were saddened by the sincere adherence of some to Islam, fears of persecution and the relativization of any religious affiliation. This Islamization of the morals and doctrines of the Jews of Tunisia, meant they as 'dhimmis' (after the disappearance of Christianity in the Maghreb around 1150) isolated from their other coreligionists, and was strongly criticized by the 3430: 2497: 4208: 4095: 3944: 3122: 39: 5402: 3077:) in 1883. The mosaic covering the floor of the main hall, which includes a Latin inscription mentioning sancta synagoga naronitana ("holy synagogue of Naro") and motifs practiced throughout Roman Africa, testified to the ease of its members and the quality of their exchanges with other populations. Other Jewish communities are attested by epigraphic or literary references to Utique, Chemtou, Hadrumète or Thusuros (present 5392: 3678:, who had undertaken a crusade against Tunis, the cities of Kairwan and Ḥammat were declared holy; and the Jews were required either to leave them or to convert to Islam. From that year until the conquest of Tunis by France (1857), Jews and Christians were forbidden to pass a night in either of these cities; and only by special permission of the governor were they allowed to enter them during the day. 5267:, "anti-Jewish" decrees such as the abolition of Tunisia's Jewish Community Council in 1958 and the "destruction" of synagogues, Jewish cemeteries and Jewish quarters for "urban renewal" prompted more than 40,000 Jews to leave Tunisia between 1956 and 1967. By 1970, the majority of Tunisia's Jewish population had left the country. Emigrating Tunisian Jews primarily went to either Israel or France. 4174:

held positions in administration or trade – succeeded in being respected, especially through the protection of influential Muslim personalities, poor Jews were often victims of bullying and even murder, and the authorities didn't seem to intervene. An observer declared that the Jews were recognized "not only in their black costume, but also in the imprint of a curse they carry on their foreheads".

4576:

not the case with the Granas who arrived before 1822. This provision encouraged many Granas of Italian origin to emigrate to Tunisia, where they constituted a foreign minority – 90 persons in 1848, reinforced by a few French and British Jews the protection of the Consul of Tuscany and settled in the Franc district of Tunis unlike the former Granas settled in the Hara; Those who arrived after the

4568:, which refuses any attempt by France to take under its protection its Jewish subjects originating from the newly conquered by Napoleon Tuscany. The Article 2 of the Treaty of July 10, 1822, signed with the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, fixes the duration of the stay of the Granas in Tunisia at two years; they also passed under the sovereignty of the bey and were granted the same status as the Tuansa. 3016: 4064:. This agreement was renewed in 1784 before being annulled in 1899. This takkanah sets, among other rules, the fact that every Israelite from a Muslim country was attached to the Tuansa, while every Israelite from a Christian country was from the Granas. Moreover, the Granas – a richer community, although only 8% of the total population – then accounted for one third of the payment of the 4081:, and more culturally approach the Europeans than their co-religionists. However, the two groups keep the same rites and uses with only a few variants and, outside Tunis, the same community institutions continue to serve all the faithful. Moreover, all the Jews remain under the authority of a single qaid chosen from the Tuansa, presumably to avoid interference with foreigners. 3459:(Qayrawan), now the capital of the Aghlabids, was the seat of the most important community in the territory, attracting migrants from Umayyad, Italy, and the Abbasid Empire. This community would become one of the major poles of Judaism between the ninth and eleventh centuries, both economically, culturally and intellectually, ensuring, through correspondence with the 4605:

these, often treated in an unfair way by the Tunisian courts, was used as a pretext for pressures on the bey. The Sfez affair in 1857 was an illustration of this new context and an opportunity for France and the United Kingdom to intervene on behalf of the defense of human rights and the struggle against absolutism and fanaticism in order to promote their interests.

4809:(Jewish Statutes of October 3, 1940 and June 2, 1941), like the Jews in mainland France. Thus, discriminatory legislation defined the Jews, restricted them in the public service, in educational institutions and journalism, and in liberal professions (numerus clausus), counted them (Jewish census), and forced them to register their property to be subsequently 3411:. Accordingly, Jews as well as Christians were compelled either to embrace Islam or to leave the country. 'Abd al-Mu'min's successors pursued the same course, and their severe measures resulted either in emigration or in forcible conversions. Soon becoming suspicious of the sincerity of the new converts, the Almohadis compelled them to wear a 5306:, assuring them that they have nothing to worry about in a democratic Tunisia, where the Islamists would play a larger role. He even sent gifts to the Jewish nursing homes in Tunis. In November 2012, the community asked for the army's protection when a policeman was arrested after plotting to kidnap a young Jew for a ransom. 2811:. The cultural context allowed them to practice Judaism more in keeping with ancestral traditions. Small Jewish communities existed in the later days of Punic domination over North Africa, without it being possible to say whether they developed or disappeared later. Jews have in any case settled in the new 4600:

and exceptional taxes claimed by the bey according to the needs and were also subject to discrimination. Jews had restricted dress code, according to which they were obliged to wear a black chechia (and not red, like the Muslims), a black or dark blue turban (and not white) and black shoes and not of

4563:

decrees of 1808 aroused a certain sympathy for France among the Jews of Tunisia who were all subjects of the Bey. Thus, in 1809, the Spanish authorities reported that "the Jews are the most relentless partisans of Napoleon". It was even reported that some Jews, including the Granas, wore at that time

4024:

In this context, the Jews played a major role in the economic life of the country, in commerce and crafts, but also in trading and banking. Despite the tariffs being higher than those paid by Muslim or Christian traders (10% vs. 3%), the Granas managed to control and prosper trade with Livorno. Their

3830:

by the Spaniards in 1535, many Jews were made prisoners and sold as slaves in several Christian countries. After the victory of the Ottomans over the Spaniards in 1574, Tunisia became a province of the Ottoman Empire led by deys, from 1591, then by beys, from 1640. In this context, Jews arriving from

3247:

tribes, many of whom would have been won by their proselytism. According to other historians, the Judaization of the Berbers would have taken place four centuries earlier, with the arrival of Jews fleeing the repression of the Cyrenaic revolt; The transition would have been made progressively through

2683:

a first development entirely devoted to the history of this community. In Tunisia, following the thesis of Abdelkrim Allagui, a group under the direction of Habib Kazdaghli and Abdelhamid Largueche brought the subject into the field of national academic research. Founded in Paris on June 3, 1997, the

4352:

On the intellectual level, the growing exchanges between Jews from Tunisia and Livorno facilitated the circulation of printed works in Tuscany and their widespread distribution in Tunisia and the rest of the Maghreb. This led to an important revival of the Tunisian Hebrew studies at the beginning of

4173:

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the political status of the Jews improved somewhat thanks to the growing influence of the political agents of the European powers who, seeking to improve the living conditions of the Christian residents, also pleaded the Jews. But if the wealthy Jews – who

3911:

From the beginning of the 18th century the political status of the Jews in Tunis improved. This was due to the increasing influence of the political agents of the European powers, who, while seeking to ameliorate the condition of the Christian residents, had to plead also the cause of the Jews, whom

4604:

Yet the relationship between Jews and Arabs changed dramatically from the middle of the century, due to the emergence of European colonial powers in Tunisia, and in France in particular. Indeed, they relied on the presence of Jews to promote their economic and commercial interests: the situation of

4575:

inaugurated a policy of reforms. By virtue of an act correcting the Tunisian-Tuscan Treaty of 1822, signed on November 2, 1846, the Granas established in Tunisia after the treaty or those who came to settle there, obtained the right to retain their status as Tuscans without any time limit, which is

4051:

In 1710, a century of friction between the two groups led to a coup de force of the Livornese community, with a tacit agreement of the authorities. By creating its own community institutions, it creates a schism with the indigenous population. Each of them had their council of notables, their grand

4011:

from the end of the fifteenth century, converted back to Judaism at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and left Tuscany to settle in Tunisia, in the framework of the establishment of commercial relations. They spoke and wrote Tuscan and sometimes Spanish, and constituted a highly influential

4871:

landings in Vichy-Algeria and Vichy-Morocco, the Germans occupied Vichy Tunisia. On November 23, 1942, the Germans arrested Moises Burgel, the president of the Tunis Jewish community, and several other prominent Jews. The Jews of Vichy Tunisia were spared the mass deportations and mass murder that

4632:

sought by this gesture to appease the rancor born of the execution of a Muslim accused of having killed a Jew and to prove that his justice treats his subjects fairly. Nevertheless, the severity of the punishment aroused great emotion in the Jewish community and among the consuls of France and the

4478:

On the socio-economic level, the Jewish population was very heterogeneous. In the country ports, Jewish merchants of European origin control, along with Christians, the exchange of goods with foreign countries and dominated in more than half of trading houses operating in the country. Besides this

4443:

By the middle of the century, the Jews of Tunisia barely knew any literate Arabic, and few of them read and wrote Hebrew. In addition, they generally lived with their precepts, because of their only religious instruction and they have little knowledge of the Arab-Muslim letters, unlike the Jews of

4343:

However, some questioned the authority of the religious leaders: a Jewish broker, working for a French trading house and condemned to beating in May 1827 for invoking the name of God, appealed the decision to the consul of France. Following the protest of the latter to the bey, it was decided that

4276:

A state farmer, surrounded by some of the most fortunate and educated notables, also collected taxes such as the tithes, the tax on kosher meat and the offerings of the faithful. These allow him to pay for his services, those of his deputies and the rabbis-judges104 and finance the synagogues, the

4164:

in 1756 to 4,572 piastres in 1806 – and had to pay additional taxes (ghrâma) whenever the sovereign's treasury was in difficulty, as the Muslims sometimes did. Moreover, they were periodically obliged to carry out public works and were subjected to forced labor which affected mainly the poorest of

3928:

With all the apparent oppression, the Jews are the leading men; they are in Barbary the principal mechanics, they are at the head of the custom-house, they farm the revenues; the exportation of various articles, and the monopoly of various merchandise, are secured to them by purchase, they control

3850:

rule the Jews of Tunis enjoyed a fair amount of security. They were free to practice their religion and administer their own affairs. Nevertheless, they were subject to the caprices of princes and outbursts of fanaticism. Petty officials were allowed to impose upon them the most difficult drudgery

5324:

until democratic elections would be held later in the year, took office. The new secular constitution for the first time explicitly protected not only freedom of religion, but freedom of conscience (freedom to become atheist, leave or change religions), and explicitly protected minorities such as

3364:

dynasty was established. Under the rule of this dynasty, which lasted until 909, the situation of the Jews in Tunis was very favorable. As of old, Bizerta had a Jewish governor, and the political influence of the Jews made itself felt in the administration of the country. Especially prosperous at

4015:

Quickly introduced to the Beylic Court, they performed executive functions of court – collectors of taxes, treasurers and intermediaries without authority over Muslims – and noble professions in medicine, finance or diplomacy. Even if they settled in the same neighborhoods, they had virtually no

3777:

or scholars and had to consult those of Algeria or Morocco on religious questions. In the fifteenth century, each community was autonomous – recognized by power from the moment it counts at least ten major men – and has its own institutions; Their communal affairs were directed by a chief (zaken

3546:

at the beginning of the eleventh century and acquired its first secular chief. Each community was placed under the authority of a council of notables headed by a chief (naggid) who, through the faithful, disposes of the resources necessary for the proper functioning of the various institutions:

3220:, which saw the persecution of the Jews with the Arians, the Donatists and the Gentiles. Stigmatized again, they are excluded from any public office, their synagogues are transformed into churches, their worship is proscribed and their meetings forbidden. The administration strictly applies the 4020:

have assimilated. The Tuansa spoke the Judeo-Tunisian dialect, and occupied a modest social position. This is why, contrary to what was happening elsewhere in the Maghreb, these new populations were hardly accepted, which gradually leads to the division of the Jewish community into two groups.

4076:

The socio-cultural and economic differences between these two communities have increased in the nineteenth century. The Granas, due to their European origins and higher standard of living, but also to their economic, family and cultural ties with Livorno, found it difficult to cope with their

4740: 4272:

charge of the Jews (qdyd el yihud) and that of Receiver General of Finance under the authority of the Treasurer of the Kingdom (khaznadar). He was an intermediary between the bey and his community and therefore enjoyed entry to the court. He had a very important bureaucratic power over those

3582:

to the end of the eleventh century, and their communities participated in these economic and intellectual exchanges. Monopolizing the goldsmiths' and jewelers' crafts, they also worked in the textile industry, as tailors, tanners and shoemakers, while the smallest rural communities practiced

3027:

describes Jewish communities alongside which Pagan Jews of Punic, Roman and Berber origin and, initially, Christians; The success of Jewish proselytism led the pagan authorities to take legal measures, while Tertullian wrote a pamphlet against Judaism at the same time. On the other hand, the

2483: 3815:, who also served as an intermediary between the government and the Jews. His authority within the Jewish community was supreme. The members of the council of elders, as well as the rabbis, were nominated at his recommendation, and no rabbinical decision was valid unless approved by him. 4654: 4289:, which were only in large cities under the presidency of the Grand Rabbi. Administrator of the affairs of the community designated the local secular or religious leaders – with the written approval of the Tunisian authorities – and gives them broad orientations. From the reign of 4685:

was sent to enforce the demands of the French government. Mohammed Bey yielded, and issued a constitution, according to which all Tunisians, without distinction of creed, were to enjoy equal rights. The following articles of this constitution were of special interest to the Jews:

4548: 3384:(1016–62), who persecuted all heterodox sects, as well as the Jews. The persecution was especially detrimental to the prosperity of the Kairwan community, and members thereof began to emigrate to the city of Tunis, which speedily gained in population and in commercial importance. 4703:

The constitution was abrogated in 1864 in consequence of a revolution, which entailed great suffering on several Jewish communities, especially on that of Sfax; but the constant fear of foreign interference rendered the government very circumspect in its treatment of the Jews.

3314:, living an Islamic state and refers to the state's obligation to protect the lives of these communities as well as their freedom of religion and right to administer their own laws in certain regards (i.e. the Jewish halakhic courts), in return for the payment of the 2613:, but retaining its own specific characteristics. Djerbian Judaism in particular, considered to be more faithful to tradition because it remained outside the sphere of influence of the modernist currents, plays a dominant role. The vast majority of Tunisian Jews have 4425:

With the exception of Isaac Lumbroso's Zera Itshak, all the works were printed in Livorno, Tunis, which didn't have a well-known printing press, the only attempt to make one was in 1768 was considered a failure because of the lack of knowledge on the subject. Rabbi

4588:

Political action is therefore seen as a means of putting an end to the exceptional status of Jews, constituting "a real break in the mental universe of Jewish communities, a rupture which breaks the old world of submission to the order of things". In 1853, the

3321:

Jews were economically, culturally and linguistically integrated into society, while retaining their cultural and religious peculiarities. If it is slow, arabization is faster in urban areas, following the arrival of Jews from the East in the wake of the

4293:(1735–1756), he also served as treasurer of the Bey and many of the key posts in the administration of finance – collection of taxes and customs duties, scheduling of expenditure, handling of cash, keeping books of account or paying the salaries of the 2582:, to which was added nationalist agitation, nationalization of enterprises, Arabization of education and part of the administration. Jews left Tunisia en masse from the 1950s onwards because of the problems raised and the hostile climate created by the 4479:

wealthy class of traders and bankers, mainly Livornese, there was a middle class consisting of merchants and craftsmen. These Jews played an important role in the retail trade, especially in the capital, where they were established in two souks of the

3506:

ibn Shahin, rector of the Center of Studies at the end of the tenth century, is the official representative of the Talmudic academies of Babylonia, acting as intermediaries between them and his own community. Jacob ibn Shahin was succeeded by his son,

2679:, collect material evidence (traditional clothing, embroidery, lace, jewelry, etc.), traditions (folk tales, liturgical songs, etc.) and manuscripts as well as Judeo-Arabic books and newspapers. Paul Sebag is the first to provide in his 1991 book 8238: 5419:

on Djerba. The current building was constructed in late 19th or early 20th century, but the site is believed to have had a synagogue on it for the past 1,900 years. Tunisian Jews have for centuries made an annual pilgrimage to the synagogue on

4155:

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Jews were still subjected to harassing and discriminatory measures, particularly on the part of the judicial system which was arbitrary in their regard, with the exception of the more tolerant

4483:: one specializing in colonial goods, hardware and articles from Paris and one specializing in draperies and English and French silk. Many were also engaging in artisanal activities, such as goldsmith, on which they had a monopoly, and also 4169:

that served as their headdress had to be black and wrapped in a dark turban, unlike the Muslims who wore a red chechia surrounded by a white turban. The Granas, dressed in European fashion, wore wigs and round hats like Christian merchants.

4692:"No manner of duress will be imposed upon our Jewish subjects forcing them to change their faith, and they will not be hindered in the free observance of their religious rites. Their synagogues will be respected, and protected from insult." 4620:. Following a traffic incident and an altercation with a Muslim, he was accused by Muslim of having insulted Islam; witnesses subsequently confirmed before a notary that they witnessed the scene. He was charged and convicted, according to 7521: 4769:

as the mother tongue of the Jews of French Tunisia. Additionally, more Jewish children began attending state schools throughout the country, which slowly lead to the diffusion of French culture and lifestyle within the Jewish community.

4837:

in France's three North African territories (the three departments, 91, 92, and 93, in French Algeria, the two French protectorates of Morocco and Tunisia) is intrinsically tied to France's fate during this period." Holocaust scholar

3081:). Like the other Jews of the empire, those of Roman Africa are Romanized more or less long, bear Latin or Latin names, sport the gown and speak Latin, even if they retain the knowledge of Greek, of the Jewish diaspora at the time. 4273:

co-religionaries in whom he apportioned the payment of the jizya – of which they were collectively liable – according to the resources of each household. It also refers to those who performed the duties imposed by the authorities.

4522:

There was also a poor class of Jews which were unable to survive without the charity organized by their community. Another group, the Bahusim (baḥuṣim, Hebrew for "outsiders") were semi-nomadic Jews in western Tunisia and eastern

4601:

bright color. They could not live outside their assigned neighborhoods and could not access real estate. Finally, when they were victims of vexations or violence, they did not receive reparation for the harm they have suffered.

2712:

Presently, the earliest verifiable record of the presence in Jews in Tunisia is from the second century. However, there are other, mostly speculative, ideas about when Jews first arrived to the land presently known as Tunisia:

7276: 4068:

against two-thirds for the Tuansa. This last point indicated that the Livornese community, previously protected by the European consuls, has sufficiently integrated into Tunisia so that its members were considered

5107: 4765:, the Jews hoped for a better life and were very receptive to the new French influences, though they had a Christian European source. For the generation born under the protectorate, the French language replaced 3562:, and the Middle East. Grouped in separate quarters (although many Jews settled in the Muslim districts of Kairouan during the Fatimid period), they had house of prayer, schools and a court. The port cities of 3778:

ha-yehudim) nominated by the government, and assisted by a council of notables (gdolei ha-qahal) made up of the most educated and wealthy family heads. The chief's functions consisted in the administration of

2871:. According to Josephus, the Romans deported 30,000 Jews to Carthage from Judea after the First Jewish-Roman War. It is very likely that these Jews founded communities on the territory of present-day Tunisia. 8208: 4444:

other Muslim countries. Nevertheless, the comings and goings between Tunis and Europe contributed to a certain desire for emancipation and freedom in wearing the clothes assigned to them; in January 1823

3603:, were sent in retaliation against Tunisia by the Fatimids, took Kairouan in 1057 and plundered it, which empties it of all its population then plunges it into the doldrums. Combined with the triumph of 4328:. The rabbinic jurisdictions deal with personal status matters, but also with civil and commercial cases when only Jews were concerned, whether the faults were religious or secular. In small towns, the 7311: 7594: 7590: 4316:

Despite the split between the groups, the figure of the Grand Rabbi had considerable authority among his followers. By virtue of his function as president of the rabbinical court, he watches over

7919: 3264:

on the basis of eleventh-century Arab chronicles. However, this version is fairly questioned: Haim Zeev Hirschberg recalls that the historian wrote his work several centuries after the facts,

8226: 7586: 7256: 7466: 7286: 7526: 7446: 7396: 7577: 5424:. On April 11, 2002, a truck full of explosives was detonated close to the synagogue, killing 21 people (of whom 14 were German tourists and 2 Frenchmen), and wounding over 30, in the 8243: 7573: 7555: 7371: 7261: 7431: 4185:

was also prohibited during this period. Finally, the behavior of the Muslim population towards the communities varied from the will to rigorous application of the dhimma by the

5325:

Jews from official or unofficial discrimination. The new Tunisian constitution is the first of its kind in the Maghreb and the Arab world in embracing both Arabism and liberal

7551: 7421: 5376:. The Jewish community also has two homes for the aged. Tunisia's first Jewish museum opened in 2012. In 2015, Tunis' last kosher restaurant closed due to security concerns. 4353:

the eighteenth century, embodied in particular by the rabbis Semah Sarfati, Abraham Ha-Cohen, Abraham Benmoussa, Abraham Taïeb and Joseph Cohen-Tanugi. Among the works of the

3851:

without compensation. They were obliged to wear a special costume, consisting of a blue frock without collar or ordinary sleeves (loose linen sleeves being substituted), wide

3855:

drawers, black slippers, and a small black skull-cap; stockings might be worn in winter only. They might ride only on asses or mules, and were not permitted to use a saddle.

7481: 7281: 5186: 4645:

refers to the Tunisian Jews as "brothers in the homeland" (Ikhwanoun fil watan), although he accuses some of them of exaggerating to seek the protection of foreign consuls.

4268:

Communities were structured under the authority of a leader of the "Jewish nation" with the title of hasar ve ha-tafsar, a prestigious and powerful post containing both the

4332:

was responsible for rendering justice, with the rabbinical court serving as a chamber of appeal. One of the most rigorous penalties that the latter could pronounce was the

5237:

Between the end of World War II and the independence of Tunisia in March 1956, there was deep debate in the Tunisian Jewish community over Zionism. Anti-Jewish attacks in

4669:

Joseph Scemama, with whom the bey was on very intimate terms, probably used his influence in behalf of his coreligionists. That year, however Mohammed Bey had a Jew named

8203: 7291: 5348:. An attacker fired a gun into a crowd visiting the house of worship during an annual pilgrimage event. In October 2023, during riots sparked by blame on Israel for the 2787:

However, if these hypotheses were verified, it is probable that these Israelites would have assimilated to the Punic population and sacrificed to their divinities, like

1141: 6110: 3498:, where he developed conceptions close to his master's thought. Another disciple, Ishaq ibn Imran is considered the founder of the philosophical and medical school of 2626: 6516: 5946: 4720: 3654:, and the city of Tunis. Considered at first as foreigners, the Jews were not permitted to settle in the interior of Tunis, but had to live in a building called a 2684:

Society of Jewish History of Tunisia contributes to the research on the Jews of Tunisia and transmits their history through conferences, symposia and exhibitions.

7687: 5368:. The Jewish community in Djerba operates one kindergarten, two primary schools, two secondary schools, and a yeshiva. There is also a Jewish primary school and 5249: 4637:

and Richard Wood. They then took advantage of it to exert pressure on the sovereign to embark on the path of liberal reforms similar to those promulgated in the

2878:

in the 6th century BCE. The ruins of an ancient synagogue dating back to the 3rd–5th century CE was discovered by the French captain Ernest De Prudhomme in his

2874:

A tradition among the descendants of the first Jewish settlers was that their ancestors settled in that part of North Africa long before the destruction of the

6647: 5254: 3742:

with little tolerance towards the "people of the book" meant material and spiritual misery. The massive settlement of Jewish-Spanish scholars fleeing from the

3716:, which emancipated from the Almohads and their religious doctrine in 1236, the Jews reconstituted the communities that existed before the Almohad period. The 1719: 4665:, the Jews enjoyed prosperity. His successor, Muhammad II ibn al-Husayn, inaugurated his reign in 1855 by abolishing the drudgery imposed upon the Jews; the 1374: 1069: 6562: 2894:, many exiled Jews settled in Tunis and engaged in agriculture, cattle-raising, and trade. They were divided into clans governed by their respective heads ( 2526:

is no doubt older and grew up following successive waves of immigration and proselytism before its development was hampered by anti-Jewish measures in the

7436: 1261: 8142: 6743: 5112: 4556: 3032:

mention the existence of several Carthaginian rabbis. In addition, Alfred Louis Delattre demonstrates towards the end of the nineteenth century that the

4430:, who visited Tunis in 1773–74, noted that the city had some 300 young talmudists and considered that the rabbis he met "had very extensive knowledge". 3720:

was strict, especially in matters of dress, but systematic persecution, social exclusion and hindrance to worship had disappeared. New trades appeared:

3243:

Some Jews have fled the Byzantine-controlled cities to settle in the mountains or on the confines of the desert and fight there with the support of the

3535:, also wrote an important commentary on the Talmud and the Hibbour Yafe Mehayeshoua, which is perhaps the first tales collection in Jewish literature. 2469: 6491: 8259: 7070: 5248:

was seen as having the most liberal policy toward Jews among the Arabic-speaking nations, even going so far as to apologize to Tunisia's chief rabbi

5179: 3349:. The Jewish tribe 'Ubaid Allah preferred to migrate to the east rather than to submit to Idris; according to a tradition, the Jews of the island of 233: 5766:(1978) by Alain Cohen and Georges Nizan. French television. Documentary on the 2,500 year old community in Djerba and their culture and traditions. 4414:

Mishha di-Ributa (1805) by Messaoud-Raphael El-Fassi, an important commentary by Choulhan Aroukh, accompanied by works by his sons Haym and Solomon;

8271: 7296: 6595: 4852:, Algeria, and Tunisia as European territories in North Africa were considered part of Europe, as per a French and German document relevant to the 3527:

was one of the major commentators of the Talmud in the Middle Ages. After his death, his work was continued by another disciple of his father whom

1256: 6859: 5352:, a historic synagogue in Tunisia, Al Hammah, was destroyed and set on fire, with videos showing people attacking it without police intervention. 5320:

In January 2014, the Ennahda-led government voluntarily stepped aside and a transitional government, appointed to rule during the drafting of the

7632: 4229: 4116: 3965: 3143: 1504: 56: 4160:

courts. Jews were still subjected to the collective payment of the jizya – the annual amount of which varied according to the year, from 10,332

2594:, the Jewish population of Tunisia, was estimated at 105,000 individuals in 1948. These Jews lived mainly in Tunis, with communities present in 6797: 5122: 5071: 4751:. Contact with the French colonizers of Tunisia and the official presence of the French facilitated the assimilation of the Jews of Tunisia to 3761:

In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Jews of Tunis were treated more cruelly than those elsewhere in the Maghreb. While refugees from Spain and

7766: 6720: 5416: 1758: 103: 8231: 3490:

to the Jewish dogma. Israeli's works in Arabic were studied in their Hebrew and Latin translations in both medieval and Renaissance Europe.

3306:" (including Jews and Christians) were given a choice between conversion to Islam (which some Jewish Berbers have done) and legal status as 8042: 5172: 4891: 3701:. Indeed, many Jews, while outwardly professing Islam, remained faithful to their religion, which they observed in secret, as advocated by 75: 3283:

In any case, even if the hypothesis of the massive conversion of whole tribes appears fragile, individual conversions seem more probable.

5819: 3595:

vassals to seize power and eventually break their bonds of political and religious submission in the middle of the eleventh century. The

743: 706: 4539:

and they have been nomad warriors. Their descendants, also named "Bahusim", remained in the eastern part of Algeria up to modern times.

5001: 2667:. The research on the subject was then enriched by Robert Attal and Yitzhak Avrahami. In addition, various institutions, including the 4593:

of the Tunisian community, Nessim Samama, obtains the abolition of the chores to which his co-religionists were hitherto constrained.

3670:, obtained for them the right to settle in a special quarter of the city. This quarter, called the "Hira," constituted until 1857 the 3039:, made up of 200 rock chambers, each containing up to 17 complex tombs (kokhim), contains Jewish symbols and funerary inscriptions in 82: 8102: 7822: 7547: 5798: 3403:

had permitted the Jews free exercise of their religion for only five hundred years, and had declared that if, after that period, the

1682: 5772:(1995) by Karin Albou. Three generations of French Jews from Tunisia reflect on the pain of both exile and assimilation into France. 5298:

became the leading political force in the country, elected as the largest party in the transitional government. The party's leader,

3685:

shaked both the Jewish communities of Tunisia and the Muslims attached to the cult of the saints, declared by the new sovereigns as

3108:, recommending Christians not to follow certain practices of their Jewish neighbors, testify to the maintenance of their influence. 3268:

that the French translation is not totally exact since it does not render the idea of the contingency expressed by the author, and

1705: 7914: 7665: 5998: 5778:(2017) by Jonathan Maimon. Jewish memories of Tunisia from those born in Gabès, including life under the Nazi occupation in 1943. 5076: 4830: 1055: 4571:

At the same time, while Tunisia was gradually opening up to European influences and also undergoing its pressure, the sovereign

89: 8297: 7961: 7810: 7213: 6303: 5333:, also rejected terms which would have forbidden relations with Israel. In 2022, Tunisia banned two films with Israeli actress 5006: 4761: 2462: 1632: 1567: 1449: 4012:

economic and cultural elite in the rest of the Italian community. Their surnames recalled their Spanish or Portuguese origin.

3611:, these events marked the end of the Kairouan community and reversed the migratory flow of the Jewish populations towards the 8027: 7670: 7063: 6450: 6218: 4922: 4181:

denied Jews the right to acquire and possess real estate properties, while the learning of literal Arabic and the use of the

3297: 753: 4800:. Under the rule of Pétain's collaborationist regime, the Jews of Vichy France and Vichy Tunisia were subjected to the two 4698:"When a criminal court is to pronounce the penalty incurred by a Jew, Jewish assessors shall be attached to the said court." 7351: 6401: 6114: 5117: 5037: 1191: 71: 5839: 4867:

and Eastern Europe permitted them to avoid the fate of their coreligionists in Metropolitan France. Immediately after the

2602:

stated that "according to members of the Jewish community, there are approximately 1,500 Jewish citizens in the country".

7857: 7625: 7461: 7451: 6373: 5329:, and is seen as a model for other countries to adopt. The democratically elected constitutional committee, dominated by 4899: 4813:. Consequently, Jews found themselves in their prior inferior status of "natives" and were impoverished. In August 1941, 3728:, chiseler or soap-maker; Some worked in the service of power, striking money, collecting customs duties or translating. 3455:

worked in the service of the dynasty, as treasurers, doctors, or tax collectors but their situation remained precarious.

2957:

In the 7th century, the Jewish population was augmented by Spanish immigrants, who, fleeing from the persecutions of the

2567: 1459: 1276: 1266: 506: 6779: 5340:

In May 2023, a Tunisian police officer killed four in a shooting near Africa's oldest synagogue, Synagogue La Ghriba on

2554:, greatly altered the country. Its economic, social and cultural situation has improved markedly with the advent of the 2542:

went through periods of relative freedom or even cultural apogee to times of more marked discrimination. The arrival of

8177: 7951: 7356: 5920: 5809: 4344:

the rabbinical court would no longer pronounce sentence for religious offense to a Jew placed under French protection.

1855: 1805: 1770: 1464: 1329: 1196: 2716: 7924: 7798: 7411: 7381: 7336: 7271: 7014: 6900: 6094: 4255: 4142: 3991: 3169: 2599: 2455: 1547: 1509: 1484: 1404: 1389: 1236: 1176: 1131: 122: 7934: 4237: 4124: 3973: 3151: 8292: 7878: 7401: 7056: 7003:

From bride to mother-in-law: The world of Jewish women in southern Tunisia and its reflection in popular literature

4991: 1840: 1822: 1728: 1622: 1474: 1469: 1394: 1359: 1226: 8004: 7956: 7944: 7939: 7815: 7771: 7746: 7501: 7476: 7326: 7321: 7301: 7266: 7251: 6672: 6199:

Stillman, Norman (April 20, 2012). "The Jews in the Medieval Arabic-Speaking World". In Levenson, Alan T. (ed.).

6150: 5349: 5145: 3460: 3424: 2646: 2642: 2358: 2257: 1812: 1795: 1748: 1647: 1557: 1494: 1444: 1424: 1419: 1339: 1313: 1288: 1166: 1156: 1146: 1126: 1121: 4048:, thus shipping imported products from Europe under the leadership of a Muslim amine, or in the Jewish quarter. 3642:, the condition of the Jews greatly improved. Besides Kairwan, there were at that time important communities in 8032: 7983: 7873: 7776: 7761: 7618: 7564: 7456: 7441: 7426: 7416: 7406: 7366: 7316: 7236: 5714: 5061: 5016: 4996: 4975: 4748: 4418: 4233: 4120: 3969: 3868: 3261: 3147: 2672: 2629:

typically use French as their first language, while the few still left in Tunisia tend to use either French or

2555: 1831: 1817: 1785: 1765: 1733: 1677: 1652: 1627: 1607: 1597: 1582: 1577: 1572: 1552: 1542: 1537: 1514: 1429: 1414: 1334: 1246: 1241: 1161: 1106: 60: 3256:, still anchored after the fall of Carthage. Whatever the hypothesis, the historian of the fourteenth century 2767:(members of the Jewish priestly class) would have settled in present-day Tunisia after the destruction of the 2736:, suggest on the basis of the biblical description of the close relations based on the maritime trade between 8302: 8127: 7852: 7847: 7837: 7496: 7491: 7386: 7346: 7241: 7222: 5814: 5653: 5385: 5321: 5215:, where 265 are known to have been murdered. An additional 160 Jews of Tunisia living in France were sent to 3551:), etc. The maggid of Kairouan undoubtedly had the ascendancy over those of the communities of smaller size. 3494:, his disciple, was the author (or final editor) wrote, along other works, a philosophical commentary on the 3066: 2651:

The history of the Jews of Tunisia (until the establishment of the French protectorate) was first studied by

2252: 1790: 1775: 1738: 1700: 1672: 1662: 1657: 1642: 1637: 1617: 1602: 1587: 1562: 1528: 1499: 1399: 1384: 1308: 1298: 1216: 1186: 1111: 1097: 4421:

on the most diverse subjects and a collection of homilies and funeral eulogies pronounced from 1767 to 1810.

96: 8193: 7929: 7883: 7793: 7675: 7471: 7376: 7361: 7341: 7331: 7306: 7246: 6277: 5463:, hammered away the building's walls, and planted Palestinian flags at the site. Police did not intervene. 5160: 5155: 3475: 2918:

councils deemed it necessary to enact restrictive laws against them. After the overthrow of the Vandals by

1860: 1780: 1743: 1667: 1612: 1479: 1454: 1379: 1354: 1344: 1283: 1206: 1201: 1181: 1171: 1151: 1136: 1029: 733: 497: 492: 7908: 7391: 6831: 6805: 5226: 5066: 4531:, and made their living from agriculture, peddling, and smithing. Jewish tribes of the region of Wargha, 4189:

to the absence of hostility of the rural population, marginalized urban fringes but assured of impunity.

3743: 3531:

calls Jewish mutazilite: Nissim ben Jacob, the only one among the sages of Kairouan to bear the title of

1850: 1845: 1800: 1753: 1439: 1409: 1369: 1364: 1221: 527: 6256: 4883:

from their clothes, encouraged by the Allied soldiers who liberated their village from Vichy French rule

3891:) in Hebrew after the name of the city in both languages, were wealthier than the Jewish natives called 8198: 8159: 7206: 7110: 6172: 6028: 5624: 4056:, synagogues, schools, butcher's shop and a separate cemetery. This state of affairs was endorsed by a 3831:

Italy have played an important role in the life of the country and in the history of Tunisian Judaism.

3207: 2844: 2324: 2169: 1877: 1271: 467: 457: 193: 5421: 2609:

and France, where it has preserved its community identity through its traditions, mostly dependent on

8137: 7832: 7805: 6824: 6350: 5664: 5478: 5241:

in 1952 and conflict surrounding the independence struggle resulted in the first wave of emigration.

5225:, a Muslim Arab of Vichy Tunisia, "the Arab Schindler," was the first Arab nominated for the Israeli 4949: 4805: 4781: 4629: 3913: 3754:, and the Tunisian Jews, abandoned by this phenomenon, were led to consult Algerian scholars such as 3467: 2610: 2571: 2438: 2131: 1982: 1923: 814: 6809: 5440:

until his death on December 3, 2004. Memorial services were held at the Beit Mordekhai Synagogue in

7175: 7115: 5683: 5395: 5345: 4860: 4427: 4370: 4218: 4105: 3954: 3827: 3471: 3132: 2141: 2121: 1231: 711: 252: 7978: 8167: 7966: 7867: 7138: 7100: 7079: 6621: 6521: 6200: 5924: 5687: 5620: 5425: 4408:

Erekh ha-Shoulhan (1791–1891) by Isaac Taïeb, a book dealing with the laws and commenting on the

4222: 4109: 3958: 3846:, and other seaports suffered greatly at the hands of the conquerors; while under the subsequent 3619:. Jews have migrated to the coastal cities of Gabes, Sfax, Mahdia, Sousse and Tunis, but also to 3483: 3198:

of the new masters of Roman Africa was closer to the Jewish religion than the Catholicism of the

3136: 2947: 2943: 2848: 2812: 2282: 2272: 2237: 2116: 2106: 1889: 1060: 1002: 836: 515: 472: 187: 49: 6975: 8070: 5905: 5512: 5264: 5128: 5081: 4868: 4766: 3900: 3807:

In addition to these, every Jewish tradesman and industrialist had to pay an annual tax to the

3755: 3548: 3441:

The living conditions of the Jews in Tunisia were relatively favorable during the reign of the

3381: 3023:

The first documents attesting to the presence of Jews in Tunisia date from the second century.

2988: 2820: 2614: 2591: 2401: 2136: 2050: 1116: 668: 287: 257: 6950: 5865: 5199:

When the Nazis invaded Vichy Tunisia, the country was home to some 100,000 Jews. According to

4417:

Mishkenot ha-Roim (1860) and Hayyim va-Chesed (1873) by Ouziel El-Haik, a collection of 1,499

2748:(king of Israel) could have been among the founders of Phoenician counters, including that of 2663:(1952) and later by Haim Zeev Hirschberg (1965), in the more general context of North African 8060: 8037: 7993: 7199: 5456: 4810: 4041: 3524: 3273: 2733: 2630: 2531: 2292: 2287: 2232: 2020: 935: 663: 650: 545: 262: 6466: 6402:"Emerging Identities in Colonial Tunisia: "Alliancist" and Zionist Representations in Tunis" 4859:

The Jews of Vichy-French North Africa were relatively fortunate because their distance from

4624:

law and despite his protestations, was sentenced by the Charaa court to a death penalty for

2775:

in 586 BC; They would have carried away a vestige of the destroyed Temple, preserved in the

7105: 6234: 4460: 3921: 3875:, Italy), and who later moved to work in other trading centers. These new settlers, called 3732: 3225: 2915: 2363: 2315: 2055: 1913: 726: 591: 580: 538: 6698: 2991:

in 698 the governor of that district was a Jew. When Tunis came under the dominion of the

8: 7781: 7087: 6767: 6378: 5445: 5412: 5299: 5291: 5283: 5021: 5011: 4843: 4822: 4642: 4577: 4572: 4445: 4394:

Migdanot Nathan (1778–1785) by Élie Borgel, series of commentaries on Talmudic treatises;

4305: 4033:

and resold. The Tuansa saw themselves conceding the monopoly of the leather trade by the

4017: 3834:

During the Spanish occupation of the Tunisian coasts (1535–74) the Jewish communities of

3697:. Many massacres took place, despite many formal conversions by the pronunciation of the 3217: 2875: 2835:

granted the Jews a privileged status confirmed by the Magna Charta pro Judaeis under the

2808: 2776: 2768: 2668: 2416: 2111: 789: 656: 559: 552: 482: 370: 245: 4681:, asking him to intervene on their behalf. After two years of diplomatic negotiations a 7155: 6252: 5897: 5803: 5460: 5222: 5216: 5089: 4954: 4727: 4378: 3675: 3487: 3330: 3311: 3303: 3302:

With the Arab conquest and the arrival of Islam in Tunisia in the eighth century, the "

3221: 3105: 3085: 2840: 2804: 2267: 2217: 2164: 2159: 2073: 1943: 1211: 1040: 799: 719: 573: 139: 7893: 6006: 5679: 4789: 3917: 3528: 2660: 8264: 8149: 8075: 7755: 7170: 7037: 7020: 7010: 7006: 6836: 6446: 6413: 6214: 6136: 6090: 5793: 5310: 4670: 4354: 4290: 3682: 3388: 3338: 3229: 2772: 2676: 2547: 2411: 2353: 2333: 2150: 1710: 1349: 809: 680: 610: 487: 400: 267: 6310: 5720: 5570: 5317:

due to growing manifestations of antisemitism and the difficult economic situation.

4029:

banking activities and participated in the purchase of Christian slaves captured by

3360:(it is said, by the governor's physician Shamma, probably a Jew), and circa 800 the 3353:

are the descendants of that tribe. In 793 Imam Idris was poisoned at the command of

3182: 8052: 7180: 7165: 7095: 6596:"Historic synagogue in Tunisia heavily damaged in rioting tied to Israel-Hamas war" 6206: 5738: 5673: 5610: 5582: 5472: 5405: 5369: 5238: 5047: 4516: 4038: 4026: 3694: 3667: 3628: 3520: 3508: 3503: 3491: 3396: 2970: 2950:

after hundreds of years of subjection and would have adopted Latinized names, worn

2721: 2559: 2527: 2519: 2381: 2262: 2222: 2186: 1884: 1434: 945: 701: 605: 520: 410: 202: 6744:"Historic synagogue in Tunisia heavily damaged in rioting tied to Israel-Gaza war" 5604: 3916:, who visited Tunis in 1772, praised this development. In 1819, the United States 8132: 8065: 7786: 7680: 6071: 5496: 5245: 5211:), fines, and confiscation of property. More than 5,000 Jews were sent to forced 5042: 4826: 4565: 4536: 4532: 4480: 4374: 4337: 4333: 4282: 4182: 4178: 4060:(rabbinic decree) signed in July 1741 between the great rabbis Abraham Taïeb and 4034: 3639: 3446: 3357: 2343: 2302: 2297: 2277: 2199: 2193: 2126: 2078: 1918: 1899: 1050: 779: 691: 674: 218: 7191: 7034:

Ornaments of Tarshish: The Attire and the Jewelry of the Jewish Women in Tunisia

4677:. This execution aroused both Jews and Christians, and a deputation was sent to 3511:, considered the greatest of the Qayrawan sages. Another academy was founded by 3482:

in Arabic which would enrich the medieval medicine through their translation by

3054: 8119: 8090: 8080: 7999: 7650: 7641: 5973: 5616: 5576: 5279: 4927: 4864: 4853: 4849: 4839: 4752: 4638: 4617: 4491:. They also served as lenders for peasants and artisans. In the rural areas of 4409: 4398: 4385: 4321: 4310: 4061: 4045: 3847: 3713: 3635: 3495: 3203: 3199: 3048: 2903: 2828: 2756: 2729: 2688: 2618: 2583: 2443: 2242: 2097: 1977: 1956: 1933: 1928: 1906: 1894: 1489: 970: 904: 869: 847: 784: 622: 600: 462: 441: 417: 183: 165: 7041: 6886: 6563:"Tunisia police officer kills four in shooting near Africa's oldest synagogue" 4634: 3470:, a private doctor of the Aghlabide Ziadet Allah III and then of the Fatimids 3395:

provinces in 1146 proved disastrous to the Jews of Tunis. The first Almohad, '

2652: 8286: 7971: 7888: 7735: 7728: 7024: 6925: 6544: 6417: 5947:"Sociologist Claude Sitbon, do the Jews of Tunisia have reason to be afraid?" 5788: 5744: 5708: 5702: 5669: 5564: 5552: 5529: 5517: 5490: 5208: 4937: 4814: 4732: 4471: 4456: 4402: 4161: 3864: 3592: 3374: 3269: 3265: 2978: 2891: 2816: 2800: 2741: 2622: 2391: 2386: 1592: 1519: 1045: 894: 889: 884: 874: 852: 804: 566: 405: 310: 272: 223: 18: 6863: 5692: 5558: 5203:, the Nazis imposed antisemitic policies including forcing Jews to wear the 8097: 6567: 5750: 5726: 5629: 5598: 5543: 5523: 5502: 5244:

Following independence, a mixed picture emerged. On the one hand President

5204: 4932: 4880: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4785: 4756: 4712: 4678: 4674: 4078: 3863:

From the 16th century Tunisia and more particularly Tunis had an influx of

3818: 3674:

of Tunis; it was closed at night. In 1270, in consequence of the defeat of

3186:

Justinian, a Byzantine emperor who launched a severe repression of the Jews

3062: 2974: 2935: 2899: 2836: 2692: 2575: 2421: 2247: 2088: 2083: 2041: 1994: 1088: 955: 940: 899: 864: 477: 319: 7048: 6210: 6046: 3466:

Many major figures of Judaism are associated with the city. Among them is

3310:. The dhimmi is a term for non-Muslims, originally Jews and Christians as 2910:. Under the dominion of the Romans and (after 429) of the fairly tolerant 2843:, expelled from Rome for proselytizing, 20 by a number of defeated in the 7842: 7610: 7143: 6699:"Chief Rabbi of Djerba Dies in a Jerusalem Hospital – Latest News Briefs" 5918: 5732: 5641: 5592: 5588: 5539: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5275: 5260: 5212: 5052: 4964: 4959: 4662: 4294: 4044:. Jews who were traveling as Tunisians worked in the retail trade in the 3793:

a communal tax, to which every member contributed according to his means;

3739: 3663: 3620: 3600: 3583:

agriculture (saffron, henna, vine, etc.) or breeding of nomadic animals.

3257: 3210: 2923: 2696: 2587: 2563: 2406: 2348: 2013: 919: 914: 909: 879: 7707: 4875: 3276:

and Nefzaouas quoted were of Christian confession before the arrival of

2926:

issued his edict of persecution in which the Jews were classed with the

8107: 7827: 7721: 6072:"Hirschberg, H. Z. 1903-1976 (Haim Zeev) [WorldCat Identities]" 5635: 5508: 5326: 5200: 4907: 4682: 4512: 4504: 4488: 4466: 3773:, only some chose to settle in Tunis. The Tunisian Jews had no eminent 3725: 3706: 3702: 3596: 3555: 3334: 3249: 3089: 3074: 3073:

A synagogue of the 2nd or 4th century, was discovered in Naro (present

3036: 3024: 2966: 2919: 2879: 2851:

in North Africa, and also by Jews fleeing the repression of revolts in

2796: 2780: 2579: 2064: 1078: 1007: 965: 794: 774: 333: 240: 160: 6676: 6492:"Tunisie : la communauté juive réclame sa protection par l'armée" 6336: 5313:

announced that it had allocated funding to help Tunisian Jews move to

3586: 3232:

attempts to repeal these measures, his successors return there and an

7700: 5696: 5661: 5657: 5547: 5484: 5334: 4834: 4625: 4508: 4452: 4391:

Hoq Nathan (1776) by Nathan Borgel, an important Talmudic commentary;

4030: 3442: 3429: 3361: 2996: 2852: 2496: 2227: 2212: 1302: 1250: 1012: 960: 950: 631: 627: 617: 532: 292: 7036:(in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Misgav Yerushalayim, The Hebrew University. 4207: 4094: 3943: 3924:, gave the following account of the situation of the Tunisian Jews: 3731:

Although the difficulty of the economic context leads to a surge of

3519:, developed the simultaneous study of the Talmud of Babylon and the 3121: 980: 38: 7693: 7659: 6926:"Les témoins de la Bible : les Juifs de Djerba | WorldCat.org" 5429: 5401: 4716: 4609: 4560: 4362: 4329: 4286: 4278: 4057: 4053: 3762: 3690: 3539: 3512: 3499: 3479: 3456: 3400: 3373:), which was established soon after the foundation of that city by 3370: 3195: 3033: 2958: 2931: 2927: 2860: 2832: 2749: 2396: 2006: 1938: 769: 277: 228: 5391: 4739: 3895:. They spoke and wrote in Italian but gradually adopted the local 3615:, with the elites having already accompanied the Fatimid court in 3575: 3538:

On the political level, the community emancipated itself from the

2914:, the Jews of Tunis increased and prospered to such a degree that 2482: 8085: 7714: 7148: 6572: 6155: 5951: 5647: 5365: 5330: 5295: 4944: 4528: 4524: 4317: 4166: 4008: 4004: 3872: 3835: 3779: 3770: 3766: 3751: 3747: 3698: 3624: 3604: 3543: 3404: 3392: 3366: 3342: 3244: 3237: 3191: 3097: 3093: 3000: 2983: 2962: 2911: 2868: 2745: 2737: 2664: 2551: 2539: 2523: 2501: 2372: 2338: 2207: 2001: 990: 985: 857: 748: 643: 639: 635: 384: 379: 356: 338: 213: 208: 198: 176: 151: 23: 6304:"On the State of Being (Jewish) between "Orient" and "Occident"" 4628:

and beheaded with a saber sword on June 24, 1857. The sovereign

3666:, who in 1159 had rendered great services to the Almohad caliph 8239:

Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture

6648:"Amid Security Threats, Tunis' Only Kosher Restaurant Shutters" 5533: 5449: 5373: 5341: 5314: 5303: 5150: 4985: 4653: 4621: 4500: 4492: 4484: 4358: 4325: 4157: 4070: 4016:

connection with the Tuansa, to which Jews from the rest of the

3906: 3896: 3880: 3736: 3721: 3717: 3686: 3671: 3659: 3651: 3643: 3612: 3608: 3579: 3567: 3563: 3532: 3412: 3354: 3350: 3307: 3101: 3078: 3040: 3029: 3004: 2907: 2864: 2824: 2760: 2606: 2595: 2535: 2032: 2027: 1987: 1972: 1083: 975: 395: 361: 347: 282: 27: 6151:"Genetic study offers clues to history of North Africa's Jews" 4547: 8009: 7160: 6087:

Histoire des Juifs de Tunisie : des origines à nos jours

5364:

operates three primary schools, two secondary schools, and a

5361: 4597: 4496: 4186: 4065: 3852: 3808: 3783: 3774: 3647: 3616: 3559: 3408: 3346: 3323: 3315: 3277: 3253: 3233: 3044: 3015: 2992: 2883: 2856: 2792: 2764: 995: 424: 328: 297: 5455:

During pro-Palestine protests on 17 October 2023 during the

4433: 3111: 2598:. The 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom by the 8172: 6374:"Why hasn't Yad Vashem honored more Arabs for saving Jews?" 4666: 4613: 4590: 4269: 3843: 3839: 3812: 3571: 3516: 3452: 3088:, only their morals, modeled by Jewish religious precepts ( 2951: 2939: 2788: 2763:, transcribed for the first time in 1849, relates that the 2543: 147: 4557:

French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

6351:"Vichy Discrimination against Jews in Vichy North Africa" 5921:"2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Tunisia" 4788:, the new French state ruled by collaborationist Marshal 6021: 5741:, French cartoonist killed in the Charlie Hebdo shooting 3638:, which was established in 1236 as a breakaway from the 3591:

The departure of the Fatimids to Egypt in 972 led their

3547:

worship, schools, a tribunal headed by the rabbi-judge (

2681:

History of the Jews of Tunisia: from origins to our days

6721:"Condolences Extended to Family of Head Tunisian Rabbi" 5573:, French trainer of thoroughbred racehorses and jockeys 4580:

also benefited from the application of this provision.

3190:

At the beginning of the 5th century the arrival of the

6860:"Décret du 2 mai 2012 portant promotion et nomination" 5644:, French artist, journalist, film director, and writer 4448:

has ordered all Jews living in Tunisia to wear a cap.

3803:

a general tax, which was levied upon the Muslims also.

3380:

A period of reaction set in with the accession of the

3202:. The Jews probably thrived economically, backing the 3019:

Tertullian who fought against the expansion of Judaism

6111:"Page in Ladino in a Jewish daily newspaper in Tunis" 6089:(in French). Paris: Editions L'Harmattan. p. 5. 5579:, Israeli painter, sculptor, etcher, and video artist 5259:

after violent anti-Jewish rioting in response to the

4369:

Toafot Re'em (1761–1762) and Meira Dakhiya (1792) by

4285:, the relief fund for the needy and the sick and the 3413:

special garb, with a yellow cloth for a head-covering

6339:. The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot. 5846:. Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center 5753:, Israeli politician and former ambassador to France 4784:, the French Protectorate of Tunisia became part of 3822:

Jewish communities of Tunis under the Ottoman Empire

3811:. After the 13th century, taxes were collected by a 3789:

Three kinds of taxes were imposed on Tunisian Jews:

3746:

in 1391 and again in 1492 was mainly carried out in

3216:

Justinian's victory in 535 opened the period of the

2011: 1992: 415: 6517:"Tunisia decries Israeli call for Jews to emigrate" 5511:, French psychoanalyst and columnist killed in the 5232: 3587:

Under the Hafsids, Spanish and Ottomans (1236–1603)

3554:The Jews participate greatly in the exchanges with 3433:Letter from Houshiel ben Elhanan reproduced in the 3418: 63:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6780:"We're scared when we take the children to school" 6467:"Islamist victory casts shadow over Tunisian Jews" 5919:OFFICE OF INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM (2022). 5660:Champion in 1931 and 1932 who was murdered in the 4707: 3578:saw a steady influx of Jewish immigrants from the 3003:, another influx of Arabic-speaking Jews from the 2890:("holy synagogue of Naro"). After the fall of the 2605:The Jewish diaspora of Tunisia is divided between 7221: 4846:was an integral part of the Holocaust in France. 4759:. Relying on the French revolutionary promise of 4564:a tricolor cockade, an act severely repressed by 4192: 3291: 3194:has opened a period of respite for the Jews. The 2657:Essay on the History of the Israelites of Tunisia 8284: 6832:"Rabbi Yehuda M. Getz; Overseer of Western Wall" 5682:, French politician and former president of the 4084: 3407:had not come, they were to be forced to embrace 6622:"Tunisia's first Jewish museum opens its doors" 6202:The Wiley-Blackwell History of Jews and Judaism 2819:. The latter, in recognition of the support of 2720:View of Jerusalem and the Temple of Solomon by 2669:Israel Folktale Archives in University of Haifa 5837: 4842:specified that the persecution of the Jews of 4747:The Jews of Tunisia felt much safer under the 3858: 3658:. Subsequently, however, a wealthy and humane 7626: 7207: 7064: 6445:. Columbia University Press. pp. 90–91. 6443:Jewish Property Claims Against Arab Countries 5866:"1967 War - impact on Jews in Arab countries" 5180: 4527:who led a tribal existence, like that of the 2803:could have settled in Carthage following the 2779:in Djerba, and would have made it a place of 2463: 8043:Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries 6901:"The Jews of Djerba: A Pilgrimage to Ghriba" 6555: 6436: 6434: 6371: 5747:, French director, producer and screenwriter 5411:The most famous synagogue in Tunisia is the 5337:because she had served in the Israeli army. 4596:Nevertheless, the Jews still had to pay the 4455:who refuses to measure, was the victim of a 3912:Muslim legislation classed with Christians. 3907:Under the Muradids and Husainids (1603–1857) 2977:relates that at the time of the conquest of 2562:, with the occupation of the country by the 7078: 6786:. January 23, 2015 – via PressReader. 6772: 6137:"Sebag, Paul [WorldCat Identities]" 4648: 4236:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4165:the communities. Regarding dress code, the 4123:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3972:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3260:confirms their existence on the eve of the 3213:, who had set out to conquer North Africa. 3150:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 707:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire 7640: 7633: 7619: 7214: 7200: 7071: 7057: 6174:Sources for the Genealogy of Tunisian Jews 5840:"The Jews of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia" 5757: 5270: 5187: 5173: 4309:Jewish tomb in the royal mausoleum of the 3224:against them, which allows the holding of 2470: 2456: 6440: 6431: 6328: 6264:Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World 6029:"The Virtual Jewish History Tour, France" 5799:Jews outside Europe under Nazi occupation 5526:, ceramic artist, businessman, and author 4819:Commissariat Général aux Questions Juives 4817:, head of the Office for Jewish Affairs ( 4434:Aborted reforms of the nineteenth century 4324:, the standard legislative code, and the 4256:Learn how and when to remove this message 4143:Learn how and when to remove this message 3992:Learn how and when to remove this message 3170:Learn how and when to remove this message 3112:From Vandal peace to Byzantine repression 2699:as well as the works of some historians. 2518:extends nearly two thousand years to the 123:Learn how and when to remove this message 6884: 6251: 6198: 5944: 5466: 5400: 5390: 5355: 5274: 4874: 4738: 4726: 4711: 4652: 4546: 4465: 4304: 4300: 3817: 3782:among the Jews and collection of Jewish 3428: 3181: 3053: 3014: 2715: 2495: 2481: 17: 7001:Tobi, Tsivia (2016). Yosef Tobi (ed.). 6987:– via nysephardifilmfestival.org. 6885:Ameskane, Mohamed (December 27, 2012). 6878: 6645: 6372:Borschel-Dan, Amanda (April 15, 2015). 6334: 6309:. University of Arizona. Archived from 5838:Silver Ochayon, Sheryl (October 2011). 5764:The Bible's Witness: The Jews of Djerba 4831:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 2827:, recognized Judaism and the status of 2707: 8285: 6295: 6170: 6078: 5892: 5890: 5888: 5886: 5810:Antisemitism in the Arab world#Tunisia 5286:in Er-Riadh (Hara Sghira), Djerba 2007 4542: 4177:At the end of the eighteenth century, 4007:families, which have been settling in 2728:Some historians, such as David Cazès, 8028:History of the Jews under Muslim rule 7614: 7195: 7052: 6741: 6735: 6673:"Death of the Grand Rabbi of Tunisia" 6619: 6278:"Algeria Virtual Jewish History Tour" 6194: 6192: 6190: 6188: 6186: 6084: 4923:History of the Jews under Muslim rule 4833:(USHMM) website, "The history of the 3298:History of the Jews under Muslim rule 7031: 7000: 6798:"The Tuesday profile: Claude Challe" 6768:Jewish Refugees Tunisia October 2023 6399: 6233: 4234:adding citations to reliable sources 4201: 4121:adding citations to reliable sources 4088: 3970:adding citations to reliable sources 3937: 3933: 3899:while introducing their traditional 3148:adding citations to reliable sources 3115: 2558:before being compromised during the 61:adding citations to reliable sources 32: 8227:Caracas Center of Sephardic Studies 6646:Inskeep, Steve (November 4, 2015). 5945:Ettinger, Yair (January 17, 2011). 5883: 5384:For a more comprehensive list, see 5302:, sent a delegation to the Jews in 5263:in 1967. However, according to the 4900:Jewish exodus from the Muslim world 4583: 4388:, an important Talmudic commentary; 4347: 3888: 3010: 2839:. These Jews were joined by Jewish 2568:Israeli Declaration of Independence 13: 8178:Sephardim and Oriental Communities 6994: 6742:Lapin, Andrew (October 18, 2023). 6723:. Magharebia.com. December 5, 2004 6301: 6205:(1 ed.). Wiley. p. 217. 6183: 5820:Israeli people of Tunisian descent 5459:, hundreds of rioters set fire to 4297:– were occupied by Jewish agents. 3796:a personal or capitation tax (the 2783:and veneration to the present day. 14: 8314: 6808:. October 3, 2001. Archived from 6593: 5815:Geography of antisemitism#Tunisia 5672:, Canadian politician and former 5613:, French film producer and writer 5567:, French film director and author 4829:. According to an article on the 4641:in 1839. Moreover, the historian 2859:under the reigns of the emperors 2636: 498:Historical population comparisons 7522:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 7292:Democratic Republic of the Congo 6889:(in French). Maghress: Albayane. 5607:, Minister of Tourism in Tunisia 5493:, French lyricist and librettist 5233:Post-War period and independence 4906: 4340:, made public in the synagogue. 4206: 4093: 3942: 3486:, adapting the teachings of the 3419:Cultural heyday of Tunisian Jews 3120: 1142:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1056:Historical population by country 72:"History of the Jews in Tunisia" 37: 8244:Institute for Sephardic Studies 6968: 6943: 6918: 6893: 6852: 6790: 6761: 6713: 6701:. Arutz Sheva. December 3, 2004 6691: 6665: 6639: 6613: 6587: 6537: 6509: 6484: 6459: 6393: 6365: 6343: 6337:"The Jewish Community of Tunis" 6335:Attal, Robert; Sitbon, Claude. 6270: 6245: 6227: 6164: 6143: 6129: 6103: 6064: 5146:Expulsions and exoduses of Jews 4773: 4708:French Protectorate (1881–1956) 4559:on September 27, 1791, and the 4551:Portrait of Ahmad I ibn Mustafa 4025:trading houses also engaged in 3867:Jewish families, who initially 3461:Talmudic academies in Babylonia 3425:History of the Jews in Kairouan 3365:that time was the community of 2965:and his successors, escaped to 2647:History of the Jews in Kairouan 2643:History of the Jews in Carthage 48:needs additional citations for 8033:Antisemitism in the Arab world 7223:History of the Jews in Africa 6620:Lavie, Dan (January 1, 2012). 6039: 5991: 5966: 5938: 5912: 5858: 5831: 5711:, former Chief Rabbi of France 4976:Antisemitism in the Arab world 4792:during France's occupation by 4381:on various Talmudic treatises; 4193:Internal split and development 3607:and the end of the Babylonian 3478:and author of various medical 3326:, and in the wealthy classes. 3292:New status of Jews under Islam 3286: 3262:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb 2673:Hebrew University of Jerusalem 2627:Tunisian Jews living in France 2538:conquest of Tunisia, Tunisian 2530:. The community formerly used 2516:history of the Jews in Tunisia 1: 8298:History of the Jews in Africa 6675:. Alfassa.com. Archived from 6545:"Middle East News - BBC News" 5825: 5386:List of synagogues in Tunisia 5379: 5350:Al-Ahli Arab Hospital bombing 4555:The inclusion of Jews in the 4085:Harassment and discrimination 3391:dynasty to the throne of the 2505: 2487: 713:Christianity and Judaism 8194:American Sephardi Federation 8187:Major communal organizations 6239:Travels in Europe and Africa 5632:, French author and essayist 5505:, French writer and essayist 5282:procession returning to the 5156:Historical Jewish population 4762:Liberté, égalité, fraternité 4438: 4401:, new on the Talmud and the 4373:, commentary on the work of 4277:schools linked to them, the 4073:and taxed like the Tuansa . 2882:residence in 1883 called in 2702: 7: 7909:Western Europe and overseas 6806:Radio France Internationale 6441:Fischbach, Michael (2008). 5782: 5227:Righteous Among the Nations 4879:Tunisian Jews tear off the 4825:to check the matter of the 3903:to their new host country. 3859:Beginning of the Modern Era 2807:of the eastern part of the 2759:of the Jewish community of 2012: 1993: 1720:Latin America and Caribbean 416: 10: 8319: 8199:Sephardi Community Council 5520:, French DJ and club owner 5383: 5344:, also the site of 2002's 4657:A portrait of Mohammed Bey 4197: 3422: 3295: 2888:sancta synagoga naronitana 2640: 2590:in 1967. According to the 2522:. The Jewish community in 2325:Jewish political movements 2022:Conversion to Judaism 8252: 8219: 8204:World Sephardi Federation 8186: 8158: 8118: 8051: 8020: 7745: 7649: 7535: 7510: 7229: 7131: 7086: 6748:Jewish Telegraphic Agency 6400:Land, Joy (Spring 2009). 6035:. Jewish Virtual Library. 4782:armistice of 22 June 1940 4661:During the long reign of 4630:Muhammad II ibn al-Husayn 3468:Isaac Israeli ben Solomon 2815:, enjoying the favors of 2795:. Thereafter, Jews from 2633:in their everyday lives. 2621:to using Hebrew as their 2611:Sephardic law and customs 2532:its own dialect of Arabic 728:Hinduism and Judaism 7277:Central African Republic 7005:(in Hebrew). Jerusalem: 6282:jewishvirtuallibrary.org 6241:. New York. p. 308. 6171:Samama, Thierry (2020), 6047:"Arabic, Judeo-Tunisian" 6033:jewishvirtuallibrary.org 5902:jewishvirtuallibrary.org 5432:claimed responsibility. 5396:Grand Synagogue of Tunis 5360:The Jewish community in 5346:Ghriba synagogue bombing 5161:Islamic–Jewish relations 4861:Nazi concentration camps 4856:of the Jewish question. 4743:A group of Tunisian Jews 4649:Mohammed Bey (1855–1881) 4608:Batou Sfez was a Jewish 4503:, Jews were occupied in 4451:One Jew originally from 4428:Chaim Yosef David Azulai 4371:Mordecai Baruch Carvalho 4336:, the Jewish version of 3914:Haim Joseph David Azulai 3472:Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah 2823:in his struggle against 2813:Roman province of Africa 554:Temple in Jerusalem 247:Bar and bat mitzvah 8293:Jewish Tunisian history 7688:Expulsion from Portugal 7080:Demographics of Tunisia 6522:Charleston Gazette-Mail 5925:U.S Department of State 5758:Films and documentaries 5621:Supreme Court of Israel 5426:Ghriba Synagogue Attack 5372:in the coastal city of 5271:Arab Spring (post-2011) 5219:in continental Europe. 4397:Yeter ha-Baz (1787) by 3523:. His son and disciple 3484:Constantine the African 3435:Jewish Quarterly Review 3337:'s independence of the 3007:into Tunis took place. 2600:U.S Department of State 516:Twelve Tribes of Israel 5906:Jewish Virtual Library 5723:, silent-era filmmaker 5513:Charlie Hebdo shooting 5479:Masa'ud Raphael Alfasi 5408: 5398: 5287: 5265:Jewish Virtual Library 5129:The Forgotten Refugees 4884: 4744: 4736: 4724: 4721:Borgel Jewish Cemetery 4701: 4658: 4612:at the service of the 4552: 4485:manufacture of clothes 4475: 4384:Zera Itshak (1768) by 4313: 3931: 3823: 3756:Simeon ben Zemah Duran 3703:Rabbi Moses ben Maimon 3689:. Jews were forced to 3438: 3206:against the armies of 3187: 3070: 3020: 2934:. As elsewhere in the 2898:), and had to pay the 2845:First Jewish–Roman War 2724: 2592:Jewish Virtual Library 2574:provoked a widespread 2570:in 1948 and following 2511: 2493: 30: 8038:Antisemitism in Islam 7756:Eastern Mediterranean 7437:São Tomé and Príncipe 7297:Republic of the Congo 7032:Tobi, Tsivia (2020). 6887:"Chanson judéo-arabe" 6235:Noah, Mordecai Manuel 6211:10.1002/9781118232897 5974:"The Jews of Tunisia" 5601:, Tunisian politician 5467:Notable Tunisian Jews 5457:2023 Israel-Hamas war 5404: 5394: 5356:Education and culture 5278: 5250:Mordekhai Meiss Cohen 4950:Arab–Israeli conflict 4878: 4742: 4730: 4715: 4688: 4656: 4550: 4469: 4308: 4301:Religious authorities 3926: 3821: 3525:Chananel ben Chushiel 3513:Chushiel ben Elchanan 3476:Al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah 3432: 3387:The accession of the 3185: 3057: 3018: 2734:Alfred Louis Delattre 2719: 2641:Further information: 2631:Judeo-Tunisian Arabic 2572:1948 Arab–Israeli War 2499: 2485: 1262:São Tomé and Príncipe 1257:Republic of the Congo 651:Second Temple Judaism 522:Kingdom of Judah 493:Modern historiography 21: 8303:Sephardi Jews topics 8143:Sephardi chief rabbi 8120:Religion and culture 7676:Expulsion from Spain 6977:Journey from Tunisia 6951:"My Country Left Me" 6840:. September 19, 1995 6784:The Jewish Chronicle 6679:on February 25, 2012 6117:on November 17, 2018 6085:Sebag, Paul (1991). 5776:Journey from Tunisia 5735:, Israeli politician 5729:, Israeli politician 5717:, Israeli politician 5705:, Israeli politician 5555:, Israeli politician 4872:happened in Europe. 4461:Mordecai Manuel Noah 4377:and a collection of 4230:improve this section 4117:improve this section 3966:improve this section 3922:Mordecai Manuel Noah 3144:improve this section 2995:, or of the Arabian 2954:, and spoken Latin. 2916:early African church 2740:(Phoenician king of 2708:Hypothetical origins 2695:and Villa Jasmin by 2364:World Agudath Israel 1505:United Arab Emirates 592:Second Temple period 582:Babylonian captivity 57:improve this article 7512:States with limited 6930:search.worldcat.org 6379:The Times of Israel 6253:Stillman, Norman A. 5585:, French politician 5446:El Ghriba synagogue 5413:El Ghriba synagogue 5300:Rashid Al-Ghannushi 5292:Tunisian Revolution 5284:El Ghriba synagogue 5217:extermination camps 4844:French North Africa 4823:Metropolitan France 4749:French protectorate 4643:Ahmad ibn Abi Diyaf 4578:Italian unification 4573:Ahmed Bey the First 4543:European Influences 4405:of Moses Maimonides 4018:Mediterranean Basin 3218:Exarchate of Africa 2989:Hasan ibn al-Nu'man 2831:, and according to 2809:Mediterranean Basin 2777:El Ghriba synagogue 2615:relocated to Israel 2556:French protectorate 657:Hellenistic Judaism 235:Land of Israel 194:Principles of faith 5804:Or Torah Synagogue 5770:My Country Left Me 5656:, boxer and World 5487:, fashion designer 5481:(died 1776), rabbi 5461:El Hamma synagogue 5415:in the village of 5409: 5399: 5288: 5223:Khaled Abdul-Wahab 5090:Hurum air disaster 4885: 4745: 4737: 4725: 4659: 4616:of his community, 4553: 4476: 4314: 3869:settled in Livorno 3824: 3676:Louis IX of France 3515:, originally from 3488:Alexandrian school 3439: 3331:Idris I of Morocco 3312:People of the Book 3304:People of the Book 3226:forced conversions 3222:Codex Theodosianus 3188: 3106:Church of Carthage 3071: 3021: 2725: 2546:expelled from the 2512: 2494: 2218:Jewish Koine Greek 1760:Dominican Republic 1041:Judaism by country 720:Jews and Christmas 575:Assyrian captivity 31: 8280: 8279: 8076:Judaeo-Portuguese 7608: 7607: 7539:other territories 7312:Equatorial Guinea 7189: 7188: 7007:Ben-Zvi Institute 6837:Los Angeles Times 6452:978-0-231-13538-2 6220:978-1-4051-9637-6 6160:. August 6, 2012. 6009:on March 30, 2017 5898:"Jews of Tunisia" 5794:Islam and Judaism 5684:National Assembly 5638:, French novelist 5619:, justice of the 5448:on the island of 5444:, Tunis, and the 5197: 5196: 5030:Exodus by country 4723:, Tunis, c. 1900. 4365:of note include: 4320:, relying on the 4291:Abu l-Hasan Ali I 4266: 4265: 4258: 4153: 4152: 4145: 4002: 4001: 3994: 3934:Granas and Tuansa 3828:conquest of Tunis 3735:, the triumph of 3683:Almohad Caliphate 3447:Fatimid dynasties 3377:in the year 670. 3339:Abbasid Caliphate 3252:with the cult of 3228:. If the emperor 3180: 3179: 3172: 2773:Nebuchadnezzar II 2677:Ben Zvi Institute 2548:Iberian Peninsula 2500:Jewish couple in 2480: 2479: 2429: 2428: 2177: 2176: 1924:Reconstructionist 1868: 1867: 1020: 1019: 827: 826: 664:Jewish–Roman wars 612:Hasmonean dynasty 528:Kingdom of Israel 432: 431: 133: 132: 125: 107: 8310: 8268: 8235: 8212: 8138:Rite and customs 8111: 7994:Crypto-Sephardim 7635: 7628: 7621: 7612: 7611: 7600: 7599:(United Kingdom) 7595:Tristan da Cunha 7591:Ascension Island 7583: 7570: 7561: 7537:Dependencies and 7230:Sovereign states 7216: 7209: 7202: 7193: 7192: 7073: 7066: 7059: 7050: 7049: 7045: 7028: 6989: 6988: 6986: 6984: 6972: 6966: 6965: 6963: 6961: 6947: 6941: 6940: 6938: 6936: 6922: 6916: 6915: 6913: 6911: 6897: 6891: 6890: 6882: 6876: 6875: 6873: 6871: 6856: 6850: 6849: 6847: 6845: 6828: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6817: 6812:on June 21, 2011 6794: 6788: 6787: 6776: 6770: 6765: 6759: 6758: 6756: 6754: 6739: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6728: 6717: 6711: 6710: 6708: 6706: 6695: 6689: 6688: 6686: 6684: 6669: 6663: 6662: 6660: 6658: 6643: 6637: 6636: 6634: 6632: 6617: 6611: 6610: 6608: 6606: 6591: 6585: 6584: 6582: 6580: 6559: 6553: 6552: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6532: 6530: 6525:. March 31, 2011 6513: 6507: 6506: 6504: 6502: 6488: 6482: 6481: 6479: 6477: 6463: 6457: 6456: 6438: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6424: 6397: 6391: 6390: 6388: 6386: 6369: 6363: 6362: 6360: 6358: 6347: 6341: 6340: 6332: 6326: 6325: 6323: 6321: 6315: 6308: 6299: 6293: 6292: 6290: 6288: 6274: 6268: 6267: 6261: 6249: 6243: 6242: 6231: 6225: 6224: 6196: 6181: 6180: 6179: 6168: 6162: 6161: 6147: 6141: 6140: 6133: 6127: 6126: 6124: 6122: 6113:. Archived from 6107: 6101: 6100: 6082: 6076: 6075: 6068: 6062: 6061: 6059: 6057: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6025: 6019: 6018: 6016: 6014: 6005:. Archived from 5995: 5989: 5988: 5986: 5984: 5970: 5964: 5963: 5961: 5959: 5942: 5936: 5935: 5933: 5931: 5916: 5910: 5909: 5894: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5876: 5862: 5856: 5855: 5853: 5851: 5835: 5739:Georges Wolinski 5650:, Israeli singer 5625:attorney general 5611:Alain Mamou-Mani 5583:Pierre Lellouche 5473:Abba of Carthage 5406:Zarzis Synagogue 5322:new constitution 5258: 5189: 5182: 5175: 5048:Operation Yachin 5002:Oujda and Jerada 4910: 4887: 4886: 4806:Statut des Juifs 4633:United Kingdom, 4584:The Case of Sfez 4348:Renewal of ideas 4287:rabbinical court 4261: 4254: 4250: 4247: 4241: 4210: 4202: 4148: 4141: 4137: 4134: 4128: 4097: 4089: 4054:rabbinical court 3997: 3990: 3986: 3983: 3977: 3946: 3938: 3890: 3681:The rise of the 3650:, the island of 3629:Beni Hammad Fort 3521:Jerusalem Talmud 3509:Nissim ben Jacob 3504:Jacob ben Nissim 3492:Dunash ibn Tamim 3382:Zirite Al-Mu'izz 3318:, the poll tax. 3175: 3168: 3164: 3161: 3155: 3124: 3116: 3102:modesty of dress 3096:, observance of 3011:Under Roman rule 2849:resold as slaves 2769:Solomon's Temple 2757:founding legends 2722:Hartmann Schedel 2586:in 1961 and the 2578:reaction in the 2560:Second World War 2550:, often through 2528:Byzantine Empire 2510: 2507: 2492: 2489: 2472: 2465: 2458: 2321: 2320: 2202: 2023: 2017: 1998: 1962: 1961: 1909: 1856:New Zealand 1808: 1771:El Salvador 1761: 1693:Northern America 1685: 1279: 1035: 1034: 946:Crimean Karaites 842: 841: 820: 818: 739: 737: 729: 723: 714: 702:Rabbinic Judaism 683: 677: 671: 659: 647: 613: 606:Maccabean Revolt 583: 576: 570: 562: 555: 549: 541: 523: 447: 446: 421: 316: 315: 248: 236: 135: 134: 128: 121: 117: 114: 108: 106: 65: 41: 33: 22:The location of 8318: 8317: 8313: 8312: 8311: 8309: 8308: 8307: 8283: 8282: 8281: 8276: 8262: 8260:Philosephardism 8248: 8229: 8215: 8206: 8182: 8154: 8114: 8105: 8066:Sephardi Hebrew 8047: 8016: 7741: 7681:Alhambra Decree 7645: 7642:Sephardi Jewish 7639: 7609: 7604: 7603: 7598: 7581: 7568: 7559: 7540: 7538: 7531: 7515: 7513: 7506: 7225: 7220: 7190: 7185: 7127: 7111:Catholic Church 7082: 7077: 7017: 6997: 6995:Further reading 6992: 6982: 6980: 6974: 6973: 6969: 6959: 6957: 6949: 6948: 6944: 6934: 6932: 6924: 6923: 6919: 6909: 6907: 6899: 6898: 6894: 6883: 6879: 6869: 6867: 6858: 6857: 6853: 6843: 6841: 6830: 6829: 6825: 6815: 6813: 6796: 6795: 6791: 6778: 6777: 6773: 6766: 6762: 6752: 6750: 6740: 6736: 6726: 6724: 6719: 6718: 6714: 6704: 6702: 6697: 6696: 6692: 6682: 6680: 6671: 6670: 6666: 6656: 6654: 6644: 6640: 6630: 6628: 6618: 6614: 6604: 6602: 6600:Times of Israel 6594:Lapin, Andrew. 6592: 6588: 6578: 6576: 6561: 6560: 6556: 6543: 6542: 6538: 6528: 6526: 6515: 6514: 6510: 6500: 6498: 6490: 6489: 6485: 6475: 6473: 6465: 6464: 6460: 6453: 6439: 6432: 6422: 6420: 6398: 6394: 6384: 6382: 6370: 6366: 6356: 6354: 6349: 6348: 6344: 6333: 6329: 6319: 6317: 6316:on May 17, 2017 6313: 6306: 6302:Shaked, Edith. 6300: 6296: 6286: 6284: 6276: 6275: 6271: 6259: 6250: 6246: 6232: 6228: 6221: 6197: 6184: 6177: 6169: 6165: 6149: 6148: 6144: 6135: 6134: 6130: 6120: 6118: 6109: 6108: 6104: 6097: 6083: 6079: 6070: 6069: 6065: 6055: 6053: 6045: 6044: 6040: 6027: 6026: 6022: 6012: 6010: 6003:eurojewcong.org 5997: 5996: 5992: 5982: 5980: 5972: 5971: 5967: 5957: 5955: 5943: 5939: 5929: 5927: 5917: 5913: 5896: 5895: 5884: 5874: 5872: 5870:sixdaywar.co.uk 5864: 5863: 5859: 5849: 5847: 5836: 5832: 5828: 5806:in Acre, Israel 5785: 5760: 5680:Philippe Séguin 5542:, rabbi of the 5497:Michel Boujenah 5469: 5389: 5382: 5358: 5311:Israeli cabinet 5273: 5252: 5246:Habib Bourguiba 5235: 5193: 5043:Operation Mural 4827:Jewish question 4790:Philippe Pétain 4776: 4710: 4651: 4586: 4566:Hammuda ibn Ali 4545: 4533:Kef Governorate 4441: 4436: 4375:Elijah Mizrachi 4350: 4338:excommunication 4303: 4279:ritual abattoir 4262: 4251: 4245: 4242: 4227: 4211: 4200: 4195: 4183:Arabic alphabet 4149: 4138: 4132: 4129: 4114: 4098: 4087: 3998: 3987: 3981: 3978: 3963: 3947: 3936: 3909: 3861: 3640:Almohad dynasty 3589: 3529:Ignác Goldziher 3427: 3421: 3399:, claimed that 3358:Harun al-Rashid 3300: 3294: 3289: 3176: 3165: 3159: 3156: 3141: 3125: 3114: 3013: 2969:and settled in 2847:, deported and 2771:by the Emperor 2710: 2705: 2661:André Chouraqui 2655:in 1888 in his 2649: 2639: 2508: 2490: 2486:Jews of Tunis, 2476: 2431: 2430: 2318: 2308: 2307: 2298:Judeo-Malayalam 2278:Judaeo-Georgian 2198: 2189: 2179: 2178: 2079:Yiddish theatre 2021: 1959: 1949: 1948: 1907: 1880: 1870: 1869: 1806: 1759: 1683: 1277: 1061:Genetic studies 1032: 1022: 1021: 839: 829: 828: 816: 815: 735: 734: 727: 717: 712: 694:and Middle Ages 692:Rabbinic period 679: 673: 666: 654: 625: 611: 581: 574: 565: 557: 553: 544: 539:in Judaism 536: 521: 444: 434: 433: 313: 303: 302: 246: 234: 179: 129: 118: 112: 109: 66: 64: 54: 42: 12: 11: 5: 8316: 8306: 8305: 8300: 8295: 8278: 8277: 8275: 8274: 8272:Sephardization 8269: 8256: 8254: 8250: 8249: 8247: 8246: 8241: 8236: 8223: 8221: 8217: 8216: 8214: 8213: 8201: 8196: 8190: 8188: 8184: 8183: 8181: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8168:Black Panthers 8164: 8162: 8156: 8155: 8153: 8152: 8147: 8146: 8145: 8135: 8130: 8124: 8122: 8116: 8115: 8113: 8112: 8100: 8095: 8094: 8093: 8091:Tetuani Ladino 8088: 8081:Judaeo-Spanish 8078: 8073: 8068: 8063: 8057: 8055: 8049: 8048: 8046: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8030: 8024: 8022: 8021:Modern history 8018: 8017: 8015: 8014: 8013: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7990: 7989: 7988: 7987: 7986: 7976: 7975: 7974: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7948: 7947: 7942: 7937: 7932: 7922: 7917: 7905: 7904: 7903: 7898: 7897: 7896: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7864: 7863: 7862: 7861: 7860: 7855: 7845: 7840: 7835: 7830: 7825: 7820: 7819: 7818: 7808: 7803: 7802: 7801: 7791: 7790: 7789: 7784: 7774: 7769: 7764: 7751: 7749: 7743: 7742: 7740: 7739: 7732: 7725: 7718: 7711: 7704: 7697: 7690: 7685: 7684: 7683: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7655: 7653: 7647: 7646: 7638: 7637: 7630: 7623: 7615: 7606: 7605: 7602: 7601: 7584: 7571: 7562: 7548:Canary Islands 7544: 7543: 7541: 7536: 7533: 7532: 7530: 7529: 7524: 7518: 7516: 7511: 7508: 7507: 7505: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7233: 7231: 7227: 7226: 7219: 7218: 7211: 7204: 7196: 7187: 7186: 7184: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7152: 7151: 7146: 7135: 7133: 7129: 7128: 7126: 7125: 7120: 7119: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7098: 7092: 7090: 7084: 7083: 7076: 7075: 7068: 7061: 7053: 7047: 7046: 7029: 7015: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6990: 6967: 6942: 6917: 6892: 6877: 6851: 6823: 6789: 6771: 6760: 6734: 6712: 6690: 6664: 6638: 6612: 6586: 6554: 6536: 6508: 6483: 6458: 6451: 6430: 6412:(1–2): 37–50. 6392: 6364: 6342: 6327: 6294: 6269: 6244: 6226: 6219: 6182: 6163: 6142: 6128: 6102: 6095: 6077: 6063: 6051:Ethnologue.com 6038: 6020: 5990: 5965: 5937: 5911: 5882: 5857: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5823: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5784: 5781: 5780: 5779: 5773: 5767: 5759: 5756: 5755: 5754: 5748: 5742: 5736: 5730: 5724: 5721:Haydée Tamzali 5718: 5712: 5706: 5700: 5690: 5688:Court of Audit 5677: 5667: 5651: 5645: 5639: 5633: 5627: 5614: 5608: 5605:Rene Traboulsi 5602: 5596: 5586: 5580: 5577:Ofer Lellouche 5574: 5571:Élie Lellouche 5568: 5562: 5561:, French comic 5556: 5550: 5537: 5527: 5521: 5515: 5506: 5500: 5499:, French comic 5494: 5488: 5482: 5476: 5468: 5465: 5381: 5378: 5357: 5354: 5272: 5269: 5234: 5231: 5195: 5194: 5192: 5191: 5184: 5177: 5169: 5166: 5165: 5164: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5140: 5139: 5138:Related topics 5135: 5134: 5133: 5132: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5102: 5101: 5097: 5096: 5095: 5094: 5093: 5092: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5058: 5057: 5050: 5045: 5032: 5031: 5027: 5026: 5025: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4979: 4978: 4972: 4971: 4970: 4969: 4968: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4947: 4942: 4941: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4917: 4916: 4912: 4911: 4903: 4902: 4896: 4895: 4854:Final Solution 4850:French Morocco 4840:Martin Gilbert 4780:Following the 4775: 4772: 4753:French culture 4709: 4706: 4650: 4647: 4639:Ottoman Empire 4618:Nassim Shamama 4585: 4582: 4544: 4541: 4440: 4437: 4435: 4432: 4423: 4422: 4415: 4412: 4410:Shulchan Aruch 4406: 4399:Nehorai Jarmon 4395: 4392: 4389: 4386:Isaac Lumbroso 4382: 4349: 4346: 4322:Shulchan Aruch 4311:Tourbet el Bey 4302: 4299: 4264: 4263: 4214: 4212: 4205: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4179:Hammouda Pasha 4151: 4150: 4101: 4099: 4092: 4086: 4083: 4062:Isaac Lumbroso 4046:souks of Tunis 4000: 3999: 3950: 3948: 3941: 3935: 3932: 3908: 3905: 3860: 3857: 3805: 3804: 3801: 3794: 3714:Hafsid dynasty 3636:Hafsid dynasty 3588: 3585: 3496:Sefer Yetzirah 3423:Main article: 3420: 3417: 3296:Main article: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3248:a Judeo-Pagan 3234:imperial edict 3200:Church Fathers 3178: 3177: 3128: 3126: 3119: 3113: 3110: 3012: 3009: 2904:capitation tax 2829:Religio licita 2821:King Antipater 2785: 2784: 2753: 2730:Nahum Slouschz 2709: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2689:Michel Abitbol 2638: 2637:Historiography 2635: 2584:Bizerte crisis 2478: 2477: 2475: 2474: 2467: 2460: 2452: 2449: 2448: 2447: 2446: 2441: 2433: 2432: 2427: 2426: 2425: 2424: 2419: 2414: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2376: 2375: 2369: 2368: 2367: 2366: 2361: 2359:Territorialism 2356: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2328: 2327: 2319: 2314: 2313: 2310: 2309: 2306: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2290: 2285: 2280: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2243:Judaeo-Spanish 2240: 2238:Judaeo-Iranian 2235: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2204: 2203: 2190: 2185: 2184: 2181: 2180: 2175: 2174: 2173: 2172: 2167: 2162: 2154: 2153: 2147: 2146: 2145: 2144: 2139: 2134: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2114: 2109: 2101: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2092: 2091: 2086: 2081: 2076: 2068: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2059: 2058: 2053: 2045: 2044: 2038: 2037: 2036: 2035: 2030: 2025: 2018: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1990: 1985: 1980: 1975: 1967: 1966: 1960: 1955: 1954: 1951: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1904: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1881: 1876: 1875: 1872: 1871: 1866: 1865: 1864: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1835: 1834: 1828: 1827: 1826: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1756: 1751: 1746: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1723: 1722: 1716: 1715: 1714: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1695: 1694: 1690: 1689: 1688: 1687: 1684:United Kingdom 1680: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1532: 1531: 1525: 1524: 1523: 1522: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1472: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1324: 1323: 1319: 1318: 1317: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1281: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1119: 1117:Bilad-el-Sudan 1114: 1109: 1101: 1100: 1094: 1093: 1092: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1073: 1072: 1070:Land of Israel 1066: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1033: 1028: 1027: 1024: 1023: 1018: 1017: 1016: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1000: 999: 998: 993: 988: 983: 978: 968: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 938: 930: 929: 928:Related groups 925: 924: 923: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 897: 892: 887: 882: 877: 872: 867: 862: 861: 860: 855: 840: 835: 834: 831: 830: 825: 824: 823: 822: 812: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 785:Jewish atheism 782: 777: 772: 764: 763: 759: 758: 757: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736:Islamic–Jewish 731: 724: 709: 704: 696: 695: 688: 687: 686: 685: 661: 648: 620: 615: 608: 603: 601:Yehud Medinata 595: 594: 588: 587: 586: 585: 578: 571: 563: 550: 542: 530: 525: 518: 510: 509: 507:Ancient Israel 503: 502: 501: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 463:Land of Israel 460: 452: 451: 445: 440: 439: 436: 435: 430: 429: 428: 427: 422: 418:Shulchan Aruch 413: 408: 403: 398: 390: 389: 388: 387: 382: 374: 373: 367: 366: 365: 364: 359: 351: 350: 344: 343: 342: 341: 336: 331: 323: 322: 314: 309: 308: 305: 304: 301: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 243: 238: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 196: 191: 184:God in Judaism 180: 175: 174: 171: 170: 169: 168: 163: 155: 154: 144: 143: 131: 130: 45: 43: 36: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8315: 8304: 8301: 8299: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8290: 8288: 8273: 8270: 8266: 8261: 8258: 8257: 8255: 8251: 8245: 8242: 8240: 8237: 8233: 8228: 8225: 8224: 8222: 8218: 8210: 8205: 8202: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8191: 8189: 8185: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8165: 8163: 8161: 8157: 8151: 8148: 8144: 8141: 8140: 8139: 8136: 8134: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8125: 8123: 8121: 8117: 8109: 8104: 8101: 8099: 8096: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8083: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8058: 8056: 8054: 8050: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8025: 8023: 8019: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8005:Belmonte Jews 8003: 8001: 7998: 7997: 7996: 7995: 7991: 7985: 7982: 7981: 7980: 7977: 7973: 7972:Paradesi Jews 7970: 7969: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7946: 7945:New Amsterdam 7943: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7927: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7912: 7911: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7899: 7895: 7892: 7891: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7871: 7870: 7869: 7865: 7859: 7856: 7854: 7851: 7850: 7849: 7846: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7834: 7831: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7817: 7814: 7813: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7800: 7797: 7796: 7795: 7792: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7779: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7759: 7758: 7757: 7753: 7752: 7750: 7748: 7744: 7738: 7737: 7736:New Christian 7733: 7731: 7730: 7729:Maghrebi Jews 7726: 7724: 7723: 7719: 7717: 7716: 7712: 7710: 7709: 7705: 7703: 7702: 7698: 7696: 7695: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7682: 7679: 7678: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7661: 7657: 7656: 7654: 7652: 7648: 7643: 7636: 7631: 7629: 7624: 7622: 7617: 7616: 7613: 7596: 7592: 7588: 7585: 7579: 7575: 7572: 7566: 7563: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7546: 7545: 7542: 7534: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7519: 7517: 7509: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7352:Guinea-Bissau 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7234: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7217: 7212: 7210: 7205: 7203: 7198: 7197: 7194: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7141: 7140: 7137: 7136: 7134: 7132:Ethnic groups 7130: 7124: 7121: 7117: 7116:Protestantism 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7103: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7091: 7089: 7085: 7081: 7074: 7069: 7067: 7062: 7060: 7055: 7054: 7051: 7043: 7039: 7035: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7018: 7016:9789652351906 7012: 7008: 7004: 6999: 6998: 6979: 6978: 6971: 6956: 6952: 6946: 6931: 6927: 6921: 6906: 6902: 6896: 6888: 6881: 6866:. May 3, 2012 6865: 6862:(in French). 6861: 6855: 6839: 6838: 6833: 6827: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6793: 6785: 6781: 6775: 6769: 6764: 6749: 6745: 6738: 6722: 6716: 6700: 6694: 6678: 6674: 6668: 6653: 6649: 6642: 6627: 6623: 6616: 6601: 6597: 6590: 6575:. May 9, 2023 6574: 6570: 6569: 6564: 6558: 6550: 6546: 6540: 6524: 6523: 6518: 6512: 6497: 6493: 6487: 6472: 6468: 6462: 6454: 6448: 6444: 6437: 6435: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6396: 6381: 6380: 6375: 6368: 6352: 6346: 6338: 6331: 6312: 6305: 6298: 6283: 6279: 6273: 6265: 6258: 6254: 6248: 6240: 6236: 6230: 6222: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6203: 6195: 6193: 6191: 6189: 6187: 6176: 6175: 6167: 6159: 6157: 6152: 6146: 6138: 6132: 6116: 6112: 6106: 6098: 6096:9782296240360 6092: 6088: 6081: 6073: 6067: 6052: 6048: 6042: 6034: 6030: 6024: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5994: 5979: 5975: 5969: 5954: 5953: 5948: 5941: 5926: 5922: 5915: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5893: 5891: 5889: 5887: 5871: 5867: 5861: 5845: 5844:yadvashem.org 5841: 5834: 5830: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5789:Maghrebi Jews 5787: 5786: 5777: 5774: 5771: 5768: 5765: 5762: 5761: 5752: 5749: 5746: 5745:Ariel Zeitoun 5743: 5740: 5737: 5734: 5731: 5728: 5725: 5722: 5719: 5716: 5713: 5710: 5709:Joseph Sitruk 5707: 5704: 5703:Silvan Shalom 5701: 5698: 5695:(1874–1944), 5694: 5691: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5678: 5675: 5671: 5670:Jacques Saada 5668: 5666: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5652: 5649: 5646: 5643: 5640: 5637: 5634: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5617:Menahem Mazuz 5615: 5612: 5609: 5606: 5603: 5600: 5597: 5594: 5590: 5587: 5584: 5581: 5578: 5575: 5572: 5569: 5566: 5565:William Karel 5563: 5560: 5557: 5554: 5553:Mathilda Guez 5551: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5538: 5535: 5531: 5530:Pierre Darmon 5528: 5525: 5522: 5519: 5518:Claude Challe 5516: 5514: 5510: 5507: 5504: 5501: 5498: 5495: 5492: 5491:Alain Boublil 5489: 5486: 5483: 5480: 5477: 5474: 5471: 5470: 5464: 5462: 5458: 5453: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5418: 5414: 5407: 5403: 5397: 5393: 5387: 5377: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5353: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5338: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5316: 5312: 5309:In 2011, the 5307: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5268: 5266: 5262: 5256: 5251: 5247: 5242: 5240: 5230: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5209:Star of David 5206: 5202: 5190: 5185: 5183: 5178: 5176: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5167: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5143: 5142: 5141: 5137: 5136: 5131: 5130: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5108:Awareness day 5106: 5105: 5104: 5103: 5099: 5098: 5091: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5056: 5055: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5040: 5039: 5036: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5029: 5028: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4987: 4983: 4982: 4981: 4980: 4977: 4974: 4973: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4952: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4918: 4914: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4904: 4901: 4898: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4888: 4882: 4877: 4873: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4857: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4845: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4821:), came from 4820: 4816: 4815:Xavier Vallat 4812: 4808: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4778: 4771: 4768: 4764: 4763: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4741: 4734: 4733:Money changer 4729: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4705: 4700: 4699: 4694: 4693: 4687: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4673:executed for 4672: 4668: 4664: 4655: 4646: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4606: 4602: 4599: 4594: 4592: 4581: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4567: 4562: 4558: 4549: 4540: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4520: 4518: 4517:stock raising 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4473: 4472:Souk El Grana 4468: 4464: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4449: 4447: 4431: 4429: 4420: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4407: 4404: 4403:Mishneh Torah 4400: 4396: 4393: 4390: 4387: 4383: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4367: 4366: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4345: 4341: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4312: 4307: 4298: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4274: 4271: 4260: 4257: 4249: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4225: 4224: 4220: 4215:This section 4213: 4209: 4204: 4203: 4190: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4175: 4171: 4168: 4163: 4159: 4147: 4144: 4136: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4112: 4111: 4107: 4102:This section 4100: 4096: 4091: 4090: 4082: 4080: 4074: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4052:rabbi, their 4049: 4047: 4043: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4022: 4019: 4013: 4010: 4006: 3996: 3993: 3985: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3961: 3960: 3956: 3951:This section 3949: 3945: 3940: 3939: 3930: 3925: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3904: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3856: 3854: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3832: 3829: 3820: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3802: 3799: 3795: 3792: 3791: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3781: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3759: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3738: 3734: 3729: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3710: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3695:Abd al-Mu'min 3692: 3688: 3684: 3679: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3668:Abd al-Mu'min 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3584: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3552: 3550: 3545: 3541: 3536: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3464: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3448: 3444: 3436: 3431: 3426: 3416: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3397:Abd al-Mu'min 3394: 3390: 3385: 3383: 3378: 3376: 3375:Uqba bin Nafi 3372: 3368: 3363: 3359: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3329:In 788, when 3327: 3325: 3319: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3299: 3284: 3281: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3270:Gabriel Camps 3267: 3266:Mohamed Talbi 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3214: 3212: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3184: 3174: 3171: 3163: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3134: 3129:This section 3127: 3123: 3118: 3117: 3109: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3086:St. Augustine 3084:According to 3082: 3080: 3076: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3017: 3008: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2985: 2980: 2979:Hippo Zaritus 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2892:Second Temple 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2872: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2817:Julius Caesar 2814: 2810: 2806: 2805:Hellenization 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2726: 2723: 2718: 2714: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2687:According to 2685: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2648: 2644: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2623:home language 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2503: 2498: 2484: 2473: 2468: 2466: 2461: 2459: 2454: 2453: 2451: 2450: 2445: 2442: 2440: 2437: 2436: 2435: 2434: 2423: 2420: 2418: 2415: 2413: 2410: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2400: 2398: 2395: 2393: 2390: 2388: 2385: 2383: 2380: 2379: 2378: 2377: 2374: 2371: 2370: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2357: 2355: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2342: 2340: 2337: 2335: 2332: 2331: 2330: 2329: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2311: 2304: 2301: 2299: 2296: 2294: 2291: 2289: 2286: 2284: 2283:Judeo-Aramaic 2281: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2273:Judeo-Italian 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2253:Ghardaïa Sign 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2231: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2206: 2201: 2197: 2196: 2195: 2192: 2191: 2188: 2183: 2182: 2171: 2168: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2157: 2156: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2143: 2140: 2138: 2135: 2133: 2130: 2128: 2125: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2115: 2113: 2110: 2108: 2105: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2096: 2095: 2090: 2087: 2085: 2082: 2080: 2077: 2075: 2072: 2071: 2070: 2069: 2066: 2063: 2062: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2049: 2048: 2047: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2039: 2034: 2031: 2029: 2026: 2024: 2019: 2016: 2015: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1991: 1989: 1986: 1984: 1981: 1979: 1976: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1969: 1968: 1964: 1963: 1958: 1953: 1952: 1945: 1942: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1905: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1887: 1886: 1883: 1882: 1879: 1878:Denominations 1874: 1873: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1854: 1852: 1849: 1847: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1838: 1837: 1836: 1833: 1830: 1829: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1804: 1802: 1799: 1797: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1757: 1755: 1752: 1750: 1747: 1745: 1742: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1726: 1725: 1724: 1721: 1718: 1717: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1706:United States 1704: 1702: 1699: 1698: 1697: 1696: 1692: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1619: 1616: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1535: 1534: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1526: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1376: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1331: 1328: 1327: 1326: 1325: 1321: 1320: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1192:Guinea-Bissau 1190: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1104: 1103: 1102: 1099: 1096: 1095: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1067: 1062: 1059: 1057: 1054: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1046:Lists of Jews 1044: 1042: 1039: 1038: 1037: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1025: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1001: 997: 994: 992: 989: 987: 984: 982: 979: 977: 974: 973: 972: 969: 967: 964: 962: 959: 957: 954: 952: 949: 947: 944: 942: 939: 937: 934: 933: 932: 931: 927: 926: 921: 918: 916: 913: 911: 908: 906: 903: 901: 898: 896: 893: 891: 888: 886: 883: 881: 878: 876: 873: 871: 868: 866: 863: 859: 856: 854: 851: 850: 849: 846: 845: 844: 843: 838: 833: 832: 821: 813: 811: 808: 806: 805:The Holocaust 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 781: 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 767: 766: 765: 761: 760: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 732: 730: 725: 721: 715: 710: 708: 705: 703: 700: 699: 698: 697: 693: 690: 689: 682: 676: 670: 665: 662: 658: 652: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 629: 624: 621: 619: 616: 614: 609: 607: 604: 602: 599: 598: 597: 596: 593: 590: 589: 584: 579: 577: 572: 568: 564: 561: 556: 551: 547: 543: 540: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 519: 517: 514: 513: 512: 511: 508: 505: 504: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 455: 454: 453: 449: 448: 443: 438: 437: 426: 423: 420: 419: 414: 412: 409: 407: 406:Mishneh Torah 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 393: 392: 391: 386: 383: 381: 378: 377: 376: 375: 372: 369: 368: 363: 360: 358: 355: 354: 353: 352: 349: 346: 345: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 326: 325: 324: 321: 318: 317: 312: 307: 306: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 244: 242: 239: 237: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 204: 200: 197: 195: 192: 189: 185: 182: 181: 178: 173: 172: 167: 166:Who is a Jew? 164: 162: 159: 158: 157: 156: 153: 149: 146: 145: 141: 137: 136: 127: 124: 116: 105: 102: 98: 95: 91: 88: 84: 81: 77: 74: – 73: 69: 68:Find sources: 62: 58: 52: 51: 46:This article 44: 40: 35: 34: 29: 25: 20: 16: 8098:Judeo-Gascon 8071:Judeo-Arabic 8061:Judeo-Berber 7992: 7907: 7900: 7879:Gibraltarian 7868:North Africa 7866: 7858:Thessalonian 7754: 7734: 7727: 7720: 7713: 7706: 7699: 7692: 7666:Roman Empire 7658: 7587:Saint Helena 7558: 7486: 7462:South Africa 7452:Sierra Leone 7257:Burkina Faso 7176:Roma (Gypsy) 7122: 7101:Christianity 7033: 7002: 6981:. Retrieved 6976: 6970: 6958:. Retrieved 6954: 6945: 6933:. Retrieved 6929: 6920: 6908:. Retrieved 6904: 6895: 6880: 6868:. Retrieved 6854: 6842:. Retrieved 6835: 6826: 6816:December 21, 6814:. Retrieved 6810:the original 6801: 6792: 6783: 6774: 6763: 6751:. Retrieved 6747: 6737: 6725:. Retrieved 6715: 6703:. Retrieved 6693: 6681:. Retrieved 6677:the original 6667: 6657:February 29, 6655:. Retrieved 6651: 6641: 6629:. Retrieved 6626:Israel Hayom 6625: 6615: 6603:. Retrieved 6599: 6589: 6577:. Retrieved 6568:The Guardian 6566: 6557: 6548: 6539: 6527:. Retrieved 6520: 6511: 6499:. Retrieved 6495: 6486: 6474:. Retrieved 6470: 6461: 6442: 6421:. Retrieved 6409: 6405: 6395: 6383:. Retrieved 6377: 6367: 6355:. Retrieved 6345: 6330: 6318:. Retrieved 6311:the original 6297: 6287:November 21, 6285:. Retrieved 6281: 6272: 6263: 6247: 6238: 6229: 6201: 6173: 6166: 6154: 6145: 6131: 6119:. Retrieved 6115:the original 6105: 6086: 6080: 6066: 6056:November 21, 6054:. Retrieved 6050: 6041: 6032: 6023: 6011:. Retrieved 6007:the original 6002: 5993: 5983:November 21, 5981:. Retrieved 5977: 5968: 5956:. Retrieved 5950: 5940: 5928:. Retrieved 5914: 5901: 5875:November 21, 5873:. Retrieved 5869: 5860: 5850:November 17, 5848:. Retrieved 5843: 5833: 5775: 5769: 5763: 5751:Nissim Zvili 5727:Avraham Tiar 5654:Victor Perez 5630:Albert Memmi 5599:Georges Adda 5589:Hayyim Madar 5544:Western Wall 5524:Jacob Chemla 5503:Serge Bramly 5454: 5434:Hayyim Madar 5410: 5359: 5339: 5319: 5308: 5289: 5243: 5236: 5221: 5205:yellow badge 5198: 5127: 5053: 5007:Tripolitania 4984: 4881:yellow badge 4858: 4848: 4818: 4804: 4798:World War II 4794:Nazi Germany 4786:Vichy France 4779: 4777: 4774:World War II 4767:Judeo-Arabic 4760: 4757:emancipation 4746: 4702: 4697: 4695: 4691: 4689: 4679:Napoleon III 4660: 4607: 4603: 4595: 4587: 4570: 4554: 4521: 4477: 4470:Entrance to 4450: 4442: 4424: 4351: 4342: 4315: 4275: 4267: 4252: 4243: 4228:Please help 4216: 4176: 4172: 4154: 4139: 4130: 4115:Please help 4103: 4075: 4050: 4023: 4014: 4003: 3988: 3979: 3964:Please help 3952: 3927: 3910: 3892: 3884: 3876: 3862: 3833: 3825: 3806: 3797: 3788: 3760: 3730: 3711: 3680: 3655: 3633: 3590: 3553: 3537: 3465: 3451: 3440: 3434: 3386: 3379: 3328: 3320: 3301: 3282: 3242: 3215: 3204:Vandal kings 3189: 3166: 3157: 3142:Please help 3130: 3090:circumcision 3083: 3072: 3067:Bardo Museum 3063:Roman mosaic 3058: 3022: 2982: 2975:Al-Qayrawani 2956: 2944:Roman Africa 2936:Roman Empire 2895: 2887: 2876:First Temple 2873: 2837:Roman Empire 2786: 2711: 2693:Albert Memmi 2686: 2680: 2656: 2650: 2604: 2576:anti-Zionist 2534:. After the 2515: 2513: 2422:Post-Zionism 2293:Judeo-Berber 2288:Judeo-Arabic 2248:Judeo-Gascon 1995:Pidyon haben 1914:Conservative 1460:Saudi Arabia 1293: 1278:South Africa 1267:Sierra Leone 1089:Israeli Jews 1003:Mosaic Arabs 956:Kaifeng Jews 817:Arab–Israeli 790:Emancipation 669:Great Revolt 478:Anti-Judaism 473:Antisemitism 468:Name "Judea" 263:Baal teshuva 119: 110: 100: 93: 86: 79: 67: 55:Please help 50:verification 47: 15: 8263: [ 8230: [ 8207: [ 8106: [ 7828:Palestinian 7514:recognition 7467:South Sudan 7357:Ivory Coast 7144:Arab-Berber 6870:January 10, 6802:RFI Musique 6753:October 23, 6605:October 20, 6353:. Ushmm.org 6320:October 14, 5978:pjvoice.com 5733:Aharon Uzan 5665:death march 5642:Serge Moati 5623:and former 5593:Chief Rabbi 5540:Yehuda Getz 5442:La Goulette 5438:chief rabbi 5422:Lag Ba'Omer 5417:Hara Sghira 5280:Lag Ba'Omer 5261:Six-Day War 5253: [ 5213:labor camps 5100:Remembrance 4965:Six-Day War 4960:Suez Crisis 4802:antisemitic 4696:(§ 6) 4690:(§ 4) 4663:Ahmed I Bey 4635:Léon Roches 4513:fruit trees 4446:Mahmoud Bey 4295:Janissaries 3826:During the 3765:flocked to 3733:probabilism 3664:Sidi Mahrez 3601:Banu Sulaym 3333:proclaimed 3287:Middle Ages 3258:Ibn Khaldun 2924:Justinian I 2755:One of the 2697:Serge Moati 2653:David Cazès 2588:Six-Day War 2509: 1900 2491: 1900 2417:Revisionist 2407:Neo-Zionism 2014:Zeved habat 1807:Puerto Rico 1633:Netherlands 1465:South Korea 1450:Philippines 1330:Afghanistan 1197:Ivory Coast 971:Crypto-Jews 936:Bnei Anusim 915:Bene Israel 880:Beta Israel 837:Communities 744:Middle Ages 483:Persecution 258:Bereavement 8287:Categories 7811:Macedonian 7799:Alexandria 7747:Dispersion 7722:Megorashim 7701:Degredados 7671:Golden Age 7569:(Portugal) 7527:Somaliland 7447:Seychelles 7412:Mozambique 7397:Mauritania 7382:Madagascar 7337:The Gambia 7272:Cape Verde 7042:1142832305 6864:Légifrance 6844:January 8, 6727:October 4, 6705:October 4, 6683:October 4, 6631:October 7, 6476:October 4, 6385:August 15, 6357:October 4, 5958:October 4, 5826:References 5693:Leïla Sfez 5636:Nine Moati 5595:of Tunisia 5559:Élie Kakou 5509:Elsa Cayat 5380:Synagogues 5327:secularism 5290:After the 5201:Yad Vashem 4915:Background 4755:and their 4735:in Tunisia 4683:man-of-war 4671:Batto Sfez 4561:Napoleonic 4509:date palms 4507:, growing 4505:winemaking 4318:Jewish law 4031:privateers 3920:in Tunis, 3726:blacksmith 3712:Under the 3707:Maimonides 3693:by Caliph 3634:Under the 3597:Banu Hilal 3556:Al-Andalus 3335:Mauritania 3250:syncretism 3160:April 2024 3075:Hammam Lif 3069:, Tunisia. 3059:"Sinagoga" 3037:necropolis 3025:Tertullian 2967:Mauritania 2959:Visigothic 2920:Belisarius 2880:Hammam-Lif 2797:Alexandria 2781:pilgrimage 2752:in 814 BC. 2580:Arab world 2402:Maximalism 2354:Secularism 2334:Autonomism 2151:Literature 1944:Humanistic 1548:Azerbaijan 1510:Uzbekistan 1485:Tajikistan 1405:Kyrgyzstan 1390:Kazakhstan 1237:Mozambique 1212:Madagascar 1132:Cape Verde 1084:New Yishuv 1079:Old Yishuv 1030:Population 1008:Subbotniks 966:Samaritans 905:Romanyotim 848:Ashkenazim 795:Old Yishuv 775:Sabbateans 762:Modern era 754:Golden Age 681:Bar Kokhba 401:Beit Yosef 268:Philosophy 83:newspapers 8053:Languages 8000:Amazonian 7984:Livornese 7962:Hamburger 7806:Hungarian 7772:Bulgarian 7694:Conversos 7402:Mauritius 7088:Religions 7025:951011735 6501:April 30, 6423:August 8, 6418:1547-1942 6257:"baḥuṣim" 5999:"Tunisia" 5930:March 29, 5715:David Tal 5662:Auschwitz 5658:Flyweight 5548:Jerusalem 5532:, French 5485:Max Azria 5475:, scholar 5370:synagogue 5335:Gal Gadot 4835:Holocaust 4811:aryanized 4675:blasphemy 4626:blasphemy 4457:bastinado 4453:Gibraltar 4439:Inventory 4419:responses 4217:does not 4104:does not 4037:and then 3953:does not 3887:(Hebrew: 3722:carpenter 3480:treatises 3445:and then 3443:Aghlabids 3362:Aghlabite 3272:that the 3240:on them. 3211:Justinian 3131:does not 2997:caliphate 2981:(Arabic: 2971:Byzantine 2948:romanized 2853:Cyrenaica 2703:Antiquity 2617:and have 2520:Punic era 2412:Religious 2268:Zarphatic 2258:Bukharian 2228:Judeo-Tat 2213:Yeshivish 2187:Languages 2142:Sephardic 2132:Israelite 2122:Ethiopian 2112:Ashkenazi 2051:Religious 1841:Australia 1823:Venezuela 1729:Argentina 1711:Greenland 1623:Lithuania 1475:Sri Lanka 1470:Singapore 1395:Kurdistan 1360:Indonesia 1350:Hong Kong 1303:Abayudaya 1227:Mauritius 961:Igbo Jews 951:Krymchaks 870:Sephardim 738:relations 632:Sadducees 628:Pharisees 618:Sanhedrin 533:Jerusalem 293:Synagogue 161:Etymology 113:June 2018 8160:Politics 7940:Suriname 7915:American 7901:Tunisian 7889:Moroccan 7874:Algerian 7833:Romanian 7816:Monastir 7794:Egyptian 7787:Splicani 7777:Croatian 7762:Albanian 7715:Marranos 7708:Lançados 7660:Sepharad 7593: / 7589: / 7582:(France) 7576: / 7554: / 7550: / 7502:Zimbabwe 7477:Tanzania 7327:Ethiopia 7322:Eswatini 7302:Djibouti 7267:Cameroon 7252:Botswana 7171:Italians 7106:Orthodox 6549:BBC News 6496:Le Point 6471:Ynetnews 6255:(2010). 6237:(1819). 5783:See also 5676:minister 5436:was the 5430:Al Qaeda 5086:Tunisia 4955:1948 war 4928:Sephardi 4892:a series 4890:Part of 4717:Mourners 4610:coachman 4537:Karaites 4489:footwear 4474:in Tunis 4363:Kabbalah 4283:cemetery 4246:May 2024 4162:piastres 4133:May 2024 4058:takkanah 4039:Husainid 3982:May 2024 3885:gorneyim 3865:Sephardi 3763:Portugal 3691:apostasy 3687:heretics 3599:and the 3500:Ifriqiya 3457:Kairouan 3401:Muhammad 3371:Kairouan 3236:imposes 3196:Arianism 3034:Gammarth 2973:cities. 2930:and the 2922:in 534, 2861:Domitian 2841:pilgrims 2833:Josephus 2750:Carthage 2675:and the 2619:switched 2439:Category 2397:Kahanism 2344:Feminism 2316:Politics 2200:Biblical 2170:American 2117:Bukharan 2107:American 2007:Shidduch 1983:Clothing 1939:Haymanot 1885:Orthodox 1813:Suriname 1796:Paraguay 1749:Colombia 1648:Portugal 1558:Bulgaria 1495:Thailand 1445:Pakistan 1425:Mongolia 1420:Malaysia 1340:Cambodia 1314:Zimbabwe 1289:Tanzania 1167:Eswatini 1157:Ethiopia 1147:Djibouti 1127:Cameroon 1122:Botswana 1051:Diaspora 1013:Noahides 986:Marranos 910:Cochinim 895:Bukharim 885:Gruzinim 875:Teimanim 865:Mizrahim 853:Galician 819:conflict 780:Hasidism 770:Haskalah 675:Diaspora 546:timeline 458:Timeline 371:Rabbinic 278:Kabbalah 253:Marriage 229:Tzedakah 219:Holidays 177:Religion 140:a series 138:Part of 8220:Studies 8150:Haredim 8128:Cuisine 8103:Bagitto 8086:Haketia 7979:Italian 7952:English 7935:Curaçao 7920:Antwerp 7894:Tetuani 7853:Rhodian 7838:Serbian 7823:Ottoman 7782:Ragusan 7767:Bosnian 7651:Origins 7578:Réunion 7574:Mayotte 7565:Madeira 7560:(Spain) 7556:Melilla 7487:Tunisia 7457:Somalia 7442:Senegal 7427:Nigeria 7417:Namibia 7407:Morocco 7372:Liberia 7367:Lesotho 7317:Eritrea 7287:Comoros 7262:Burundi 7237:Algeria 7156:Berbers 7149:Bedouin 7123:Judaism 6983:May 16, 6960:May 16, 6955:jfi.org 6935:May 16, 6910:May 16, 6905:jfi.org 6579:May 10, 6573:Reuters 6529:July 7, 6156:Reuters 5952:Haaretz 5674:cabinet 5648:Kobi Oz 5366:yeshiva 5331:Ennahda 5296:Ennahda 5229:award. 5077:Lebanon 5038:Morocco 5022:Tripoli 5017:Baghdad 4945:Zionism 4933:Mizrahi 4865:Central 4731:Jewish 4719:in the 4535:, were 4529:Bedouin 4525:Algeria 4379:glosses 4361:or the 4355:Chumash 4238:removed 4223:sources 4198:Leaders 4167:chechia 4125:removed 4110:sources 4071:dhimmis 4035:Muradid 4009:Livorno 4005:Marrano 3974:removed 3959:sources 3901:liturgy 3873:Tuscany 3848:Turkish 3836:Bizerte 3780:justice 3771:Morocco 3767:Algeria 3752:Morocco 3748:Algeria 3744:Castile 3740:Sunnism 3699:Shahada 3625:Tlemcen 3609:gaonate 3605:Sunnism 3544:Baghdad 3405:messiah 3393:Maghreb 3389:Almohad 3367:Kairwan 3343:Baghdad 3238:baptism 3230:Maurice 3208:Emperor 3192:Vandals 3152:removed 3137:sources 3098:Shabbat 3094:kashrut 3001:Baghdad 2984:Bizerta 2963:Sisebut 2912:Vandals 2908:shekels 2869:Hadrian 2746:Solomon 2665:Judaism 2552:Livorno 2540:Judaism 2524:Tunisia 2502:Tunisia 2382:General 2373:Zionism 2349:Leftism 2339:Bundism 2263:Knaanic 2223:Yevanic 2208:Yiddish 2165:Yiddish 2160:Israeli 2137:Mizrahi 2127:Israeli 2098:Cuisine 2074:Ancient 2056:Secular 2002:Kashrut 1978:Wedding 1965:Customs 1957:Culture 1934:Science 1929:Renewal 1919:Karaite 1900:Hasidic 1832:Oceania 1818:Uruguay 1786:Jamaica 1766:Ecuador 1734:Bolivia 1678:Ukraine 1653:Romania 1628:Moldova 1608:Hungary 1598:Germany 1593:Georgia 1583:Finland 1578:Estonia 1573:Denmark 1568:Czechia 1553:Belarus 1543:Austria 1538:Armenia 1515:Vietnam 1430:Myanmar 1415:Lebanon 1335:Bahrain 1294:Tunisia 1272:Somalia 1247:Nigeria 1242:Namibia 1232:Morocco 1162:Eritrea 1107:Algeria 991:Neofiti 900:Italkim 890:Juhurim 800:Zionism 749:Khazars 644:Sicarii 640:Zealots 636:Essenes 623:Schisms 488:Leaders 450:General 442:History 385:Tosefta 380:Midrash 357:Mishnah 339:Ketuvim 334:Nevi'im 283:Customs 214:Shabbat 209:Halakha 201: ( 199:Mitzvot 186: ( 152:Judaism 97:scholar 24:Tunisia 8010:Xuetas 7967:Indian 7957:French 7884:Libyan 7843:Syrian 7644:topics 7597: 7580: 7567: 7497:Zambia 7492:Uganda 7432:Rwanda 7387:Malawi 7347:Guinea 7242:Angola 7166:French 7040: 7023: 7013: 6449: 6416: 6406:CELAAN 6217: 6121:May 4, 6093: 6013:May 4, 5699:singer 5697:malouf 5536:player 5534:tennis 5450:Djerba 5374:Zarzis 5342:Djerba 5315:Israel 5304:Djerba 5239:Hafsia 5151:Aliyah 5113:JIMENA 4992:Aleppo 4986:Farhud 4938:Yemeni 4869:Allied 4622:Maliki 4501:Djerba 4493:Nabeul 4481:medina 4359:Talmud 4357:, the 4326:Talmud 4281:, the 4158:Hanafi 4027:credit 3918:consul 3897:Arabic 3893:tuansa 3889:גורנים 3881:Arabic 3877:granas 3775:rabbis 3737:Maliki 3718:dhimma 3672:ghetto 3660:Muslim 3656:funduk 3652:Djerba 3644:Mehdia 3621:Béjaïa 3613:Levant 3580:Levant 3568:Sousse 3564:Mahdia 3437:(1899) 3355:caliph 3351:Djerba 3308:dhimmi 3274:Jarawa 3245:Berber 3079:Tozeur 3041:Hebrew 3030:Talmud 3005:Levant 2938:, the 2932:Pagans 2928:Arians 2900:Romans 2896:mokdem 2867:, and 2865:Trajan 2825:Pompey 2801:Cyrene 2765:Kohens 2761:Djerba 2744:) and 2671:, the 2607:Israel 2596:Djerba 2566:. The 2536:Muslim 2444:Portal 2303:Domari 2233:Shassi 2194:Hebrew 2089:Humour 2033:Hiloni 2028:Aliyah 1988:Niddah 1973:Minyan 1908:Reform 1895:Haredi 1890:Modern 1791:Mexico 1776:Guyana 1739:Brazil 1701:Canada 1673:Sweden 1663:Serbia 1658:Russia 1643:Poland 1638:Norway 1618:Latvia 1603:Greece 1588:France 1563:Cyprus 1529:Europe 1500:Turkey 1490:Taiwan 1400:Kuwait 1385:Jordan 1375:Israel 1309:Zambia 1299:Uganda 1217:Malawi 1187:Guinea 1177:Gambia 1112:Angola 1098:Africa 981:Dönmeh 976:Anusim 920:Berber 858:Litvak 810:Israel 716: 653: 567:Second 535: 396:Targum 362:Gemara 348:Talmud 320:Tanakh 273:Ethics 224:Prayer 99: 92: 85: 78: 70: 28:Africa 8267:] 8253:Other 8234:] 8211:] 8133:Music 8110:] 7930:Aruba 7925:Dutch 7848:Greek 7552:Ceuta 7472:Sudan 7422:Niger 7377:Libya 7362:Kenya 7342:Ghana 7332:Gabon 7307:Egypt 7247:Benin 7181:Turks 7161:Copts 7139:Arabs 7096:Islam 6314:(PDF) 6307:(PDF) 6260:(PDF) 6178:(PDF) 5362:Tunis 5257:] 5123:WOJAC 5072:Egypt 5062:Yemen 5012:Cairo 4598:jizya 4497:Gabes 4334:herem 4330:dayan 4187:Ulama 4066:jizya 3853:linen 3809:guild 3798:jizya 3784:taxes 3648:Kalaa 3617:Cairo 3593:Zirid 3576:Gabès 3560:Egypt 3549:dayan 3540:exile 3409:Islam 3347:harem 3324:Arabs 3316:jizya 3278:Islam 3254:Tanit 3049:Greek 3045:Latin 2993:Arabs 2987:) by 2961:king 2952:togas 2946:were 2906:of 2 2884:Latin 2857:Judea 2793:Tanit 2738:Hiram 2392:Labor 2387:Green 2084:Dance 2042:Music 1861:Palau 1781:Haiti 1744:Chile 1668:Spain 1613:Italy 1520:Yemen 1480:Syria 1455:Qatar 1435:Nepal 1380:Japan 1355:India 1345:China 1284:Sudan 1207:Libya 1202:Kenya 1182:Ghana 1172:Gabon 1152:Egypt 1137:Benin 996:Xueta 941:Lemba 560:First 425:Zohar 329:Torah 311:Texts 298:Rabbi 288:Rites 188:names 104:JSTOR 90:books 8173:Shas 7482:Togo 7392:Mali 7282:Chad 7038:OCLC 7021:OCLC 7011:ISBN 6985:2024 6962:2024 6937:2024 6912:2024 6872:2019 6846:2012 6818:2010 6755:2023 6729:2012 6707:2012 6685:2012 6659:2020 6633:2016 6607:2023 6581:2023 6531:2024 6503:2013 6478:2012 6447:ISBN 6425:2020 6414:ISSN 6387:2020 6359:2012 6322:2012 6289:2019 6215:ISBN 6158:.com 6123:2017 6091:ISBN 6058:2019 6015:2017 5985:2019 5960:2012 5932:2024 5877:2019 5852:2023 5686:and 5118:JJAC 5082:Iran 5067:Iraq 5054:Egoz 4997:Aden 4667:qaid 4614:qaid 4591:qaid 4515:and 4499:and 4487:and 4270:qaid 4221:any 4219:cite 4108:any 4106:cite 4079:Hara 4042:beys 3957:any 3955:cite 3844:Sfax 3840:Susa 3813:qaid 3769:and 3750:and 3627:and 3574:and 3572:Sfax 3533:Gaon 3517:Bari 3474:and 3453:Jews 3135:any 3133:cite 3047:and 2940:Jews 2855:and 2791:and 2789:Baal 2742:Tire 2645:and 2564:Axis 2544:Jews 2514:The 1851:Guam 1846:Fiji 1801:Peru 1754:Cuba 1440:Oman 1410:Laos 1370:Iraq 1365:Iran 1322:Asia 1251:Igbo 1222:Mali 241:Brit 150:and 148:Jews 76:news 6652:NPR 6207:doi 5546:in 4863:in 4796:in 4511:or 4232:by 4119:by 3968:by 3883:or 3879:in 3542:of 3341:of 3146:by 2999:of 2942:of 2886:as 2799:or 2732:or 2065:Art 411:Tur 203:613 59:by 26:in 8289:: 8265:es 8232:es 8209:he 8108:it 7019:. 7009:. 6953:. 6928:. 6903:. 6834:. 6804:. 6800:. 6782:. 6746:. 6650:. 6624:. 6598:. 6571:. 6565:. 6547:. 6519:. 6494:. 6469:. 6433:^ 6408:. 6404:. 6376:. 6280:. 6262:. 6213:. 6185:^ 6153:. 6049:. 6031:. 6001:. 5976:. 5949:. 5923:. 5904:. 5900:. 5885:^ 5868:. 5842:. 5591:, 5452:. 5428:. 5294:, 5255:he 4894:on 4519:. 4495:, 4463:. 3842:, 3838:, 3800:); 3786:. 3758:. 3724:, 3709:. 3662:, 3646:, 3631:. 3623:, 3570:, 3566:, 3558:, 3502:. 3463:. 3415:. 3280:. 3100:, 3092:, 3065:, 3061:, 3051:. 3043:, 2902:a 2863:, 2659:; 2625:. 2506:c. 2504:, 2488:c. 678:, 672:, 642:, 638:, 634:, 630:, 142:on 7634:e 7627:t 7620:v 7215:e 7208:t 7201:v 7072:e 7065:t 7058:v 7044:. 7027:. 6964:. 6939:. 6914:. 6874:. 6848:. 6820:. 6757:. 6731:. 6709:. 6687:. 6661:. 6635:. 6609:. 6583:. 6551:. 6533:. 6505:. 6480:. 6455:. 6427:. 6410:7 6389:. 6361:. 6324:. 6291:. 6266:. 6223:. 6209:: 6139:. 6125:. 6099:. 6074:. 6060:. 6017:. 5987:. 5962:. 5934:. 5908:. 5879:. 5854:. 5388:. 5207:( 5188:e 5181:t 5174:v 4259:) 4253:( 4248:) 4244:( 4240:. 4226:. 4146:) 4140:( 4135:) 4131:( 4127:. 4113:. 3995:) 3989:( 3984:) 3980:( 3976:. 3962:. 3871:( 3369:( 3173:) 3167:( 3162:) 3158:( 3154:. 3140:. 2471:e 2464:t 2457:v 1305:) 1301:( 1253:) 1249:( 722:) 718:( 684:) 667:( 660:) 655:( 646:) 626:( 569:) 558:( 548:) 537:( 205:) 190:) 126:) 120:( 115:) 111:( 101:· 94:· 87:· 80:· 53:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Knowledge

History of the Jews in Tunisia

Index