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329:, a figure that compared favourably to any other form of ground transit. However, in order to provide lift, the vehicle would need to ingest air and accelerate it to vehicle speed before pumping it into the lift pads. This produced what they called "momentum drag", accounting for a further 2,100 kW (2,800 hp). The combined 4,900 kW (6,600 hp) was not unheard of, existing freight locomotives of similar power were already in use. However, these locomotives weighed 80 tons, much of it constituted by the voltage control and conversion equipment, whereas the Tracked Hovercraft design was intended to be a very lightweight vehicle. THL's solution was to move this equipment to the trackside, requiring this expensive technology to be distributed all along the line. However the PTACV demonstrated that a 64,000 pounds (29 t), 60 seat vehicle needed only 560 kW (750 hp) at 142 mph (229 km/h) for its air suspension and guidance system. At 431 km/h (268 mph), the French I80 HV (80 seats) reached similar figures.
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155:" that forces the flanges on the sides of the wheels to hit the sides of the rails, as if they were rounding a tight bend. At speeds of 140 mph (230 km/h) or over, the frequency of these hits increased to the point where they became a major form of drag, dramatically increasing rolling resistance and potentially causing a derailment. That meant that for travel above some critical speed, a hovercraft could be more efficient than a wheeled vehicle of the same weight.
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300:. The pressure of the air required is a function of the vehicle weight and the size of the lift pad, essentially a measure of overall vehicle density. A non-moving vehicle only loses this air due to leakage around the pads, which can be very low depending on the relative pressure between the pad and the outside atmosphere, and further reduced by introducing a "skirt" to close the gap between the pad and running surface as much as possible.
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260:(LIMs), which, prior to his efforts, had been limited to "toy" systems. A LIM can be built in several different ways, but in its simplest form it consists of an active portion on the vehicle corresponding to the windings on a conventional motor, and a metal plate on the tracks acting as the stator. When the windings are energized, the
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forthcoming. The need for an electricity supply system, low energy efficiency, and noise levels were seen as problems. The last tests of the Rohr vehicle ended in
October 1975. Since then the Pueblo facility has been used for testing conventional rail vehicles, and is now known as the Transportation Technology Center.
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additional boost a jet engine was added, powering it to 400 km/h (250 mph) in
October 1973, peaking at 430 km/h (270 mph) on 5 March 1974, a world record to this day. At the same time, Bertin started exploring the LIM for a lower-speed suburban vehicle, building a prototype known as the S44.
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track, and on 26 March 1966 it reached 202 km/h (126 mph). Higher speeds could not be reached with a propeller on the short test track, so the engineers equipped the vehicle with small rockets and in
December it reached 303 km/h (188 mph). This success garnered funding for the addition of a
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Like their UK counterparts, the seeds of the AĂ©rotrain's demise were already being sown by their counterparts at the national railway. In 1966, other SNCF engineers had made the first proposals for higher speed conventional railways, a proposal that would take on a life of its own and evolve into the
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In spite of this success, two weeks later the government cancelled further funding. A combination of the total lack of interest on BR's part, and infighting between the various high-speed efforts, prompted the formation of an independent review board that heavily favored APT. The test track was later
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in 1970. The location was chosen in a flat area that could allow up to 20 miles (32 km) of track to be laid, although funds only covered the first 4-mile (6.4 km) section. Rising costs further limited this to a short 1-mile (1.6 km) section. The prototype vehicle, RTV 31, started speed
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The team secured some additional funding for the construction of a scale-model system. This was built in the yard of the Hythe site, consisting of a large loop of track about three feet off the ground. By this point the basic layout had changed, with the guideway now in the form of a box girder, with
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But much more important was that there was no need to ingest and accelerate air to feed into the pads, which eliminated 2,100 kW of load and replaced it by the power needed to operate the magnets. This was estimated to be as little as 40 kW, and had much less dependency on speed. This meant
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between the lift air and the ground below it. Some of the lift air "sticks" to the running surface, and is dragged out from under the pad as it moves. The amount of air that is lost though this mechanism is dependent on vehicle speed, surface roughness and the total area of the lift pads. The vehicle
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is one of the first popular introductions of the
Levapad concept. The article focuses on cars, based on Ford's prototype "Glideair" vehicle, but quotes Kucher noting "We look upon Glideair as a new form of high-speed land transportation, probably in the field of rail surface travel, for fast trips of
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jet engines were added to the vehicle to propel the vehicle up to higher speeds, after acceleration the engines were then throttled back so that the thrust equaled their drag. On 14 August 1974, the LIMRV achieved a world record speed of 255.7 mph (411.5 km/h) for vehicles on conventional
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Lacking the engineering know-how in the nascent LIM field, Bertin's early designs used propellers. Through 1964 the team built a 1/2 scale model of a small hovertrain, and a 3 km (2 mi) long track to test it on. On 29 December 1965 the prototype was first placed on its upside-down T-shaped
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More recently, a
Japanese project known as Aero-Train has been built to the extent of several prototypes and a test track. The basic concept is the same as the classic hovertrain, but replaces the active hovercraft system of pumps and lift pads with wings, using the efficient generation of lift from
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By the early 1970s, a wide variety of new maglev proposals were being actively worked on around the world. The German government, in particular, was funding several different passive and active systems in order to explore which of the proposed solutions made the most sense. By the mid 1970s, several
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concept, and several study projects were starting in
Germany and Japan. Through the same period, Laithwaite had invented a new form of the LIM that provided both lift and forward thrust, and could be built over a passive track like the conventional LIMs. In either case, only magnets in the immediate
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can ingest. In the case of a hovertrain design, the air losses at the pads increase with speed, so an increasing amount of air must be ingested and accelerated to compensate. That increasing volume of air is at an increasingly lower speed, relative to the vehicle. The result is a non-linear increase
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It was noticed early on that the energy needed to lift a hovercraft was directly related to the smoothness of the surface it traveled on. This was not surprising; the air trapped under the hovercraft's skirt will remain there except where it leaks out around the bottom of the skirt where it contacts
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However, there was almost no money left over, so the Rohr vehicle received only 1.5 miles (2.4 km) of track, on which a maximum of only 145 mph (233 km/h) was possible. By the time the UTACV was ready for testing, most of the budget had already been used up, and no further funds were
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The test track for the LIMRV at the HSGTC near Pueblo wasn't yet complete when
Garrett delivered the vehicle: the reaction rail in the middle of the tracks was still being installed. Once the track was ready, linear induction motor, vehicle power systems, and rail dynamics testing progressed and by
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and more conventional projects, the FRA also took out licenses on Bertin's designs and started efforts to build several prototype vehicles under the
Tracked Air Cushion Vehicle (TACV) program. TACV envisioned a LIM powered hovertrain with 300 mph (483 km/h) performance. Different elements
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engines driving a single shrouded propeller. An 18 km (11 mi) long test track outside of
Chevilly was built to test it, where it arrived on 10 September 1969. Two days later it reached 200 km/h (120 mph), and the day after that 250 km/h (160 mph), its design speed. For
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At this point the project entered hiatus for lack of funding. During this same period, British Rail was working on an extensive study project that was suggesting that the hunting problems seen on existing trains could be addressed through development of suitable suspension systems. BR lost interest
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The idea of using magnets to levitate a train had been explored throughout the active period of the hovertrains. At first it was believed this would be impractical; if the system used electromagnets, the control systems that ensured even lift across the vehicle would be prohibitively expensive, and
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By carefully timing the energizing of the windings, the fields in the windings and "reaction rail" will be slightly offset due to the hysteresis. That offset results in a net thrust along the reaction rail, allowing the LIM to pull itself along the rail without any physical contact. The LIM concept
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Several development proposals were offered and hotly debated both within SNCF and the government. After many proposals, on 21 June 1974 SNCF signed a contract for an AĂ©rotrain line between La DĂ©fense and Cergy, on the northwestern side of Paris. On 17 July the contract was annulled. The
September
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Hovertrains were seen as a relatively low-risk and low-cost way to develop high-speed inter-city train service, in an era when conventional rail seemed stuck to speeds around 140 mph (230 km/h) or less. By the late 1960s, major development efforts were underway in France, the UK and the
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proposed designs, with the Grumman vehicle being given the go-ahead. Grumman's TACRV was presented in 1972. Although Grumman's efforts got the majority of the funding in the TACV project, ensuring the construction of 22 miles (35 km) of track, the reaction rails for the LIM propulsion were
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Better yet, such a vehicle would also retain all of the positive qualities of a hovercraft. Small imperfections in the surface would have no effect on the ride quality, so the complexity of the suspension system could be reduced. Additionally, since the load is spread out over the surface of the
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These two properties meant that the running surface could be considerably simpler than the surface needed to support the same vehicle on wheels; hovertrains could be supported on surfaces similar to existing light-duty roadways, instead of the much more complex and expensive railbeds needed for
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Launched in 2007, the Franco-Brazilian initiative Fultrace (an acronym for 'Fast ULtralight TRacked Air-Cushioned Equipment') has produced sketch designs for a high speed (200–350 km/h) inter-city system and a lower speed (50–120 km/h) "U-Trace" system for urban installations. A
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The group at Hovercraft Development applied the LIM concept to their hovertrain almost immediately after the LIM became well known around 1961. By the time the prototype was running in 1963, they had been promoting the idea of using a LIM with their suspension as the basis for a full-sized
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A study by UK Tracked Hovercraft Ltd. (see below) considered the energy use of a 40-ton 100-passenger hovertrain. At 400 km/h (250 mph) and in a 70 km/h (43 mph) crosswind, they predicted that their hovertrain would require 2,800 kW (3,750 hp) to overcome
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program. Like the Tracked Hovercraft and APT, the AĂ©rotrain project soon found itself fighting with the TGV for future development. Unlike the UK work, however, the AĂ©rotrain had stronger political backing, and did not suffer from the same lack of funding as its British counterpart.
212:. The Levapad required extremely flat surfaces to work on, either metal plates, or as originally intended, the very smooth concrete of a factory floor. Kucher eventually became VP in charge of the Ford Scientific Laboratory, continuing development of the Levapad concept throughout.
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The problem is that the air is at rest compared to the world, not the vehicle. In order to be used by the air pumps, it must first be brought up to vehicle speed. Similar effects occur with almost all high-speed vehicles: thus the reason for the large and complex air inlets on
103:, in practice this was offset by their need for entirely new lines. Conventional wheeled trains could run at low speed on existing lines, greatly reducing capital expenditures in urban areas. Interest in hovertrains waned, and major development had ended by the mid-1970s.
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was an early advocate of the hovercraft, and had built a series of multi-skirt transport vehicles for the French army known as the "Terraplane" in the early 1960s. In 1963, he showed a model of a vehicle similar to the early Hovercraft Development concepts to
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and allow very high performance, while also simplifying the infrastructure needed to lay new lines. Hovertrain is a generic term, and the vehicles are more commonly referred to by their project names where they were developed. In the UK they are known as
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Laithwaite suggested that the LIM would be a perfect fit for high speed transport, and built a model consisting of a chair mounted on a four-wheeled chassis on rails with a LIM rail running down the middle. After successful demonstrations, he convinced
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It does not appear any effort was put into vehicle use until the 1950s, when several efforts used Levapad-like arrangements running on conventional rails as a way to avoid the hunting problems and provide high-speed service. A 1958 article in
523:. Like BR, SNCF was actively exploring high-speed train service. The public demonstration of the Hovercraft Development system appears to have sparked their interest, and they started funding Bertin's efforts to develop what he called the "
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that designs like the Tracked Hovercraft were squeezed between the zero-energy "lift" system of steel-wheeled trains and the low-energy lift system of the maglev, leaving no apparent role that one of those systems didn't better serve.
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maglev trains, decided to hedge their bets and develop a hovertrain prototype of their own. The Transrapid03 was first tested in the summer of 1972, but by this time the maglev had proven itself and further work ended the next year.
462:(APT) efforts shortly thereafter. In the meantime, the Hythe team had no funds for the full-scale test system they were proposing, and complained at Hovershow that the French would be taking the lead in hovertrain development.
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air pumps must supply new pressurized air to make up for these losses. As the vehicle weight and lift pad area is fixed, for a given vehicle design the volume of air that needs to be ingested by the pumps increases with speed.
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In general terms, the maglev simply replaced the hover pads with electromagnets. Removing the motors and fans and replacing the pads with magnets reduced vehicle weight by about 15%. This change meant that the relatively low
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the ground – if this interface is smooth, the amount of leaked air will be low. What was surprising was that the amount of energy lost through this process could be lower than steel wheeled vehicles, at least at high speeds.
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the vertical pads on the sides of the guideway rather than a separate vertical surface on top of it. The vehicle itself was now flatter and wider. This version was running in 1965 and shown publicly the next year at
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systems that were a hot topic in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In this role their ability to float over small imperfections and debris on the "rails" was a practical advantage, although it competed with the
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of these projects had progressed to about the same point as the hovertrains, yet appeared to have none of their disadvantages—high sound levels, blown dirt and higher energy use than initially expected.
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to continue efforts to build a full-scale prototype. A combination of factors, including Laithwaite's persuasiveness and Bertin's successes in France, quickly gained the company government funding.
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sparked considerable interest in the transportation world, as it offered a way to make an electric motor with no moving parts and no physical contact, which could greatly reduce maintenance needs.
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As electronics improved, and electrical control systems with them, it became increasingly easy to build an "active track" using electromagnets. By the late 1960s there was renewed interest in the
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What was lacking from all of them was a suitable way to move the vehicles forward – since the whole idea of the hovertrain concept was to eliminate any physical contact with the running surface,
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track shaped like an upside-down "T". The horizontal portion provided the running surface, while the vertical provided directional tracking and the structure for mounting the reaction rail.
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was running an extensive study of the problems being seen at high speeds on conventional rails. This led to a series of new high-speed train designs in the 1970s, starting with their own
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October 1972, a speed of 187.9 mph (302.4 km/h) was achieved. Speed was limited due to the length of track (6.4 mi or 10.3 km) and vehicle acceleration rates. Two
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for the various programs. For the TACV program, DOT paid for the construction of the test track loops for the different prototypes. However, track construction proceeded slowly.
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that ran for short distances on a concrete pad with a central vertical surface that provided directional control. The prototype was pushed along its short test track by hand.
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built the Linear Induction Motor Research Vehicle (LIMRV), a wheeled vehicle running on standard-gauge railroad track, fitted with a 3,000 hp (2,200 kW)
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conventional trains. This could dramatically reduce infrastructure capital costs of building new lines and offer a path to widespread use of high-speed trains.
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wheels, some sort of contact-less thrust would have to be provided. There were various proposals using air ducted from the lift fans, propeller, or even
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The second stage of the TACV project was a hovercraft testbed initially powered by turbofan engines, the Tracked Air Cushion Research Vehicle (TACRV).
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284:(BR) to invest in some experimental work using a LIM to power a train on rails using small lift pads similar to the Levipad system for suspension.
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The third stage of the TACV project was a complete LIM-powered hovertrain with passenger seating, the Urban Tracked Air Cushion Vehicle (UTACV).
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As early as 1960 their engineers were experimenting with the hovertrain concept, and by 1963 had developed a test-bed system about the size of a
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presentation of the system was made to the 2014 Maglev conference in Rio and in 2015 to government representatives of Brazil and Africa.
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development. A small model of their proposal shows a train that looks like the fuselage of a narrow-body airliner running on a
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vicinity of the train would have to be turned on, which appeared to offer much lower overall energy needs than the hovertrain.
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As the various hovertrain systems were developing, a major energy use issue cropped up. Hovercraft generate lift by providing
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lifting pads, often the entire underside of the vehicle, the pressure on the running surface is greatly reduced – about
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tests in 1973, in February it managed to reach 104 mph (167 km/h) in a 20 mph (32 km/h) headwind.
469:. At almost exactly the same time, Laithwaite severed his ties with BR. The two teams joined forces, re-organizing as
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won the contract with a design based on Bertin's AĂ©rotrain, and delivered the prototype to HSGTC in Pueblo in 1974.
605:(FRA) received funds to develop a series of high-speed trains. In addition to funding development of the successful
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During the early 1970s, it was not clear whether the hovertrain or maglev would eventually win the technology race.
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Since the Bertin team had not yet used a LIM, the first part of the TACV program was dedicated to LIM development.
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99:. Although the hovertrains still had reduced infrastructure costs compared to the APT and similar designs like the
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Several newer prototypes of ever-larger size followed, culminating in the I-80, a 44-seat vehicle powered by two
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system, GM was forced to divest the design as part of an antitrust ruling. The design eventually ended up at
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1975 Paris-Lyon TGV line was the deathblow to the project, although small-scale work continued until 1977.
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never installed. With jet engine propulsion only, no more than 90 mph (145 km/h) was achieved.
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at the time there were no suitably powerful permanent magnets that would be able to lift a train.
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One of the earliest hovertrain concepts predates hovercraft by decades; in the early 1930s
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concept that had the same advantages. The only hovertain to see commercial service was the
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Currently all three vehicles are on display at the Pueblo Railway Foundation's workshop.
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However, as the vehicle moves another loss mechanism comes into play. This is due to the
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lift pads, and the conventional railway bed with a paved road-like surface, known as the
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concept, where compressed air was blown out of small metal disks, shaped much like a
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The earliest examples of serious hovertrain proposals come, unsurprisingly, from
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In December 1969, the DOT selected and purchased a large parcel of land outside
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in the plate. There is a short delay between field and induced field due to
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article notes a number of different groups proposing a hovertrain concept.
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In 1967, the government handed control of Hovercraft Development to the
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882:"Air Cushion Vehicle (ACV): History Development and Maglev Comparison"
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of the hovercraft was greatly increased, theoretically doubling it.
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912:"Concept of the Aero-Train and its Aerodynamic Stability Nature",
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At high speeds, trains suffer from a form of instability known as "
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of the technology were to be tested with different prototypes.
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Hovertrains were also developed for smaller systems, including
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in the early 1960s in France, where they were marketed as the
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1301:. Rohr Industries. June 1976. pp. III-11. Archived from
1296:"PTACV Marketing Survey Report And System Summary - Part III"
316:, for instance, which slow the air down to speeds that their
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Air-Cushion Vehicles supplement, 17 November 1967, pp. 71–72
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Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering Association
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Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering Association
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Artist's impression of the La DĂ©fense-Cergy AĂ©rotrain line.
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Ferreira, Hugo Pelle; Stephan, Richard Magdalena (2019).
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240:, but none of these could approach the efficiency of an
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Experimental and prototype high-speed trains (category)
1241:"Straight-Line Electric Motor Promises 200-m.p.h Train"
1140:"The Rohr Aerotrain Tracked Air-Cushion Vehicle (TACV)"
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Special Publication of National Aerospace Laboratory
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with a cable pull and sold the resulting design for
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458:in the hovertrain concept, and moved on to their
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82:before being abandoned by the French government.
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489:removed and RTV 31 ended up in the Peterborough
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223:distances of up to about 1,000 miles ". A 1960
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49:that replaces conventional steel wheels with
2432:Experimental and prototype high-speed trains
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1025:"Youtube video of the Hovercraft Museum LIM"
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599:High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965
493:where it is currently awaiting restoration.
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264:they produce causes an opposite field to be
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412:Tracked Hovercraft test system, the RTV 31.
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1051:"Museum in bid to save 1960s 'hovertrain'"
970:"Track Section Chosen for UK Hovertrain",
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74:. The first hovertrain was developed by
36:Narita Airport Terminal 2 Shuttle System
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321:in power dissipated into the lift air.
3080:
1090:"New Capabilities in Railroad Testing"
756:
754:
370:
91:USA. While they were being developed,
2835:
2405:
1317:
1253:
1238:
1087:
1031:from the original on 15 December 2021
989:
947:
886:Transportation Systems and Technology
619:High Speed Ground Test Center (HSGTC)
403:
179:of the pressure of a tire on a road.
169:the pressure of a train wheel, about
1294:
1281:
867:
855:
840:
828:
2470:Intercity EMU Experimental Platform
2387:Proposed high-speed rail by country
1343:
941:"The X-Trace Family Project - TACV"
751:
695:Artist's impression of a Rohr UTACV
13:
1282:Hope, Richard (15 February 1973).
139:installations all over the world.
14:
3114:
1284:"Dropping the tracked hovercraft"
1142:. SHONNER Studios. Archived from
1008:"Dropping the tracked hovercraft"
710:
256:was building the first practical
3059:
2045:List of high-speed railway lines
1027:. Youtube.com. 10 October 2009.
365:
287:
191:
142:
119:system. Originally developed at
61:. The concept aims to eliminate
3014:Vehicular communication systems
1231:
1201:
1043:
1017:
1001:
977:
964:
933:
919:
906:
873:
1269:"GM Editor Rides the Air Cars"
1267:Linkletter, John (June 1960).
1239:Scott, David (November 1961).
786:
763:
742:
603:Federal Railway Administration
333:Hovertrains give way to maglev
186:
1:
1256:"Streamliners Without Wheels"
1254:Volpe, John (December 1969).
927:"The Fultrace Project - TACV"
735:
571:
535:turbojet engine taken from a
2054:By countries and territories
899:10.17816/transsyst2019515-25
496:
467:National Physical Laboratory
72:tracked air-cushion vehicles
7:
3037:Automated vacuum collection
2770:Budd Jet Car (Black Beetle)
2059:planned networks in italics
718:
580:, primary developer of the
432:Hovercraft Development Ltd.
389:
10:
3119:
2794:
2784:
2779:
2599:
996:"Video of RTV 31 test run"
508:
415:
374:
125:automated guideway transit
85:
3055:
3022:
2948:
2885:
2876:
2869:
2821:List of high-speed trains
2803:
2762:
2736:
2705:
2684:
2618:
2577:
2561:
2515:
2445:CRH2C-2061, CRH380AM-0204
2437:
2382:
2364:
2236:
2134:
2090:
2067:
2053:
2035:
2022:
1783:
1628:
1576:TGV Sud-Est (refurbished)
1441:
1407:
1398:
1361:
1351:
998:, BBC News, February 1973
783:, October 1958, pp. 92–95
399:Major development efforts
2963:Alternative fuel vehicle
2744:Advanced Passenger Train
1975:British Rail Classes 800
1088:Reiff, Glenn A. (1973).
686:
661:
624:
491:Railworld Wildlife Haven
460:Advanced Passenger Train
252:At about the same time,
16:Type of high-speed train
3103:Linear induction motors
2925:Pulse detonation engine
2895:Adaptive compliant wing
2037:High-speed railway line
1885:NSB Class 71 (Flytoget)
1277:: 91–96, 228, 252, 254.
1165:Johnson, R. D. (1988).
655:Pratt & Whitney J52
592:
505:AĂ©rotrain prototype #02
426:'s group, organized in
258:linear induction motors
131:who later replaced its
2994:Personal rapid transit
2915:High-altitude platform
1766:TGV Sud-Est (original)
916:, Volume 48T, p. 77-80
760:Linkletter 1960, p. 95
696:
671:
638:
637:jet engines were added
564:
506:
413:
247:
108:personal rapid transit
38:
28:
2863:Emerging technologies
2595:InterCityExperimental
1732:Shinkansen Series 200
1546:Shinkansen Series 500
1419:China Railway CR400AF
1213:Pueblo Railway Museum
1167:"Thoughts at 160 mph"
961:, British Pathé, 1963
694:
669:
632:
562:
504:
424:Christopher Cockerell
411:
384:wing-in-ground-effect
70:, in the US they are
34:
24:
3093:Air-cushion vehicles
3009:Transit Elevated Bus
2940:Supersonic transport
2562:France & Germany
1709:Renfe Class 120, 121
1451:Renfe Class 100, 101
1433:Shinkansen Series L0
972:Flight International
775:12 June 2011 at the
3032:Pneumatic transport
2975:Ground-effect train
2900:Backpack helicopter
2528:AGV (Elisa, PĂ©gase)
1915:Shinkansen series 0
870:, pp. 359–360.
831:, pp. 358–360.
377:Ground effect train
371:Ground effect train
153:hunting oscillation
2749:British Rail APT-E
2661:Gauge Change Train
1813:China Railway DJJ1
1786:(124–155 mph)
1631:(155–186 mph)
1600:M (Avelia Horizon)
1444:(186–217 mph)
1014:, 22 February 1973
843:, pp. III-11.
697:
672:
643:Garrett AiResearch
639:
565:
507:
471:Tracked Hovercraft
418:Tracked Hovercraft
414:
404:Tracked Hovercraft
244:powering a wheel.
68:tracked hovercraft
63:rolling resistance
39:
29:
3088:High-speed trains
3075:
3074:
3051:
3050:
3047:
3046:
2829:
2828:
2399:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2061:
2031:
2030:
1784:200–249 km/h
1629:250–299 km/h
1442:300–349 km/h
1400:High-speed trains
1274:Popular Mechanics
1249:: 76–78, 200–201.
1215:. 15 January 2021
1198:Volpe 1969, p. 53
1118:Volpe 1969, p. 51
816:Scott 1961, p. 78
807:Scott 1961, p. 76
748:Volpe 1969, p. 54
730:Hovercraft Museum
533:Turbomeca Marboré
226:Popular Mechanics
200:, an engineer at
26:Duke Hospital PRT
3110:
3063:
3062:
3004:Self-driving car
2968:Hydrogen vehicle
2883:
2882:
2874:
2873:
2856:
2849:
2842:
2833:
2832:
2775:Budd Silverliner
2763:USA & Canada
2605:Schienenzeppelin
2426:
2419:
2412:
2403:
2402:
2065:
2064:
2057:
2009:Voyager/Meridian
1677:CR300AF, CR300BF
1610:Thalys PBA, PBKA
1405:
1404:
1338:
1331:
1324:
1315:
1314:
1309:
1308:on 3 April 2015.
1307:
1300:
1291:
1278:
1263:
1250:
1225:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1187:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1136:
1119:
1116:
1110:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1085:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1021:
1015:
1005:
999:
993:
987:
981:
975:
968:
962:
956:
945:
944:
937:
931:
930:
923:
917:
910:
904:
903:
901:
877:
871:
865:
859:
853:
844:
838:
832:
826:
817:
814:
808:
805:
796:
790:
784:
767:
761:
758:
749:
746:
617:, and built the
615:Pueblo, Colorado
428:Hythe, Hampshire
352:payload fraction
327:aerodynamic drag
314:fighter aircraft
178:
177:
173:
168:
167:
163:
47:high-speed train
3118:
3117:
3113:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3107:
3078:
3077:
3076:
3071:
3043:
3018:
2944:
2865:
2860:
2830:
2825:
2816:High-speed rail
2799:
2758:
2732:
2701:
2680:
2614:
2573:
2557:
2511:
2433:
2430:
2400:
2391:
2378:
2360:
2232:
2130:
2086:
2056:
2055:
2049:
2027:
2018:
1965:Z-TER (Z 21500)
1785:
1779:
1630:
1624:
1536:KTX-Cheongryong
1443:
1437:
1411:
1409:
1394:
1357:
1347:
1345:High-speed rail
1342:
1312:
1305:
1298:
1260:Popular Science
1246:Popular Science
1234:
1229:
1228:
1218:
1216:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1190:
1180:
1178:
1163:
1159:
1149:
1147:
1146:on 5 March 2010
1138:
1137:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1103:
1101:
1086:
1069:
1059:
1057:
1049:
1048:
1044:
1034:
1032:
1023:
1022:
1018:
1006:
1002:
994:
990:
982:
978:
969:
965:
957:
948:
939:
938:
934:
925:
924:
920:
911:
907:
878:
874:
866:
862:
858:, pp. 360.
854:
847:
839:
835:
827:
820:
815:
811:
806:
799:
791:
787:
781:Modern Mechanix
777:Wayback Machine
770:"Cars That Fly"
768:
764:
759:
752:
747:
743:
738:
721:
713:
701:Rohr Industries
689:
664:
627:
597:As part of the
595:
574:
513:
499:
436:tractor-trailer
420:
406:
401:
392:
379:
373:
368:
335:
290:
254:Eric Laithwaite
250:
219:Modern Mechanix
194:
189:
175:
171:
170:
165:
161:
160:
145:
88:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3116:
3106:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3069:
3056:
3053:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3042:
3041:
3040:
3039:
3028:
3026:
3020:
3019:
3017:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2977:
2972:
2971:
2970:
2960:
2954:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2905:Delivery drone
2902:
2897:
2891:
2889:
2880:
2871:
2867:
2866:
2859:
2858:
2851:
2844:
2836:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2766:
2764:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2740:
2738:
2737:United Kingdom
2734:
2733:
2731:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2688:
2686:
2682:
2681:
2679:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2622:
2620:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2571:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2441:
2439:
2435:
2434:
2429:
2428:
2421:
2414:
2406:
2397:
2396:
2393:
2392:
2390:
2389:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2356:United Kingdom
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2266:Czech Republic
2262:
2255:
2250:
2242:
2240:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2230:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2184:
2179:
2172:
2165:
2160:
2153:
2152:
2151:
2140:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2128:
2123:
2116:
2109:
2102:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2077:
2071:
2069:
2062:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2041:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1864:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1827:China Railway
1817:China Railway
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1789:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1763:
1758:
1729:
1720:
1715:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1679:
1673:China Railway
1661:2A, 2B, 2E, 2G
1651:China Railway
1640:
1638:Avelia Liberty
1634:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1620:Siemens Velaro
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1573:
1568:
1543:
1538:
1525:
1520:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1469:China Railway
1466:
1461:
1447:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1415:
1413:
1410:(217 mph)
1402:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1392:
1387:
1378:
1373:
1367:
1365:
1359:
1358:
1355:rail transport
1352:
1349:
1348:
1341:
1340:
1333:
1326:
1318:
1311:
1310:
1292:
1279:
1264:
1251:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1200:
1188:
1157:
1120:
1111:
1067:
1042:
1016:
1000:
988:
976:
963:
946:
932:
918:
905:
872:
860:
845:
833:
818:
809:
797:
785:
762:
750:
740:
739:
737:
734:
733:
732:
727:
720:
717:
712:
711:Current status
709:
688:
685:
663:
660:
626:
623:
607:UAC TurboTrain
594:
591:
573:
570:
537:Fouga Magister
509:Main article:
498:
495:
482:Cambridgeshire
416:Main article:
405:
402:
400:
397:
391:
388:
375:Main article:
372:
369:
367:
364:
334:
331:
289:
286:
262:magnetic field
249:
246:
242:electric motor
193:
190:
188:
185:
144:
141:
121:General Motors
87:
84:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3115:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3068:
3067:
3058:
3057:
3054:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3033:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3021:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
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2966:
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2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2951:
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2938:
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2918:
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2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
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2888:
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2879:
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2872:
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2857:
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2850:
2845:
2843:
2838:
2837:
2834:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2802:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2785:Grumman TACRV
2783:
2781:
2780:Garrett LIMRV
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
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2649:
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2621:
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2608:
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2598:
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2554:
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2521:
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2514:
2508:
2505:
2501:
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2256:
2254:
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2249:
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2241:
2239:
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2229:
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2224:
2222:
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2211:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2173:
2171:
2170:
2166:
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2161:
2159:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2133:
2127:
2126:United States
2124:
2122:
2121:
2117:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2072:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2052:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2034:
2026:
2021:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1936:SBB RABDe 500
1934:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
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1858:InterCity 125
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1704:New Pendolino
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1532:II (Sancheon)
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1514:Eurostar e300
1512:
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1408:350 km/h
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1297:
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1288:New Scientist
1285:
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1262:: 51–55, 184.
1261:
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1214:
1210:
1209:"Rocket Cars"
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633:LIMRV before
631:
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583:
579:
578:Krauss-Maffei
569:
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452:Hovershow '66
447:
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366:Newer efforts
363:
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344:
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328:
322:
319:
315:
309:
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305:skin friction
301:
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288:Momentum drag
285:
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199:
198:Andrew Kucher
192:Early efforts
184:
180:
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143:Basic concept
140:
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129:Otis Elevator
126:
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45:is a type of
44:
37:
33:
27:
23:
19:
3064:
2989:Maglev train
2958:Airless tire
2807:
2685:Korea, South
2585:DB Class 403
2371:
2323:
2301:
2264:
2257:
2245:
2225:
2208:
2199:Saudi Arabia
2186:
2174:
2167:
2155:
2118:
2111:
2104:
2097:
2079:
2058:
1895:NSB Class 74
1890:NSB Class 73
1828:
1818:
1761:TCDD HT65000
1723:SBB RABe 501
1674:
1652:
1605:TCDD HT80000
1470:
1375:
1371:Conventional
1363:Technologies
1303:the original
1287:
1272:
1259:
1244:
1232:Bibliography
1217:. Retrieved
1212:
1203:
1181:11 September
1179:. Retrieved
1174:
1170:
1160:
1148:. Retrieved
1144:the original
1114:
1104:11 September
1102:. Retrieved
1097:
1093:
1060:17 September
1058:. Retrieved
1054:
1045:
1033:. Retrieved
1019:
1011:
1003:
991:
983:
979:
971:
966:
959:"Hovertrain"
935:
921:
913:
908:
889:
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863:
836:
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792:
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448:
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393:
380:
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348:
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323:
310:
302:
291:
282:British Rail
278:
274:
251:
233:
231:
224:
217:
214:
210:poppet valve
195:
181:
157:
150:
146:
137:people mover
133:linear motor
105:
93:British Rail
89:
71:
67:
58:
54:
42:
40:
18:
3098:Hovertrains
2656:Fastech 360
2346:Switzerland
2309:Netherlands
2194:South Korea
1487:MTR CRH380A
986:1967, p. 36
892:(1): 5–25.
795:1958, p. 93
647:gas turbine
516:Jean Bertin
318:jet engines
238:jet engines
187:Development
117:Otis Hovair
76:Jean Bertin
3082:Categories
2935:Spaceplane
2910:Flying car
2795:Rohr UTACV
2651:Class 1000
2610:Transrapid
2600:Rohr UTACV
2221:Uzbekistan
2188:Kazakhstan
1669:5A, 5E, 5G
1643:China Star
1580:Atlantique
1464:Alstom AGV
1428:Transrapid
1376:Hovertrain
1290:: 358–360.
736:References
586:Transurban
582:Transrapid
572:Transrapid
544:turboshaft
270:hysteresis
234:especially
51:hovercraft
43:hovertrain
2980:Hyperloop
2878:Transport
2808:See also:
2713:Aerowagon
2692:HEMU-430X
2646:Class 962
2641:Class 961
2636:Class 951
2569:Eurotrain
2523:AĂ©rotrain
2373:Australia
2163:Indonesia
2149:Hong Kong
2099:Argentina
2004:Talgo XXI
1900:Pendolino
1615:THSR 700T
1381:Hyperloop
1219:17 August
1177:: 330–331
1150:28 August
1035:9 January
868:Hope 1973
856:Hope 1973
841:ROHR 1976
829:Hope 1973
525:AĂ©rotrain
511:AĂ©rotrain
497:AĂ©rotrain
80:AĂ©rotrain
3024:Pipeline
2984:Vactrain
2930:Scramjet
2920:Jet pack
2811:Category
2790:JetTrain
2697:HSR-350x
2666:SCMaglev
2325:Portugal
2210:Thailand
2091:Americas
1803:Adelante
1770:La Poste
1727:RABe 503
1385:Vactrain
1353:Part of
1055:BBC News
1029:Archived
773:Archived
725:Hovercar
719:See also
444:monorail
390:Fultrace
294:pressure
59:guideway
2999:Platoon
2578:Germany
2533:TGV 001
2507:Tianchi
2365:Oceania
2287:Germany
2277:Finland
2272:Denmark
2259:Croatia
2253:Belgium
2247:Austria
2227:Vietnam
2075:Morocco
1905:Railjet
1880:Javelin
1699:KTX-Eum
1509:ETR 400
1504:ETR 500
1423:CR400BF
1412:or more
680:Grumman
298:airfoil
266:induced
206:Levapad
174:⁄
164:⁄
86:History
2887:Aerial
2870:Fields
2754:RTV 31
2676:WIN350
2671:STAR21
2631:ALFA-X
2543:TGV 88
2538:TGV 2N
2516:France
2351:Turkey
2341:Sweden
2331:Russia
2319:Poland
2314:Norway
2303:Latvia
2292:Greece
2282:France
2238:Europe
2216:Turkey
2204:Taiwan
2120:Mexico
2113:Canada
2106:Brazil
2068:Africa
1960:SJ X40
1956:X 2000
1951:SCB-40
1941:Re 460
1910:Regina
1833:CR200J
1829:Fuxing
1798:ACS-64
1718:Sapsan
1675:Fuxing
1588:Duplex
1584:RĂ©seau
1390:Maglev
1100:: 1–10
676:Boeing
658:rail.
601:, the
478:Earith
343:maglev
166:10,000
123:as an
113:maglev
2728:TEP80
2718:Sokol
2619:Japan
2590:ICE S
2548:TGV P
2438:China
2336:Spain
2297:Italy
2182:Japan
2157:India
2144:China
2081:Egypt
1970:Sokol
1946:SC-44
1875:ICE L
1867:ICE T
1843:HHP-8
1838:ER200
1819:Hexie
1793:Acela
1756:E7/W7
1695:(ICx)
1653:Hexie
1571:AVRIL
1558:E5/H5
1554:N700S
1541:Oaris
1528:KTX-I
1523:ICE 3
1475:CRH2C
1471:Hexie
1306:(PDF)
1299:(PDF)
984:Hythe
687:UTACV
670:TACRV
662:TACRV
625:LIMRV
55:track
3066:List
2950:Land
2706:USSR
2626:300X
2553:V150
2465:DJJ2
2460:DJJ1
2455:DDJ1
2450:DJF2
2176:Iraq
2169:Iran
2136:Asia
1853:ICNG
1823:CRH6
1775:V250
1647:DJF2
1550:N700
1518:e320
1499:380D
1495:380C
1491:380B
1483:380A
1221:2021
1183:2010
1152:2010
1106:2010
1062:2017
1037:2010
678:and
593:TACV
584:and
521:SNCF
382:the
202:Ford
2723:SVL
2500:CJ6
2495:CJ5
2490:CJ4
2485:CJ3
2480:CJ2
2475:CJ1
1999:810
1995:807
1991:805
1987:803
1983:802
1979:801
1923:400
1919:100
1862:225
1848:IC4
1808:APT
1744:800
1740:700
1736:300
1713:130
1682:ICE
1596:2N2
1592:POS
1459:103
1455:102
894:doi
793:Fly
635:J52
553:TGV
527:".
430:as
248:LIM
101:TGV
97:APT
57:or
3084::
2982:/
2014:X3
1997:,
1993:,
1989:,
1985:,
1981:,
1977:,
1958:,
1931:E4
1929:,
1927:E1
1925:,
1921:,
1917:,
1873:,
1871:TD
1869:,
1860:,
1825:,
1815:,
1768:,
1754:,
1752:E3
1750:,
1748:E2
1746:,
1742:,
1738:,
1734:,
1725:,
1711:,
1691:,
1687:,
1671:,
1667:,
1665:3A
1663:,
1659:,
1649:,
1645:,
1598:,
1594:,
1590:,
1586:,
1582:,
1578:,
1566:E8
1564:,
1562:E6
1560:,
1556:,
1552:,
1548:,
1534:,
1530:,
1516:;
1497:,
1493:,
1489:,
1485:/
1481:,
1479:3C
1477:,
1457:,
1453:,
1421:,
1286:.
1271:.
1258:.
1243:.
1211:.
1191:^
1175:89
1173:.
1169:.
1123:^
1098:74
1096:.
1092:.
1070:^
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1010:,
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884:.
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176:20
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1185:.
1154:.
1108:.
1064:.
1039:.
943:.
929:.
902:.
896::
890:5
172:1
162:1
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
