469:, process indicators and control elements such as valves were monitored by an operator, that walked around the unit adjusting the valves to obtain the desired temperatures, pressures, and flows. As technology evolved pneumatic controllers were invented and mounted in the field that monitored the process and controlled the valves. This reduced the amount of time process operators needed to monitor the process. Latter years, the actual controllers were moved to a central room and signals were sent into the control room to monitor the process and outputs signals were sent to the final control element such as a valve to adjust the process as needed. These controllers and indicators were mounted on a wall called a control board. The operators stood in front of this board walking back and forth monitoring the process indicators. This again reduced the number and amount of time process operators were needed to walk around the units. The most standard pneumatic signal level used during these years was 3–15 psig.
371:
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based on size, weight, cost, reliability, accuracy, longevity, environmental robustness, and frequency response. Some sensors are literally fired in artillery shells. Others sense thermonuclear explosions until destroyed. Invariably sensor data must be recorded, transmitted or displayed. Recording rates and capacities vary enormously. Transmission can be trivial or can be clandestine, encrypted and low power in the presence of jamming. Displays can be trivially simple or can require consultation with
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Electronic
Industrial Process Instruments", in the 1970s. The transformation of instrumentation from mechanical pneumatic transmitters, controllers, and valves to electronic instruments reduced maintenance costs as electronic instruments were more dependable than mechanical instruments. This also increased efficiency and production due to their increase in accuracy. Pneumatics enjoyed some advantages, being favored in corrosive and explosive atmospheres.
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development was the transmission of all plant measurements to a permanently staffed central control room. Effectively this was the centralization of all the localized panels, with the advantages of lower manning levels and easy overview of the process. Often the controllers were behind the control room panels, and all automatic and manual control outputs were transmitted back to plant.
511:
displays it became possible to replace these discrete controllers with computer-based algorithms, hosted on a network of input/output racks with their own control processors. These could be distributed around plant, and communicate with the graphic display in the control room or rooms. The distributed control concept was born.
591:: after ignition, the burner's control knob must be held for a short time in order for a sensor to become hot, and permit the flow of gas to the burner. If the safety sensor becomes cold, this may indicate the flame on the burner has become extinguished, and to prevent a continuous leak of gas the flow is stopped.
527:
In some cases, the sensor is a very minor element of the mechanism. Digital cameras and wristwatches might technically meet the loose definition of instrumentation because they record and/or display sensed information. Under most circumstances neither would be called instrumentation, but when used to
448:
Each instrument company introduced their own standard instrumentation signal, causing confusion until the 4–20 mA range was used as the standard electronic instrument signal for transmitters and valves. This signal was eventually standardized as ANSI/ISA S50, "Compatibility of Analog
Signals for
678:
is a distributed instrumentation system. The ground part sends an electromagnetic pulse and receives an echo (at least). Aircraft carry transponders that transmit codes on reception of the pulse. The system displays an aircraft map location, an identifier and optionally altitude. The map location is
789:
Instrumentation engineering is loosely defined because the required tasks are very domain dependent. An expert in the biomedical instrumentation of laboratory rats has very different concerns than the expert in rocket instrumentation. Common concerns of both are the selection of appropriate sensors
769:
is the engineering specialization focused on the principle and operation of measuring instruments that are used in design and configuration of automated systems in areas such as electrical and pneumatic domains, and the control of quantities being measured. They typically work for industries with
611:
Modern automobiles have complex instrumentation. In addition to displays of engine rotational speed and vehicle linear speed, there are also displays of battery voltage and current, fluid levels, fluid temperatures, distance traveled, and feedback of various controls (turn signals, parking brake,
804:
In a research environment it is common for subject matter experts to have substantial instrumentation system expertise. An astronomer knows the structure of the universe and a great deal about telescopes – optics, pointing and cameras (or other sensing elements). That often includes the hard-won
518:
allowed easy interconnection and re-configuration of plant controls such as cascaded loops and interlocks, and easy interfacing with other production computer systems. It enabled sophisticated alarm handling, introduced automatic event logging, removed the need for physical records such as chart
389:
The ranges of pneumatic transmitters were defined by the need to control valves and actuators in the field. Typically, a signal ranged from 3 to 15 psi (20 to 100kPa or 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2) as a standard, was standardized with 6 to 30 psi occasionally being used for larger valves. Transistor
361:
presented the Royal
Society with a design for a "weather clock". A drawing shows meteorological sensors moving pens over paper driven by clockwork. Such devices did not become standard in meteorology for two centuries. The concept has remained virtually unchanged as evidenced by pneumatic chart
876:
As early as 1954, W. A. Wildhack discussed both the productive and destructive potential inherent in process control. The ability to make precise, verifiable and reproducible measurements of the natural world, at levels that were not previously observable, using scientific instrumentation, has
687:
Among the possible uses of the term is a collection of laboratory test equipment controlled by a computer through an IEEE-488 bus (also known as GPIB for
General Purpose Instrument Bus or HPIB for Hewlitt Packard Instrument Bus). Laboratory equipment is available to measure many electrical and
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However, whilst providing a central control focus, this arrangement was inflexible as each control loop had its own controller hardware, and continual operator movement within the control room was required to view different parts of the process. With coming of electronic processors and graphic
853:
Ralph MĂĽller (1940) stated, "That the history of physical science is largely the history of instruments and their intelligent use is well known. The broad generalizations and theories which have arisen from time to time have stood or fallen on the basis of accurate measurement, and in several
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Process control of large industrial plants has evolved through many stages. Initially, control would be from panels local to the process plant. However, this required a large manpower resource to attend to these dispersed panels, and there was no overall view of the process. The next logical
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but across the sciences. In chemistry, the introduction of new instrumentation in the 1940s was "nothing less than a scientific and technological revolution" in which classical wet-and-dry methods of structural organic chemistry were discarded, and new areas of research opened up.
555:. Such a system consists of sensors (motion detection, switches to detect door openings), simple algorithms to detect intrusion, local control (arm/disarm) and remote monitoring of the system so that the police can be summoned. Communication is an inherent part of the design.
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From classical to modern chemistry : the instrumental revolution; from a conference on the history of chemical instrumentation: "From the Test-tube to the
Autoanalyzer: the Development of Chemical Instrumentation in the Twentieth Century", London, in August
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Early aircraft had a few sensors. "Steam gauges" converted air pressures into needle deflections that could be interpreted as altitude and airspeed. A magnetic compass provided a sense of direction. The displays to the pilot were as critical as the measurements.
786:, reliability, safety, optimization and stability. To control the parameters in a process or in a particular system, devices such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs are used, but their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system.
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Elements of industrial instrumentation have long histories. Scales for comparing weights and simple pointers to indicate position are ancient technologies. Some of the earliest measurements were of time. One of the oldest
501:
A DCS control room where plant information and controls are displayed on computer graphics screens. The operators are seated and can view and control any part of the process from their screens, whilst retaining a plant
805:
knowledge of the operational procedures that provide the best results. For example, an astronomer is often knowledgeable of techniques to minimize temperature gradients that cause air turbulence within the telescope.
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headlights, transmission position). Cautions may be displayed for special problems (fuel low, check engine, tire pressure low, door ajar, seat belt unfastened). Problems are recorded so they can be reported to
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Electric ovens use a temperature sensor and will turn on heating elements when the temperature is too low. More advanced ovens will actuate fans in response to temperature sensors, to distribute heat or to
854:
instances new instruments have had to be devised for the purpose. There is little evidence to show that the mind of modern man is superior to that of the ancients. His tools are incomparably better."
362:
recorders, where a pressurized bellows displaces a pen. Integrating sensors, displays, recorders, and controls was uncommon until the industrial revolution, limited by both need and practicality.
616:. Navigation systems can provide voice commands to reach a destination. Automotive instrumentation must be cheap and reliable over long periods in harsh environments. There may be independent
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recorders, allowed the control racks to be networked and thereby located locally to plant to reduce cabling runs, and provided high level overviews of plant status and production levels.
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for the process. They may design or specify installation, wiring and signal conditioning. They may be responsible for commissioning, calibration, testing and maintenance of the system.
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electronics enabled wiring to replace pipes, initially with a range of 20 to 100mA at up to 90V for loop powered devices, reducing to 4 to 20mA at 12 to 24V in more modern systems. A
877:"provided a different texture of the world". This instrumentation revolution fundamentally changes human abilities to monitor and respond, as is illustrated in the examples of
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Early systems used direct process connections to local control panels for control and indication, which from the early 1930s saw the introduction of pneumatic
1005:
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Instrumentation technologists, technicians and mechanics specialize in troubleshooting, repairing and maintaining instruments and instrumentation systems.
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Instrumentation engineers are responsible for integrating the sensors with the recorders, transmitters, displays or control systems, and producing the
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A pre-DCS/SCADA era central control room. Whilst the controls are centralised in one place, they are still discrete and not integrated into one system.
817:
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United States
National Museum, Bulletin 228. Contributions from The Museum of History and Technology: Paper 23. Available from Project Gutenberg.
664:, autopilots, and aircraft stabilization systems. Redundant sensors are used for reliability. A subset of the information may be transferred to a
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and other devices. Such devices could control a desired output variable, and provide either remote monitoring or automated control capabilities.
354:, buried around 1500 BCE. Improvements were incorporated in the clocks. By 270 BCE they had the rudiments of an automatic control system device.
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951:– a diagram in the process industry which shows the piping of the process flow together with the installed equipment and instrumentation.
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chemical quantities. Such a collection of equipment might be used to automate the testing of drinking water for pollutants.
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based on sensed antenna direction and sensed time delay. The other information is embedded in the transponder transmission.
170:. Instruments can be found in laboratories, refineries, factories and vehicles, as well as in everyday household use (e.g.,
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587:. These may feature a sensor bulb sited within the main chamber of the oven. In addition, there may be a safety cut-off
485:, widely used before electronics became reliable and cheaper and safe to use in hazardous areas (Siemens Telepneu Example)
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Lynn, L.H. (1998). "The commercialization of the transistor radio in Japan: The functioning of an innovation community".
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measure the elapsed time of a race and to document the winner at the finish line, both would be called instrumentation.
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A refrigerator maintains a constant temperature by actuating the cooling system when the temperature becomes too high.
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540:, used to control a household furnace and thus to control room temperature. A typical unit senses temperature with a
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A modern aircraft has a far more sophisticated suite of sensors and displays, which are embedded into
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affects throttle position. A wide variety of services can be provided via communication links on the
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Wildhack, W. A. (22 October 1954). "Instrumentation—Revolution in
Industry, Science, and Warfare".
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refills the water tank until a float closes the valve. The float is acting as a water level sensor.
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Example of a single industrial control loop, showing continuously modulated control of process flow
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Baird, D. (1993). "Analytical chemistry and the 'big' scientific instrumentation revolution".
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The evolution of analogue control loop signalling from the pneumatic era to the electronic era
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to aid mishap investigations. Modern pilot displays now include computer displays including
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1214:. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry in assoc. with the Science Museum. pp. 29–56.
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Hentschel, Klaus (2003). "The
Instrumental Revolution in Chemistry (Review Essay)".
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Instrumentation is used to measure many parameters (physical values), including:
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is a device that produces an output signal, often in the form of a 4–20
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experts. Control system design varies from trivial to a separate specialty.
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1207:"Analytical chemistry and the 'big' scientific instrumentation revolution"
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Instruments attached to a control system provided signals used to operate
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738: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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A very simple example of an instrumentation system is a mechanical
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The history of instrumentation can be divided into several phases.
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Instrumentation can refer to devices as simple as direct-reading
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The
Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments
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s identification of a "fourth big scientific revolution" after
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is the development of scientific instrumentation, not only in
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Non-electronic gas ovens will regulate the temperature with a
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Davis Baird has argued that the major change associated with
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Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology
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braking systems use sensors to control the brakes, while
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Measuring instruments which monitor and control a process
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Katz, Eric; Light, Andrew; Thompson, William (2002).
155:. The term has its origins in the art and science of
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Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control
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Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control
832:– Data signalling, often overlaid on a current loop
620:systems that contain sensors, logic and actuators.
56:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
551:Another example of an instrumentation system is a
1138:Controlling technology : contemporary issues
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704:will be developed by an instrumentation engineer.
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329:A local instrumentation panel on a steam turbine
135:, used for indicating, measuring, and recording
1141:(2nd ed.). Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
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636:(with exotic instrumentation) have been shown.
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558:Kitchen appliances use sensors for control.
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143:instruments, involving the related areas of
1078:(3 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 254–255.
1049:IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management
914:Instrumentation in petrochemical industries
812:Typical industrial transmitter signal types
565:An automatic ice machine makes ice until a
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1190:Download the pdf to read the full article.
782:plants, with the goal of improving system
402:signal, although many other options using
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754:Learn how and when to remove this message
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116:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1103:(3 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 8–10.
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1241:Chemical sciences in twentieth century
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1244:(1st ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
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422:was commercialized by the mid-1950s.
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919:Institute of Measurement and Control
736:adding citations to reliable sources
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54:adding citations to reliable sources
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924:International Society of Automation
583:controlling the flow of gas to the
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1006:"Building automation history page"
949:Piping and instrumentation diagram
818:Pneumatic loop (20-100KPa/3-15PSI)
799:Piping and instrumentation diagram
702:piping and instrumentation diagram
652:systems. The aircraft may contain
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481:Pneumatic "three term" pneumatic
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1480:Failure of electronic components
1238:Reinhardt, Carsten, ed. (2001).
1209:. In Morris, Peter J. T. (ed.).
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21:Instrumentation (disambiguation)
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723:needs additional citations for
41:needs additional citations for
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700:The instrumentation part of a
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955:Programmable logic controller
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514:The introduction of DCSs and
346:was found in the tomb of the
188:List of measuring instruments
1475:List of emerging electronics
1287:10.1126/science.120.3121.15A
1099:Anderson, Norman A. (1998).
1074:Anderson, Norman A. (1998).
1031:Multhauf, Robert P. (1961),
849:Impact of modern development
692:Instrumentation engineering
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157:scientific instrument-making
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767:Instrumentation engineering
654:inertial navigation systems
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881:monitoring and the use of
683:Laboratory instrumentation
658:global positioning systems
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168:industrial control systems
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1186:10.1080/00033799300200221
904:Industrial control system
676:Air traffic control radar
576:allow the time to be set.
453:Automatic process control
131:is a collective term for
1313:Foundations of Chemistry
589:flame supervision device
384:3-term (PID) controllers
1718:Electromagnetic warfare
1325:10.1023/A:1023691917565
939:Medical instrumentation
1688:Automotive electronics
1637:Robotic vacuum cleaner
1597:Information technology
1402:Electronic engineering
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465:In the early years of
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317:History of measurement
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182:Measurement parameters
1862:Measuring instruments
1852:Industrial automation
1622:Portable media player
1495:Molecular electronics
1490:Low-power electronics
824:Current loop (4-20mA)
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321:History of technology
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186:Further information:
133:measuring instruments
1816:Terahertz technology
1797:Open-source hardware
1753:Consumer electronics
1723:Electronics industry
1485:Flexible electronics
1392:Analogue electronics
883:UV spectrophotometry
732:improve this article
614:diagnostic equipment
553:home security system
290:Chemical properties
287:Chemical composition
50:improve this article
19:For other uses, see
1847:Control engineering
1792:Nuclear electronics
1617:Networking hardware
1520:Quantum electronics
1505:Organic electronics
1427:Printed electronics
1397:Digital electronics
1279:1954Sci...120A..15W
836:Foundation Fieldbus
774:processes, such as
137:physical quantities
1770:Marine electronics
1743:Integrated circuit
1662:Video game console
1460:2020s in computing
1442:Thermal management
1205:Baird, D. (2002).
887:gas chromatography
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418:are possible. The
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253:ionising radiation
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1811:Radio electronics
1437:Schematic capture
1422:Power electronics
1174:Annals of Science
1110:978-0-8493-9871-1
1085:978-0-8493-9871-1
1061:10.1109/17.704244
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838:– Data signalling
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439:circuit breakers
366:Early industrial
359:Christopher Wren
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1667:Washing machine
1592:Home theater PC
1548:Central heating
1543:Air conditioner
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39:This article
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1676:Applications
1657:Water heater
1632:Refrigerator
1612:Mobile phone
1515:Piezotronics
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1152:. Retrieved
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1014:. Retrieved
1010:the original
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986:. 2009-08-12
983:
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866:World War II
859:Floris Cohen
856:
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826:– Electrical
807:
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784:productivity
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730:Please help
725:verification
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48:Please help
43:verification
40:
1783:electronics
1587:Home cinema
1525:Spintronics
1465:Atomtronics
1378:Electronics
934:Measurement
889:to monitor
820:– Pneumatic
744:August 2024
523:Application
398:electrical
392:transmitter
352:Amenhotep I
294:Toxic gases
283:Resistivity
278:Capacitance
223:Temperature
176:thermostats
141:measurement
106:August 2024
1841:Categories
1787:Multimedia
1777:technology
1652:Television
1582:Home robot
1572:Dishwasher
1534:Electronic
967:References
607:Automotive
585:gas burner
581:thermostat
569:is thrown.
538:thermostat
435:regulators
420:transistor
315:See also:
273:Inductance
149:automation
76:newspapers
1775:Microwave
1647:Telephone
1536:equipment
1510:Photonics
1333:102255170
944:Metrology
870:chemistry
772:automated
622:Anti-skid
598:A common
532:Household
502:overview.
427:solenoids
408:frequency
303:Vibration
258:Frequency
248:Viscosity
207:, either
145:metrology
1825:Wireless
1781:Military
1713:e-health
1693:Avionics
1562:Notebook
1558:Computer
1451:Advanced
1385:Branches
1295:17816144
897:See also
842:Profibus
776:chemical
650:avionics
640:Aircraft
632:system.
574:toasters
416:ethernet
412:pressure
357:In 1663
350:pharaoh
300:Position
238:humidity
234:Moisture
205:Pressure
1857:Sensors
1577:Freezer
1275:Bibcode
1267:Science
1154:9 March
1016:1 March
990:1 March
404:voltage
400:current
311:History
268:Voltage
263:Current
243:Density
90:scholar
1708:e-book
1642:Tablet
1602:Cooker
1567:Camera
1453:topics
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1145:
1107:
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630:OnStar
618:airbag
600:toilet
443:relays
431:valves
306:Weight
228:Levels
213:static
151:, and
92:
85:
78:
71:
63:
1821:Wired
1802:Radar
1627:Radio
1329:S2CID
862:'
595:cool.
516:SCADA
414:, or
97:JSTOR
83:books
1823:and
1804:and
1291:PMID
1246:ISBN
1216:ISBN
1212:2000
1156:2016
1143:ISBN
1105:ISBN
1080:ISBN
1018:2012
992:2012
984:NIST
885:and
830:HART
319:and
218:Flow
174:and
69:news
1321:doi
1283:doi
1271:120
1182:doi
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879:DDT
778:or
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236:or
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52:by
1843::
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