285:
bandwidths. Graphene can absorb a broader range of wavelengths than germanium. That property could be exploited to transmit more data streams simultaneously in the same beam of light. Unlike germanium detectors, graphene photodetectors do not require applied voltage, which could reduce energy needs. Finally, graphene detectors in principle permit a simpler and less expensive on-chip integration. However, graphene does not strongly absorb light. Pairing a silicon waveguide with a graphene sheet better routes light and maximizes interaction. The first such device was demonstrated in 2011. Manufacturing such devices using conventional manufacturing techniques has not been demonstrated.
190:, have typical dimensions in the millimeter range and are usually used in telecom or datacom applications. Resonant devices, such as ring-resonators, can have dimensions of few tens of micrometers only, occupying therefore much smaller areas. In 2013, researchers demonstrated a resonant depletion modulator that can be fabricated using standard Silicon-on-Insulator Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (SOI CMOS) manufacturing processes. A similar device has been demonstrated as well in bulk CMOS rather than in SOI.
74:
731:. The frequencies and mode shapes of these acoustic phonons are dependent on the geometry and size of the silicon waveguides, making it possible to produce strong Brillouin scattering at frequencies ranging from a few MHz to tens of GHz. Stimulated Brillouin scattering has been used to make narrowband optical amplifiers as well as all-silicon Brillouin lasers. The interaction between photons and acoustic phonons is also studied in the field of
297:. Construction can be greatly simplified by fabricating the optical and electronic parts on the same chip, rather than having them spread across multiple components. A wider aim is all-optical signal processing, whereby tasks which are conventionally performed by manipulating signals in electronic form are done directly in optical form. An important example is all-
571:. It can be mitigated, however, either by switching to longer wavelengths (at which the TPA to Kerr ratio drops), or by using slot waveguides (in which the internal nonlinear material has a lower TPA to Kerr ratio). Alternatively, the energy lost through TPA can be partially recovered (as is described below) by extracting it from the generated charge carriers.
1261:
Talebi Fard, Sahba; Grist, Samantha M.; Donzella, Valentina; Schmidt, Shon A.; Flueckiger, Jonas; Wang, Xu; Shi, Wei; Millspaugh, Andrew; Webb, Mitchell; Ratner, Daniel M.; Cheung, Karen C.; Chrostowski, Lukas (2013). "Label-free silicon photonic biosensors for use in clinical diagnostics". In Kubby,
583:
within silicon can both absorb photons and change its refractive index. This is particularly significant at high intensities and for long durations, due to the carrier concentration being built up by TPA. The influence of free charge carriers is often (but not always) unwanted, and various means have
177:
In a typical optical link, data is first transferred from the electrical to the optical domain using an electro-optic modulator or a directly modulated laser. An electro-optic modulator can vary the intensity and/or the phase of the optical carrier. In silicon photonics, a common technique to achieve
2248:
Barwicz, T.; Byun, H.; Gan, F.; Holzwarth, C. W.; Popovic, M. A.; Rakich, P. T.; Watts, M. R.; Ippen, E. P.; Kärtner, F. X.; Smith, H. I.; Orcutt, J. S.; Ram, R. J.; Stojanovic, V.; Olubuyide, O. O.; Hoyt, J. L.; Spector, S.; Geis, M.; Grein, M.; Lyszczarz, T.; Yoon, J. U. (2006). "Silicon photonics
2000:
Kang, Yimin; Liu, Han-Din; Morse, Mike; Paniccia, Mario J.; Zadka, Moshe; Litski, Stas; Sarid, Gadi; Pauchard, Alexandre; Kuo, Ying-Hao; Chen, Hui-Wen; Zaoui, Wissem Sfar; Bowers, John E.; Beling, Andreas; McIntosh, Dion C.; Zheng, Xiaoguang; Campbell, Joe C. (2008). "Monolithic germanium/silicon
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standard tops out at ten Gbit/s. The technology does not directly replace existing cables in that it requires a separate circuit board to interconvert electrical and optical signals. Its advanced speed offers the potential of reducing the number of cables that connect blades on a rack and even of
272:
In 2012, IBM announced that it had achieved optical components at the 90 nanometer scale that can be manufactured using standard techniques and incorporated into conventional chips. In
September 2013, Intel announced technology to transmit data at speeds of 100 gigabits per second along a cable
240:
The first microprocessor with optical input/output (I/O) was demonstrated in
December 2015 using an approach known as "zero-change" CMOS photonics. This is known as fiber-to-the-processor. This first demonstration was based on a 45 nm SOI node, and the bi-directional chip-to-chip link was
4132:
Jacobsen, Rune S.; Andersen, Karin N.; Borel, Peter I.; Fage-Pedersen, Jacob; Frandsen, Lars H.; Hansen, Ole; Kristensen, Martin; Lavrinenko, Andrei V.; Moulin, Gaid; Ou, Haiyan; Peucheret, Christophe; Zsigri, Beáta; Bjarklev, Anders (2006). "Strained silicon as a new electro-optic material".
284:
photodetectors have the potential to surpass germanium devices in several important aspects, although they remain about one order of magnitude behind current generation capacity, despite rapid improvement. Graphene devices can work at very high frequencies, and could in principle reach higher
3562:
Griffith, Austin G.; Lau, Ryan K.W.; Cardenas, Jaime; Okawachi, Yoshitomo; Mohanty, Aseema; Fain, Romy; Lee, Yoon Ho Daniel; Yu, Mengjie; Phare, Christopher T.; Poitras, Carl B.; Gaeta, Alexander L.; Lipson, Michal (24 February 2015). "Silicon-chip mid-infrared frequency comb generation".
178:
modulation is to vary the density of free charge carriers. Variations of electron and hole densities change the real and the imaginary part of the refractive index of silicon as described by the empirical equations of Soref and
Bennett. Modulators can consist of both forward-biased
711:. Early studies of Raman amplification and Raman lasers started at UCLA which led to demonstration of net gain Silicon Raman amplifiers and silicon pulsed Raman laser with fiber resonator (Optics express 2004). Consequently, all-silicon Raman lasers have been fabricated in 2005.
703:, in which a photon is exchanged for a photon with a slightly different energy, corresponding to an excitation or a relaxation of the material. Silicon's Raman transition is dominated by a single, very narrow frequency peak, which is problematic for broadband phenomena such as
216:
Optical communications are conveniently classified by the reach, or length, of their links. The majority of silicon photonic communications have so far been limited to telecom and datacom applications, where the reach is of several kilometers or several meters respectively.
1838:
Shainline, J. M.; Orcutt, J. S.; Wade, M. T.; Nammari, K.; Tehar-Zahav, O.; Sternberg, Z.; Meade, R.; Ram, R. J.; Stojanović, V.; Popović, M. A. (2013). "Depletion-mode polysilicon optical modulators in a bulk complementary metal-oxide semiconductor process".
4249:
Cazzanelli, M.; Bianco, F.; Borga, E.; Pucker, G.; Ghulinyan, M.; Degoli, E.; Luppi, E.; Véniard, V.; Ossicini, S.; Modotto, D.; Wabnitz, S.; Pierobon, R.; Pavesi, L. (2011). "Second-harmonic generation in silicon waveguides strained by silicon nitride".
627:
are out of phase, thus allowing power to be extracted from the waveguide. The source of this power is the light lost to two photon absorption, and so by recovering some of it, the net loss (and the rate at which heat is generated) can be reduced.
248:
source is required. Others think that it should remain off-chip because of thermal problems (the quantum efficiency decreases with temperature, and computer chips are generally hot) and because of CMOS-compatibility issues. One such device is the
152:. The presence of nonlinearity is of fundamental importance, as it enables light to interact with light, thus permitting applications such as wavelength conversion and all-optical signal routing, in addition to the passive transmission of light.
372:
Silicon photonics has been used in artificial intelligence inference processors that are more energy efficient than those using conventional transistors. This can be done using Mach-Zehnder interferometers (MZIs) which can be combined with
273:
approximately five millimeters in diameter for connecting servers inside data centers. Conventional PCI-E data cables carry data at up to eight gigabits per second, while networking cables reach 40 Gbit/s. The latest version of the
1948:
Vivien, Laurent; Rouvière, Mathieu; Fédéli, Jean-Marc; Marris-Morini, Delphine; Damlencourt, Jean François; Mangeney, Juliette; Crozat, Paul; El
Melhaoui, Loubna; Cassan, Eric; Le Roux, Xavier; Pascal, Daniel; Laval, Suzanne (2007).
159:
are also of great academic interest, due to their unique guiding properties, they can be used for communications, interconnects, biosensors, and they offer the possibility to support exotic nonlinear optical phenomena such as
220:
Silicon photonics, however, is expected to play a significant role in computercom as well, where optical links have a reach in the centimeter to meter range. In fact, progress in computer technology (and the continuation of
3817:
Rybczynski, J.; Kempa, K.; Herczynski, A.; Wang, Y.; Naughton, M. J.; Ren, Z. F.; Huang, Z. P.; Cai, D.; Giersig, M. (2007). "Two-photon absorption and Kerr coefficients of silicon for 850– 2,200 nmi (4,100 km)".
1760:
Shainline, J. M.; Orcutt, J. S.; Wade, M. T.; Nammari, K.; Moss, B.; Georgas, M.; Sun, C.; Ram, R. J.; Stojanović, V.; Popović, M. A. (2013). "Depletion-mode carrier-plasma optical modulator in zero-change advanced CMOS".
497:
increases with optical intensity. This effect is not especially strong in bulk silicon, but it can be greatly enhanced by using a silicon waveguide to concentrate light into a very small cross-sectional area. This allows
3624:
Kuyken, Bart; Ideguchi, Takuro; Holzner, Simon; Yan, Ming; Hänsch, Theodor W.; Van
Campenhout, Joris; Verheyen, Peter; Coen, Stéphane; Leo, Francois; Baets, Roel; Roelkens, Gunther; Picqué, Nathalie (20 February 2015).
735:, although 3D optical cavities are not necessary to observe the interaction. For instance, besides in silicon waveguides the optomechanical coupling has also been demonstrated in fibers and in chalcogenide waveguides.
441:
in that pulses with longer wavelengths travel with higher group velocity than those with shorter wavelength. By selecting a suitable waveguide geometry, however, it is possible to reverse this, and achieve
4854:
Levy, Shahar; Lyubin, Victor; Klebanov, Matvei; Scheuer, Jacob; Zadok, Avi (15 December 2012). "Stimulated
Brillouin scattering amplification in centimeter-long directly written chalcogenide waveguides".
1816:
429:. By selecting the waveguide geometry, it is possible to tailor the dispersion to have desired properties, which is of crucial importance to applications requiring ultrashort pulses. In particular, the
465:, which has a much lower refractive index (of about 1.44 in the wavelength region of interest), and thus light at the silicon-silica interface will (like light at the silicon-air interface) undergo
2649:
Analui, Behnam; Guckenberger, Drew; Kucharski, Daniel; Narasimha, Adithyaram (2006). "A Fully
Integrated 20-Gb/s Optoelectronic Transceiver Implemented in a Standard 0.13- μm CMOS SOI Technology".
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237:
stated that, "Today, optics is a niche technology. Tomorrow, it's the mainstream of every chip that we build." In 2010 Intel demonstrated a 50 Gbit/s connection made with silicon photonics.
344:
and various academic institutes have been attempting to prove this functionality. A 2010 paper reported on a prototype 80 km, 12.5 Gbit/s transmission using microring silicon devices.
233:
may provide a way forward, and silicon photonics may prove particularly useful, once integrated on the standard silicon chips. In 2006, Intel Senior Vice
President - and future CEO -
241:
operated at a rate of 2×2.5 Gbit/s. The total energy consumption of the link was calculated to be of 16 pJ/b and was dominated by the contribution of the off-chip laser.
2603:
4636:
Van Laer, Raphaël; Kuyken, Bart; Van
Thourhout, Dries; Baets, Roel (1 March 2015). "Interaction between light and highly confined hypersound in a silicon photonic nanowire".
4697:
Van Laer, Raphaël; Bazin, Alexandre; Kuyken, Bart; Baets, Roel; Thourhout, Dries Van (1 January 2015). "Net on-chip
Brillouin gain based on suspended silicon nanowires".
197:. The semiconductor used for carrier generation has usually a band-gap smaller than the photon energy, and the most common choice is pure germanium. Most detectors use a
1667:
Chen, Long; Preston, Kyle; Manipatruni, Sasikanth; Lipson, Michal (2009). "Integrated GHz silicon photonic interconnect with micrometer-scale modulators and detectors".
1890:
Kucharski, D.; et al. (2010). "10 Gb/s 15mW optical receiver with integrated Germanium photodetector and hybrid inductor peaking in 0.13µm SOI CMOS technology".
771:
and the trailing edge blueshifted) and anomalous group velocity dispersion. Such solitons have been observed in silicon waveguides, by groups at the universities of
1089:
2981:
1812:
3509:
Foster, M. A.; Turner, A. C.; Sharping, J. E.; Schmidt, B. S.; Lipson, M; Gaeta, A. L. (2006). "Broad-band optical parametric gain on a silicon photonic chip".
3095:
600:(in which the waveguides consist of thicker regions in a wider layer of silicon) enhance both the carrier recombination at the silica-silicon interface and the
2751:
Vlasov, Yurii; Green, William M. J.; Xia, Fengnian (2008). "High-throughput silicon nanophotonic wavelength-insensitive switch for on-chip optical networks".
643:
of its crystalline structure. By applying strain however, the inversion symmetry of silicon can be broken. This can be obtained for example by depositing a
97:
components are integrated onto a single microchip. Consequently, silicon photonics is being actively researched by many electronics manufacturers including
2850:
3987:
Zevallos l., Manuel E.; Gayen, S. K.; Alrubaiee, M.; Alfano, R. R. (2005). "Lifetime of photogenerated carriers in silicon-on-insulator rib waveguides".
2625:
186:. A prototype optical interconnect with microring modulators integrated with germanium detectors has been demonstrated. Non-resonant modulators, such as
1738:
1568:
Barrios, C.A.; Almeida, V.R.; Panepucci, R.; Lipson, M. (2003). "Electrooptic Modulation of Silicon-on-Insulator Submicrometer-Size Waveguide Devices".
2043:
1140:
SPIE (5 March 2015). "Yurii A. Vlasov plenary presentation: Silicon Integrated Nanophotonics: From Fundamental Science to Manufacturable Technology".
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so that the carriers are attracted away from the waveguide core. A more sophisticated scheme still, is to use the diode as part of a circuit in which
3737:
Yin, Lianghong; Agrawal, Govind P. (2006). "Impact of two-photon absorption on self-phase modulation in silicon waveguides: Free-carrier effects".
213:
capable of operating at 40 Gbit/s have been fabricated. Complete transceivers have been commercialized in the form of active optical cables.
422:
4500:
Shin, Heedeuk; Qiu, Wenjun; Jarecki, Robert; Cox, Jonathan A.; Olsson, Roy H.; Starbuck, Andrew; Wang, Zheng; Rakich, Peter T. (December 2013).
301:, whereby the routing of optical signals is directly controlled by other optical signals. Another example is all-optical wavelength conversion.
3446:
Koos, C; Jacome, L; Poulton, C; Leuthold, J; Freude, W (2007). "Nonlinear silicon-on-insulator waveguides for all-optical signal processing".
3170:
Turner, Amy C.; Manolatou, Christina; Schmidt, Bradley S.; Lipson, Michal; Foster, Mark A.; Sharping, Jay E.; Gaeta, Alexander L. (2006).
2296:. Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference and Photonic Applications Systems Technologies.
532:-sidebands and the eventual breakup of the waveform into a train of pulses. Another example (as described below) is soliton propagation.
2421:
1118:
1463:
Ding, W.; Benton, C.; Gorbach, A. V.; Wadsworth, W. J.; Knight, J. C.; Skryabin, D. V.; Gnan, M.; Sorrel, M.; de la Rue, R. M. (2008).
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3004:
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Manipatruni, Sasikanth; et al. (2007). "High Speed Carrier Injection 18 Gb/S Silicon Micro-ring Electro-optic Modulator".
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2502:
Otterstrom, Nils T.; Behunin, Ryan O.; Kittlaus, Eric A.; Wang, Zheng; Rakich, Peter T. (8 June 2018). "A silicon Brillouin laser".
506:, in which the high refractive index of the silicon is used to confine light into a central region filled with a strongly nonlinear
5084:
2084:
1347:
Hsieh, I.-Wei; Chen, Xiaogang; Dadap, Jerry I.; Panoiu, Nicolae C.; Osgood, Richard M.; McNab, Sharee J.; Vlasov, Yurii A. (2006).
564:
Kerr nonlinearity. At the 1.55 micrometre telecommunication wavelength, this imaginary part is approximately 10% of the real part.
481:
and so improve performance. Silicon photonics have also been built with silicon nitride as the material in the optical waveguides.
5135:
4358:
4194:"Phase-matched sum frequency generation in strained silicon waveguides using their second-order nonlinear optical susceptibility"
3231:"Single-mode porous silicon waveguide interferometers with unity confinement factors for ultra-sensitive surface adlayer sensing"
1608:
Liu, Ansheng; Liao, Ling; Rubin, Doron; Nguyen, Hat; Ciftcioglu, Berkehan; Chetrit, Yoel; Izhaky, Nahum; Paniccia, Mario (2007).
652:
437:
varies with wavelength) can be closely controlled. In bulk silicon at 1.55 micrometres, the group velocity dispersion (GVD) is
4758:
Van Laer, Raphaël; Baets, Roel; Van Thourhout, Dries (20 May 2016). "Unifying Brillouin scattering and cavity optomechanics".
446:
GVD, in which pulses with shorter wavelengths travel faster. Anomalous dispersion is significant, as it is a prerequisite for
4108:
2893:
2876:
Zortman, W. A. (2010). "Power Penalty Measurement and Frequency Chirp Extraction in Silicon Microdisk Resonator Modulators".
2078:
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Donzella, Valentina; Sherwali, Ahmed; Flueckiger, Jonas; Grist, Samantha M.; Fard, Sahba Talebi; Chrostowski, Lukas (2015).
768:
5074:
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Panoiu, Nicolae C.; Chen, Xiaogang; Osgood Jr., Richard M. (2006). "Modulation instability in silicon photonic nanowires".
553:
3795:
3117:
Yin, Lianghong; Lin, Q.; Agrawal, Govind P. (2006). "Dispersion tailoring and soliton propagation in silicon waveguides".
2307:
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4811:
Kobyakov, Andrey; Sauer, Michael; Chowdhury, Dipak (31 March 2010). "Stimulated Brillouin scattering in optical fibers".
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separating processor, storage and memory into separate blades to allow more efficient cooling and dynamic configuration.
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Rong, H; Liu, A; Jones, R; Cohen, O; Hak, D; Nicolaescu, R; Fang, A; Paniccia, M (2005). "An all-silicon Raman laser".
2366:
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2977:
2600:"Intel Unveils Optical Technology to Kill Copper Cables and Make Data Centers Run Faster | MIT Technology Review"
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Almeida, V. R.; Barrios, C. A.; Panepucci, R. R.; Lipson, M (2004). "All-optical control of light on a silicon chip".
4927:
4032:
Jones, Richard; Rong, Haisheng; Liu, Ansheng; Fang, Alexander W.; Paniccia, Mario J.; Hak, Dani; Cohen, Oded (2005).
3308:
1905:
Gunn, Cary; Masini, Gianlorenzo; Witzens, J.; Capellini, G. (2006). "CMOS photonics using germanium photodetectors".
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As is mentioned above, free charge carrier effects can also be used constructively, in order to modulate the light.
193:
On the receiver side, the optical signal is typically converted back to the electrical domain using a semiconductor
5039:
971:
518:
202:
469:, and remain in the silicon. This construct is known as silicon on insulator. It is named after the technology of
3033:
1570:
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869:
187:
1401:
Zhang, Jidong; Lin, Qiang; Piredda, Giovanni; Boyd, Robert W.; Agrawal, Govind P.; Fauchet, Philippe M. (2007).
5140:
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328:'s bandwidth capacity by providing micro-scale, ultra low power devices. Furthermore, the power consumption of
4575:
Kittlaus, Eric A.; Shin, Heedeuk; Rakich, Peter T. (1 July 2016). "Large Brillouin amplification in silicon".
4034:"Net continuous wave optical gain in a low loss silicon-on-insulator waveguide by stimulated Raman scattering"
1951:"High speed and high responsivity germanium photodetector integrated in a Silicon-On-Insulator microwaveguide"
1734:
2917:
Biberman, Aleksandr; Manipatruni, Sasikanth; Ophir, Noam; Chen, Long; Lipson, Michal; Bergman, Keren (2010).
377:
to modulate the light passing though it, by physically bending the MZI which changes the phase of the light.
374:
294:
209:
as the semiconductor) have been integrated into silicon waveguides as well. More recently, silicon-germanium
51:
2039:
1033:
Lipson, Michal (2005). "Guiding, Modulating, and Emitting Light on Silicon – Challenges and Opportunities".
671:
between the optical waves involved. Second-order nonlinear waveguides based on strained silicon can achieve
656:
333:
457:
In order for the silicon photonic components to remain optically independent from the bulk silicon of the
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792:
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on which they are fabricated, it is necessary to have a layer of intervening material. This is usually
182:, which generally generate large phase-shifts but suffer of lower speeds, as well as of reverse-biased
1813:"Major silicon photonics breakthrough could allow for continued exponential growth in microprocessors"
5223:
5161:
5105:
5034:
4380:
Hon, Nick K.; Tsia, Kevin K.; Solli, Daniel R.; Jalali, Bahram (2009). "Periodically poled silicon".
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411:
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3627:"An octave-spanning mid-infrared frequency comb generated in a silicon nanophotonic wire waveguide"
2294:
Demonstration of an Electronic Photonic Integrated Circuit in a Commercial Scaled Bulk CMOS Process
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451:
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Blumenthal, Daniel J.; Heideman, Rene; Geuzebroek, Douwe; Leinse, Arne; Roeloffzen, Chris (2018).
5089:
4953:
3989:
3820:
1349:"Ultrafast-pulse self-phase modulation and third-order dispersion in Si photonic wire-waveguides"
776:
691:
coated with a highly nonlinear organic cladding and in periodically strained silicon waveguides.
608:
402:, of about 3.5. The tight optical confinement provided by this high index allows for microscopic
1295:"Design and fabrication of SOI micro-ring resonators based on sub-wavelength grating waveguides"
5166:
5064:
4441:
Rakich, Peter T.; Reinke, Charles; Camacho, Ryan; Davids, Paul; Wang, Zheng (30 January 2012).
2066:
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Talukdar, Tahmid H.; Allen, Gabriel D.; Kravchenko, Ivan; Ryckman, Judson D. (5 August 2019).
684:
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2067:"A 40-Gb/s QSFP optoelectronic transceiver in a 0.13 µm CMOS silicon-on-insulator technology"
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Malitson, I. H. (1965). "Interspecimen Comparison of the Refractive Index of Fused Silica".
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The influence of TPA is highly disruptive, as it both wastes light, and generates unwanted
528:, in which it reinforces deviations from an optical waveform, leading to the generation of
470:
250:
230:
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149:
110:
55:
3942:(2006). "Nonlinear absorption and Raman gain in helium-ion-implanted silicon waveguides".
8:
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systems. The silicon typically lies on top of a layer of silica in what (by analogy with
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LEOS 2007 - IEEE Lasers and Electro-Optics Society Annual Meeting Conference Proceedings
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2793:"Broad-band continuous-wave parametric wavelength conversion in silicon nanowaveguides"
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818:"All-silicon active and passive guided-wave components for lambda= 1.3 and 1.6 microns"
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679:. So far, however, experimental demonstrations are based only on designs which are not
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2851:"After six years of planning, Compass-EOS takes on Cisco to make blazing-fast routers"
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Recent Progress in Silicon Photonics R&D and Manufacturing on 300mm Wafer Platform
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effects to be seen at low powers. The nonlinearity can be enhanced further by using a
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2824:
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2473:
2362:
2350:
2074:
1982:
1934:
1864:
1786:
1704:
1641:
1496:
1434:
1380:
1324:
1279:
1241:
1218:
1008:
975:
934:
797:
748:
660:
490:
403:
361:
298:
4900:
4744:
4683:
4427:
4118:
4018:
3776:
3215:
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2903:
2836:
2737:
2678:
2557:
2278:
2234:
1798:
1716:
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1446:
1064:
647:
layer on a thin silicon film. Second-order nonlinear phenomena can be exploited for
5233:
5145:
5110:
5059:
4872:
4828:
4785:
4724:
4663:
4602:
4547:
4531:
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4407:
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4275:
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4213:
4150:
4096:
4077:
4055:
4006:
3961:
3908:
3837:
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3711:
3664:
3656:
3610:
3590:
3528:
3511:
3495:
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3465:
3425:
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3343:
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2762:
2753:
2715:
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2529:
2485:
2465:
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2187:
2164:
2119:
2020:
2003:
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1922:
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1424:
1370:
1314:
1267:
1206:
1145:
1052:
946:
926:
909:
886:
837:
743:
The evolution of light through silicon waveguides can be approximated with a cubic
676:
624:
585:
557:
514:
499:
494:
415:
399:
258:
198:
183:
161:
129:
59:
2919:"First demonstration of long-haul transmission using silicon microring modulators"
607:
A more advanced scheme for carrier removal is to integrate the waveguide into the
4443:"Giant Enhancement of Stimulated Brillouin Scattering in the Subwavelength Limit"
3361:
Celler, G. K.; Cristoloveanu, Sorin (2003). "Frontiers of silicon-on-insulator".
2788:
2632:
1610:"High-speed optical modulation based on carrier depletion in a silicon waveguide"
756:
644:
596:. A suitable choice of geometry can also be used to reduce the carrier lifetime.
305:
4311:
Alloatti, L.; Korn, D.; Weimann, C.; Koos, C.; Freude, W.; Leuthold, J. (2012).
723:
with a frequency of about 15 THz. However, silicon waveguides also support
513:
Kerr nonlinearity underlies a wide variety of optical phenomena. One example is
269:
or an all-silicon Brillouin lasers wherein silicon serves as the lasing medium.
73:
5192:
5069:
4988:
4789:
4038:
3944:
3791:
3739:
3694:
3448:
3429:
3413:
3398:
3176:
3119:
2923:
2797:
2698:
2226:
1955:
1669:
1614:
1469:
1465:"Solitons and spectral broadening in long silicon-on- insulator photonic wires"
1407:
1353:
688:
648:
640:
561:
503:
434:
395:
222:
106:
105:, as well as by academic research groups, as a means for keeping on track with
39:
31:
4467:
4442:
4100:
1182:"Ultrafast nonlinear all-optical processes in silicon-on-insulator waveguides"
332:
may be significantly reduced if this is successfully achieved. Researchers at
5212:
4993:
4884:
4840:
4736:
4675:
4614:
4606:
4543:
4486:
4419:
4346:
4289:
4227:
4162:
3912:
3264:
2784:
2670:
2541:
2024:
1539:
841:
760:
597:
262:
254:
234:
226:
194:
114:
4667:
4502:"Tailorable stimulated Brillouin scattering in nanoscale silicon waveguides"
3172:"Tailored anomalous group-velocity dispersion in silicon channel waveguides"
2766:
2692:
Boyraz, ÖZdal; Koonath, Prakash; Raghunathan, Varun; Jalali, Bahram (2004).
2533:
2322:
2168:
2124:
1591:
1056:
890:
727:
excitations. The interaction of these acoustic phonons with light is called
4983:
4892:
4561:
4354:
4297:
4235:
4170:
4069:
4060:
4033:
3973:
3939:
3768:
3723:
3678:
3602:
3540:
3487:
3347:
3280:
3207:
3148:
2954:
2828:
2729:
2720:
2693:
2549:
2477:
2354:
2191:
1986:
1868:
1790:
1730:
1708:
1645:
1500:
1438:
1384:
1328:
938:
700:
616:
398:
with wavelengths above about 1.1 micrometres. Silicon also has a very high
137:
2885:
85:
techniques, and because silicon is already used as the substrate for most
4876:
4832:
4337:
4218:
4193:
3965:
3760:
3715:
3469:
3255:
3230:
3198:
3171:
3140:
2945:
2918:
2819:
2792:
2626:"Graphene-Based Optical Communication Could Make Computing More Efficient
2270:
1977:
1950:
1860:
1782:
1700:
1636:
1609:
1491:
1464:
1429:
1402:
1375:
1348:
1319:
1294:
1149:
708:
357:
266:
133:
94:
4477:
4280:
4154:
3532:
2469:
2346:
930:
639:
Second-order nonlinearities cannot exist in bulk silicon because of the
319:
5171:
5115:
5079:
4997:
4535:
3660:
3594:
2406:. 2014 International Semiconductor Laser Conference\. IEEE. p. 29.
1271:
353:
329:
309:
47:
4411:
4010:
3841:
3384:
3272:
2694:"All optical switching and continuum generation in silicon waveguides"
1926:
5024:
4969:
4271:
3478:
2108:
Photonic Integration and Photonics-Electronics Convergence on Silicon
612:
601:
407:
316:, was the first to present a commercial silicon-to-photonics router.
206:
179:
156:
35:
23:
3886:
2648:
1515:
817:
521:, parametric wavelength conversion, and frequency comb generation.,
4772:
4711:
4589:
2516:
2323:"Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light"
664:
325:
281:
43:
4650:
4518:
4394:
4131:
4090:
3643:
3577:
3411:
2205:
Meindl, J. D. (2003). "Beyond Moore's Law: the interconnect era".
1892:
Solid-State Circuits Conference Digest of Technical Papers (ISSCC)
1889:
1683:
552:. This process is related to the Kerr effect, and by analogy with
406:, which may have cross-sectional dimensions of only a few hundred
293:
Another application of silicon photonics is in signal routers for
2308:"Intel's 50Gbps Silicon Photonics Link: The Future of Interfaces"
1947:
752:
620:
507:
447:
341:
145:
27:
4635:
3399:"Silicon photonics: Silicon nitride versus silicon-on-insulator"
2163:. Optical Fiber Communication Conference. OSA. pp. Th4H.1.
425:
that result from this tight confinement substantially alter the
5187:
3986:
2186:. Optical Fiber Communication Conference. OSA. pp. W3A.1.
2071:
Proceedings of the Optical Fiber Communication Conference (OFC)
1292:
1260:
589:
545:
462:
313:
90:
3228:
2691:
2389:"Silicon Photonics Stumbles at the Last Meter - IEEE Spectrum"
5044:
3816:
2501:
1567:
1231:
906:
867:
Jalali, Bahram; Fathpour, Sasan (2006). "Silicon photonics".
473:
in electronics, whereby components are built upon a layer of
245:
125:
102:
4938:
3169:
3005:"Silicon Photonics for Artificial Intelligence Acceleration"
2916:
2001:
avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain–bandwidth product".
1666:
667:
generation. Efficient nonlinear conversion however requires
4913:
4248:
3871:
3561:
3508:
568:
385:
4757:
4313:"Second-order nonlinear silicon-organic hybrid waveguides"
2040:"Intel trumpets world's fastest silicon photonic detector"
1904:
1837:
1759:
1462:
1179:
4853:
4440:
3445:
2910:
1085:
719:
In the Raman effect, photons are red- or blue-shifted by
274:
98:
4696:
3623:
3303:(2nd ed.). San Diego (California): Academic Press.
2573:"IBM integrates optics and electronics on a single chip"
288:
4310:
3034:"Optical Compute Promises Game-Changing AI Performance"
2782:
2497:
2495:
2247:
89:, it is possible to create hybrid devices in which the
16:
Photonic systems which use silicon as an optical medium
4810:
2978:"Can Magic Leap Do What It Claims with $ 592 Million?"
410:. Single mode propagation can be achieved, thus (like
1180:
Dekker, R; Usechak, N; Först, M; Driessen, A (2008).
320:
Long range telecommunications using silicon photonics
4242:
4125:
3792:"Silicon photonics solves its "fundamental problem""
3691:
2492:
1999:
1346:
584:
been proposed to remove them. One such scheme is to
324:
Silicon microphotonics can potentially increase the
201:
for carrier extraction, however, detectors based on
81:
Silicon photonic devices can be made using existing
3360:
1400:
707:, but is beneficial for narrowband devices such as
574:
360:chip using silicon photonics for the purpose of an
4574:
4379:
3980:
1607:
767:(which causes the leading edge of the pulse to be
128:through silicon devices is governed by a range of
4499:
4185:
2445:
5210:
4304:
4031:
2418:"Hybrid Silicon Laser – Intel Platform Research"
253:, in which the silicon is bonded to a different
3874:International Conference on Group IV Photonics.
3323:
3294:
3292:
3290:
2570:
2031:
1563:
1561:
1109:
1107:
517:, which has been applied in silicon to realise
225:) is becoming increasingly dependent on faster
3789:
3783:
3082:
3080:
2875:
2783:Foster, Mark A.; Turner, Amy C.; Salem, Reza;
2778:
2776:
2750:
2249:for compact, energy-efficient interconnects".
2110:. Vol. 3. Frontiers Media SA. p. 7.
2037:
1723:
1660:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1032:
902:
900:
866:
816:Soref, Richard A.; Lorenzo, Joseph P. (1986).
4954:
4191:
3868:Energy Harvesting in Silicon Raman Amplifiers
3317:
3116:
2291:
2204:
2064:
1514:Soref, Richard A.; Bennett, Brian R. (1987).
1396:
1394:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1076:
1074:
1028:
1026:
1024:
962:
960:
958:
956:
3884:
3861:
3859:
3810:
3441:
3439:
3287:
2441:
2439:
2410:
2241:
1735:"Intel cranks up next-gen chip-to-chip play"
1558:
1513:
1458:
1456:
1225:
1104:
815:
634:
4914:Drazin, P. G. & Johnson, R. S. (1989).
4907:
4373:
3865:
3685:
3502:
3354:
3163:
3077:
3057:
3031:
2869:
2773:
2744:
2685:
2642:
2285:
2198:
1941:
1603:
1601:
1156:
995:
993:
991:
897:
4961:
4947:
4025:
3878:
3736:
3730:
1391:
1335:
1071:
1021:
953:
860:
687:can be obtained as well in silicon double
367:
4771:
4710:
4649:
4588:
4551:
4517:
4476:
4466:
4393:
4336:
4279:
4217:
4059:
3856:
3668:
3642:
3576:
3477:
3436:
3327:Journal of the Optical Society of America
3254:
3197:
2944:
2818:
2719:
2515:
2436:
2123:
1993:
1976:
1729:
1682:
1635:
1490:
1453:
1428:
1403:"Optical solitons in a silicon waveguide"
1374:
1318:
172:
5085:Time stretch analog-to-digital converter
3937:
3931:
3110:
2181:
1598:
1232:Butcher, Paul N.; Cotter, David (1991).
988:
535:
386:Optical guiding and dispersion tailoring
72:
34:. The silicon is usually patterned with
5136:Monte Carlo method for photon transport
4192:Avrutsky, Ivan; Soref, Richard (2011).
4084:
3298:
2975:
714:
347:
46:, most commonly at the 1.55 micrometre
5211:
3414:"Silicon Nitride in Silicon Photonics"
2878:Optical Fiber Communication Conference
2401:
2207:Computing in Science & Engineering
2161:Monolithic Silicon Photonics at 25Gb/s
2158:
653:spontaneous parametric down-conversion
380:
4942:
4361:from the original on 29 February 2020
3058:Ward-Foxton, Sally (24 August 2020).
3032:Ward-Foxton, Sally (24 August 2020).
2606:from the original on 5 September 2013
2182:Frederic, Boeuf; et al. (2015).
2105:
604:of carriers from the waveguide core.
289:Optical routers and signal processors
5075:Subwavelength-diameter optical fibre
3919:from the original on 2 December 2020
2651:IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits
2597:
2571:Borghino, Dario (13 December 2012).
1546:from the original on 2 December 2020
1139:
848:from the original on 2 December 2020
661:ultra-fast optical signal processing
484:
265:. Other devices include all-silicon
244:Some researchers believe an on-chip
3892:IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics
3887:"Electrooptical Effects in Silicon"
2976:Bourzac, Katherine (11 June 2015).
2320:
2292:Orcutt, J. S.; et al. (2008).
2159:Orcutt, Jason; et al. (2016).
2046:from the original on 10 August 2017
1819:from the original on 8 October 2013
1741:from the original on 4 October 2012
1520:IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics
1516:"Electrooptical effects in silicon"
822:IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics
694:
77:Silicon photonics 300 mm wafer
13:
5126:Extraordinary optical transmission
3060:"How Does Optical Computing Work?"
2969:
2853:. venturebeat.com. 12 March 2013.
2579:from the original on 22 April 2013
2087:from the original on 16 April 2023
2038:Modine, Austin (8 December 2008).
1266:. Vol. 8629. p. 862909.
1092:from the original on 9 August 2009
1082:"Silicon Integrated Nanophotonics"
1001:Silicon photonics: an introduction
14:
5245:
3002:
2984:from the original on 14 June 2015
2424:from the original on 28 June 2009
2369:from the original on 23 June 2020
1121:from the original on 28 June 2009
747:, which is notable for admitting
524:Kerr nonlinearity can also cause
42:components. These operate in the
5040:Erbium-doped waveguide amplifier
4813:Advances in Optics and Photonics
3798:from the original on 31 May 2008
3098:from the original on 14 May 2016
3094:Infrared Multilayer Laboratory.
1234:The elements of nonlinear optics
763:) result from a balance between
575:Free charge carrier interactions
519:optical parametric amplification
22:is the study and application of
4847:
4804:
4751:
4690:
4629:
4568:
4493:
4434:
3885:Soref, R.; Bennett, B. (1987).
3790:Nikbin, Darius (20 July 2006).
3617:
3555:
3405:
3391:
3222:
3051:
3025:
2996:
2857:from the original on 5 May 2013
2843:
2618:
2591:
2564:
2404:Semiconductor lasers on silicon
2395:
2381:
2321:Sun, Chen; et al. (2015).
2314:
2300:
2175:
2152:
2099:
2058:
1898:
1883:
1831:
1805:
1753:
1571:Journal of Lightwave Technology
1507:
1286:
1254:
1036:Journal of Lightwave Technology
870:Journal of Lightwave Technology
352:As of 2015, US startup company
229:between and within microchips.
167:
5141:Wavelength selective switching
4729:10.1088/1367-2630/17/11/115005
2624:Orcutt, Mike (2 October 2013)
1815:. KurzweilAI. 8 October 2013.
1133:
809:
745:Nonlinear Schrödinger equation
433:(that is, the extent to which
308:named "Compass-EOS", based in
1:
4968:
2251:Journal of Optical Networking
1262:Joel; Reed, Graham T (eds.).
803:
414:) eliminating the problem of
375:nanoelectromechanical systems
203:metal–semiconductor junctions
52:fiber optic telecommunication
188:Mach-Zehnder interferometers
7:
5055:Photonic integrated circuit
3401:. March 2016. pp. 1–3.
3299:Agrawal, Govind P. (1995).
1211:10.1088/0022-3727/40/14/r01
793:Photonic integrated circuit
786:
738:
556:, can be thought of as the
427:optical dispersion relation
423:dielectric boundary effects
10:
5250:
4920:Cambridge University Press
4790:10.1103/PhysRevA.93.053828
3430:10.1109/JPROC.2018.2861576
3364:Journal of Applied Physics
2227:10.1109/MCISE.2003.1166548
1238:Cambridge University Press
544:(TPA), in which a pair of
5180:
5162:Fiber-optic communication
5154:
5106:Arrayed waveguide grating
5098:
5035:Delay line interferometer
5017:
4976:
4916:Solitons: an introduction
4468:10.1103/PhysRevX.2.011008
4101:10.1109/leos.2007.4382517
2980:. MIT Technology Review.
759:(which are also known in
683:. It has been shown that
635:Second-order nonlinearity
467:total internal reflection
431:group velocity dispersion
412:single-mode optical fiber
144:and interactions between
83:semiconductor fabrication
5030:Optical DPSK demodulator
4607:10.1038/nphoton.2016.112
3913:10.1109/JQE.1987.1073206
2671:10.1109/JSSC.2006.884388
2602:. Technologyreview.com.
2025:10.1038/nphoton.2008.247
1540:10.1109/JQE.1987.1073206
842:10.1109/JQE.1986.1073057
657:parametric amplification
554:complex refractive index
526:modulational instability
452:modulational instability
132:phenomena including the
117:both between and within
5090:Wireless power transfer
4668:10.1038/nphoton.2015.11
4382:Applied Physics Letters
3990:Applied Physics Letters
3821:Applied Physics Letters
3418:Proceedings of the IEEE
2767:10.1038/nphoton.2008.31
2534:10.1126/science.aar6113
2402:Bowers, John E (2014).
2169:10.1364/OFC.2016.Th4H.1
2125:10.3389/fphy.2015.00037
1592:10.1109/JLT.2003.818167
1057:10.1109/JLT.2005.858225
891:10.1109/JLT.2006.885782
489:Silicon has a focusing
368:Artificial intelligence
5167:Optical neural network
5065:Photonic-crystal fiber
4699:New Journal of Physics
4061:10.1364/OPEX.13.000519
3348:10.1364/JOSA.55.001205
3301:Nonlinear fiber optics
2721:10.1364/OPEX.12.004094
2192:10.1364/OFC.2015.W3A.1
2065:Narasimha, A. (2008).
1264:Silicon Photonics VIII
677:dispersion-engineering
173:Optical communications
78:
56:a similar construction
4506:Nature Communications
3631:Nature Communications
3565:Nature Communications
3092:University of Reading
2886:10.1364/OFC.2010.OMI7
2637:MIT Technology Review
765:self phase modulation
699:Silicon exhibits the
594:carrier recombination
548:can act to excite an
542:two-photon absorption
536:Two-photon absorption
479:parasitic capacitance
295:optical communication
231:Optical interconnects
211:avalanche photodiodes
142:two-photon absorption
111:optical interconnects
76:
4877:10.1364/OL.37.005112
4833:10.1364/AOP.2.000001
4338:10.1364/OE.20.020506
4219:10.1364/OE.19.021707
4095:. pp. 537–538.
3966:10.1364/OL.31.001714
3866:Tsia, K. M. (2006).
3761:10.1364/OL.32.002031
3716:10.1364/OL.31.003609
3470:10.1364/OE.15.005976
3256:10.1364/OE.27.022485
3199:10.1364/OE.14.004357
3141:10.1364/OL.31.001295
2946:10.1364/OE.18.015544
2820:10.1364/OE.15.012949
2271:10.1364/JON.6.000063
1978:10.1364/OE.15.009843
1861:10.1364/OL.38.002729
1783:10.1364/OL.38.002657
1701:10.1364/OE.17.015248
1637:10.1364/OE.15.000660
1492:10.1364/OE.16.003310
1430:10.1364/OE.15.007682
1376:10.1364/OE.14.012380
1320:10.1364/OE.23.004791
1190:Journal of Physics D
1150:10.1117/2.3201503.15
733:cavity optomechanics
729:Brillouin scattering
715:The Brillouin effect
592:in order to enhance
581:free charge carriers
471:silicon on insulator
348:Light-field displays
251:hybrid silicon laser
150:free charge carriers
64:silicon on insulator
5198:Solid-state physics
5131:Holographic grating
5121:Diffraction grating
5050:Optical interleaver
4869:2012OptL...37.5112L
4825:2010AdOP....2....1K
4782:2016PhRvA..93e3828V
4721:2015NJPh...17k5005V
4660:2015NaPho...9..199V
4599:2016NaPho..10..463K
4528:2013NatCo...4.1944S
4459:2012PhRvX...2a1008R
4404:2009ApPhL..94i1116H
4329:2012OExpr..2020506A
4264:2012NatMa..11..148C
4210:2011OExpr..1921707A
4155:10.1038/nature04706
4147:2006Natur.441..199J
4052:2005OExpr..13..519J
4003:2005ApPhL..86a1115Z
3958:2006OptL...31.1714L
3905:1987IJQE...23..123S
3834:2007ApPhL..90b1104R
3753:2007OptL...32.2031Y
3708:2006OptL...31.3609P
3653:2015NatCo...6.6310K
3587:2015NatCo...6.6299G
3533:10.1038/nature04932
3525:2006Natur.441..960F
3462:2007OExpr..15.5976K
3377:2003JAP....93.4955C
3340:1965JOSA...55.1205M
3247:2019OExpr..2722485T
3241:(16): 22485–22498.
3190:2006OExpr..14.4357T
3133:2006OptL...31.1295Y
2937:2010OExpr..1815544B
2931:(15): 15544–15552.
2811:2007OExpr..1512949F
2805:(20): 12949–12958.
2789:Gaeta, Alexander L.
2712:2004OExpr..12.4094B
2663:2006IJSSC..41.2945A
2631:10 May 2021 at the
2526:2018Sci...360.1113O
2510:(6393): 1113–1116.
2470:10.1038/nature03273
2462:2005Natur.433..292R
2347:10.1038/nature16454
2339:2015Natur.528..534S
2263:2007JON.....6...63B
2219:2003CSE.....5a..20M
2116:2015FrP.....3...37D
2017:2009NaPho...3...59K
1969:2007OExpr..15.9843V
1919:2006ECSTr...3g..17G
1853:2013OptL...38.2729S
1775:2013OptL...38.2657S
1693:2009OExpr..1715248C
1677:(17): 15248–15256.
1628:2007OExpr..15..660L
1584:2003JLwT...21.2332B
1532:1987IJQE...23..123S
1483:2008OExpr..16.3310D
1421:2007OExpr..15.7682Z
1367:2006OExpr..1412380H
1361:(25): 12380–12387.
1311:2015OExpr..23.4791D
1203:2007JPhD...40..249D
1115:"Silicon Photonics"
1049:2005JLwT...23.4222L
1005:John Wiley and Sons
931:10.1038/nature02921
923:2004Natur.431.1081A
917:(7012): 1081–1084.
883:2006JLwT...24.4600J
834:1986IJQE...22..873S
705:Raman amplification
477:in order to reduce
381:Physical properties
162:soliton propagation
124:The propagation of
87:integrated circuits
4536:10.1038/ncomms2943
3794:. IOP publishing.
3661:10.1038/ncomms7310
3595:10.1038/ncomms7299
1272:10.1117/12.2005832
649:optical modulation
550:electron-hole pair
404:optical waveguides
113:to provide faster
79:
26:systems which use
5219:Silicon photonics
5206:
5205:
5009:Silicon photonics
5004:Optical computing
4760:Physical Review A
4447:Physical Review X
4412:10.1063/1.3094750
4141:(7090): 199–202.
4110:978-1-4244-0924-2
4011:10.1063/1.1846145
3952:(11): 1714–1716.
3842:10.1063/1.2430400
3747:(14): 2031–2033.
3456:(10): 5976–5990.
3424:(12): 2209–2231.
3385:10.1063/1.1558223
3334:(10): 1205–1209.
3184:(10): 4357–4362.
2895:978-1-55752-885-8
2880:. pp. OMI7.
2706:(17): 4094–4102.
2657:(12): 2945–2955.
2456:(7023): 292–294.
2333:(7583): 534–538.
2080:978-1-55752-859-9
1963:(15): 9843–9848.
1927:10.1149/1.2355790
1847:(15): 2729–2731.
1769:(15): 2657–2659.
1578:(10): 2332–2339.
1415:(12): 7682–7688.
1197:(14): R249–R271.
1043:(12): 4222–4238.
968:Silicon photonics
877:(12): 4600–4615.
798:Optical computing
755:solutions. These
588:the silicon with
540:Silicon exhibits
500:nonlinear optical
491:Kerr nonlinearity
485:Kerr nonlinearity
450:propagation, and
362:augmented reality
299:optical switching
130:nonlinear optical
20:Silicon photonics
5241:
5224:Nonlinear optics
5146:Photon diffusion
5111:Atomic coherence
5060:Photonic crystal
4963:
4956:
4949:
4940:
4939:
4934:
4933:
4911:
4905:
4904:
4851:
4845:
4844:
4808:
4802:
4801:
4775:
4755:
4749:
4748:
4714:
4694:
4688:
4687:
4653:
4638:Nature Photonics
4633:
4627:
4626:
4592:
4577:Nature Photonics
4572:
4566:
4565:
4555:
4521:
4497:
4491:
4490:
4480:
4470:
4438:
4432:
4431:
4397:
4377:
4371:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4340:
4323:(18): 20506–15.
4308:
4302:
4301:
4283:
4272:10.1038/nmat3200
4252:Nature Materials
4246:
4240:
4239:
4221:
4204:(22): 21707–16.
4189:
4183:
4182:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4088:
4082:
4081:
4063:
4029:
4023:
4022:
3984:
3978:
3977:
3935:
3929:
3928:
3926:
3924:
3882:
3876:
3875:
3863:
3854:
3853:
3814:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3803:
3787:
3781:
3780:
3734:
3728:
3727:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3672:
3646:
3621:
3615:
3614:
3580:
3559:
3553:
3552:
3506:
3500:
3499:
3481:
3443:
3434:
3433:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3395:
3389:
3388:
3358:
3352:
3351:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3296:
3285:
3284:
3258:
3226:
3220:
3219:
3201:
3167:
3161:
3160:
3127:(9): 1295–1297.
3114:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3103:
3084:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3070:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3029:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3009:
3000:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2973:
2967:
2966:
2948:
2914:
2908:
2907:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2822:
2780:
2771:
2770:
2754:Nature Photonics
2748:
2742:
2741:
2723:
2689:
2683:
2682:
2646:
2640:
2622:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2519:
2499:
2490:
2489:
2443:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2304:
2298:
2297:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2143:
2139:
2137:
2129:
2127:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2042:. The Register.
2035:
2029:
2028:
2004:Nature Photonics
1997:
1991:
1990:
1980:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1907:ECS Transactions
1902:
1896:
1895:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1737:. The Register.
1727:
1721:
1720:
1686:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1639:
1605:
1596:
1595:
1565:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1494:
1477:(5): 3310–3319.
1460:
1451:
1450:
1432:
1398:
1389:
1388:
1378:
1344:
1333:
1332:
1322:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1186:
1177:
1154:
1153:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1111:
1102:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1078:
1069:
1068:
1030:
1019:
1018:
997:
986:
985:
964:
951:
950:
904:
895:
894:
864:
858:
857:
855:
853:
813:
757:optical solitons
695:The Raman effect
609:intrinsic region
515:four wave mixing
495:refractive index
416:modal dispersion
400:refractive index
356:is working on a
259:indium phosphide
60:microelectronics
38:precision, into
5249:
5248:
5244:
5243:
5242:
5240:
5239:
5238:
5209:
5208:
5207:
5202:
5176:
5150:
5094:
5013:
4972:
4967:
4937:
4930:
4912:
4908:
4852:
4848:
4809:
4805:
4756:
4752:
4695:
4691:
4634:
4630:
4573:
4569:
4498:
4494:
4439:
4435:
4378:
4374:
4364:
4362:
4309:
4305:
4247:
4243:
4190:
4186:
4130:
4126:
4111:
4089:
4085:
4030:
4026:
3985:
3981:
3936:
3932:
3922:
3920:
3883:
3879:
3864:
3857:
3815:
3811:
3801:
3799:
3788:
3784:
3735:
3731:
3702:(24): 3609–11.
3690:
3686:
3622:
3618:
3560:
3556:
3519:(7096): 960–3.
3507:
3503:
3444:
3437:
3410:
3406:
3397:
3396:
3392:
3359:
3355:
3322:
3318:
3311:
3297:
3288:
3227:
3223:
3168:
3164:
3115:
3111:
3101:
3099:
3086:
3085:
3078:
3068:
3066:
3056:
3052:
3042:
3040:
3030:
3026:
3016:
3014:
3007:
3001:
2997:
2987:
2985:
2974:
2970:
2915:
2911:
2896:
2874:
2870:
2860:
2858:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2781:
2774:
2749:
2745:
2690:
2686:
2647:
2643:
2633:Wayback Machine
2623:
2619:
2609:
2607:
2598:Simonite, Tom.
2596:
2592:
2582:
2580:
2569:
2565:
2500:
2493:
2444:
2437:
2427:
2425:
2416:
2415:
2411:
2400:
2396:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2372:
2370:
2319:
2315:
2306:
2305:
2301:
2290:
2286:
2246:
2242:
2203:
2199:
2180:
2176:
2157:
2153:
2141:
2140:
2131:
2130:
2104:
2100:
2090:
2088:
2081:
2063:
2059:
2049:
2047:
2036:
2032:
1998:
1994:
1946:
1942:
1903:
1899:
1888:
1884:
1836:
1832:
1822:
1820:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1758:
1754:
1744:
1742:
1728:
1724:
1665:
1661:
1606:
1599:
1566:
1559:
1549:
1547:
1512:
1508:
1461:
1454:
1399:
1392:
1345:
1336:
1305:(4): 4791–803.
1291:
1287:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1230:
1226:
1184:
1178:
1157:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1122:
1113:
1112:
1105:
1095:
1093:
1080:
1079:
1072:
1031:
1022:
1015:
999:
998:
989:
982:
966:
965:
954:
905:
898:
865:
861:
851:
849:
814:
810:
806:
789:
741:
725:acoustic phonon
721:optical phonons
717:
697:
689:slot waveguides
645:silicon nitride
637:
577:
538:
487:
388:
383:
370:
350:
322:
306:startup company
291:
175:
170:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5247:
5237:
5236:
5231:
5226:
5221:
5204:
5203:
5201:
5200:
5195:
5193:Quantum optics
5190:
5184:
5182:
5178:
5177:
5175:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5158:
5156:
5152:
5151:
5149:
5148:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5102:
5100:
5096:
5095:
5093:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5070:Slot-waveguide
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5021:
5019:
5015:
5014:
5012:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4991:
4989:Microphotonics
4986:
4980:
4978:
4974:
4973:
4966:
4965:
4958:
4951:
4943:
4936:
4935:
4928:
4906:
4863:(24): 5112–4.
4857:Optics Letters
4846:
4803:
4750:
4705:(11): 115005.
4689:
4644:(3): 199–203.
4628:
4583:(7): 463–467.
4567:
4492:
4433:
4372:
4317:Optics Express
4303:
4258:(2): 148–154.
4241:
4198:Optics Express
4184:
4124:
4109:
4083:
4046:(2): 519–525.
4039:Optics Express
4024:
3979:
3945:Optics Letters
3930:
3899:(1): 123–129.
3877:
3855:
3809:
3782:
3740:Optics Letters
3729:
3695:Optics Letters
3684:
3616:
3554:
3501:
3449:Optics Express
3435:
3404:
3390:
3353:
3316:
3309:
3286:
3235:Optics Express
3221:
3177:Optics Express
3162:
3120:Optics Letters
3109:
3088:"Silicon (Si)"
3076:
3050:
3024:
2995:
2968:
2924:Optics Express
2909:
2894:
2868:
2842:
2798:Optics Express
2785:Lipson, Michal
2772:
2761:(4): 242–246.
2743:
2699:Optics Express
2684:
2641:
2617:
2590:
2575:. Gizmag.com.
2563:
2491:
2435:
2409:
2394:
2380:
2313:
2299:
2284:
2240:
2197:
2174:
2151:
2142:|journal=
2098:
2079:
2057:
2030:
1992:
1956:Optics Express
1940:
1897:
1882:
1841:Optics Letters
1830:
1804:
1763:Optics Letters
1752:
1722:
1670:Optics Express
1659:
1622:(2): 660–668.
1615:Optics Express
1597:
1557:
1526:(1): 123–129.
1506:
1470:Optics Express
1452:
1408:Optics Express
1390:
1354:Optics Express
1334:
1299:Optics Express
1285:
1253:
1246:
1224:
1155:
1132:
1103:
1070:
1020:
1013:
987:
980:
952:
896:
859:
828:(6): 873–879.
807:
805:
802:
801:
800:
795:
788:
785:
740:
737:
716:
713:
696:
693:
685:phase matching
673:phase matching
669:phase matching
641:centrosymmetry
636:
633:
617:reverse biased
598:Rib waveguides
576:
573:
537:
534:
504:slot waveguide
493:, in that the
486:
483:
435:group velocity
396:infrared light
387:
384:
382:
379:
369:
366:
349:
346:
321:
318:
290:
287:
174:
171:
169:
166:
62:) is known as
36:sub-micrometre
32:optical medium
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5246:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5216:
5214:
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5196:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5185:
5183:
5179:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5159:
5157:
5153:
5147:
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5142:
5139:
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5134:
5132:
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5127:
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5122:
5119:
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5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5103:
5101:
5097:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
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5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5022:
5020:
5016:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
4999:
4995:
4994:Nanophotonics
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4981:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4964:
4959:
4957:
4952:
4950:
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4931:
4929:0-521-33655-4
4925:
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4917:
4910:
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4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
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4862:
4858:
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4838:
4834:
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4818:
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4807:
4799:
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4783:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4766:(5): 053828.
4765:
4761:
4754:
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4738:
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4718:
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4507:
4503:
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4488:
4484:
4479:
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4469:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4453:(1): 011008.
4452:
4448:
4444:
4437:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4388:(9): 091116.
4387:
4383:
4376:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4322:
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4291:
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4215:
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4180:
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4079:
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4040:
4035:
4028:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
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4000:
3997:(1): 071115.
3996:
3992:
3991:
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3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
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3934:
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3910:
3906:
3902:
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3881:
3873:
3869:
3862:
3860:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3828:(2): 191104.
3827:
3823:
3822:
3813:
3797:
3793:
3786:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3741:
3733:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
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3701:
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3696:
3688:
3680:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
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1142:SPIE Newsroom
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761:optical fiber
758:
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746:
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681:phase matched
678:
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264:
263:lasing medium
260:
256:
255:semiconductor
252:
247:
242:
238:
236:
235:Pat Gelsinger
232:
228:
227:data transfer
224:
218:
214:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
195:photodetector
191:
189:
185:
184:p–n junctions
181:
165:
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147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
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115:data transfer
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
75:
71:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
50:used by most
49:
45:
41:
40:microphotonic
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
5155:Applications
5008:
4984:Biophotonics
4915:
4909:
4860:
4856:
4849:
4816:
4812:
4806:
4763:
4759:
4753:
4702:
4698:
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4641:
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4631:
4580:
4576:
4570:
4509:
4505:
4495:
4478:1721.1/89020
4450:
4446:
4436:
4385:
4381:
4375:
4363:. Retrieved
4320:
4316:
4306:
4281:11379/107111
4255:
4251:
4244:
4201:
4197:
4187:
4138:
4134:
4127:
4092:
4086:
4043:
4037:
4027:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3949:
3943:
3940:Tsang, H. K.
3933:
3921:. Retrieved
3896:
3890:
3880:
3867:
3825:
3819:
3812:
3800:. Retrieved
3785:
3744:
3738:
3732:
3699:
3693:
3687:
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3619:
3568:
3564:
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3300:
3238:
3234:
3224:
3181:
3175:
3165:
3124:
3118:
3112:
3100:. Retrieved
3067:. Retrieved
3063:
3053:
3041:. Retrieved
3037:
3027:
3015:. Retrieved
3012:hotchips.org
3011:
2998:
2986:. Retrieved
2971:
2928:
2922:
2912:
2877:
2871:
2859:. Retrieved
2845:
2802:
2796:
2758:
2752:
2746:
2703:
2697:
2687:
2654:
2650:
2644:
2636:
2620:
2608:. Retrieved
2593:
2581:. Retrieved
2566:
2507:
2503:
2453:
2447:
2426:. Retrieved
2412:
2403:
2397:
2383:
2371:. Retrieved
2330:
2326:
2316:
2302:
2293:
2287:
2257:(1): 63–73.
2254:
2250:
2243:
2213:(1): 20–24.
2210:
2206:
2200:
2183:
2177:
2160:
2154:
2107:
2101:
2091:14 September
2089:. Retrieved
2070:
2060:
2048:. Retrieved
2033:
2011:(1): 59–63.
2008:
2002:
1995:
1960:
1954:
1943:
1913:(7): 17–24.
1910:
1906:
1900:
1891:
1885:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1821:. Retrieved
1807:
1766:
1762:
1755:
1743:. Retrieved
1725:
1674:
1668:
1662:
1619:
1613:
1575:
1569:
1548:. Retrieved
1523:
1519:
1509:
1474:
1468:
1412:
1406:
1358:
1352:
1302:
1298:
1288:
1263:
1256:
1233:
1227:
1194:
1188:
1141:
1135:
1123:. Retrieved
1094:. Retrieved
1040:
1034:
1000:
967:
914:
908:
874:
868:
862:
850:. Retrieved
825:
821:
811:
742:
718:
709:Raman lasers
701:Raman effect
698:
665:mid-infrared
638:
630:
606:
578:
566:
539:
523:
512:
488:
456:
443:
438:
430:
420:
389:
371:
351:
323:
303:
292:
280:
271:
243:
239:
219:
215:
199:p–n junction
192:
176:
168:Applications
154:
138:Raman effect
123:
80:
67:
63:
19:
18:
4512:(1): 1944.
3371:(9): 4955.
2610:4 September
615:, which is
560:-part of a
421:The strong
392:transparent
390:Silicon is
358:light-field
330:datacenters
304:In 2013, a
267:Raman laser
223:Moore's Law
134:Kerr effect
109:, by using
107:Moore's Law
5213:Categories
5172:Solar sail
5116:Dark state
5080:Superprism
4998:Plasmonics
4773:1503.03044
4712:1508.06318
4590:1510.08495
2517:1705.05813
1894:: 360–361.
1088:Research.
804:References
769:redshifted
408:nanometers
354:Magic Leap
336:, Kotura,
310:California
180:PIN diodes
157:waveguides
119:microchips
95:electronic
48:wavelength
5229:Photonics
5025:Biophoton
4970:Photonics
4885:1539-4794
4841:1943-8206
4798:118542296
4737:1367-2630
4676:1749-4885
4651:1407.4977
4623:119159337
4615:1749-4885
4544:2041-1723
4519:1301.7311
4487:2160-3308
4420:0003-6951
4395:0812.4427
4347:1094-4087
4290:1476-1122
4228:1094-4087
4179:205210888
4163:0028-0836
3938:Liu, Y.;
3850:122887780
3644:1405.4205
3578:1408.1039
3549:205210957
3479:10453/383
3265:1094-4087
2542:0036-8075
2420:. Intel.
2363:205247044
2144:ignored (
2134:cite book
2050:10 August
1935:111820229
1823:8 October
1684:0907.0022
1280:123382866
1219:123008652
1117:. Intel.
777:Rochester
613:PIN diode
602:diffusion
558:imaginary
475:insulator
444:anomalous
364:display.
261:) as the
257:(such as
207:germanium
5181:See also
5099:Concepts
4901:11976822
4893:23258022
4819:(1): 1.
4745:54539825
4684:55218097
4562:23739586
4428:28598739
4359:Archived
4355:23037098
4298:22138793
4236:22109021
4171:16688172
4119:26131159
4070:19488380
4019:37590490
3974:16688271
3917:Archived
3796:Archived
3777:10937266
3769:17632633
3724:17130919
3679:25697764
3637:: 6310.
3603:25708922
3571:: 6299.
3541:16791190
3488:19546900
3281:31510540
3216:41508892
3208:19516587
3157:43103486
3149:16642090
3096:Archived
3064:EE Times
3038:EE Times
2982:Archived
2963:19421366
2955:20720934
2904:11379237
2861:25 April
2855:Archived
2837:12219167
2829:19550563
2791:(2007).
2738:29225037
2730:19483951
2679:44232146
2629:Archived
2604:Archived
2583:20 April
2577:Archived
2558:46979719
2550:29880687
2478:15635371
2422:Archived
2367:Archived
2355:26701054
2279:10174513
2235:15668981
2085:Archived
2073:: OMK7.
2044:Archived
1987:19547334
1869:23903125
1817:Archived
1799:16603677
1791:23903103
1739:Archived
1717:40101121
1709:19688003
1654:24984744
1646:19532289
1544:Archived
1501:18542420
1447:26807722
1439:19547096
1385:19529669
1329:25836514
1119:Archived
1090:Archived
1065:42767475
1007:. 2004.
974:. 2004.
972:Springer
939:15510144
846:Archived
787:See also
773:Columbia
739:Solitons
530:spectral
326:Internet
282:Graphene
155:Silicon
44:infrared
24:photonic
5234:Silicon
4865:Bibcode
4821:Bibcode
4778:Bibcode
4717:Bibcode
4656:Bibcode
4595:Bibcode
4553:3709496
4524:Bibcode
4455:Bibcode
4400:Bibcode
4325:Bibcode
4260:Bibcode
4206:Bibcode
4143:Bibcode
4078:6804621
4048:Bibcode
3999:Bibcode
3954:Bibcode
3901:Bibcode
3830:Bibcode
3802:27 July
3749:Bibcode
3704:Bibcode
3670:4346629
3649:Bibcode
3611:1089022
3583:Bibcode
3521:Bibcode
3496:7069722
3458:Bibcode
3373:Bibcode
3336:Bibcode
3273:1546510
3243:Bibcode
3186:Bibcode
3129:Bibcode
3102:17 July
2988:13 June
2933:Bibcode
2807:Bibcode
2708:Bibcode
2659:Bibcode
2522:Bibcode
2504:Science
2486:4407228
2458:Bibcode
2428:14 July
2335:Bibcode
2259:Bibcode
2215:Bibcode
2112:Bibcode
2013:Bibcode
1965:Bibcode
1915:Bibcode
1877:6228126
1849:Bibcode
1771:Bibcode
1745:26 July
1689:Bibcode
1624:Bibcode
1580:Bibcode
1528:Bibcode
1479:Bibcode
1417:Bibcode
1363:Bibcode
1307:Bibcode
1199:Bibcode
1125:14 July
1096:14 July
1045:Bibcode
947:4404067
919:Bibcode
879:Bibcode
830:Bibcode
753:soliton
625:current
621:voltage
586:implant
562:complex
546:photons
508:polymer
448:soliton
342:Fujitsu
312:and in
146:photons
91:optical
28:silicon
5188:Optics
4977:Fields
4926:
4899:
4891:
4883:
4839:
4796:
4743:
4735:
4682:
4674:
4621:
4613:
4560:
4550:
4542:
4485:
4426:
4418:
4365:2 July
4353:
4345:
4296:
4288:
4234:
4226:
4177:
4169:
4161:
4135:Nature
4117:
4107:
4076:
4068:
4017:
3972:
3923:2 July
3870:. 3rd
3848:
3775:
3767:
3722:
3677:
3667:
3609:
3601:
3547:
3539:
3512:Nature
3494:
3486:
3307:
3279:
3271:
3263:
3214:
3206:
3155:
3147:
3069:1 July
3043:1 July
3017:1 July
2961:
2953:
2902:
2892:
2835:
2827:
2736:
2728:
2677:
2556:
2548:
2540:
2484:
2476:
2449:Nature
2373:2 July
2361:
2353:
2327:Nature
2277:
2233:
2077:
1985:
1933:
1875:
1867:
1797:
1789:
1715:
1707:
1652:
1644:
1550:2 July
1499:
1445:
1437:
1383:
1327:
1278:
1244:
1217:
1063:
1011:
978:
945:
937:
910:Nature
852:2 July
779:, and
751:-like
590:helium
463:silica
439:normal
334:Sandia
314:Israel
205:(with
136:, the
30:as an
5045:Laser
5018:Tools
4897:S2CID
4794:S2CID
4768:arXiv
4741:S2CID
4707:arXiv
4680:S2CID
4646:arXiv
4619:S2CID
4585:arXiv
4514:arXiv
4424:S2CID
4390:arXiv
4175:S2CID
4115:S2CID
4074:S2CID
4015:S2CID
3846:S2CID
3773:S2CID
3639:arXiv
3607:S2CID
3573:arXiv
3545:S2CID
3492:S2CID
3212:S2CID
3153:S2CID
3008:(PDF)
2959:S2CID
2900:S2CID
2833:S2CID
2734:S2CID
2675:S2CID
2554:S2CID
2512:arXiv
2482:S2CID
2359:S2CID
2275:S2CID
2231:S2CID
1931:S2CID
1873:S2CID
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