Tube Alloys - Knowledge

1360: 1717: 22: 175: 430: 1061: 819:(ICI), was chosen as its head. Anderson and Akers came up with the name Tube Alloys. It was deliberately chosen to be meaningless, "with a specious air of probability about it". An advisory committee known as the Tube Alloys Consultative Council was created to oversee its work, chaired by Anderson, with its other members being Lord Hankey, Lord Cherwell, Sir Edward Appleton and Sir Henry Dale. This handled policy matters. To deal with technical issues, a Technical Committee was created with Akers as chairman, and Chadwick, Simon, Halban, Peierls, and a senior ICI official, Roland Edgar Slade, as its original members, with 782:. At this point, it was feared that German scientists were attempting to provide their country with an atomic bomb, and thus Britain needed to finish theirs first. The report ultimately stated that if there were even a sliver of a chance that the bomb effort could produce a weapon with such power, then every effort should be made to make sure Britain did not fall behind. It recommended that while a pilot separation plant be built in Britain, the production facility should be built in Canada. The Defence Services Panel submitted its report on 24 September 1941, but by this time the final decision had already been taken. 1341:, the physical or chemical properties of plutonium, the details of bomb design, or the facts about fast neutron reactions. This was a major disappointment that hindered the British and the Canadians, who were collaborating on heavy water production and several other aspects of the research programme. By 1943 Britain had stopped sending its scientists to the United States, which slowed down the pace of work there, which had relied on efforts led by British scientists. In March 1943 Conant approached the Military Policy Committee, which decided that Britain's help would benefit some areas of the project. Chadwick, 1224:, which would later serve as a model for the Los Alamos Laboratory. The mission did not spend much time on nuclear fission, with only two meetings of the subject, mainly about uranium enrichment. In particular, Cockcroft did not report Peierls' and Frisch's findings. Nonetheless, there were important repercussions. A barrier had been broken and a pathway to exchange technical information between the two countries was developed. Moreover, the notion of civilian scientists playing an important role in the development of military technologies was strengthened on both sides of the Atlantic. 1504: 1538:, its main contractor for reactor construction. Despite doing much good work, by June 1943 the Montreal Laboratory had come to a complete standstill. Morale was low and the Canadian Government proposed cancelling the project. In April 1944, a Combined Policy Committee meeting in Washington agreed Canada would build a heavy water reactor. The Americans agreed to support the project with information and visits, and to supply materials, including vital uranium and heavy water. The Montreal Laboratory would be given access to data from the 4724: 4712: 574: 1431:. The British handed over their material to the Americans and in return received the copies of the American progress reports to the President. Tube Alloys was subsumed into the Manhattan Project. In a section of the Quebec Agreement formally entitled "Articles of Agreement governing collaboration between the authorities of the US and UK in the matter of Tube Alloys", Britain and the US agreed to share resources "to bring the Tube Alloys project to fruition at the earliest moment". The leaders further agreed that: 1310:

United States early in 1942 and were given full access to all of the information available. They were astounded at the momentum the American atomic bomb project had then assumed. The British and American exchange of information and efforts continued but the nations did not combine their efforts, leading their programmes separately. Furthermore, in 1941 the British Government rebuffed and vetoed attempts and proposals by Bush and Conant to strengthen cooperation between Great Britain and America.

4760: 1568:, one of the Tube Alloys scientists, was an expert in shock waves. In June 1944, he went to America to work at the Los Alamos Laboratory as part of the British delegation. He worked on the means to assess the effects of a nuclear explosion, and wrote a paper on what height the bombs should be detonated at for maximum effect in attacks on Germany and Japan. He served as a member of the target committee established by Groves to select Japanese cities for atomic bombing, and on 1233: 1171:

to be essential concerning international nuclear weapon control. He urged that Britain and the United States should inform the Soviet Union about the Manhattan Project in order to decrease the likelihood of its feeling threatened on the premise that the other nations were building a bomb behind its back. His beliefs stemmed from his conviction that the Russians already knew about the Manhattan Project, leading him to believe there was no point in hiding it from them.

4736: 1133: 683: 655:. The committee was initially named after its chairman, Thomson, but quickly exchanged this for a more unassuming name, the MAUD Committee. The name MAUD came to be in an unusual way. Shortly after Germany invaded Denmark, Bohr had sent a telegram to Frisch. The telegram ended with a strange line: "Tell Cockcroft and Maud Ray Kent". At first it was thought to be code regarding radium or other vital atomic-weapons-related information, hidden in an 4748: 659:. One suggestion was to replace the y with an i, producing "radium taken". When Bohr returned to England in 1943, it was discovered that the message was addressed to Bohr's housekeeper Maud Ray and Cockcroft. Maud Ray was from Kent. Thus the committee was named The MAUD Committee, the capitalisation representing a codename and not an acronym. Meetings were normally held in the offices of the 857: 1500:

scientist who was "accepted and sound of judgement" was appointed instead. British officials dug in over Britain's right to make its own appointments to its own government agencies. A compromise was reached, with Chadwick put in charge as Britain's technical advisor for the Combined Policy Committee, and as the head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project.

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Source of Power" discussed the idea of using uranium as a source of power, not just a bomb. The MAUD Committee and report helped bring about the British nuclear programme, the Tube Alloys Project. Not only did it help start a nuclear project in Britain, it helped jump-start the American project. Without the help of the MAUD Committee the American programme, the

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Bohr in Denmark that the Nazis considered his family to be Jewish, and that they were in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September 1943. When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain, Lord Cherwell sent a telegram asking Bohr to come to Britain. Bohr arrived in Scotland on 6 October in a

1330:... is a dwindling asset and that, unless we capitalise it quickly, we shall be outstripped. We now have a real contribution to make to a 'merger'. Soon we shall have little or none." By the time Britain realised it, the position had worsened; Bush decided outside help for the Manhattan Project was no longer needed. The 890:

plant that separated 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of uranium-235 from natural uranium per day would cost about £5,000,000 to build, and £1,500,000 per year to run, in which time it would consume £2,000,000 of uranium and other raw materials. The MAUD Committee realised an atomic bomb was not just feasible, but inevitable.

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to post-war Britain. He eventually convinced Groves of Rotblat's integrity to the cause, and this led to Rotblat being accepted to the Manhattan Project without renouncing his nationality. Rotblat had been left in charge of the Tube Alloys research, and brought with him the results obtained since Chadwick had left.

621:, which was the initial step in the development of the nuclear arms programme in Britain. This marked the beginning of an aggressive approach towards uranium enrichment and the development of an atomic bomb. They now began to investigate processes by which they could successfully separate the uranium isotope. 1099:, immediately welcomed and supported the proposal. The costs and salaries would be divided between the British and Canadian governments, but the British share would come from a billion dollar war gift from Canada. The first eight staff arrived in Montreal at the end of 1942, and occupied a house belonging to 1162:, Bohr visited the Manhattan Project sites in November 1943. Groves offered Bohr substantial pay, but Bohr initially refused the offer because he wanted to make sure the relationship between the United States and Great Britain remained a real co-operative partnership. In December 1943, after a meeting with 1079:

British Government wanted the Cambridge team to be relocated to North America, in proximity to the raw materials it required, and where the American research was being done. But Sir John Anderson wanted the British team to retain its own identity, and was concerned that since the Americans were working on

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took over the Manhattan Project from OSRD, and Groves became the project's director. He tightened security, which dried up the flow of information to Britain. American officials were particularly concerned that Akers and other people from ICI involved in the Tube Alloys project were trying to exploit

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The American effort increased rapidly and soon outstripped the British as the American authorities were reluctant to share details with their British counterparts. However, separate research continued in each country with some exchange of information. Several of the key British scientists visited the

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Bohr's evidence came from an interpretation of a letter he received from a Soviet friend and scientist in Russia, which he showed to the British security services. He reasoned that the longer the United States and Britain hid their nuclear advances, the more threatened the Russians would feel and the

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Halban's heavy water team from France continued its slow neutron research at Cambridge University; but the project was given a low priority since it was not considered relevant to bomb making. It suddenly acquired military significance when it was realised that it provided the route to plutonium. The

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In 1941, Frisch moved to London to work with Chadwick and his cyclotron. Frisch built a Clusius tube there to study the properties of uranium hexafluoride. Frisch and Chadwick discovered it is one of the gases for which the Clusius method will not work. This was only a minor setback because Simon was

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When Moon examined the suggestion that gaseous thermal diffusion be the method of choice to the MAUD committee, there was no agreement to move forward with it. The committee consulted with Peierls and Simon over the separation method and concluded that "ordinary" gaseous diffusion was the best method

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Peierls knew the importance of the size of the critical mass that would allow a chain reaction to take place and its practical significance. In the interior of a critical mass sphere, neutrons are spontaneously produced by the fissionable material. A very small portion of these neutrons are colliding

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With Chadwick involved the main goal was to show that the Quebec Agreement was a success. It was Britain's duty to co-operate to the fullest and speed along the process. Chadwick used this opportunity to give as many young British scientists experience as possible so they might carry that experience

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to relay the details which Oliphant had directed to Lawrence. Oliphant was not only able to get in touch with Lawrence, he met with Conant and Bush to inform them of the significant data the MAUD had discovered. Oliphant's ability to inform the Americans led to Oliphant convincing Lawrence, Lawrence

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and with members including Cockcroft, was sent to America to create relations and help advance the research towards war technology with the Americans. Several military technologies were shared, including advances in radar, anti-submarine warfare, aeronautical engineering and explosives. The American

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Four universities provided the locations where the experiments were taking place. The laboratory at the University of Birmingham was responsible for all the theoretical work, such as what size of critical mass was needed for an explosion. It was run by Peierls, with the help of fellow German refugee

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Oliphant took their findings to Tizard in his capacity as the chairman of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare (CSSAW). He in turn passed them to Thomson, to whom the CSSAW had delegated responsibility for uranium research. After discussions between Cockcroft, Oliphant and Thomson,

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with the United States. Under the agreement, the two nations would share nuclear weapons technology, and refrain from using it against each other, or against other countries without mutual consent. However, the United States did not provide complete details of the results of the Manhattan Project to

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Act) in August 1946 made it clear that the UK would no longer be allowed access to the United States' atomic research. This partly resulted from the arrest for espionage of Alan Nunn May in February 1946. On 8 January 1947, Attlee formed a secret Gen 163 Cabinet committee, consisting of six cabinet

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in September 1944, Roosevelt sided with Churchill, deciding it would be in the nation's best interest to keep the atomic bomb project a secret. Moreover, they decided Bohr was potentially dangerous and that security measures must be taken in order to prevent him from leaking information to the rest

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committed to working on the Manhattan Project. Bohr made a substantial contribution to the atomic bomb development effort. He also attempted to prevent a post-war atomic arms race with the Soviet Union, which he believed to be a serious threat. In 1944, Bohr presented several key points he believed

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Akers summoned Chadwick, Oliphant, Simon and Peierls to the United States. They arrived the day the Quebec Agreement was signed, ready to assist the Manhattan Project in any way possible. Akers was generally disliked and the Americans refused to move forward with collaboration unless a top British

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Sir John Anderson was eager to invite Niels Bohr to the Tube Alloys project because he was a world-famous scientist who would not only contribute his expertise to the project, but also help the British government gain leverage in dealings with the Manhattan Project. In September 1943, word reached

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instead of heavy water as a neutron moderator, that team might not receive a fair share of resources. The Americans had their own concerns, particularly about security, since only one of the six senior scientists in the group was British. They also had concerns about patent rights; that the French

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The research from the MAUD committee was compiled in two reports, commonly known as the MAUD reports in July 1941. The first report, "Use of Uranium for a Bomb", discussed the feasibility of creating a super-bomb from uranium, which they now thought to be possible. The second, "Use of Uranium as a

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of uranium to be the smallest amount that could sustain a chain reaction. The neutrons used to cause fission in uranium are considered slow neutrons, but when neutrons are released during a fission reaction they are released as fast neutrons which have much more speed and energy. Thus, in order to

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in Norway. The French discovered that Germany had already offered to purchase the entire stock of Norwegian heavy water, indicating that Germany might also be researching an atomic bomb. The French told the Norwegian government of the possible military significance of heavy water. Norway gave the

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in 1943, he learned of a proposed bomb design which they were calling an implosion. The sub-critical mass of plutonium was supposed to be surrounded by explosives arranged to detonate simultaneously. This would cause the plutonium core to be compressed and become supercritical. The core would be

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by diffusing a sample thousands of times through a pipe clay. Thick materials like pipe clay proved too slow to be efficient on an industry scale. Simon proposed using a metal foil punctured with millions of microscopic holes would allow the separation process to move faster. He estimated that a

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were placed around it, this might be reduced to 12 tonnes (12 long tons; 13 short tons). Peierls attempted to simplify the problem by using the fast neutrons produced by fission, thus omitting consideration of moderator. He too calculated the critical mass of a sphere of uranium in a theoretical

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of the experimental physics division. Von Halban was the director of the laboratory, but he proved to be an unfortunate choice as he was a poor administrator, and did not work well with the National Research Council of Canada. The Americans saw him as a security risk, and objected to the French

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With this dispute settled collaboration could once again take place. Chadwick wanted to involve as many British scientists as possible so long as Groves accepted them. Chadwick's first choice, Joseph Rotblat refused to give up his Polish citizenship. Chadwick then turned to Otto Frisch, who to

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from ICI, where he had experience working with fluorine compounds, made the first small batch of gaseous uranium hexafluoride for Chadwick in 1940. ICI received a formal £5,000 contract in December 1940 to make 3 kilograms (6.6 lb) of this vital material for the future work. The prototype

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between Britain and the United States "became very much less special". Roosevelt died on 12 April 1945, and the Hyde Park Agreement was not binding on subsequent administrations. In fact, it was physically lost: when Wilson raised the matter in a Combined Policy Committee meeting in June, the

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isotope, which makes up only about 0.7% of natural uranium, was primarily responsible for fission with fast neutrons, although this was not yet universally accepted. Frisch and Peierls were thus able to revise their initial estimate of critical mass needed for nuclear fission in uranium to be

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American nuclear scientific knowledge to create a profitable post-war industry. In October 1942, Bush and Conant convinced Roosevelt the United States should independently develop the atomic bomb project, despite an agreement of unrestricted scientific interchange between the US and Britain.

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about future cooperation in nuclear weapons and nuclear power. The three leaders agreed there would be full and effective cooperation on atomic energy, but British hopes for a full resumption of cooperation on nuclear weapons were disappointed. The Americans soon made it clear that this was

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for the new element 93 and plutonium for 94 by analogy with the outer planets Neptune and Pluto beyond Uranus (uranium being element 92). The Americans fortuitously suggested the same names. The production and identification of the first sample of plutonium in 1941 is generally credited to

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Fuchs began disclosing information to the Soviet Union about the possible production of a British atomic bomb when he joined the Tube Alloys project, although his contribution towards Soviet espionage was more severe during the Manhattan Project. Fuchs was able to contact a London-based

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Chadwick's surprise accepted becoming a British citizen right away and began the screening process so he could travel to America. Chadwick spent the first few weeks of November 1943 acquiring a clear picture of the extensive Manhattan Project. He realised the scale of such sites as

21: 1252:(NDRC), was in London during this time and was invited to sit in on a MAUD meeting. The committee pushed for rapid development of nuclear weapons using gaseous-diffusion as their isotope separation device. Once he returned to the United States, he was able to brief 1268:. Coolidge was shocked when Oliphant told him the British had predicted that only ten kilograms of uranium-235 would be sufficient to supply a chain reaction effected by fast moving neutrons. While in America, Oliphant discovered that the chairman of the OSRD 617:

substantially less than previously assumed. They estimated a metallic sphere of uranium-235 with a radius of 2.1 centimetres (0.83 in) could suffice. This amount represented approximately 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of uranium-235. These results led to the

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tubes because it seemed the simplest method. Frisch's calculations showed there would need to be 100,000 Clusius tubes to extract the desired separation amount. Peierls turned to Franz Simon, who preferred to find a method more suitable for mass production.

1115:. Placzek proved to be a very capable group leader, and was generally regarded as the only member of the staff with the stature of the highest scientific rank and with close personal contacts with many key physicists involved in the Manhattan project. 1321:

This disastrously affected British efforts as they lacked manpower, facilities, equipment and materials. Tube Alloys, therefore, fell behind in the race with the Manhattan Project. On 30 July 1942, Anderson advised Churchill: "We must face the fact

934:. The building used was known as P6 and test equipment was installed. These units were tested by a team of about seventy under the guidance of Peierls and Fuchs. The results of the experiments led to the building of the gaseous diffusion factory at 113:

The Tube Alloys programme in Britain and Canada was the first nuclear weapons project. Due to the high costs for Britain while fighting a war within bombing range of its enemies, Tube Alloys was ultimately subsumed into the Manhattan Project by the

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of isotopes. This method works on the principle that at differing pressures uranium 235 would diffuse through a barrier faster than uranium 238. Eventually, the most promising method of separation was found to be gaseous diffusion.

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Chadwick voiced concerns about the need for such pure plutonium to make a feasible bomb. He also suspected the gun method of detonation for a plutonium bomb would lead to premature detonations due to impurities. After Chadwick met

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with other nuclei, while a larger portion of the neutrons are escaping through the surface of the sphere. Peierls calculated the equilibrium of the system, where the number of neutrons being produced equalled the number escaping.

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million). The project would need overwhelming priority, as it was estimated to require twenty thousand workers – many of them highly skilled – half a million tons of steel, and an unprecedented half

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was issued by the US War Department on 12 August 1945, giving the story of the atomic bomb and including the technical details that could now be made public. It made few references to the British contribution to the bomb, and a

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In August 1941, Mark Oliphant, the director of the physics department at the University of Birmingham and an original member of the MAUD Committee, was sent to the US to assist the NDRC on radar. During his visit he met with

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tamper which would reflect the neutrons back into the reaction, and contribute to the explosion by fissioning itself. This design solved Chadwick's worries about purity because it did not require the level needed for the

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The biggest problem faced by the MAUD Committee was to find a way to separate the 0.7% of uranium-235 from the 99.3% of uranium-238. This is difficult because the two types of uranium are chemically identical. Separation

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of 93. This element's nucleus also emits an electron and becomes a new element with an atomic number 94 and a much greater half-life. Bretscher and Feather showed theoretically feasible grounds that element 94 would be

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in 1939. The phenomenon was a new type of nuclear disintegration, and was more powerful than any seen before. Frisch and Meitner calculated that the energy released by each disintegration was approximately 200,000,000

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Churchill sought information about building Britain's own gaseous diffusion plant, a heavy water plant and an atomic reactor in Britain, despite the immense cost. A gaseous diffusion plant to produce a kilogram of

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Oliphant took the initiative himself to enlighten the scientific community in the U.S. of the recent groundbreaking discoveries the MAUD Committee had just exposed. Oliphant also travelled to Berkeley to meet with

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The breakthrough with plutonium was by Bretscher and Norman Feather at the Cavendish Laboratory. They realised that a slow neutron reactor fuelled with uranium would theoretically produce substantial amounts of

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American copy could not be found. The British sent Stimson a photocopy on 18 July 1945. Even then, Groves questioned the document's authenticity until the American copy was located years later in the papers of

1523:, which was the new headquarters of the project, and could safely conclude that without similar industrial site being found in Germany the chances of the Nazi atomic bomb project being successful was very low. 570:, were each tasked with carrying out a series of experiments on uranium. By February 1940, Thomson's team had failed to create a chain reaction in natural uranium, and he had decided it was not worth pursuing. 353:. It was immediately apparent to many scientists that, in theory at least, an extremely powerful explosive could be created, although most still considered an atomic bomb was an impossibility. Perrin defined a 1813:

research and development. Penney led the bomb design effort as Chief Superintendent Armament Research (CSAR, pronounced "Caesar"), in charge of the Ministry Of Supply's Armaments Research Department (ARD) at

1359: 735:, could be used as an explosive compound. Because of the French scientists, Oxford also obtained the world's only supply of heavy water, which helped them theorise how uranium could be used for power. 1780:... I don't mind for myself, but I don't want any other Foreign Secretary of this country to be talked to or at by a Secretary of State in the United States as I have just had in my discussions with 1334:(MPC) supported Bush's arguments and restricted access to the classified information which Britain could utilise to develop its atomic weapons programme, even if it slowed down the American efforts. 1345:, Peierls, Oliphant and other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at the Los Alamos Laboratory needed them, despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets. 597:

and therefore lacked the necessary security clearance. Francis Perrin had calculated the critical mass of uranium to be about 40 tonnes (39 long tons; 44 short tons). He reckoned that if a

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million to build in wartime Britain. A nuclear reactor to produce that much plutonium per day would have to be built in Canada. It would take up to five years to build and cost £5

1724:(foreground, left) greets Prime Minister Clement Attlee (foreground, right) at Washington National Airport, upon Attlee's arrival for talks on the Korean crisis in December 1950. 1445:

It was also agreed that "any post-war advantages of an industrial or commercial nature" would be decided at the discretion of the President. The Quebec Agreement established the

335:. In February 1939, the Paris Group showed that when fission occurs in uranium, two or three extra neutrons are given off. That important observation suggested a self-sustaining 138:. Production facilities were established and British scientists continued their work under the auspices of an independent British programme. In 1952, Britain performed a 1694:'s foreign military intelligence directorate. After three meetings, Fuchs was teamed up with a courier so he would not have to find excuses to travel to London. She was 1187:, who was initially sympathetic to his ideas about controlling nuclear weapons. But Churchill was adamantly opposed to informing the Soviet Union of such work. At the 1593:. He also formed part of the Manhattan Project's post-war scientific mission to Hiroshima and Nagasaki that assessed the extent of the damage caused by the bombs. 1276:, had locked away the MAUD reports transferred from Britain entailing the initial discoveries and had not informed the S-1 Committee members of all its findings. 517:

for an opinion. Like many scientists, Tizard was sceptical of the likelihood of an atomic bomb being developed, reckoning the odds of success at 100,000 to 1.

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Atomic Energy for Military Purposes; the Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945

3598: 4805: 1698:, the sister of Jurgen Kuczynski. She was also a German communist, a major in Soviet Military Intelligence and an experienced agent who had worked with 4795: 648: 1841:. He broke down the development tasks required to replicate it, identifying outstanding questions that required further research on nuclear weapons. 1794: 1423:

In July 1943, in London, American officials cleared up some major misunderstandings about British motives, and after many months of negotiations the

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convincing Conant to move forward with nuclear weapons. These actions from Oliphant resulted in Bush taking this report directly to the president.

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would be an ideal moderator. They asked the French Minister of Armaments to obtain as much heavy water as possible from the only source, the large

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led to the Atomic Energy Act being amended in 1958, and to a resumption of the nuclear Special Relationship between America and Britain under the

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ministers, which decided that Britain required the atomic bomb to maintain its position in world politics. In the words of the Foreign Secretary

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The British government had trusted that America would share nuclear technology, which the British saw as a joint discovery. On 9 November 1945,

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of electricity. Disruption to other wartime projects would be inevitable, and it was unlikely to be ready in time to affect the outcome of the

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team would attempt to patent nuclear technology based on the pre-war work. As a compromise, Thomson suggested relocating the team to Canada.

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The chemical problems of producing gaseous compounds of uranium and pure uranium metal were studied at the University of Birmingham and by

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At Birmingham, Oliphant's team had reached a different conclusion. Oliphant had delegated the task to two German refugee scientists,

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The MAUD Committee reports urged the co-operation with the United States should be continued in the research of nuclear fission.

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to contain and slow the fast neutrons until they reached a usable energy level. The Collège de France found that both water and

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was the Canadian member. Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir

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had replaced Churchill as Prime Minister, and was the only official statement on the British contribution for fifteen years.

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management were friendly towards Britain, it was not considered worthwhile to acquire the uranium immediately, but Tizard's

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Thirdly, we will not either of us communicate any information about Tube Alloys to third parties except by mutual consent."

1149: 779: 525: 521: 400: 417:. The Paris Group moved to Cambridge, with the exception of Joliot-Curie, who remained in France and became active in the 248:

and his team in Rome conducted experiments involving the bombardment of elements by slow neutrons, which produced heavier

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The MAUD reports were reviewed by the Defence Services Panel of the Scientific Advisory Committee. This was chaired by

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was directed to continue the research into the feasibility of atomic bombs. Thomson, at Imperial College London, and

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radar programme in particular was reinvigorated with an added impetus to the development of microwave radar and

174: 1791: 1478: 1454: 1103:. Three months later they moved into a 200 square metres (2,200 sq ft) area in a new building at the 507: 503: 4685: 4654: 4466: 1838: 996: 894:

already in progress of establishing the alternative method of separation through ordinary gaseous diffusion.

775: 618: 453: 441: 83: 3939:"Experiments with High Velocity Positive Ions. (II) The Disintegration of Elements by High Velocity Protons" 1485:. The subsequent Hyde Park Agreement on 19 September 1944 extended this cooperation to the post-war period. 1734: 1565: 1342: 918:(MetroVick) at Trafford Park, Manchester, at a cost of £150,000 for four units. They were installed at the 898: 816: 207: 1060: 881:, the fact that the gases diffuse through porous materials at rates determined by their molecular weight. 1744: 1543: 1245: 763: 2789:

to Bohr, 28 October 1943, CAB 126/39, NA. "Correspondence between Kapitza and B." 2 May 1945, CAB 126/39

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The Montreal team in Canada depended on the Americans for heavy water from the US heavy water plant in

1477:, in early 1945. Dill died in Washington, D.C., in November 1944 and was replaced both as Chief of the 1420:. The unanimous response was that first another effort should be made to secure American co-operation. 1338: 332: 320: 3567: 4752: 4728: 4217: 1760: 1678:, who put him in contact with Simon Davidovitch Kremer, the secretary to the military attaché at the 1446: 1399:

million. The project would also require facilities for producing the required heavy water (between £5

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noted that "events that change a time scale by only a few months can nevertheless change history."

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experimented with different types of isotope separation. Chadwick's group at Liverpool dealt with

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Elemental Germans: Klaus Fuchs, Rudolf Peierls and the making of British nuclear culture 1939–59

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more inclined to speed up their effort to produce an atomic bomb of their own. With the help of

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Works in Aston in Birmingham, carried out early experiments with uranium production processes.

861: 755: 672: 663:

in London. In addition to Thomson, its original members were Chadwick, Cockcroft, Oliphant and

475: 467: 336: 4764: 3943:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

3893:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

3215: 1547: 1482: 1367: 1184: 1145: 1029: 919: 882: 824: 711: 377: 4310: 3950: 3900: 3771: 3674: 1806: 1729: 1520: 1511: 1159: 915: 703: 686: 471: 458:

In Britain, a number of scientists considered whether an atomic bomb was practical. At the

221: 163: 147: 90:

could be used to produce a chain reaction in a bomb with the power of thousands of tons of

67:, and as such had to be referred to by code even within the highest circles of government. 4098:

Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, Volume 1, Policy Making

1666:

of March 1942 included the MAUD reports and other British documents passed by Cairncross.

1558:

opened in 1944, and in 1946 the Montreal Laboratory was closed. The project developed the

316: 8: 4785: 3211: 1849: 1845: 1584: 1470: 1298: 1285: 1265: 1120: 1055: 865: 143: 4314: 3954: 3904: 3775: 3678: 1675: 1107:. The laboratory grew quickly to over 300 staff; about half were Canadians recruited by 4585: 4517: 4395: 4326: 4298: 4157: 4060: 4007: 3987:

Churchill's Bomb: How the United States Overtook Britain in the First Nuclear Arms Race

3985: 3853: 3789: 3646: 1337:

The Americans stopped sharing any information on heavy water production, the method of

1176: 1025: 931: 837: 759: 664: 349: 285: 155: 79: 51:

programme authorised by the United Kingdom, with participation from Canada, to develop

4568:

Zimmerman, David (1995). "The Tizard Mission and the Development of the Atomic Bomb".

387: 4614: 4589: 4556: 4546: 4527: 4505: 4495: 4489: 4471: 4447: 4430: 4420: 4401: 4377: 4360: 4350: 4275: 4265: 4241: 4209: 4180: 4170: 4145: 4135: 4111: 4101: 4080: 4052: 4023: 4013: 3992: 3968: 3918: 3845: 3809: 3738: 3728: 3709: 3692: 3629:(1976). "The Uneasy Alliance: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Atomic Bomb, 1940–1945". 1371: 1240:

played a key role in starting both the British and the American atomic bomb projects.

1180: 1100: 988: 787: 740: 719: 598: 499: 418: 359: 300: 60: 37: 4343: 4128: 1438:

Secondly, we will not use it against third parties without each other's consent, and

1111:. A subgroup of theoreticians was recruited and headed by a Czechoslovak physicist, 4686:

Minutes and memoranda of Tube Alloys Consultative Council, January 1942- April 1945

4577: 4345:

The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made

4330: 4318: 4044: 3958: 3908: 3837: 3793: 3779: 3762: 3682: 3658: 3638: 3626: 3147: 2658: 1695: 1589: 1580: 1424: 1354: 1289: 1116: 1084: 1034: 774:. The panel held seven meetings in September 1941, and submitted its report to the 668: 491: 396: 290: 261: 249: 115: 56: 4035:

Gott, Richard (April 1963). "The Evolution of the Independent British Deterrent".

3754: 502:, the local Member of Parliament, who took their concerns to the Secretary of the 4740: 4521: 4338: 4301:(1939). "Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: A New Type of Nuclear Reaction". 4072: 3801: 1827: 1781: 1721: 1647: 1639: 1573: 1281: 1163: 1108: 1080: 1000: 878: 771: 744: 547: 520:

Even at such long odds, the danger was sufficiently great to be taken seriously.

324: 304: 52: 1809:, was created by Cockcroft in 1946 as the main centre for military and civilian 4581: 4485: 4461: 3980: 3930: 3880: 3750: 1853: 1748: 1659: 1651: 1643: 1612: 1507: 1293: 1217: 1212: 1206: 1112: 1092: 1043: 992: 845: 820: 767: 728: 724: 690: 676: 644: 638: 626: 586: 533: 463: 414: 277: 229: 217: 190: 186: 178: 151: 95: 75: 29: 1611:, was hurriedly drafted by Michael Perrin. This account was issued just after 573: 4774: 4716: 4671:"Interview with Myfanwy Pritchard-Roberts, Tube Alloys program lab assistant" 4618: 4279: 4184: 4123: 4115: 4056: 4027: 3972: 3934: 3922: 3884: 3849: 3696: 3189: 2786: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1764: 1699: 1655: 1577: 1503: 1450: 1384: 1253: 1237: 1009: 976: 956: 939: 910: 849: 812: 660: 563: 551: 537: 487: 483: 466:

tackled the problem, but their calculations were inconclusive. At Cambridge,

354: 296: 265: 233: 99: 70:

The possibility of nuclear weapons was acknowledged early in the war. At the

4690: 4560: 4509: 4434: 4364: 4213: 3742: 385:

entire stock of 187 litres (41 imp gal; 49 US gal) to a

4694: 4634: 4391: 4294: 4093: 4084: 4009:

Red Cloud at Dawn : Truman, Stalin, and the End of the Atomic Monopoly

3963: 3938: 3913: 3888: 3017: 2516: 1769: 1752: 1679: 1635: 1629: 1598: 1551: 1510:, head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project, with Major General 1473:, who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States, 1273: 960: 514: 404: 328: 281: 245: 139: 124: 120: 33: 4149: 3813: 3806:

The Birth of the Bomb: Britain's part in the weapon that changed the World

4606: 3606:. Proceedings of the 2nd ICESHS. Cracow. pp. 706–709. Archived from 3188:. The Manhattan Project Heritage Preservation Association. Archived from 1604: 1269: 972: 964: 841: 751: 715: 699: 613: 594: 529: 479: 437: 374: 370: 344: 340: 182: 130:

The United States terminated co-operation after the war ended, under the

87: 4735: 3857: 4064: 1466: 1136: 968: 935: 731:'s group at Cambridge investigated whether another element, now called 682: 609: 3687: 3662: 3650: 3358: 3356: 1848:", the first British nuclear device was successfully detonated in the 1481:

and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir

1183:, Bohr met on 26 August 1944 with the President of the United States, 4611:

The Atomic Bomb: An Account of British Policy in the Second World War

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in Berkshire, was selected as the permanent home for what became the

1458: 1167: 1124:

atomic patents claimed by the Paris Group (in association with ICI).

1013: 1004: 923: 732: 647:

was founded in June 1940. The committee was originally a part of the

343:" was already familiar to the British public through the writings of 257: 103: 4048: 1232: 3642: 3353: 1823: 1691: 1427:

was signed by Churchill and Roosevelt on 19 August 1943 during the

1413: 807:

A directorate of Tube Alloys was established as part of Appleton's

369:

Early in 1940, the Paris Group decided on theoretical grounds that

363: 4655:"Interview with Eileen Doxford, Tube Alloys program lab assistant" 4543:

British Scientists and the Manhattan Project: the Los Alamos Years

4444:

Sir Rudolf Peierls: Selected Private and Scientific Correspondence

1922: 1910: 1132: 28:, scientific advisor to the Prime Minister, Air Chief Marshal Sir 4208:. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History. 1835: 981: 656: 269: 253: 237: 213: 98:, which called for an all-out effort to develop nuclear weapons. 3440: 3428: 2908: 2871: 2869: 2867: 1488: 288:, developed a theoretical justification which they published in 134:. That prompted the United Kingdom to relaunch its own project, 2973: 2971: 2406: 1973: 1663: 1634:

The Soviet Union received details of British research from its

1569: 1535: 987:

This new development was also confirmed in independent work by

943: 906: 381: 273: 241: 4374:

Danger UXB – The Heroic Story of the WW II Bomb Disposal Teams

3488: 3464: 3392: 967:. The new isotope's nucleus rapidly emits an electron through 885:

applied this method in 1913 when he separated two isotopes of

358:

create a sustained chain reaction, there existed a need for a

127:, who had infiltrated both the British and American projects. 3536: 3314: 3018:"The Quebec Conference – Agreement Relating to Atomic Energy" 2896: 2864: 1260:(OSRD), concerning the details discussed during the meeting. 927: 590: 102:, who oversaw the project, chose the deliberately misleading 2968: 2920: 2840: 2614: 2612: 2450: 2448: 2269: 2221: 2209: 1155:

At the invitation of the director of the Manhattan Project,

1020:. In 1941, neither team knew of the existence of the other. 840:) would have to be achieved at a large scale. At Cambridge, 409:. The heavy water, valued at £22,000, was initially kept at 3404: 3326: 1788:... We've got to have the bloody Union Jack on top of it." 1559: 1391:

million in research and development, and anything up to £50

1068: 886: 856: 106:"Tube Alloys". His Tube Alloys Directorate was part of the 4811:

Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II

4417:

Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952

3524: 3512: 3500: 3380: 3290: 3254: 2816: 2804: 2729: 2717: 2663:"70 years ago: Vannevar Bush worries about French Patents" 2563: 2561: 2233: 2163: 2161: 2146: 1784:. We've got to have this thing over here whatever it costs 1623: 1550:

at Oak Ridge, but not from the production reactors at the

848:. Frisch chose to perform gaseous thermal diffusion using 702:. The laboratories at the University of Liverpool and the 228:

in February 1932. In April 1932, his Cavendish colleagues

3343: 3341: 3116: 3068: 3056: 2995: 2983: 2852: 2770: 2768: 2705: 2681: 2669: 2609: 2546: 2534: 2520: 2445: 2045: 1435:"First, we will never use this agency against each other, 1064: 905:, who at the time was working on print technology at the 91: 4169:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 3548: 3278: 3104: 3080: 2956: 2828: 2585: 2423: 2421: 2394: 2257: 2009: 1985: 1826:. In April 1950 an abandoned Second World War airfield, 1227: 1042:. The biggest problem with this method was creating the 550:, arranged a meeting with the president of the company, 3725:

Test of Greatness: Britain's Struggle for the Atom Bomb

3476: 3452: 3368: 3242: 2741: 2597: 2573: 2558: 2472: 2370: 2358: 2324: 2322: 2320: 2281: 2173: 2158: 2134: 2100: 2098: 2096: 1961: 914:

gaseous diffusion equipment itself was manufactured by

478:

wanted the government to take urgent action to acquire

4130:

Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

3416: 3338: 3186:"Project Alberta/Destination Team roster of personnel" 2944: 2932: 2792: 2765: 2753: 2693: 2245: 2069: 2057: 2021: 1997: 1898: 1886: 162:, which resulted in a resumption of Britain's nuclear 158:, the United Kingdom and the United States signed the 4700: 4397:

Niels Bohr's Times, In Physics, Philosophy and Polity

3302: 3266: 3166: 3128: 3044: 2886: 2884: 2496: 2484: 2460: 2418: 2197: 1939: 1937: 1751:, went to Washington, D.C., to confer with President 959:

as a by-product. This is because uranium-238 absorbs

391:

agent, who secretly brought it to France just before

315:

That was followed up by a group of scientists at the

3230: 3092: 3032: 2433: 2382: 2346: 2317: 2305: 2293: 2185: 2122: 2093: 602:

paper written in 1939 to be "of the order of tons".

403:

and Major Ardale Vautier Golding aboard the steamer

63:

in the United States, the British efforts were kept

4258:

The Suffolk Golding Mission, A Considerable Service

3012: 3010: 2033: 1583:, sent as a British representative, he watched the 1195: 4342: 4127: 3984: 2881: 2632:"Early Years of Nuclear Energy Research in Canada" 2334: 2110: 2081: 1934: 649:Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Defence 589:and Otto Frisch, who could not work on Oliphant's 413:, and was later secretly stored in the library at 276:had been produced, and therefore that the uranium 3216:"Eyewitness Account of Atomic Bomb Over Nagasaki" 1949: 1874: 560:Committee on the Scientific Survey of Air Defence 4772: 3929: 3879: 3007: 1928: 1916: 1562:reactor, which went critical in September 1945. 1449:to control the Manhattan Project, consisting of 870:Department of Scientific and Industrial Research 809:Department of Scientific and Industrial Research 108:Department of Scientific and Industrial Research 4419:. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. 4156: 3362: 2914: 2902: 2875: 1797:, was appointed to lead the effort, code-named 154:, and the British demonstration of a two-stage 2653: 2651: 2649: 1387:uranium per day was estimated to cost up to £3 395:in April 1940. On 19 June 1940, following the 4293: 3823:"The "Smyth Report": A Descriptive Checklist" 1979: 1495:British contribution to the Manhattan Project 1489:British contribution to the Manhattan Project 1304: 1258:Office of Scientific Research and Development 938:, Cheshire. ICI pilot plants for producing 1 4091: 3573:. US Government Printing Office. 2 July 1958 3494: 3470: 3446: 3434: 3410: 3398: 3332: 1220:. This prompted the Americans to create the 1127: 1091:The Canadian government was approached, and 786:had taken the matter to the Prime Minister, 462:, Chadwick and the Polish refugee scientist 424: 280:had been split. Hahn wrote to his colleague 3204: 3146: 2657: 2646: 1119:became head of the chemistry division, and 16:British nuclear weapons research during WW2 4806:Science and technology during World War II 3830:The Princeton University Library Chronicle 3597:Aaserud, Finn (2006). Kokowski, M. (ed.). 1453:, Bush and Conant from the United States; 272:with slowed neutrons, and discovered that 4796:1942 establishments in the United Kingdom 4567: 4526:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 4491:Dark Sun: the Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 3962: 3912: 3836:(3). Princeton University Press: 204–18. 3783: 3686: 3657: 3625: 2977: 2962: 2926: 2846: 2834: 2263: 2227: 2215: 1991: 1967: 1756:restricted to basic scientific research. 1003:of the Cambridge team proposed the names 823:as its secretary. It was later joined by 651:, but later gained independence with the 4349:. New York: William Morrow and Company. 3749: 3722: 3600:Niels Bohr's Mission for an 'Open World' 3542: 3530: 3518: 3506: 3482: 3458: 1892: 1858:development of the British hydrogen bomb 1844:On 3 October 1952, under the code-name " 1715: 1502: 1358: 1231: 1131: 1059: 855: 797: 681: 572: 428: 366:could be used as acceptable moderators. 173: 123:gained valuable information through its 20: 4441: 4337: 4202:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb 4012:. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 3979: 3820: 3596: 3374: 3248: 3178: 2950: 2938: 2822: 2810: 2798: 2774: 2759: 2735: 2723: 2699: 2514: 2412: 2251: 2239: 2152: 2015: 1682:'s embassy, who in turn worked for the 1624:Soviet spies in the Tube Alloys project 546:company, whose British vice president, 201: 4773: 4484: 4460: 4254: 4235: 4122: 4071: 4005: 3386: 3320: 3308: 3296: 3284: 3272: 3260: 3134: 3122: 3074: 3062: 3050: 3001: 2989: 2858: 2711: 2687: 2675: 2618: 2603: 2579: 2567: 2552: 2540: 2502: 2490: 2478: 2466: 2454: 2427: 2400: 2388: 2376: 2364: 2328: 2311: 2299: 2287: 2275: 2203: 2179: 2167: 2128: 2104: 2087: 2051: 1904: 1609:Statements Relating to the Atomic Bomb 1049: 830: 4781:Nuclear history of the United Kingdom 4540: 4516: 4198: 3800: 3703: 3663:"A Memorandum that Changed the World" 3236: 3172: 3110: 3098: 3086: 3038: 2591: 2439: 2352: 2340: 2191: 2140: 2075: 2063: 2039: 2027: 2003: 1955: 1943: 1880: 1852:off the west coast of Australia. The 1832:Atomic Weapons Research Establishment 1315:United States Army Corps of Engineers 1248:, a Caltech physicist working at the 1228:Oliphant's visit to the United States 963:and forms a short-lived new isotope, 86:explaining that a small mass of pure 4414: 4390: 4371: 4264:. Great Britain: Brook House Books. 4034: 3554: 3422: 3347: 3210: 2890: 2747: 2116: 1803:Atomic Energy Research Establishment 1576:as a special consultant. Along with 1192:of the world, Russia in particular. 1150:British Overseas Airways Corporation 718:'s group at Oxford investigated the 526:Minister for Coordination of Defence 4637:Agreement Relating to Atomic Energy 4240:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 4077:Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945 3708:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2515:Gregory, David (17 February 2000). 1862:1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement 1688:Главное Разведывательное Управление 1348: 1250:National Defense Research Committee 1097:National Research Council of Canada 827:, Cockcroft, Oliphant and Feather. 754:, with its other members being Sir 577:Poynting (physics) Building at the 498:. In April 1939, he approached Sir 399:, it was shipped to England by the 94:. This led to the formation of the 13: 4598: 4494:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 3218:. National Science Digital Library 3020:. Avalon Project – Yale Law School 872:, of which Tube Alloys was a part. 844:and his team investigated using a 482:. The main source of this was the 14: 4822: 4673:. Voices of the Manhattan Project 4657:. Voices of the Manhattan Project 4627: 3821:Coleman, Earle E. (Spring 1976). 3755:"Possible Existence of a Neutron" 1200: 632: 566:, an Australian physicist at the 496:Corpus Christi College, Cambridge 440:commemorating the authors of the 4758: 4746: 4734: 4722: 4710: 4545:. New York: St. Martin's Press. 4470:. New York: Simon and Schuster. 3560: 1407:million) and uranium metal (£1.5 1196:Tube Alloys in the United States 971:producing a new element with an 4446:. Singapore: World Scientific. 3631:The Western Political Quarterly 3140: 2780: 2624: 2508: 1658:was recruited later in Canada. 802: 653:Ministry of Aircraft Production 4134:. New York: Harper & Row. 1792:Marshal of the Royal Air Force 1465:were the British members, and 1213:British mission, led by Tizard 693:, which initiated Tube Alloys. 504:Committee for Imperial Defence 310: 160:US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement 150:. In 1958, in the wake of the 1: 4541:Szasz, Ferenc Morton (1992). 4467:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 4160:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 3589: 1839:implosion-type nuclear weapon 1702:'s spy ring in the Far East. 1297:convincing Compton, and then 1016:rather than a reactor at the 997:Berkeley Radiation Laboratory 776:Lord President of the Council 543:Union Minière du Haut Katanga 339:might be possible. The term " 169: 1929:Cockcroft & Walton 1932b 1917:Cockcroft & Walton 1932a 1728:With the end of the war the 1650:, a member of the notorious 1618: 949: 817:Imperial Chemical Industries 612:had theorised that the rare 301:division of biological cells 208:Discovery of nuclear fission 7: 4400:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 4006:Gordin, Michael D. (2009). 3667:American Journal of Physics 3363:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2915:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2903:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2876:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1705: 1587:from the observation plane 1479:British Joint Staff Mission 815:, the research director of 32:, Admiral of the Fleet Sir 10: 4827: 4613:. London: Cabinet Office. 4582:10.1177/096834459500200302 4415:Paul, Septimus H. (2000). 4236:Laucht, Christoph (2012). 2634:. Canadian Nuclear Society 1776:... we've got to have this 1709: 1627: 1492: 1352: 1339:electromagnetic separation 1305:Information sharing ceases 1204: 1053: 877:to pursue. This relies on 636: 593:project because they were 513:. Ismay in turn asked Sir 451: 303:, they named the process " 256:. Then, in December 1938, 205: 4376:. London: Little, Brown. 3991:. New York: Basic Books. 3808:. London: Phoenix House. 1980:Meitner & Frisch 1939 1761:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 1514:, the project's director. 1447:Combined Policy Committee 1332:Military Policy Committee 1128:Niels Bohr's contribution 922:located in a valley near 792:Chiefs of Staff Committee 619:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 540:uranium was owned by the 454:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 446:Poynting Physics Building 442:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 425:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 411:HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs 397:German invasion of France 132:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 4791:Secret military programs 4635:"The Quebec Conference: 4442:Peierls, Rudolf (2007). 4163:The New World, 1939–1946 3723:Cathcart, Brian (1995). 3706:The Neutron and the Bomb 3495:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3471:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3447:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3435:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3411:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3399:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3333:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3152:"The Height of the Bomb" 2415:, pp. 188–191, 504. 1867: 1747:and the Prime Minister, 1556:Chalk River Laboratories 1542:'s research reactors at 1540:Metallurgical Laboratory 1222:MIT Radiation Laboratory 1189:Second Quebec Conference 1073:Chalk River Laboratories 1018:University of California 794:supported the decision. 629:to investigate further. 579:University of Birmingham 568:University of Birmingham 434:University of Birmingham 264:at Hahn's laboratory in 166:with the United States. 119:the United Kingdom. The 72:University of Birmingham 49:research and development 4199:Jones, Vincent (1985). 3727:. London: John Murray. 1799:High Explosive Research 1772:, "That won't do at all 1712:High Explosive Research 1532:Trail, British Columbia 1095:, the president of the 1040:gun-type fission weapon 460:University of Liverpool 284:, who, with her nephew 240:atoms with accelerated 226:University of Cambridge 146:" and became the third 136:High Explosive Research 4801:1952 disestablishments 4339:Nichols, Kenneth David 3964:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 3914:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 3704:Brown, Andrew (1997). 3323:, pp. 51, 57, 63. 2278:, pp. 39–43, 407. 1725: 1515: 1379: 1364:William Mackenzie King 1256:, the director of the 1241: 1140: 1105:University of Montreal 1075: 930:; M. S. stood for the 873: 694: 582: 476:William Lawrence Bragg 468:Nobel Prize in Physics 449: 393:Germany invaded Norway 337:nuclear chain reaction 299:. By analogy with the 198: 59:. Starting before the 41: 4691:"Destroyer of Worlds" 4100:. London: Macmillan. 4079:. London: Macmillan. 4037:International Affairs 1719: 1548:X-10 Graphite Reactor 1506: 1483:Henry Maitland Wilson 1368:Franklin D. Roosevelt 1362: 1236:Australian physicist 1235: 1185:Franklin D. Roosevelt 1146:de Havilland Mosquito 1135: 1063: 1030:Los Alamos Laboratory 883:Francis William Aston 859: 825:Charles Galton Darwin 798:Tube Alloys programme 712:equipartition theorem 685: 576: 536:, and found that the 432: 378:hydroelectric station 321:Frédéric Joliot-Curie 177: 24: 4372:Owen, James (2010). 4255:Martin, Roy (2014). 3627:Bernstein, Barton J. 3545:, pp. 159, 253. 1807:Harwell, Oxfordshire 1730:Special Relationship 1521:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 1512:Leslie R. Groves Jr. 1326:... pioneering work 1246:Charles C. Lauritsen 1160:Leslie R. Groves Jr. 916:Metropolitan-Vickers 704:University of Oxford 687:George Paget Thomson 472:George Paget Thomson 347:, in his 1913 novel 222:Cavendish Laboratory 202:Discovery of fission 164:Special Relationship 148:nuclear-weapon state 142:under the codename " 4518:Smyth, Henry DeWolf 4315:1939Natur.143..239M 4158:Hewlett, Richard G. 3955:1932RSPSA.137..229C 3905:1932RSPSA.136..619C 3776:1932Natur.129Q.312C 3679:2011AmJPh..79..440B 3613:on 2 September 2011 3568:"Public Law 85-479" 3557:, pp. 245–247. 3449:, pp. 181–184. 3437:, pp. 105–108. 3389:, pp. 401–402. 3365:, pp. 457–458. 3299:, pp. 117–119. 3263:, pp. 111–115. 3212:Laurence, William L 3125:, pp. 271–280. 3113:, pp. 254–255. 3089:, pp. 250–253. 3077:, pp. 169–173. 3065:, pp. 340–342. 3004:, pp. 174–177. 2992:, pp. 162–165. 2980:, pp. 209–213. 2929:, pp. 206–207. 2861:, pp. 85, 116. 2849:, pp. 266–270. 2825:, pp. 268–272. 2813:, pp. 706–709. 2750:, pp. 496–497. 2738:, pp. 251–253. 2726:, pp. 245–247. 2714:, pp. 483–485. 2690:, pp. 191–199. 2678:, pp. 188–189. 2621:, pp. 187–188. 2594:, pp. 253–254. 2555:, pp. 228–229. 2543:, pp. 217–221. 2517:"Brum and the Bomb" 2457:, pp. 339–340. 2242:, pp. 102–103. 2230:, pp. 440–442. 2218:, pp. 441–444. 2155:, pp. 123–125. 2054:, pp. 264–263. 1982:, pp. 239–240. 1931:, pp. 229–242. 1919:, pp. 619–630. 1850:Monte Bello Islands 1846:Operation Hurricane 1759:The passage of the 1585:bombing of Nagasaki 1471:Ronald Ian Campbell 1299:George Kistiakowsky 1286:James Bryant Conant 1266:William D. Coolidge 1166:, Bohr and his son 1056:Montreal Laboratory 1050:Montreal Laboratory 866:permanent secretary 831:Isotopic separation 528:, checked with the 144:Operation Hurricane 4753:Nuclear technology 4729:History of Science 4092:Gowing, Margaret; 3192:on 17 October 2013 2665:. Restricted Data. 2403:, pp. 97–104. 2143:, pp. 95–103. 1726: 1516: 1380: 1313:In June 1942, the 1242: 1211:In August 1940, a 1177:U.S. Supreme Court 1141: 1076: 1026:Robert Oppenheimer 940:long hundredweight 932:Ministry of Supply 874: 838:uranium enrichment 695: 689:, chairman of the 625:CSSAW created the 583: 450: 350:The World Set Free 286:Otto Robert Frisch 216:was discovered by 199: 193:each received the 156:thermonuclear bomb 80:Otto Robert Frisch 42: 4641:. Yale University 4552:978-0-312-06167-8 4533:978-0-8047-1722-9 4453:978-981-256-503-7 4426:978-0-8142-0852-6 4407:978-0-19-852049-8 4383:978-0-349-12237-3 4309:(3615): 239–240. 4271:978-0-9557441-7-4 4247:978-1-137-02833-4 4223:on 7 October 2014 4019:978-0-374-25682-1 3998:978-0-465-02195-6 3688:10.1119/1.3533426 3659:Bernstein, Jeremy 3533:, pp. 48–57. 3521:, pp. 96–97. 3509:, pp. 38–43. 3497:, pp. 38–43. 3473:, pp. 40–41. 3425:, pp. 80–83. 3401:, pp. 73–77. 3350:, pp. 72–73. 3287:, pp. 57–58. 3154:. Restricted Data 3150:(8 August 2012). 3148:Wellerstein, Alex 2917:, pp. 45–46. 2659:Wellerstein, Alex 2606:, pp. 72–75. 2582:, pp. 70–71. 2570:, pp. 59–60. 2481:, pp. 87–89. 2379:, pp. 77–80. 2367:, pp. 42–45. 2290:, pp. 43–45. 2182:, pp. 37–39. 2170:, pp. 34–36. 2078:, pp. 68–73. 2066:, pp. 21–22. 2030:, pp. 25–29. 2018:, pp. 15–24. 2006:, pp. 18–21. 1907:, pp. 17–18. 1429:Quebec Conference 1376:Quebec Conference 1372:Winston Churchill 1181:Felix Frankfurter 1157:Brigadier General 1101:McGill University 1071:buildings at the 989:Edwin M. McMillan 788:Winston Churchill 741:Manhattan Project 720:gaseous diffusion 708:thermal diffusion 599:neutron reflector 500:Kenneth Pickthorn 419:French Resistance 360:neutron moderator 317:Collège de France 61:Manhattan Project 38:Winston Churchill 4818: 4763: 4762: 4761: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4739: 4738: 4727: 4726: 4725: 4715: 4714: 4713: 4706: 4682: 4680: 4678: 4666: 4664: 4662: 4650: 4648: 4646: 4622: 4593: 4564: 4537: 4513: 4481: 4457: 4438: 4411: 4387: 4368: 4348: 4334: 4323:10.1038/143239a0 4290: 4288: 4286: 4263: 4251: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4222: 4216:. Archived from 4207: 4195: 4193: 4191: 4168: 4153: 4133: 4119: 4088: 4073:Gowing, Margaret 4068: 4031: 4002: 3990: 3976: 3966: 3949:(831): 229–242. 3935:Walton, E. T. S. 3931:Cockcroft, J. D. 3926: 3916: 3899:(830): 619–630. 3885:Walton, E. T. S. 3881:Cockcroft, J. D. 3876: 3874: 3872: 3866: 3860:. Archived from 3842:10.2307/26404013 3827: 3817: 3802:Clark, Ronald W. 3797: 3787: 3785:10.1038/129312a0 3759: 3746: 3719: 3700: 3690: 3654: 3622: 3620: 3618: 3612: 3605: 3583: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3572: 3564: 3558: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3516: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3492: 3486: 3480: 3474: 3468: 3462: 3456: 3450: 3444: 3438: 3432: 3426: 3420: 3414: 3408: 3402: 3396: 3390: 3384: 3378: 3372: 3366: 3360: 3351: 3345: 3336: 3330: 3324: 3318: 3312: 3306: 3300: 3294: 3288: 3282: 3276: 3270: 3264: 3258: 3252: 3246: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3182: 3176: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3161: 3159: 3144: 3138: 3132: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3090: 3084: 3078: 3072: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3048: 3042: 3036: 3030: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3014: 3005: 2999: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2948: 2942: 2936: 2930: 2924: 2918: 2912: 2906: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2879: 2873: 2862: 2856: 2850: 2844: 2838: 2832: 2826: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2739: 2733: 2727: 2721: 2715: 2709: 2703: 2697: 2691: 2685: 2679: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2661:(5 March 2012). 2655: 2644: 2643: 2641: 2639: 2628: 2622: 2616: 2607: 2601: 2595: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2571: 2565: 2556: 2550: 2544: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2512: 2506: 2500: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2470: 2464: 2458: 2452: 2443: 2437: 2431: 2425: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2398: 2392: 2386: 2380: 2374: 2368: 2362: 2356: 2350: 2344: 2338: 2332: 2326: 2315: 2309: 2303: 2297: 2291: 2285: 2279: 2273: 2267: 2261: 2255: 2249: 2243: 2237: 2231: 2225: 2219: 2213: 2207: 2201: 2195: 2189: 2183: 2177: 2171: 2165: 2156: 2150: 2144: 2138: 2132: 2126: 2120: 2114: 2108: 2102: 2091: 2085: 2079: 2073: 2067: 2061: 2055: 2049: 2043: 2037: 2031: 2025: 2019: 2013: 2007: 2001: 1995: 1989: 1983: 1977: 1971: 1965: 1959: 1953: 1947: 1941: 1932: 1926: 1920: 1914: 1908: 1902: 1896: 1890: 1884: 1878: 1818:in Kent and the 1787: 1779: 1775: 1738:Wilson Brown Jr. 1696:Ursula Kuczynski 1676:Jürgen Kuczynski 1581:Leonard Cheshire 1425:Quebec Agreement 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1355:Quebec Agreement 1349:Quebec Agreement 1329: 1325: 1290:George B. Pegram 1148:operated by the 1117:Friedrich Paneth 1085:nuclear graphite 1044:explosive lenses 1035:depleted uranium 1033:surrounded by a 669:Patrick Blackett 262:Fritz Strassmann 195:Medal of Freedom 116:Quebec Agreement 57:Second World War 4826: 4825: 4821: 4820: 4819: 4817: 4816: 4815: 4771: 4770: 4769: 4759: 4757: 4747: 4745: 4733: 4723: 4721: 4711: 4709: 4701: 4676: 4674: 4669: 4660: 4658: 4653: 4644: 4642: 4633: 4630: 4625: 4605: 4601: 4599:Further reading 4596: 4553: 4534: 4502: 4486:Rhodes, Richard 4478: 4462:Rhodes, Richard 4454: 4427: 4408: 4384: 4357: 4284: 4282: 4272: 4261: 4248: 4226: 4224: 4220: 4205: 4189: 4187: 4177: 4166: 4142: 4108: 4049:10.2307/2611300 4020: 3999: 3981:Farmelo, Graham 3937:(1 July 1932). 3887:(1 June 1932). 3870: 3868: 3867:on 4 April 2019 3864: 3825: 3757: 3751:Chadwick, James 3735: 3716: 3616: 3614: 3610: 3603: 3592: 3587: 3586: 3576: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3565: 3561: 3553: 3549: 3541: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3517: 3513: 3505: 3501: 3493: 3489: 3481: 3477: 3469: 3465: 3457: 3453: 3445: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3409: 3405: 3397: 3393: 3385: 3381: 3373: 3369: 3361: 3354: 3346: 3339: 3331: 3327: 3319: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3295: 3291: 3283: 3279: 3271: 3267: 3259: 3255: 3247: 3243: 3235: 3231: 3221: 3219: 3209: 3205: 3195: 3193: 3184: 3183: 3179: 3171: 3167: 3157: 3155: 3145: 3141: 3133: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3109: 3105: 3097: 3093: 3085: 3081: 3073: 3069: 3061: 3057: 3049: 3045: 3037: 3033: 3023: 3021: 3016: 3015: 3008: 3000: 2996: 2988: 2984: 2976: 2969: 2961: 2957: 2949: 2945: 2937: 2933: 2925: 2921: 2913: 2909: 2901: 2897: 2889: 2882: 2874: 2865: 2857: 2853: 2845: 2841: 2833: 2829: 2821: 2817: 2809: 2805: 2801:, pp. 273. 2797: 2793: 2785: 2781: 2773: 2766: 2758: 2754: 2746: 2742: 2734: 2730: 2722: 2718: 2710: 2706: 2698: 2694: 2686: 2682: 2674: 2670: 2656: 2647: 2637: 2635: 2630: 2629: 2625: 2617: 2610: 2602: 2598: 2590: 2586: 2578: 2574: 2566: 2559: 2551: 2547: 2539: 2535: 2525: 2523: 2513: 2509: 2501: 2497: 2489: 2485: 2477: 2473: 2465: 2461: 2453: 2446: 2438: 2434: 2426: 2419: 2411: 2407: 2399: 2395: 2387: 2383: 2375: 2371: 2363: 2359: 2351: 2347: 2339: 2335: 2327: 2318: 2310: 2306: 2298: 2294: 2286: 2282: 2274: 2270: 2262: 2258: 2250: 2246: 2238: 2234: 2226: 2222: 2214: 2210: 2202: 2198: 2194:, pp. 3–5. 2190: 2186: 2178: 2174: 2166: 2159: 2151: 2147: 2139: 2135: 2127: 2123: 2115: 2111: 2103: 2094: 2086: 2082: 2074: 2070: 2062: 2058: 2050: 2046: 2038: 2034: 2026: 2022: 2014: 2010: 2002: 1998: 1990: 1986: 1978: 1974: 1966: 1962: 1954: 1950: 1942: 1935: 1927: 1923: 1915: 1911: 1903: 1899: 1891: 1887: 1879: 1875: 1870: 1828:RAF Aldermaston 1785: 1777: 1773: 1722:Harry S. Truman 1714: 1708: 1648:John Cairncross 1640:Engelbert Broda 1632: 1626: 1621: 1574:Project Alberta 1497: 1491: 1463:J. J. Llewellin 1408: 1404: 1403:million and £10 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1378:in August 1943. 1357: 1351: 1327: 1323: 1307: 1282:Ernest Lawrence 1230: 1218:proximity fuzes 1209: 1203: 1198: 1164:Albert Einstein 1130: 1109:George Laurence 1081:nuclear reactor 1058: 1052: 1001:Nicholas Kemmer 952: 903:Michael Clapham 862:Edward Appleton 833: 805: 800: 772:Edward Mellanby 756:Edward Appleton 745:Margaret Gowing 641: 635: 548:Lord Stonehaven 522:Lord Chartfield 456: 427: 401:Earl of Suffolk 388:Deuxième Bureau 325:Hans von Halban 313: 210: 204: 172: 53:nuclear weapons 17: 12: 11: 5: 4824: 4814: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4768: 4767: 4765:United Kingdom 4755: 4743: 4731: 4719: 4699: 4698: 4688: 4683: 4667: 4651: 4629: 4628:External links 4626: 4624: 4623: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4594: 4576:(3): 259–273. 4570:War in History 4565: 4551: 4538: 4532: 4514: 4500: 4482: 4476: 4458: 4452: 4439: 4425: 4412: 4406: 4388: 4382: 4369: 4355: 4335: 4291: 4270: 4252: 4246: 4233: 4196: 4175: 4154: 4140: 4124:Groves, Leslie 4120: 4106: 4089: 4069: 4043:(2): 238–252. 4032: 4018: 4003: 3997: 3977: 3927: 3877: 3818: 3798: 3747: 3733: 3720: 3714: 3701: 3673:(5): 441–446. 3661:(1 May 2011). 3655: 3643:10.2307/448105 3637:(2): 202–230. 3623: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3585: 3584: 3559: 3547: 3535: 3523: 3511: 3499: 3487: 3475: 3463: 3451: 3439: 3427: 3415: 3403: 3391: 3379: 3377:, p. 177. 3367: 3352: 3337: 3325: 3313: 3301: 3289: 3277: 3265: 3253: 3251:, p. 208. 3241: 3229: 3203: 3177: 3175:, p. 528. 3165: 3139: 3137:, p. 263. 3127: 3115: 3103: 3101:, p. 254. 3091: 3079: 3067: 3055: 3053:, p. 234. 3043: 3041:, p. 296. 3031: 3006: 2994: 2982: 2978:Bernstein 1976 2967: 2965:, p. 208. 2963:Bernstein 1976 2955: 2953:, p. 224. 2943: 2941:, p. 218. 2931: 2927:Bernstein 1976 2919: 2907: 2895: 2880: 2863: 2851: 2847:Zimmerman 1995 2839: 2837:, p. 259. 2835:Zimmerman 1995 2827: 2815: 2803: 2791: 2779: 2777:, p. 261. 2764: 2762:, p. 258. 2752: 2740: 2728: 2716: 2704: 2702:, p. 245. 2692: 2680: 2668: 2645: 2623: 2608: 2596: 2584: 2572: 2557: 2545: 2533: 2507: 2505:, p. 343. 2495: 2493:, p. 345. 2483: 2471: 2469:, p. 414. 2459: 2444: 2442:, p. 278. 2432: 2430:, p. 109. 2417: 2405: 2393: 2381: 2369: 2357: 2355:, p. 293. 2345: 2333: 2316: 2304: 2292: 2280: 2268: 2266:, p. 446. 2264:Bernstein 2011 2256: 2254:, p. 690. 2244: 2232: 2228:Bernstein 2011 2220: 2216:Bernstein 2011 2208: 2206:, p. 321. 2196: 2184: 2172: 2157: 2145: 2133: 2121: 2109: 2092: 2080: 2068: 2056: 2044: 2032: 2020: 2008: 1996: 1994:, p. 262. 1992:Zimmerman 1995 1984: 1972: 1970:, p. 240. 1968:Bernstein 2011 1960: 1948: 1933: 1921: 1909: 1897: 1895:, p. 312. 1885: 1872: 1871: 1869: 1866: 1854:Sputnik crisis 1749:Clement Attlee 1745:Mackenzie King 1710:Main article: 1707: 1704: 1660:Lavrenty Beria 1652:Cambridge Five 1644:Melita Norwood 1628:Main article: 1625: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1613:Clement Attlee 1566:William Penney 1508:James Chadwick 1493:Main article: 1490: 1487: 1443: 1442: 1439: 1436: 1353:Main article: 1350: 1347: 1343:William Penney 1306: 1303: 1294:Arthur Compton 1229: 1226: 1207:Tizard Mission 1205:Main article: 1202: 1201:Tizard mission 1199: 1197: 1194: 1129: 1126: 1113:George Placzek 1093:Jack Mackenzie 1083:designs using 1054:Main article: 1051: 1048: 999:also in 1940. 993:Philip Abelson 975:of 239 and an 951: 948: 846:gas centrifuge 832: 829: 821:Michael Perrin 804: 801: 799: 796: 768:Archibald Hill 764:Alfred Egerton 729:Norman Feather 725:Egon Bretscher 691:MAUD Committee 677:Norman Haworth 645:MAUD Committee 639:MAUD Committee 637:Main article: 634: 633:MAUD Committee 631: 627:MAUD Committee 587:Rudolf Peierls 534:Foreign Office 511:Hastings Ismay 464:Joseph Rotblat 452:Main article: 426: 423: 415:Windsor Castle 333:Francis Perrin 312: 309: 297:electron volts 278:atomic nucleus 230:John Cockcroft 218:James Chadwick 206:Main article: 203: 200: 191:John Cockcroft 187:Rudolf Peierls 179:William Penney 171: 168: 152:Sputnik crisis 96:MAUD Committee 76:Rudolf Peierls 30:Charles Portal 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4823: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4778: 4776: 4766: 4756: 4754: 4744: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4730: 4720: 4718: 4708: 4707: 4704: 4696: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4672: 4668: 4656: 4652: 4640: 4638: 4632: 4631: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4603: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4548: 4544: 4539: 4535: 4529: 4525: 4524: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4501:0-684-80400-X 4497: 4493: 4492: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4477:0-671-65719-4 4473: 4469: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4449: 4445: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4422: 4418: 4413: 4409: 4403: 4399: 4398: 4393: 4392:Pais, Abraham 4389: 4385: 4379: 4375: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4356:0-688-06910-X 4352: 4347: 4346: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4299:Frisch, O. R. 4296: 4292: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4267: 4260: 4259: 4253: 4249: 4243: 4239: 4234: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4204: 4203: 4197: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4176:0-520-07186-7 4172: 4165: 4164: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4141:0-306-70738-1 4137: 4132: 4131: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4107:0-333-15781-8 4103: 4099: 4095: 4094:Arnold, Lorna 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4015: 4011: 4010: 4004: 4000: 3994: 3989: 3988: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3824: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3770:(3252): 312. 3769: 3765: 3764: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3734:0-7195-5225-7 3730: 3726: 3721: 3717: 3715:0-19-853992-4 3711: 3707: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3689: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3609: 3602: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3569: 3563: 3556: 3551: 3544: 3543:Cathcart 1995 3539: 3532: 3531:Cathcart 1995 3527: 3520: 3519:Cathcart 1995 3515: 3508: 3507:Cathcart 1995 3503: 3496: 3491: 3485:, p. 57. 3484: 3483:Cathcart 1995 3479: 3472: 3467: 3461:, p. 21. 3460: 3459:Cathcart 1995 3455: 3448: 3443: 3436: 3431: 3424: 3419: 3413:, p. 92. 3412: 3407: 3400: 3395: 3388: 3383: 3376: 3371: 3364: 3359: 3357: 3349: 3344: 3342: 3335:, p. 93. 3334: 3329: 3322: 3317: 3311:, p. 86. 3310: 3305: 3298: 3293: 3286: 3281: 3275:, p. 58. 3274: 3269: 3262: 3257: 3250: 3245: 3239:, p. 64. 3238: 3233: 3217: 3213: 3207: 3191: 3187: 3181: 3174: 3169: 3153: 3149: 3143: 3136: 3131: 3124: 3119: 3112: 3107: 3100: 3095: 3088: 3083: 3076: 3071: 3064: 3059: 3052: 3047: 3040: 3035: 3019: 3013: 3011: 3003: 2998: 2991: 2986: 2979: 2974: 2972: 2964: 2959: 2952: 2947: 2940: 2935: 2928: 2923: 2916: 2911: 2905:, p. 43. 2904: 2899: 2893:, p. 22. 2892: 2887: 2885: 2878:, p. 42. 2877: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2860: 2855: 2848: 2843: 2836: 2831: 2824: 2819: 2812: 2807: 2800: 2795: 2788: 2783: 2776: 2771: 2769: 2761: 2756: 2749: 2744: 2737: 2732: 2725: 2720: 2713: 2708: 2701: 2696: 2689: 2684: 2677: 2672: 2664: 2660: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2633: 2627: 2620: 2615: 2613: 2605: 2600: 2593: 2588: 2581: 2576: 2569: 2564: 2562: 2554: 2549: 2542: 2537: 2522: 2518: 2511: 2504: 2499: 2492: 2487: 2480: 2475: 2468: 2463: 2456: 2451: 2449: 2441: 2436: 2429: 2424: 2422: 2414: 2409: 2402: 2397: 2391:, p. 85. 2390: 2385: 2378: 2373: 2366: 2361: 2354: 2349: 2342: 2337: 2331:, p. 45. 2330: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2314:, p. 41. 2313: 2308: 2302:, p. 41. 2301: 2296: 2289: 2284: 2277: 2272: 2265: 2260: 2253: 2248: 2241: 2236: 2229: 2224: 2217: 2212: 2205: 2200: 2193: 2188: 2181: 2176: 2169: 2164: 2162: 2154: 2149: 2142: 2137: 2131:, p. 50. 2130: 2125: 2119:, p. 69. 2118: 2113: 2107:, p. 52. 2106: 2101: 2099: 2097: 2089: 2084: 2077: 2072: 2065: 2060: 2053: 2048: 2042:, p. 42. 2041: 2036: 2029: 2024: 2017: 2012: 2005: 2000: 1993: 1988: 1981: 1976: 1969: 1964: 1957: 1952: 1946:, p. 11. 1945: 1940: 1938: 1930: 1925: 1918: 1913: 1906: 1901: 1894: 1893:Chadwick 1932 1889: 1882: 1877: 1873: 1865: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1820:Royal Arsenal 1817: 1816:Fort Halstead 1812: 1811:atomic energy 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1793: 1789: 1783: 1771: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1731: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1703: 1701: 1700:Richard Sorge 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1667: 1665: 1662:'s report to 1661: 1657: 1656:Alan Nunn May 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1638:Klaus Fuchs, 1637: 1631: 1616: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1601: 1600: 1594: 1592: 1591: 1586: 1582: 1579: 1578:Group Captain 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1528: 1524: 1522: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1455:Field Marshal 1452: 1451:Henry Stimson 1448: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1433: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1421: 1419: 1418:war in Europe 1415: 1386: 1385:weapons-grade 1377: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1356: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1333: 1319: 1316: 1311: 1302: 1300: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1277: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1261: 1259: 1255: 1254:Vannevar Bush 1251: 1247: 1239: 1238:Mark Oliphant 1234: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1214: 1208: 1193: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1172: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1158: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1138: 1134: 1125: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1089: 1086: 1082: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1057: 1047: 1045: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1027: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1010:Glenn Seaborg 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 985: 983: 978: 977:atomic number 974: 970: 966: 962: 961:slow neutrons 958: 957:plutonium-239 947: 946:in mid-1943. 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 920:M. 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Retrieved 4659:. Retrieved 4643:. Retrieved 4636: 4610: 4607:Ehrman, John 4573: 4569: 4542: 4522: 4490: 4465: 4443: 4416: 4396: 4373: 4344: 4306: 4302: 4283:. Retrieved 4257: 4237: 4225:. Retrieved 4218:the original 4201: 4188:. Retrieved 4162: 4129: 4097: 4076: 4040: 4036: 4008: 3986: 3946: 3942: 3896: 3892: 3869:. Retrieved 3862:the original 3833: 3829: 3805: 3767: 3761: 3724: 3705: 3670: 3666: 3634: 3630: 3615:. Retrieved 3608:the original 3599: 3575:. Retrieved 3562: 3550: 3538: 3526: 3514: 3502: 3490: 3478: 3466: 3454: 3442: 3430: 3418: 3406: 3394: 3382: 3375:Nichols 1987 3370: 3328: 3316: 3304: 3292: 3280: 3268: 3256: 3249:Coleman 1976 3244: 3232: 3220:. Retrieved 3206: 3194:. Retrieved 3190:the original 3180: 3168: 3156:. Retrieved 3142: 3130: 3118: 3106: 3094: 3082: 3070: 3058: 3046: 3034: 3022:. 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G. Wells 341:atomic bomb 311:Paris Group 183:Otto Frisch 88:uranium-235 55:during the 45:Tube Alloys 4786:Code names 4775:Categories 4677:6 February 4661:6 February 4645:6 February 3590:References 3237:Szasz 1992 3173:Jones 1985 3111:Brown 1997 3099:Brown 1997 3087:Brown 1997 3039:Jones 1985 2592:Brown 1997 2526:6 February 2440:Smyth 1945 2353:Brown 1997 2341:Szasz 1992 2192:Szasz 1992 2141:Clark 1961 2076:Clark 1961 2064:Clark 1961 2040:Clark 1961 2028:Clark 1961 2004:Clark 1961 1956:Clark 1961 1944:Clark 1961 1881:Clark 1961 1720:President 1686:(Russian: 1467:C. D. Howe 1137:Niels Bohr 1012:, using a 969:beta decay 936:Capenhurst 760:Henry Dale 698:scientist 610:Niels Bohr 470:laureates 319:in Paris: 268:bombarded 170:Background 65:classified 4619:488868259 4590:161470713 4280:881370741 4185:637004643 4116:611555258 4057:1468-2346 4028:300718864 3973:1364-5021 3923:1364-5021 3850:0032-8456 3697:0002-9505 3555:Gott 1963 3423:Paul 2000 3348:Paul 2000 3158:2 January 2891:Paul 2000 2748:Pais 1991 2117:Owen 2010 1782:Mr Byrnes 1619:Aftermath 1590:Big Stink 1459:John Dill 1014:cyclotron 1005:neptunium 950:Plutonium 924:Rhydymwyn 733:plutonium 406:Broompark 258:Otto Hahn 104:code name 82:co-wrote 4741:Politics 4609:(1953). 4561:23901666 4520:(1945). 4510:32509950 4488:(1995). 4464:(1986). 4435:43615254 4394:(1991). 4365:15223648 4341:(1987). 4214:10913875 4190:26 March 4126:(1962). 4096:(1974). 4075:(1964). 3983:(2013). 3858:26404013 3804:(1961). 3753:(1932). 3743:31241690 3222:18 March 1856:and the 1824:Woolwich 1706:Post-war 1692:Red Army 1674:leader, 1546:and the 1414:gigawatt 1179:justice 1152:(BOAC). 1139:in 1935. 554:. Since 530:Treasury 364:graphite 254:isotopes 250:elements 47:was the 4703:Portals 4331:4113262 4311:Bibcode 4085:3195209 4065:2611300 3951:Bibcode 3901:Bibcode 3794:4076465 3772:Bibcode 3675:Bibcode 3617:26 June 3196:8 March 2787:Kapitza 1836:Fat Man 1765:McMahon 1690:), the 1544:Argonne 1374:at the 1028:at the 982:fissile 868:of the 850:Clusius 657:anagram 444:at the 305:fission 270:uranium 242:protons 238:lithium 224:at the 220:at the 214:neutron 4717:Canada 4617: 4588: 4559: 4549: 4530: 4508: 4498: 4474: 4450: 4433: 4423: 4404: 4380: 4363: 4353: 4329: 4303:Nature 4278: 4268: 4244: 4227:8 June 4212: 4183: 4173: 4150:537684 4148: 4138: 4114: 4104: 4083: 4063: 4055: 4026: 4016: 3995: 3971: 3921: 3856: 3848: 3814:824335 3812: 3792: 3763:Nature 3741: 3731: 3712: 3695: 3651:448105 3649: 1801:. 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