Taíno - Knowledge

156: 1620: 7829: 2432:(distant paternal ancestry) from the Indigenous people. This demonstrated the anticipated Creole population formed from the Taíno, Spanish, and Africans. Histories of the Caribbean commonly describe the Taíno as extinct, due to being killed off by disease, slavery, and war with the Spaniards. Some present-day residents of the Caribbean self-identify as Taíno, and claim that Taíno culture and identity have survived into the present. Groups advocating this point of view are known as Neo-Taínos and are also established in the Puerto Rican communities located in New Jersey and New York. A few Neo-Taíno groups are pushing not only for recognition but respect for their cultural assets. 2349: 7963: 7933: 2184: 7948: 7918: 7903: 1392: 708: 1933:, there was no such rebound for the Indigenous populations of the Caribbean. He concludes that, even though the Spanish were aware of deadly diseases such as smallpox, there is no mention of them in the New World until 1519, meaning perhaps they did not spread as fast as initially believed, and that, unlike Europeans, the Indigenous populations were subjected to enslavement, exploitation, and forced labor in gold and silver mines on an enormous scale. Reséndez says that "slavery has emerged as a major killer" of the Indigenous people of the Caribbean. Anthropologist 1230: 378: 1101: 845: 699:, "studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the north-eastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands, they encountered foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today's Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands." 953: 1527: 1172: 2458: 2444: 1460: 2105: 1766: 1018:. According to archeological evidence, the Taíno islands were able to support a high number of people for approximately 1,500 years. Every individual living in the Taíno society had a task to do. The Taíno believed that everyone living on their islands should eat properly. They followed a very efficient nature harvesting and agricultural production system. Either people were hunting, searching for food, or doing other productive tasks. 49: 1951: 617: 1689:, each adult over 14 years of age was expected to deliver a hawks bell full of gold every three months, or when this was lacking, twenty-five pounds of spun cotton. If this tribute was not brought, the Spanish cut off the hands of the Taíno and left them to bleed to death These savage, cruel practices inspired many revolts by the Taíno and campaigns against the Spanish—some being successful, some not. 2050: 1992: 1329:

and cigars. Alternatively, they finely crushed the leaves and inhaled them through a hollow tube. The natives employed uncomplicated yet efficient tools for planting and caring for their crops. Their primary tool was a planting stick, referred to as a "coa" among the Taino, which measured around five feet in length and featured a sharp point that had been hardened through fire.

720: 784:. Men, and sometimes women, might have two or three spouses. Ramón Pané, a Catholic friar who traveled with Columbus on his second voyage and was tasked with learning the Indigenous people's language and customs, wrote in the 16th century that caciques tended to have two or three wives and the principal ones had as many as 10, 15, or 20. 3418: 1159:, soothe them when they were angry, and intercede on the tribe's behalf. It was their duty to cure the sick, heal the wounded, and interpret the will of the gods in ways that would satisfy the expectations of the tribe. Before carrying out these functions, the bohíques performed certain cleansing and purifying 1645:

They traded with us and gave us everything they had, with good will ... they took great delight in pleasing us ... They are very gentle and without knowledge of what is evil; nor do they murder or steal...Your highness may believe that in all the world there can be no better people ...

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characterizes the encomienda as a genocidal system that "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths." It would take some time before the Taíno revolted against their oppressors—both Native and Spanish alike—and many military campaigns before

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explains that the Sun and Moon came out of caves. Another story tells of the first people, who once lived in caves and only came out at night because it was believed that the Sun would transform them; a sentry became a giant stone at the mouth of the cave, and others became birds or trees. The Taíno

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Disease played a significant role in the destruction of the Indigenous population, but forced labor was also one of the chief reasons behind the depopulation of the Taíno. The first man to introduce this forced labor among the Taínos was the leader of the European colonization of Puerto Rico, Ponce

1249:, also known as a suckerfish, to a line secured to a canoe and wait for the fish to attach itself to a larger fish or even a sea turtle. Once this happened, someone would dive into the water to retrieve the catch. Another method used by the Taínos involved shredding the stems and roots of poisonous 2376:

movement in Puerto Rico as a useful counter to the domination of the island by the United States and the Spanish legacies of island society. She also notes that "what could be seen as a useless anachronistic reinvention of a 'Boricua coqui' identity can also be conceived as a productive example of

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In thirty years, between 80% and 90% of the Taíno population died. Because of the increased number of people (Spanish) on the island, there was a higher demand for food. Taíno cultivation was converted to Spanish methods. In hopes of frustrating the Spanish, some Taínos refused to plant or harvest

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Early population estimates of Hispaniola, thought to have likely been the most populous island inhabited by Taínos, range from 10,000 to 1,000,000 people. The maximum estimates for Jamaica and Puerto Rico are 600,000 people. A 2020 genetic analysis estimated the population to be no more than a few

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mobilized more than 3,000 Taíno in a successful rebellion in the 1520s. These Taíno were accorded land and a charter from the royal administration. Despite the small Spanish military presence in the region, they often used diplomatic divisions and, with help from powerful native allies, controlled

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in his journal described how Indigenous people used tobacco by lighting dried herbs wrapped in a leaf and inhaling the smoke. Tobacco, derived from the Taino word "tabaco", was used in medicine and in religious rituals. The Taino people utilized dried tobacco leaves, which they smoked using pipes

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their crops. The supply of food became so low in 1495 and 1496 that some 50,000 died from famine. Historians have determined that the massive decline was due more to infectious disease outbreaks than any warfare or direct attacks. By 1507, their numbers had shrunk to 60,000. Scholars believe that

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Maquetaurie Guayaba or Maketaori Guayaba was the zemi of Coaybay or Coabey, the land of the dead. Opiyelguabirán', a dog-shaped zemi, watched over the dead. Deminán Caracaracol, a male cultural hero from whom the Taíno believed themselves to be descended, was worshipped as a zemí. Macocael was a

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The chiefs had both temporal and spiritual functions. They were expected to ensure the welfare of the tribe and to protect it from harm from both natural and supernatural forces. They were also expected to direct and manage the food production process. The cacique's power came from the number of

776:, reported that a chief was succeeded by a son of a sister. Las Casas was not specific as to which son of a sister would succeed, but d'Anghiera stated that the order of succession was the oldest son of the oldest sister, then the oldest son of the next oldest sister. Post-marital residence was 2423:

studies of peoples in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean and its diaspora (mostly Puerto Ricans) have shown that between 10% and 20% of their DNA is indigenous. Some individuals have slightly higher scores, and others have lower scores or no indigenous DNA at all. A recent study of a population in

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In contrast to the significant autonomy granted to women in Taíno society, Taíno women were taken by Spaniards as hostages to be used during negotiations. Some sources report that Taíno women became so-called commodities for Spaniards to trade, seen by some as the beginning of a period of more

744:, who inherited their position through their mother's noble line. (This was a matrilineal kinship system, with social status passed through the female lines.) The nitaínos functioned as sub-caciques in villages, overseeing the work of naborias. Caciques were advised by priests/healers known as 1088:

of South American origin, made of an alloy of gold and copper. This symbolized the first Taíno mythical cacique Anacacuya, whose name means "star of the center", or "central spirit". In addition to the guanín, the cacique used other artifacts and adornments to serve to identify his role. Some

2397:. "Comparing the ancient Bahamian genome to those of contemporary Puerto Ricans, the researchers found that they were more closely related to the ancient Taíno than any other indigenous group in the Americas." The research team compared the genome to 104 Puerto Ricans who participated in the 1439:

Minor Taíno zemis are related to the growing of cassava, the process of life, creation, and death. Baibrama was a minor zemi worshiped for his assistance in growing cassava and curing people of its poisonous juice. Boinayel and his twin brother Márohu were the zemis of rain and fair weather,

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Guabancex was the non-nurturing aspect of the zemi Atabey who was believed to have control over natural disasters. She is identified as the goddess of hurricanes or as the zemi of storms. Guabancex had twin sons: Guataubá, a messenger who created hurricane winds, and Coatrisquie, who created

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Some anthropologists and historians have argued that the Taíno were no longer extant centuries ago, or they gradually merged into a common identity with African and Hispanic cultures. However, many people today identify as Taíno or claim Taíno descent, most notably in subsections of the

1800:. Potentially, this meant Taíno women could make important choices for the village and could assign tasks to tribe members. There is evidence that suggests that the women who were the wealthiest among the tribe collected crafted goods that they would then use for trade or as gifts. 1588:

believed they were descended from the union of the cultural hero Deminán Caracaracol and a female turtle (who was born of the former's back after being afflicted with a blister). The origin of the oceans is described in the story of a huge flood that occurred when the great spirit

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instead of the round ones of ordinary villagers, and sitting on wooden stools to be above the guests they received. Bohíques were extolled for their healing powers and ability to speak with deities. They were consulted and granted the Taíno permission to engage in important tasks.

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system and descent was traced through the mother. Women lived in village groups containing their children. The men lived separately. As a result, Taíno women had extensive control over their lives and their fellow villagers. The Taínos told Columbus that another Indigenous tribe,

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was used by Columbus's sailors, not by the islanders who greeted them, although there is room for interpretation. The sailors may have been saying the only word they knew in a native Caribbean tongue, or perhaps they were indicating to the "commoners" on the shore that they were

6324:, A dictionary of words of the Indigenous peoples of Caribbean from the encyclopedia "Clásicos de Puerto Rico, second edition, publisher, Ediciones Latinoamericanas. S.A., 1972" compiled by Puerto Rican historian Dr. Cayetano Coll y Toste of the "Real Academia de la Historia". 806:

Taíno women commonly wore their hair with bangs in front and longer in the back, and they occasionally wore gold jewelry, paint, and/or shells. Taíno men and unmarried women did not usually wear clothes but went naked. After marriage, women wore a small cotton apron, called a

818:, which varied in size depending on the location. Those in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola were the largest and those in the Bahamas were the smallest. In the center of a typical village was a central plaza, used for various social activities, such as games, festivals, religious 780:, meaning a newly married couple lived in the household of the maternal uncle. He was more important in the lives of his niece's children than their biological father; the uncle introduced the boys to men's societies in his sister and his family's clan. Some Taíno practiced 369:, showing that they are descendants through the direct female line. While some communities claim an unbroken cultural heritage passed down from the old Taíno peoples, often in secret, others are revivalist communities who seek to incorporate Taíno culture into their lives. 1332:

Contrary to mainland practices, corn was not ground into flour and baked into bread, but was cooked and eaten off the cob. Corn bread becomes moldy faster than cassava bread in the high humidity of the Caribbean. Corn also was used to make an alcoholic beverage known as

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Zemí was also the name the people gave to physical representations of Zemis, which could be objects or drawings. They took many forms and were made of many materials and were found in a variety of settings. The majority of zemís were crafted from wood, but stone,

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Taíno culture as documented is believed to have developed in the Caribbean. The Taíno creation story says they emerged from caves in a sacred mountain on present-day Hispaniola. In Puerto Rico, 21st-century studies have shown that a high proportion of people have

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was originally an exonym, contemporary descendants of the Taínos have begun to reclaim the name and assert a Taíno Caribbean-Indigenous identity. Rural communities which have retained Taíno-derived customs and identities can be found on Caribbean islands such as

768:, descent, and inheritance. Spanish accounts of the rules of succession for a chief are not consistent, and the rules of succession may have changed as a result of the disruptions to Taíno society that followed the Spanish intrusion. Two early chroniclers, 5842:

Schroeder, Hannes; Sikora, Martin; Gopalakrishnan, Shyam; Cassidy, Lara M.; Maisano Delser, Pierpaolo; Sandoval Velasco, Marcela; Schraiber, Joshua G.; Rasmussen, Simon; Homburger, Julian R.; Ávila-Arcos, María C.; Allentoft, Morten E. (2018-02-20).

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1897:. The purpose of the military expeditions was to capture the Indigenous people. This violence by the Spaniards was a reason why there was a decline in the Taíno population since it forced many of them to emigrate to other islands and the mainland. 389:

Various scholars have addressed the question of who were the native inhabitants of the Caribbean islands to which Columbus voyaged in 1492. They face difficulties, since European accounts cannot be read as objective evidence of a native Caribbean

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and the Taíno people. When Taíno men were away fighting against intervention from other groups, women assumed the roles of primary food producers or ritual specialists. Women appeared to have participated in all levels of the Taíno political

1425:(Hispaniola) called her son, "Yúcahu|Yucahú Bagua Maorocotí", which meant "White Yuca, great and powerful as the sea and the mountains". He was considered the spirit of cassava, the zemi of cassava – the Taínos' main crop – and the sea. 1269:

Taíno groups located on islands that had experienced relatively high development, such as Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, and Jamaica, relied more on agriculture (farming and other jobs) than did groups living elsewhere. Fields for important

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At the 2010 U.S. census, 1,098 people in Puerto Rico identified as "Puerto Rican Indian", 1,410 identified as "Spanish American Indian", and 9,399 identified as "Taíno". In total, 35,856 Puerto Ricans identified as Native American.

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Researchers today doubt Las Casas' figures for the pre-contact levels of the Taíno population, considering them an exaggeration. For example, Karen Anderson Córdova estimates a maximum of 500,000 people inhabiting the island. The

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to encounter the Taíno people, as they landed in The Bahamas on October 12, 1492. After their first interaction, Columbus described the Taínos as a physically tall, well-proportioned people, with noble and kind personalities.

293:, whose culture has been continued today by Taíno descendant communities and Taíno revivalist communities. At the time of European contact in the late 15th century, they were the principal inhabitants of most of what is now 2250:

culture. Census records from the year 1514 reveal that 40% of Spanish men on the island of Hispaniola had Taíno wives. Nevertheless, Spanish documents declared the Taíno to be extinct in the 16th century, as early as—550.

652:, migrating along the Lesser Antilles to Cuba and the Bahamas. Evidence that supports the theory includes the tracing of the ancestral cultures of these people to the Orinoco Valley and their languages to the Amazon Basin. 2356:

As of 2006, there were a couple of dozen activist Taíno descendant organizations from Florida to Puerto Rico and California to New York with growing memberships numbering in the thousands. These efforts are known as the

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In Puerto Rico, the history of the Taíno is being taught in schools, and children are encouraged to celebrate the culture and identity of Taíno through dance, costumes, and crafts. Martínez Cruzado, a geneticist at the

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most of the region. In "exchange" for a seasonal salary, and religious and language education, the Taíno were forced to work for Spanish and erroneously-labeled "Indian" landowners. This system of labor was part of the

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derived, referred to an elite social class, not to an ethnic group. No 16th-century Spanish documents use this word to refer to the tribal affiliation or ethnicity of the natives of the Greater Antilles. The word

1921:) was an overwhelming cause of the population decline of the Indigenous people, and also attributed a "large number of Taíno deaths...to the continuing bondage systems" that existed. Academics, such as historian 8332: 1282:. This improved soil drainage and fertility as well as delayed erosion while allowing for the longer storage of crops in the ground. Less important crops such as corn were cultivated in clearings made using the 4049: 410:

is not a universally accepted denomination—it was not the name this people called themselves originally, and there is still uncertainty about their attributes and the boundaries of the territory they occupied.

1929:, assert that disease alone does not explain the destruction of Indigenous populations of Hispaniola. While the populations of Europe rebounded following the devastating population decline associated with the 4558:

Fernandes, Daniel M.; Sirak, Kendra A.; Ringbauer, Harald; Sedig, Jakob; Rohland, Nadin; Cheronet, Olivia; Mah, Matthew; Mallick, Swapan; Olalde, Iñigo; Culleton, Brendan J.; Adamski, Nicole (February 2021).

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ball. Normally, the teams were composed of men, but occasionally women played the game as well. The Classic Taíno played in the village's center plaza or on especially designed rectangular ball courts called

8327: 833:), constructed with wooden poles, woven straw, and palm leaves. These houses, built surrounding the central plaza, could hold 10–15 families each. The cacique and his family lived in rectangular buildings ( 4659:

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plants and throwing them into nearby streams or rivers. After eating the bait, the fish would be stunned and ready for collection. These practices did not render fish inedible. The Taíno also collected

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are believed to have been used for conflict resolution between communities. The most elaborate ball courts are found at chiefdom boundaries. Often, chiefs made wagers on the possible outcome of a game.

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who represented religious beliefs. Bohíques dealt with negotiating with angry or indifferent gods as the accepted lords of the spiritual world. The bohíques were expected to communicate with the

1097:, crowns, and masks or "guaizas" of cotton with feathers; colored stones, shells, or gold; cotton woven belts; and necklaces of snail beads or stones, with small masks of gold or other material. 803:) were of various sizes and could hold from 2 to 150 people; an average-sized canoe would hold 15–20. They used bows and arrows for hunting and developed the use of poisons on their arrowheads. 5567: 1619: 2246:, a Dominican historian, documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with Taíno women. Over time, some of their mixed-race descendants intermarried with Africans, creating a tripartite 463:

was being used here to denote ethnicity, then it was used by the Spanish sailors to indicate that they were "not Carib", and gives no evidence of self-identification by the native people.

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tree. These trays have been found with ornately carved snuff tubes. Before certain ceremonies, Taínos would purify themselves, either by inducing vomiting (with a swallowing stick) or by

2270:, and religious views, even though such cultural traits may be considered backward in the cities. Among these rural communities, some families and individuals also identify as Taíno. 5285: 822:, and public ceremonies. These plazas had many shapes, including oval, rectangular, narrow, and elongated. Ceremonies where the deeds of the ancestors were celebrated, called 8418: 4757: 3277: 2282:

communities in the interior of the islands, where they developed into a mixed-race population who were relatively independent of Spanish authorities. For instance, when the

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Taínos believed that Jupias, the souls of the dead, would go to Coaybay, the underworld, and there they rest by day. At night they would assume the form of bats and eat the

7809: 2715: 1576:. After communal bread was served, first to the zemí, then to the cacique, and then to the common people, the people would sing the village epic to the accompaniment of 4496:

Taylor, Patrick, and Frederick I. Case. The Encyclopedia of Caribbean Religions Volume 1: A-L; Volume 2: M-Z. Baltimore: U of Illinois, 2015. Web. Chapter title Taínos.

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made completely from wood. Women processed the poisonous variety of cassava by squeezing it to extract its toxic juices. Roots were then ground into flour for bread.

8533: 7869: 6397: 1696:, a Dominican missionary in Hispaniola, became the first European to publicly denounce the abduction and enslavement of the Indigenous peoples of the island and the 1057:

line. A male ruler was more likely to be succeeded by his sister's children than his own unless their mother's lineage allowed them to succeed in their own right.

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Despite this, scholars note that contemporary rural Dominicans retain elements of Taíno culture including linguistic features, agricultural practices, food ways,

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Taíno staples included vegetables, fruit, meat, and fish. Though there were no large animals native to the Caribbean, they captured and ate small animals such as

1858:, and a seasonal salary. Under the pretense of searching for gold and other materials, many Spaniards took advantage of the regions now under the control of the 515:

have been used with numerous and contradictory meanings by writers, travelers, historians, linguists, and anthropologists. Often they were used interchangeably:

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Martínez-Cruzado, JC; Toro-Labrador, G; Ho-Fung, V; et al. (Aug 2001). "Mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals substantial Native ancestry in Puerto Rico".

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and who wanted to escape on Spanish ships to return home to Puerto Rico, used the term to indicate that they were the "good men", as opposed to the Caribs.

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First edition. June, 2017. Editorial Akelarre. Centro de Estudios e Investigaciones del Sur Oeste de Puerto Rico (CEISCO). Lajas, Puerto Rico. Page 15.

1678:(Spanish for "Holy Savior"). Columbus erroneously called the Taíno "Indians", a reference that has grown to encompass all the Indigenous peoples of the 3232: 2890: 2794: 5927:

Vilar, Miguel G.; et al. (July 2014). "Genetic diversity in Puerto Rico and its implications for the peopling of the island and the Caribbean".

1226:. The Taíno stored live animals until they were ready to be consumed: fish and turtles were stored in weirs, hutias and dogs were stored in corrals. 5331: 4487:

Dale, Corrine H., and J. H. E. Paine. Women on the Edge: Ethnicity and Gender in Short Stories by American Women. New York: Garland Pub., 1999. Web.

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There were 60,000 people living on this island , including the Indians; so that from 1494 to 1508, over three million people had perished from war,

8692: 5849: 2823: 3649: 3594:. The Puerto Rico caciques map illustration was also reprinted by the United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, in 1948, in the 2013: 1604:. When the bones turned into fish, the gourd broke, an accident caused by Deminán Caracaracol, and all the water of the world came pouring out. 8607: 7784: 6430: 1893:

de León. Such forced labor eventually led to the Taíno rebellions, to which the Spaniards responded with violent military expeditions known as

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Saunders, Nicholas J. Peoples of the Caribbean: An Encyclopedia of Archeology and Traditional Culture. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2005. Web.

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The Taíno women were skilled in agriculture, which the people depended on. The men also fished and hunted, making fishing nets and ropes from

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Iguanaboína was the goddess of good weather. She also had twin sons: Boinayel, the messenger of rain, and Marohu, the spirit of clear skies.

493:, expressing their connection to the continental peoples. Since then, numerous scholars and writers have referred to the Indigenous group as 3245: 8682: 8580: 8367: 6293: 1132:

and the family of the cacique. Advisors who assisted in operational matters such as assigning and supervising communal work, planting and

6746: 6369: 5253: 5185: 3108: 2235:), communities of people of substantial Taíno ancestry have survived into the present, and preserve cultural practices of Taíno origin. 8485: 8015: 3586:

San Juan, Puerto Rico: Tipografía Boletín Mercantil. 1907. p.298. (Reprinted by Editorial El Nuevo Mundo. San Juan, Puerto Rico. 2011.

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Nieves-Rivera, Ángel M., José Muñoz-Vázquez, and Carlos Betancourt-López, "Hallucinogens used by Taíno Indians in the West Indies."

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Deagan, Kathleen (2004). "Reconsidering Taino Social Dynamics after Spanish Conquest: Gender and Class in Culture Contact Studies".

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Nieves-Rivera, Ángel M., José Muñoz-Vázquez, and Carlos Betancourt-López, "Hallucinogens used by Taíno Indians in the West Indies."

3376:"Columbus, Ramon Pane, and the beginnings of American anthropology by Bourne, Edward Gaylord, 1860-1908. [from old catalog]" 3039: 1080:

enabled the cacique to have women and create family alliances in different localities, thus extending his power. As a symbol of his

8687: 8392: 7855: 6778: 6179: 841:), sleeping and sitting mats made of palms, wooden chairs (dujo or duho) with woven seats and platforms, and cradles for children. 2366: 1266:

found in shallow waters. Some young boys hunted waterfowl from flocks that "darkened the sun", according to Christopher Columbus.

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communities in a territory; they would band together as a defensive strategy to face external threats, such as the attacks by the

1065:, matrimonial, and ceremonial ties. According to an early 20th-century Smithsonian study, these alliances showed the unity of the 8697: 8463: 8302: 2725: 2658: 8727: 8149: 3824: 3527: 2535:

A Orillas del Mar Caribe: Boceto histórico de la Playa de Ponce - Desde sus primeros habitantes hasta principios del siglo XX.

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signified "men of the good". The Taíno people, or Taíno culture, have been classified by some authorities as belonging to the

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Tinker, Tink; Freeland, Mark (2008). "Thief, Slave Trader, Murderer: Christopher Columbus and Caribbean Population Decline".

6161: 6103: 6082: 5775: 5247: 5179: 5141: 4278: 3971: 3412: 3201: 3018: 2572: 8089: 5147: 8568: 8267: 7680: 6795: 3598:, Julian H. Steward, ed., volume 4, for the Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, for their Bulletin 143.) 1731:, allied with the Carib and tried to oust the Spaniards. The revolt was suppressed by the Indio-Spanish forces of Governor 542:, who are not seen as belonging to the same people. Linguists continue to debate whether the Carib language is an Arawakan 505:

and Basil Reid) have recognized that the Taíno developed a distinct language and culture from the Arawak of South America.

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They love their neighbors as themselves, and they have the sweetest talk in the world, and are gentle and always laughing.

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to their face to appear fierce toward their enemies. They ingested substances at religious ceremonies and invoked zemis.

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eastern Puerto Rico, where the majority of persons tested claimed Taíno ancestry and pedigree, showed that they had 61%

435:, with the meaning "good" or "prudent", was mentioned twice in an account of Columbus's second voyage by his physician, 8619: 8475: 8137: 8064: 7794: 6773: 6412: 6198: 5361: 5325: 4912: 4472: 4445: 4312: 2542: 2508: 2402: 1066: 85: 6209:"Some important research contributions of Genetics to the study of Population History and Anthropology in Puerto Rico" 4855: 1937:

estimates that the lethal forced labor in these mines killed a third of the Indigenous people there every six months.

1682:. A group of about 24 Taíno people were abducted and forced to accompany Columbus on his 1494 return voyage to Spain. 345:

with fixed settlements and a matrilineal system of kinship and inheritance. Taíno religion centered on the worship of

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found, one does not exist in the Taíno ancestral group, so other Native people are also among the genetic ancestors.

132: 3291: 482:, the languages of which were historically present throughout the Caribbean, and much of Central and South America. 8642: 8443: 7554: 7243: 6319: 5420: 4929: 362: 160: 5582: 3481: 1421:, fresh waters, and fertility. Other names for her included Atabei, Atabeyra, Atabex, and Guimazoa. The Taínos of 663:, who originated this concept, suggests a migration from the Andes to the Caribbean and a parallel migration into 655:

The alternate theory, known as the circum-Caribbean theory, contends that the Taíno's ancestors diffused from the

531:, or to the northern Caribbean inhabitants, as well as to the Indigenous population of all the Caribbean islands. 92: 8722: 8717: 8707: 8458: 8377: 8322: 8272: 8236: 7624: 7254: 6936: 6751: 6362: 5792: 4719: 2114: 1926: 6336: 5707: 8712: 8548: 8317: 8008: 7962: 7932: 7922: 7716: 7559: 6407: 5741: 4821: 4346: 4127: 3921: 3792: 3756: 3687: 3620: 2488: 1290:

were three feet high, nine feet in circumference, and were arranged in rows. The primary root crop was yuca or

70: 7695: 6971: 8590: 7952: 7705: 6946: 6450: 6279: 5059: 3883: 1882: 403: 7721: 4548:

Sloan, Kathryn A. Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2011. Web.

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Rodríguez Ramos, Reniel (2019-02-25), "Current Perspectives in the Precolonial Archaeology of Puerto Rico",

2361:, a revival movement for Taíno culture that seeks official recognition of the survival of the Taíno people. 99: 8742: 8737: 7907: 7799: 7727: 7691: 6761: 6341:

Amy H. Roberts. The St. Thomas Source. St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. 6 April 2022. Accessed 5 May 2022.

6327: 5963: 5606: 5093: 4787: 2882: 2784: 2683: 6187:"Ocama-Daca Taíno (Hear Me, I Am Taíno): Taíno Survival on Hispaniola, Focusing on the Dominican Republic" 5459: 4117: 4042:"Continuity, Cultural Dynamics, and Alcohol: The Reinterpretation of Identity through Chicha in the Andes" 1739:, a Taíno chieftain who had fled from Hispaniola to Cuba with 400 natives to unite the Cuban natives, was 1685:

On Columbus' second voyage in 1493, he began to demand tribute from the Taíno in Hispaniola. According to

1041:

were not always rulers in their own right, but were mistakenly acknowledged as such because they were the

8732: 8448: 7393: 7265: 6851: 6593: 6402: 4627: 3348: 8602: 8433: 8292: 8110: 7983: 7620: 7504: 7347: 6355: 5421:""No one will be left behind?" Taíno indigenous communities in the Caribbean and the road to SDGs 2030" 773: 81: 5382:"Rooted in the Land: Taíno identity, oral history and stories of reclamation in contemporary contexts" 3073:

Reid, Basil (1994). "Tainos not Arawaks: The Indigenous Peoples of Jamaica and the Greater Antilles".

2278:

Evidence suggests that some Taíno women and African men intermarried and lived in relatively isolated

8277: 8142: 8001: 6230: 6219: 5317: 1000:

The Taíno society, as described by the Spanish chroniclers, was composed of four social classes: the

693:

studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian Indigenous history. According to

656: 1964: 1820: 769: 66: 37: 8506: 8492: 8406: 8287: 8033: 7947: 7917: 7327: 6931: 6856: 6733: 6708: 6422: 5994: 5677: 5528: 2327: 2291: 1556: 3227: 2412:

have Taíno ancestry, with 61% of Puerto Ricans, up to 30% of Dominicans, and 33% of Cubans having

2006:

that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.

1503:. Yucahú, the zemi of cassava, was represented with a three-pointed zemí, which could be found in 8231: 8053: 7902: 7403: 7076: 6573: 4900: 4381:"CARTAS de Pedro de Córdoba y de la Comunidad Dominica, algunas refrendadas por los Franciscanos" 837:) of similar construction, with wooden porches. Taíno home furnishings included cotton hammocks ( 486: 59: 7628: 3010: 3004: 1552:

Some zemís were accompanied by small tables or trays, which are believed to be a receptacle for

715:

in 1565: grating yuca roots into paste, shaping the bread, and cooking it on a fire-heated burén

436: 8563: 8372: 8246: 8105: 7847: 5678:"American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes in the United States and Puerto Rico: 2010 (CPH-T-6)" 5529:"American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes in the United States and Puerto Rico: 2010 (CPH-T-6)" 3557: 2915:

Curet, Antonio L. (Spring 2015). "Indigenous Revival, Indigeneity, and the Jíbaro in Borikén".

2369:

said celebrating and learning about their Taíno roots is helping Puerto Ricans feel connected.

2343: 2183: 2118: 1630: 952: 479: 7046: 6053: 5914:

Race, Identity and Indigenous Politics: Puerto Rican Neo-Taínos in the Diaspora and the Island

5133: 4904: 3191: 8523: 7549: 7464: 7398: 7031: 6785: 6756: 6555: 6530: 6495: 6093: 5763: 5667:, ed. E. Kofi Agorsah (Kingston: University of the West Indies Canoe Press, 1994), pp. 180–1. 5381: 5311: 5280: 5237: 5169: 4462: 4262: 3963: 3855: 2348: 1693: 956: 628:

Two schools of thought have emerged regarding the origin of the Indigenous Caribbean people.

17: 6683: 6151: 5002: 4435: 4256: 2560: 1732: 8543: 8163: 8059: 7833: 7700: 7564: 7529: 7449: 7138: 6846: 6741: 6723: 6623: 6347: 6315:

United Confederation of Taíno People (UCTP) / Confederación Unida de el Pueblo Taíno (CUPT)

6186: 5858: 5307: 5125: 4572: 4160: 2832: 2398: 2295: 1922: 1850:

system forced many Taíno to work in the fields and mines in so-called exchange for Spanish

1391: 1325: 707: 330: 7026: 5995:"Criollos: The Birth of a Dynamic New Indo-Afro-European People and Culture on Hispaniola" 5207: 4750:"Invaders nearly wiped out Caribbean's first people long before Spanish came, DNA reveals" 3268:"Invaders nearly wiped out Caribbean's first people long before Spanish came, DNA reveals" 2129: 1782:, were fierce warriors, who made frequent raids on the Taínos, often capturing the women. 561:(except the western tip of Cuba and small pockets of Hispaniola), as well as those of the 8: 8480: 8382: 8262: 8048: 7666: 7428: 6460: 6440: 6298: 3272: 3035: 2720: 1623: 695: 562: 519:

was applied to the Greater Antillean natives only, but could include the Bahamian or the

334: 6658: 6113:

Ricardo Alegría (April 1951). "The Ball Game Played by the Aborigines of the Antilles".

5862: 4576: 2836: 2565:

Caciques and Cemi Idols: The Web Spun by Taino Rulers Between Hispaniola and Puerto Rico

1229: 844: 377: 106: 8651: 8216: 8079: 8069: 7878: 7789: 7779: 7685: 7509: 7418: 7197: 6941: 6886: 6861: 6525: 6520: 6490: 6485: 6258: 6138: 6130: 5889: 5844: 4696: 4661: 4603: 4560: 4531: 4523: 4400: 3172: 2855: 2818: 2498: 2287: 2208: 1860: 1679: 1398: 1136:

crops, and keeping peace among the village's inhabitants, were selected from among the

1100: 382: 338: 298: 182: 165: 7408: 1548:

overlaid with chalk in the Caguana Indigenous Ceremonial Center in Utuado, Puerto Rico

1324:

Tobacco was grown by pre-Columbian peoples in the Americas for centuries before 1492.

8538: 7814: 7744: 7710: 7433: 7423: 7133: 7101: 6981: 6911: 6643: 6618: 6550: 6540: 6378: 6262: 6194: 6157: 6142: 6099: 6078: 6022: 6015: 5944: 5894: 5876: 5771: 5479: 5440: 5401: 5357: 5321: 5243: 5175: 5137: 5099: 5065: 4969: 4935: 4908: 4893: 4861: 4827: 4793: 4701: 4683: 4635: 4608: 4590: 4535: 4468: 4441: 4392: 4352: 4318: 4284: 4238: 4207: 4123: 4084: 3967: 3956: 3927: 3917: 3859: 3798: 3788: 3762: 3752: 3727: 3693: 3683: 3626: 3616: 3587: 3408: 3375: 3197: 3164: 3014: 2860: 2568: 2538: 2413: 2283: 1704: 892: 880: 660: 366: 214: 210: 8677: 7011: 6876: 6842: 6191:

Indigenous Resurgence in the Contemporary Caribbean: Amerindian Survival and Revival

5817:"Study identifies traces of indigenous 'Taíno' in present-day Caribbean populations" 5768:

Indigenous Resurgence in the Contemporary Caribbean: Amerindian Survival and Revival

5025: 3317: 3176: 2493: 2009: 1813: 1444:

cultural hero worshipped as a zemi, who had failed to guard the mountain from which

550:. They also speculate that it was an independent language isolate, with an Arawakan 443:. José R. Oliver writes that the Natives of Borinquén, who had been captured by the 230: 33: 8656: 8553: 8528: 8207: 8202: 8187: 7514: 7454: 7438: 7321: 7285: 7192: 7096: 6896: 6713: 6688: 6505: 6500: 6250: 6122: 5936: 5884: 5866: 5471: 5432: 5393: 4691: 4673: 4598: 4580: 4515: 4119:

An Account of the Antiquities of the Indians: Chronicles of the New World Encounter

3851: 3816: 3535: 3329: 3237: 3156: 2983: 2947: 2850: 2840: 2596: 2463: 2429: 2409: 2299: 2290:), both Taíno men and women fled to the Bastidas Mountains (currently known as the 1855: 1740: 1686: 1410: 986: 640:, as indicated by linguistic, cultural, and ceramic evidence. They migrated to the 528: 395: 226: 5816: 5636: 5475: 1492:

in caves, such as the zemi carved into a stalagmite in a cave in La Patana, Cuba.

467: 450:

According to Peter Hulme, however, most translators appear to agree that the word

8221: 8197: 8192: 7637: 7316: 7275: 7260: 7223: 7187: 7081: 6976: 6891: 6866: 6827: 6812: 6633: 6470: 6072: 5127: 3721: 2279: 2243: 1533: 1526: 664: 633: 566: 547: 520: 318: 218: 6208: 6153:

Revolutionary Freedoms: A History of Survival, Strength and Imagination in Haiti

4391:(54). El Centro de Estudios y Cooperación para América Latina (CECAL): 155–207. 1234: 7568: 7534: 7378: 7353: 7310: 7300: 7290: 7280: 7238: 7021: 6832: 6822: 6515: 6475: 6465: 6172: 5436: 5397: 4965:

Columbus and Las Casas: the conquest and Christianization of America, 1492–1566

4888: 4678: 4585: 4464:

Columbus's Outpost Among the Taínos: Spain and America at La Isabela, 1493-1498

2307: 2247: 1877: 1851: 1774: 1584: 1338: 1283: 1054: 644:

Valley on the north coast, before reaching the Caribbean by way of what is now

586: 391: 322: 222: 8355: 7670: 7654: 7474: 5239:

Technology, Disease, and Colonial Conquests, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries

3931: 3802: 3766: 3630: 3333: 2988: 2971: 2952: 2935: 941: 8671: 8518: 8226: 7524: 7368: 7337: 7305: 7249: 7217: 7056: 7016: 7006: 7001: 6991: 6986: 6921: 6916: 6871: 6435: 6392: 5880: 5558: 5483: 5444: 5405: 5044: 4775:(PhD dissertation). Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International. 4773:

Hispaniola and Puerto Rico: Indian Acculturation and Heterogeneity, 1492–1550

4687: 4639: 4594: 4396: 3503: 3295: 3036:"The Arawack language of Guiana in its linguistic and ethnological relations" 2600: 2420: 2408:

DNA evidence shows that a large proportion of the current populations of the

2303: 1824: 1250: 1171: 1081: 1070: 884: 539: 354: 7615: 7611: 6603: 6598: 5871: 3697: 2845: 1970: 1596:(who was about to murder his father). The father put his son's bones into a 459:, i.e., important people, from elsewhere and thus entitled to deference. If 7607: 7583: 7539: 7489: 7484: 7373: 7358: 7342: 7207: 7158: 7153: 7128: 7106: 7071: 6951: 6653: 6588: 6545: 6229:"Shamanic Inebriants in South American Archaeology: Recent Investigations" 6010: 5948: 5898: 4705: 4612: 3680:

Puerto Rico : an interpretive history from pre-Columbian times to 1900

3363:...suelen tener dos o tres, y los principales, hasta diez, quince y veinte. 3168: 2864: 2503: 2267: 2263: 1934: 1651: 1553: 1445: 1318: 1022: 858: 637: 621: 596:

Modern groups with Caribbean-Indigenous heritage have reclaimed the exonym

502: 273: 7091: 6254: 4727: 3241: 3160: 1785:

Taíno women played an important role in intercultural interaction between

1654:

in the western tip of Cuba, the Island-Caribs in the Lesser Antilles from

1507:

to increase the yield of cassava. Wood and stone zemís have been found in

1061:

villages he controlled and was based on a network of alliances related to

7603: 7593: 7212: 7143: 6996: 6966: 6673: 6565: 6445: 6286:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art and El Museo del Barrio. 1973. 5665:

Maroon Heritage: Archaeological, Ethnographic and Historical Perspectives

5460:"Prophetic repairs: Narrative and social action among Puerto Rican Taíno" 5276:"The new book 'The Other Slavery' will make you rethink American history" 4161:"The Idol of Patana: The Troubled History of the Taíno Deity of Boinayel" 2759: 2394: 2216: 1930: 1667: 968: 896: 761: 534:

Modern historians, linguists, and anthropologists now hold that the term

314: 310: 194: 5126:

Arthur C. Aufderheide; Conrado Rodríguez-Martín; Odin Langsjoen (1998).

4404: 4255: 3650:"El desarrollo del cacicazgo en las sociedades tardías de Puerto Rico -" 2352:

Flag of the Jatibonicu Taíno Tribal Nation, a Taíno revivalist community

1540: 7641: 7479: 7459: 6901: 6693: 6455: 5940: 5506: 5313:

The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America

4527: 4380: 3817:"Bulletin : Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology" 3473: 2561:"Who Were the Taínos and Where Did They Come From? Believers of Ceíism" 2311: 2259: 1846: 1819:

tens of thousands of people. Spanish priest and defender of the Taíno,

1753: 1747: 1697: 1655: 1568: 1545: 1496: 1489: 1485: 1310: 1271: 1223: 1191: 888: 777: 684: 677: 590: 440: 245: 7086: 6134: 2405:

ancestry, which was "closely related to the ancient Bahamian genome."

1720: 1459: 1163:, such as fasting for several days and inhaling sacred tobacco snuff. 924: 8387: 8024: 7993: 7886: 7662: 7658: 7633: 7383: 6718: 6608: 5761: 3914:

Puerto Rico: an interpretive history from pre-columbian times to 1900

3785:

Puerto Rico: an interpretive history from pre-columbian times to 1900

3749:

Puerto Rico: an interpretive history from pre-Columbian times to 1900

3613:

Puerto Rico: an interpretive history from pre-columbian times to 1900

2588: 1910: 1791: 1786: 1724: 1370: 1354: 1242: 1034: 981: 979:

began to occupy the hierarchical position that would give way to the

792: 645: 365:

nationalities. Many Puerto Ricans, Cubans, and Dominicans have Taíno

326: 7167: 6837: 5841: 4628:"Opinion | Ancient DNA Is Changing How We Think About the Caribbean" 4519: 3146: 2815: 1674:. Guanahaní was the Taíno name for the island that Columbus renamed 1414: 1085: 523:

natives, excluding the Puerto Rican and Leeward nations. Similarly,

48: 8182: 7649: 7499: 7041: 7036: 6926: 6906: 6126: 2789: 2477: 2255: 1906: 1902: 1779: 1728: 1601: 1477: 1369:

were grown around the houses. Other fruits and vegetables, such as

1362: 1346: 1263: 1125: 1077: 937:. It was about one inch thick and was similar to the coco macaque. 781: 748:. Caciques enjoyed the privilege of wearing golden pendants called 649: 554:

used for communication purposes with other peoples, as in trading.

444: 337:

on October 12, 1492. The Taíno historically spoke a dialect of the

265: 261: 5663:

Agorsah, E. Kofi, "Archaeology of Maroon Settlements in Jamaica",

4041: 7645: 7182: 7066: 6807: 6703: 6678: 6663: 6583: 6578: 6535: 6510: 6480: 2472: 2232: 2228: 2212: 2188: 1914: 1836: 1796: 1716: 1708: 1671: 1659: 1573: 1500: 1481: 1422: 1358: 1291: 1275: 1219: 1215: 1207: 1199: 1195: 1175: 1133: 1129: 1094: 1002: 990: 972: 829:

Often, the general population lived in large circular buildings (

765: 740: 712: 668: 641: 543: 342: 302: 198: 190: 7877: 7111: 5354:

The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions

1448:

arose. He was punished by being turned into stone, or a bird, a

862:. Opposing teams had 10 to 30 players per team and used a solid 8125: 7588: 7578: 6961: 6956: 6881: 6817: 6698: 6648: 6638: 6613: 6017:

The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus

4724:

Student-Employee Assistance Program Against Chemical Dependency

4046:

Identity Crisis: Archaeological Perspectives on Social Identity

3596:

Handbook of South American Indians: The Circum-Caribbean Tribes

2659:"Genes of 'extinct' Caribbean islanders found in living people" 2513: 2390: 1918: 1873: 1736: 1712: 1663: 1577: 1561: 1520: 1366: 1350: 1334: 1299: 1259: 1255: 1246: 1210:

were speared and fish were caught in nets, speared, trapped in

1160: 1152: 1090: 1062: 964: 933: 863: 819: 788: 632:

One group of scholars contends that the Taíno's ancestors were

581:, from Jamaica, most of Cuba, and the Lucayan archipelago; and 551: 475: 358: 277: 269: 257: 6185:

Guitar, Lynne; Ferbel-Azcarate, Pedro; Estevez, Jorge (2006).

5502:"Cuba's Taino people: a flourishing culture, believed extinct" 5091: 5057: 4927: 4853: 4819: 4785: 4344: 4310: 4276: 4083:. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Edit. Punto y Coma. pp. 69, 84. 2372:

Scholar Yolanda Martínez-San Miguel sees the development of a

931:

For warfare, the men made wooden war clubs, which they called

616: 478:

peoples. Their language is considered to have belonged to the

32:

This article is about the Taíno people. For the language, see

7882: 7228: 7172: 7163: 7051: 6628: 3350:

Relación acerca de las antigüedades de los indios (Siglo XVI)

2482: 2425: 2393:

of the tooth belonging to an 8th- to 10th–century woman from

1769:

Cacique (Chief) Taína, Indigenous of the island of Hispaniola

1608: 1597: 1516: 1508: 1430: 1379: 1374: 1342: 1302: 1295: 1203: 1187: 1156: 976: 796: 680: 346: 306: 186: 7810:

Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

6377: 6184: 4658: 4557: 4225:

North American Exploration: A New World Disclosed. Volume: 1

1804:

regular Spanish abduction and systemic rape of Taíno women.

1765: 1144:

were the more numerous working peasants of the lower class.

928:("hurricane"), have been incorporated into other languages. 557:

Rouse classifies all inhabitants of the Greater Antilles as

6270:

Guitar, Lynne. "Documenting the Myth of Taíno Extinction".

6150:

Accilien, Cécile; Adams, Jessica; Méléance, Elmide (2006).

5386:

AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples

2204: 2192: 2003:

personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay

1869: 1839:

and the mines. Who in future generations will believe this?

1473: 1453: 1449: 1418: 1406: 1211: 1042: 294: 178: 6332:

article on Taíno culture remnant in the Dominican Republic

6288:(Chapter 1: "The Art of the Taino Indians of Puerto Rico") 5793:"Puerto Rico pageant celebrates a vanished native culture" 3911: 3782: 3746: 3677: 3610: 3009:. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Rethinking Schools, Ltd. pp. 2533:

Eli D. Oquendo-Rodríguez. Pablo L. Crespo-Vargas, editor.

1463:

Zemí, a physical object housing a zemi, spirit or ancestor

6282:

The art heritage of Puerto Rico, pre-Columbian to present

5095: