4933:
5698:
5926:
commanders were forced to stay close to rivers, then the primary means of bulk transportation, and could not move too far from their main bases. Many historians argue feeding the troops became an objective in itself, unconnected to diplomatic goals and largely uncontrolled by their central governments. The result was "armies increasingly devoid of intelligible political objectives...degenerating into travelling armed mobs, living in a symbiotic relationship with the countryside they passed through". This often conflicted with the political aims of their employers; the devastation inflicted in 1628 and 1629 by
Imperial troops on Brandenburg and Saxony, both nominally their allies, was a major factor in their subsequent support for Swedish intervention.
1150:
1138:
1116:
1104:
1082:
1060:
976:
954:
942:
930:
918:
898:
886:
874:
496:
364:
5530:
3667:
799:
787:
4948:, French commander in the Rhineland, and Wrangel, who had replaced Torstensson, the French and Swedes separately invaded Bavaria in the summer of 1646. Maximilian was soon desperate to end the war he was largely responsible for starting, at which point the Spanish publicised a secret offer by Mazarin to exchange French-occupied Catalonia for the Spanish Netherlands. Angered by this duplicity, the Dutch agreed a truce with Spain in January 1647 and began to negotiate their own peace terms. Having failed to acquire the Netherlands through diplomacy, Mazarin decided to do so by force. To free up resources for the attempt, on 14 March 1647 he signed the
522:
292:
1048:
390:
14087:
6104:, Westphalia changed the relationship between subjects and their rulers. Previously, many had overlapping, sometimes conflicting, political and religious allegiances; they were now understood to be subject first and foremost to the laws and edicts of their respective state authority, not the claims of any other entity, religious or secular. This made it easier to levy national forces of significant size, loyal to their state and its leader; one lesson learned from Wallenstein and the Swedish invasion was the need for their own permanent armies, and Germany as a whole became a far more militarised society.
768:
744:
725:
240:
832:
6289:
3750:
677:
665:
653:
641:
629:
5022:
856:
328:
14717:
431:
4360:
4168:
822:
4480:
5236:
404:
3479:
811:
5865:
844:
264:
5613:, who regarded the bishoprics ceded to France and Brandenburg as property of the Catholic church, and thus his to assign. It also disappointed many exiles by accepting Catholicism as the dominant religion in Bohemia, Upper and Lower Austria, all of which were Protestant strongholds prior to 1618. Fighting did not end immediately, since demobilising over 200,000 soldiers was a complex business, and the last Swedish garrison did not leave Germany until 1654. In addition, Mazarin insisted on excluding the
5355:
1036:
1024:
1012:
1000:
988:
509:
377:
617:
605:
593:
581:
569:
549:
445:
228:
5789:
341:
4866:
4080:
3310:
5472:
61:
4238:
4118:, which required all lands taken from the Catholic church after 1555 to be returned. While technically legal, politically it was extremely unwise, since doing so would alter nearly every single state boundary in North and Central Germany, deny the existence of Calvinism and restore Catholicism in areas where it had not been a significant presence for nearly a century. Well aware none of the princes involved would agree, Ferdinand used the device of an Imperial
4002:
3369:
3455:. Four of the electors were Catholic, and three were Protestant; if this balance changed, it would potentially result in the election of a Protestant emperor. When Ferdinand became king of Bohemia in 1617, he also gained control of its electoral vote; however, his conservative Catholicism made him unpopular with the predominantly Protestant nobility, who were also concerned about the erosion of their rights. These factors combined to bring about the
3548:, where much of the nobility was also Protestant. Losing control of these threatened the entire Habsburg state, while Bohemia was one of the most prosperous areas of the Empire and its electoral vote crucial to ensuring Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Emperor. The combination meant their recapture was vital for the Austrian Habsburgs but chronic financial weakness left them dependent on Maximilian and Spain for the resources needed to achieve this.
4294:
5922:
reasons for this. When the war ended in 1648, the Franco-Swedish alliance still had over 84,000 men under arms on
Imperial territory, their opponents around 77,000. While relatively small in contemporary terms, such numbers were unprecedented at the time. With the possible exception of Spain, the 17th century state could not support armies of this size, forcing them to depend on "contributions" levied or extorted from areas they passed through.
252:
775:
756:
732:
5285:. The Spanish quickly crushed the insurrection and restored their rule over all of southern Italy, defeating multiple French expeditionary forces sent to back the rebels. However, it exposed the weakness of Spanish rule in Italy and the alienation of the local elites from Madrid; in 1650, the governor of Milan wrote that as well as widespread dissatisfaction in the south, the only one of the Italian states that could be relied on was the
305:
215:
14705:
14099:
472:
316:
6077:
713:
701:
689:
6089:
5943:
5829:, overall it accelerated existing changes in trading patterns. It does not appear to have reversed ongoing macro-economic trends, such as the reduction of price differentials between regional markets, and a greater degree of market integration across Europe. The death toll may have improved living standards for the survivors; one study shows wages in Germany increased by 40% in real terms between 1603 and 1652.
3799:
458:
277:
4571:
4613:
4501:
3883:
4767:
4557:
4487:
3785:
5029:
4753:
4725:
4655:
4529:
5764:(5%). Although regular outbreaks of disease were common for decades prior to 1618, the conflict greatly accelerated their spread, due to the influx of soldiers from foreign countries, the shifting locations of battle fronts and displacement of rural populations into already crowded cities. This was not restricted to Germany; disease carried by French and Imperial soldiers allegedly sparked the
4641:
4515:
3813:
3771:
5113:
4781:
4739:
4599:
4543:
4711:
4669:
4585:
3827:
3619:
5071:
5057:
4697:
4683:
4627:
3869:
3855:
3841:
3757:
5099:
5085:
5043:
3663:. Many Protestant rulers had supported Ferdinand against Frederick because they objected to deposing the legally elected king of Bohemia. On the same grounds, they viewed Frederick's removal as an infringement of "German liberties", while for Catholics, it presented an opportunity to regain lands and properties lost since 1555. The combination destabilised large parts of the Empire.
6112:. While this provided both seats and influence in the Imperial Diet, it also brought Sweden into direct conflict with Brandenburg-Prussia and Saxony, their competitors in Pomerania. The income from their German possessions was relatively minor, and although parts of Pomerania remained Swedish until 1815, much of it was ceded to Prussia in 1679 and 1720.
3155:, which was viewed with hostility by both Lutherans and Catholics. The Peace of Augsburg also gave individual rulers within the empire greater political autonomy and control over the religion practised in their domains, while weakening central authority. Conflict over economic and political objectives frequently superseded religion, with Lutheran
5939:, Bavaria and Brandenburg. Soldiers devastated one area before moving on, leaving large tracts of land empty of people and changing the ecosystem. Food shortages were worsened by an explosion in the rodent population, while Bavaria was overrun by wolves in the winter of 1638, and its crops destroyed by packs of wild pigs the following spring.
4111:, and appointed Wallenstein in his place, an act which united all German princes in opposition, regardless of religion. This unity was undermined by Maximilian of Bavaria's desire to retain the Palatinate; as a result, the Catholic League argued only for a return to the position prevailing pre-1627, while Protestants wanted that of 1618.
4305:, where both sides suffered heavy casualties; Gustavus himself was killed, while some Swedish units incurred losses of over 60%. Fighting continued until dusk when Wallenstein retreated, abandoning his artillery and wounded. Despite their losses, this allowed the Swedes to claim victory, although the result continues to be disputed.
4839:, by 1643 the Saxon army had been reduced to a few isolated garrisons. While Ferdinand accepted a military solution was no longer possible, by fighting on he hoped to prevent the Imperial Estates joining his peace negotiations with France and Sweden, thus preserving his authority by allowing him to represent the Empire as a whole.
5514:
religious changes to the Empire itself. Since they required changes to the structure and governance of the Empire, these negotiations were complex, with states like Saxony and
Bavaria having very different views on desired outcomes. Ferdinand finally signed the Peace on 24 October, after a crushing French victory over Spain at
4916:, in which both sides suffered heavy casualties. Convinced the war could no longer be won, Maximilian now put pressure on Ferdinand to end the conflict. Shortly after peace talks restarted in November, Gallas' Imperial army disintegrated and the remnants retreated into Bohemia, where they were scattered by Torstensson at
9005:
4356:; in return for withdrawing the Edict of Restitution, the Heilbronn and Catholic Leagues were dissolved and replaced by a single Imperial army, although Saxony and Bavaria retained control of their own forces. This is generally seen as the point when the war ceased to be a primarily inter-German religious conflict.
6225:, when it was at its maximum strength; these are Reported numbers, so as mentioned elsewhere, the actual number of soldiers would have been considerably lower. The Spanish army officially had more than 200,000 soldiers in 1640, but most were second line troops in garrisons elsewhere in Europe, not facing the Dutch.
4378:, France joined the Thirty Years War as an ally of Sweden, whose loss of most of the territories gained by Gustavus and their taxes made it increasingly reliant on French financing. The Spanish then invaded Northern France, causing panic in Paris before lack of supplies forced them to retreat. A Swedish army under
5278:. One of the most famous military events of the 17th century, at one stage it featured no less than three different armies besieging each other. However, the revolts in Portugal and Catalonia forced the Spanish to cease operations in Italy and the war was settled on terms favourable to Christine and France.
5224:, whose success forced the Spanish-Savoyard alliance to withdraw from Casale and sign the Treaty of Cherasco in April 1631. Nevers was confirmed as Duke of Mantua and although Richelieu's representative, Cardinal Mazarin, agreed to evacuate Pinerolo, it was later secretly returned under an agreement with
3709:, while the Dutch provided him with military support after the Eighty Years' War restarted in April 1621 and his father-in-law James funded an army of mercenaries under Mansfeld. However, their failure to co-ordinate effectively led to a series of defeats by Spanish and Catholic League forces, including
6194:
These figures show numbers "In
Service of", rather than ethnicity, since all armies were multinational. An estimated 60,000 Scottish, English or Irish individuals fought on one side or the other during the period, while a high proportion were German. Based on an analysis of a mass grave discovered in
6084:
The Peace reconfirmed "German liberties", ending
Habsburg attempts to convert the Holy Roman Empire into a more centralised state similar to Spain. Over the next 50 years, Bavaria, Brandenburg-Prussia, Saxony and others increasingly pursued their own policies, while Sweden gained a permanent foothold
5925:
Obtaining supplies thus became the limiting factor in campaign planning, an issue that grew more acute later in the war when much of the Empire had already been fought over. Even when adequate provisions could be gathered, the next problem was getting them to the troops; to ensure security of supply,
5921:
claims most campaigns were "inconclusive" and almost exclusively concerned with control of territory, rather than focused strategic objectives. The lack of connection between military and diplomatic goals helps explain why the war lasted so long and why peace proved so elusive. There were a number of
5805:
in pre and post-war populations, or 'total demographic loss'. They therefore include factors unrelated to death or disease, such as permanent migration to areas outside the Empire or lower birthrates, a common but less obvious impact of extended warfare. There were also wide regional variations; some
5521:
Key elements of the Peace were provisions confirming the autonomy of states within the Empire, including
Ferdinand's acceptance of the supremacy of the Imperial Diet, and those seeking to prevent future religious conflict. Article 5 reconfirmed the Augsburg settlement, established 1624 as the basis,
5513:
The terms of the separate treaties with France and Sweden had first to be agreed by
Ferdinand and the Imperial Estates. It has been argued they were a "major turning point in German and European...legal history", because they went beyond normal peace settlements and effected major constitutional and
5501:
The first to be signed on 30 January 1648, the Peace of Münster forms part of the
Westphalia settlement since the Dutch Republic was still considered Imperial territory. Although it officially confirmed Dutch independence, the Imperial Diet did not formally accept it was no longer part of the Empire
3732:
At a meeting of the
Imperial Diet in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands, and electoral vote to Maximilian. He did so with support from the Catholic League, despite strong opposition from Protestant members, as well as the Spanish. The Palatinate
3439:
agreed to support
Ferdinand's election as king of Bohemia and Hungary. In return, Ferdinand made concessions to Spain in Northern Italy and Alsace, and agreed to support their offensive against the Dutch. Doing so required his election as emperor, which was not guaranteed; Maximilian of Bavaria, who
5934:
It has been suggested the breakdown of social order caused by the war was often more significant and longer lasting than the immediate damage. The collapse of local government created landless peasants, who banded together to protect themselves from the soldiers of both sides, and led to widespread
5909:
while under attack, as well as the use of standardised weapons. The first half of the 17th century saw the publication of numerous instruction manuals showing the movements required, thirty-two for pikemen and forty-two for musketeers. Training an infantryman to operate in this way was estimated as
5779:
of between 30 to 40%, although this was not evenly spread. It fell from between 18 and 20 million in 1600, to between 11 and 13 million in 1650, and did not regain pre-war levels until 1750. Nearly 50% of these losses appear to have been incurred during the first period of Swedish intervention from
5772:", it resulted in some 280,000 deaths, with higher estimates of around 1 million. Poor harvests throughout the 1630s and repeated plundering of the same areas led to widespread famine; contemporaries record people eating grass, or too weak to accept alms, while instances of cannibalism were common.
5204:
and the Alpine passes into Southern France. However, as soon as the main French army withdrew in late 1629, the Spanish and Savoyards besieged Casale once again. At the same time, the Spanish employed mercenaries paid for by Ferdinand II in an offensive which routed the main Venetian field army and
4873:
However, Condé was unable to fully exploit his victory due to factors affecting all combatants. The devastation inflicted by 25 years of warfare meant armies spent more time foraging than fighting, forcing them to become smaller and more mobile, with a much greater emphasis on cavalry. Difficulties
4233:
whose capital was under siege by Tilly. Despite the devastation inflicted by Imperial soldiers, Saxony and Brandenburg had their own ambitions in Pomerania, which clashed with those of Gustavus; previous experience also showed inviting external powers into the Empire was easier than getting them to
6115:
France arguably gained more from the conflict than any other power, and by 1648, most of Richelieu's objectives had been achieved. These included separation of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, expansion of the French frontier into the Empire, and an end to Spanish military supremacy in Northern
5998:. However, the extent to which they were symptomatic of the impact of the conflict on society is debatable, since many took place in areas relatively untouched by the war. Concerned their brutality would discredit the Counter-Reformation, Ferdinand ensured active persecution largely ended by 1630.
5800:
published a detailed analysis of regional data from across Germany covering the period from 1618 to 1648. Broadly confirmed by more recent work, he concluded "about 40% of the rural population fell victim to the war and epidemics; in the cities,...33%". These figures can be misleading, since Franz
5744:
between 1621 and 1639, 215 are recorded as dead or missing, while another five returned home crippled. Aggregating figures from known battles and sieges, historian Peter Wilson estimates those either killed or wounded in combat totalled around 450,000. Since research shows disease either killed or
5736:
Battles generally featured armies of around 13,000 to 20,000 each, one of the largest being Alte Veste in 1632 with a combined 70,000 to 85,000. Estimates of the total deployed by both sides within Germany range from an average of 80,000 to 100,000 from 1618 to 1626, peaking at 250,000 in 1632 and
3630:
However, wider European support failed to materialise, largely due to lack of enthusiasm for removing a legally elected ruler, regardless of religion. Although Frederick accepted the crown and entered Prague in October 1619, his support eroded over the next few months. In July 1620, the Protestant
3606:
On 19 August, the Bohemian Estates rescinded Ferdinand's 1617 election as king; on the 26th, they formally offered the crown to Frederick. Two days later, Ferdinand was elected emperor, making war inevitable if Frederick accepted the Bohemian Crown. Most of Frederick's advisors urged him to reject
5486:
between Spain and the Dutch Republic, the Treaty of Osnabrück between the Empire and Sweden, plus the Treaty of Münster between the Empire and France. Preliminary discussions began in 1642 but only became serious in 1646; a total of 109 delegations attended at one time or other, with talks split
4106:
Once again, the methods used to obtain victory explain why the war failed to end. Ferdinand paid Wallenstein by letting him confiscate estates, extort ransoms from towns, and allowing his men to plunder the lands they passed through, regardless of whether they belonged to allies or opponents. In
3974:
elected Christian their military commander, although not without resistance; Saxony and Brandenburg viewed Denmark and Sweden as competitors, and wanted to avoid either becoming involved in the empire. Attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution failed as the conflict in Germany became part of the
5732:
Suggestions of up to 12 million deaths from a population of 18 million are no longer considered accurate. In addition, upper estimates of material losses are not supported by contemporary evidence, or in some cases exceed prewar tax records. Regardless, modern commentators agree the war was a
5910:
six months, although in reality many went into battle with far less experience. It also placed greater responsibility on junior officers who provided the vital links between senior commanders and the tactical unit. One of the first military schools designed to produce such men was set up at
5784:
in Britain may partly be due to the reliance of all sides on foreign mercenaries, often unpaid and required to live off the land. Lack of a sense of 'shared community' resulted in atrocities such as the destruction of Magdeburg, in turn creating large numbers of refugees who were extremely
3737:
in August completed military operations. However, Spanish and Dutch involvement in the campaign was a significant step in internationalising the war, while Frederick's removal meant other Protestant princes began discussing armed resistance to preserve their own rights and territories.
10365:
Schmidt, Burghart; Richefort, Isabelle (2006). "Les relations entre la France et les villes hanséatiques de Hambourg, Brême et Lübeck : Moyen Age-XIXe siècle; Relations between France and the Hanseatic ports of Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck from the Middle Ages to the 19th century".
6375:
While the death of Gustavus was greeted with dismay by most European Protestants, Richelieu was more ambivalent. The two were increasingly at odds over strategic objectives, and contemporary rumours claimed Richelieu was involved in the king's death, although there is no evidence for
4320:. Critics claimed this defeat was caused by Wallenstein's failure to support the Bavarians, while rumours spread that he was preparing to switch sides. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand ordered his arrest in February 1634, and on 25th, he was assassinated by his own officers in Cheb.
4323:
The loss of Wallenstein and his organisation left Emperor Ferdinand reliant on Spain for military support. Since their main concern was to re-open the Spanish Road for their campaign against the Dutch, the focus of the war now shifted from the north to the Rhineland and Bavaria.
3340:
required the immediate restoration of all property taken from the Catholic Church since 1555, rather than the previous practice whereby the court ruled case by case. This demand threatened all Protestants, paralysed the diet, and removed the perception of Imperial neutrality.
5950:
Contemporaries spoke of a 'frenzy of despair' as people sought to make sense of the relentless and often random bloodshed unleashed by the war. Attributed by religious authorities to divine retribution for sin, attempts to identify a supernatural cause led to a series of
5334:. However, the rebels soon found the new French administration differed little from the old, turning the war into a three-sided contest between the Franco-Catalan elite, the rural peasantry, and the Spanish. There was little serious fighting after France took control of
3509:, but his record in Styria led to the suspicion he was only awaiting a chance to overturn them. These concerns were heightened after a series of legal disputes over property were all decided in favour of the Catholic Church. In May 1618, Protestant nobles led by
4874:
in gathering provisions meant campaigns started later, and restricted them to areas that could be easily supplied, usually close to rivers. In addition, the French had to rebuild their army in Germany after it was shattered by an Imperial-Bavarian force led by
6234:
Wilson estimates a total of 450,000 combat deaths on all sides, the vast majority of whom were German. By one calculation, four times as many Germans died fighting for Sweden as Swedes, and so casualties are referred to as being "In service", rather than by
5861:. He also enhanced their firepower by providing each unit with quick-firing light artillery pieces on either flank. The best example of their tactical application was in the victory over Tilly's traditionally organised army at Breitenfeld in September 1631.
3575:
was sent to support the Bohemian rebels. Attempts by Maximilian and John George of Saxony to broker a negotiated solution ended when Matthias died in March 1619, since many believed the loss of his authority and influence had fatally damaged the Habsburgs.
6031:
being one of many to use it in their work. Variously known as the 'Great German War,' 'Great War' or 'Great Schism', for 19th and early 20th century German nationalists it showed the dangers of a divided Germany and was used to justify the creation of the
3502:. Absorbed by their war in the Netherlands, his Spanish relatives preferred to avoid antagonising Protestants elsewhere. They recognised the dangers associated with Ferdinand's fervent Catholicism, but supported his claim due to the lack of alternatives.
10227:
Pazos, Conde Miguel (2011). "El tradado de Nápoles. El encierro del príncipe Juan Casimiro y la leva de Polacos de Medina de las Torres (1638–1642): The Treaty of Naples; the imprisonment of John Casimir and the Polish Levy of Medina de las Torres".
4963:
refused to comply with the truce. Although the mutinies were quickly suppressed, Maximilian felt obliged to follow Werth's example and in September ordered Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld to combine the remnants of the Bavarian army with Imperial troops under
5565:
regained the Lower Palatinate and became the eighth Imperial elector, although Bavaria kept the Upper Palatinate and its electoral vote. Externally, Spain acknowledged the independence of the Dutch Republic, while the Emperor confirmed that of the
3276:
Before Augsburg, unity of religion compensated for lack of strong central authority; once removed, it presented opportunities for those who sought to further weaken it. These included ambitious Imperial states like Lutheran Saxony and Catholic
6290:
5406:, which exported sugar and tobacco to Europe. Known by Dutch historians as the 'Great Design", control of this trade would not only be extremely profitable but also deprive the Spanish of funds needed to finance their war in the Netherlands.
4198:
between Sweden and Poland, freeing Gustavus to enter the war. Partly a genuine desire to support his Protestant co-religionists, like Christian he also wanted to maximise his share of the Baltic trade that provided much of Sweden's income.
4803:
After Bernard died in July 1639, his troops joined Banér's Swedish army on an ineffectual campaign along the Weser, the highlight being a surprise attack in January 1641 on the Imperial Diet in Regensburg. Forced to retreat, Banér reached
5151:. This reliance on long exterior lines of communication was a strategic weakness, which the French sought to exploit by disrupting the Road. This usually involved attacks on the Spanish-held Duchy of Milan, or blocking the Alpine passes.
6001:
Although the war caused immense destruction, it has also been credited with sparking a revival in German literature, including the creation of societies dedicated to "purging of foreign elements" from the German language. One example is
5259:. However, the anti-Habsburg alliance in Northern Italy fell apart when first Charles of Mantua died in September 1637, then Victor Amadeus in October, whose death led to a struggle for control of the Savoyard state between his widow
4102:
and Holstein, in return for relinquishing Bremen and Verden, and abandoning support for the German Protestants. While Denmark kept Schleswig and Holstein until 1864, this effectively ended its reign as the predominant Nordic state.
6085:
in the Empire. Despite these setbacks, the Habsburg lands suffered less from the war than many others and became a far more coherent bloc with the absorption of Bohemia, and restoration of Catholicism throughout their territories.
3361:, the result was to increase tensions throughout the empire. Some historians who see the war as primarily a European conflict argue Jülich marks its beginning, with Spain and Austria backing the Catholic candidate, France and the
3615:, for whom conflict in Germany was a means to divert Spanish resources from the Netherlands. The Dutch offered subsidies to Frederick and the Protestant Union, helped raise loans for Bohemia, and provided weapons and munitions.
5205:
forced Nevers to abandon Mantua. By October 1630, the French position seemed so precarious their representatives agreed the Treaty of Ratisbon, but it was never ratified as Richelieu claimed he had never approved the terms.
3700:
Since Frederick's demand for full restitution of his lands and titles was incompatible with the Treaty of Munich, hopes of a negotiated peace quickly evaporated. Despite defeat in Bohemia, Frederick's allies included
5897:
as shock troops. He also used columns on occasion, including the failed assault at Alte Veste in September 1632. The line versus column debate continued into the early 19th century, and both were employed during the
6107:
For Sweden, the benefits ultimately proved short-lived. Unlike French gains which were incorporated into France, Swedish territories remained part of the Empire, and they became members of the Lower and Upper Saxon
6131:. The war created the outlines of a Europe that persisted until 1815 and beyond, most significantly the nation-state of France, along with the start of a split between Germany and a separate Austro-Hungarian bloc.
3261:. Although these links meant the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs often worked together, their objectives did not always align. Spain was a global maritime superpower, whose possessions stretched from Europe to the
3150:
These agreements were undermined by the post-1555 expansion of Protestantism into areas previously designated as Catholic. Another factor was the growth of Protestant faiths not recognised by Augsburg, especially
3344:
Loss of faith in central authority meant towns and rulers began strengthening their fortifications and armies; outside travellers often commented on the growing militarisation of Germany in this period. In 1608,
3057:
gave them and other foreign powers an ongoing motive to intervene. Combined with fears the Protestant religion in general was threatened, what started as an internal dynastic dispute became a European conflict.
4040:
allowed Christian to recruit up to 9,000 Scottish mercenaries, but they took time to arrive, and while able to slow Wallenstein's advance were insufficient to stop him. By the end of 1627, Wallenstein occupied
6180:
are estimated as averaging up to 25% for the Dutch, 35% for the French and 50% for the Spanish. Most battles of the period were fought between opposing forces of 13,000 to 20,000 men, so the numbers reflect
4928:
in August. Deprived of Imperial support, John George of Saxony signed a six-month truce with Sweden in September, and in the March 1646 Treaty of Eulenberg agreed to remain neutral until the end of the war.
4328:, new Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, raised an army of 18,000 in Italy, which met up with an Imperial force of 15,000 at Donauwörth on 2 September 1634. Four days later, they won a decisive victory at
4289:
in late August, one of the largest battles of the war. An assault on the Imperial camp outside the town was bloodily repulsed, arguably the greatest blunder committed by Gustavus during his German campaign.
9791:
5745:
incapacitated two to three times that number, that would suggest military casualties ranged from 1.3 to 1.8 million dead or otherwise rendered unfit for service. Although his methodology has been disputed,
4257:
in May 1631 provided a powerful warning of the consequences of Imperial victory. Once again, Richelieu used French financial power to bridge differences between the Swedes and the German princes; the 1631
2547:
4053:, and began making plans to construct a fleet capable of challenging Danish control of the Baltic. He was supported by Spain, for whom it provided an opportunity to open another front against the Dutch.
2878:
5733:
mortality disaster previously unknown in Europe. Estimates of total deaths range from 4.5 to 8 million, most incurred after 1630 when Sweden entered the war, the vast majority of which were civilian.
6267:
4901:
began when the Swedes invaded Jutland with Dutch naval support. Ferdinand pulled together an Imperial army under Gallas to attack the Swedes from the rear, which proved a disastrous decision. Leaving
4897:, but negotiations were delayed when Christian of Denmark blockaded Hamburg and increased toll payments in the Baltic. This severely impacted the Dutch and Swedish economies, and in December 1643 the
2557:
5526:, the requirement that if a ruler changed his religion, his subjects had to follow suit. These terms did not apply to the hereditary lands of the Habsburg monarchy, such as Lower and Upper Austria.
5247:
After the outbreak of the Franco-Spanish War in 1635, Richelieu supported a renewed offensive by Victor Amadeus against Milan to tie down Spanish resources. These included an unsuccessful attack on
4854:, while gains in Alsace allowed France to focus on the war against Spain. In 1643, the Army of Flanders invaded Northern France hoping to relieve pressure elsewhere, but were decisively beaten by
2507:
2152:
4374:, cutting the link between Spanish controlled Milan and the Empire. In May, their main army of 35,000 invaded the Spanish Netherlands, but withdrew in July after suffering 17,000 casualties. In
2829:
5522:
or "Normaljahr", for determining the dominant religion of a state and guaranteed freedom of worship for religious minorities. Article 7 recognised Calvinism as a Reformed faith and removed the
3325:
converted to Calvinism. More common were events such as the 1606 "Battle of the Flags" in Donauwörth, when riots broke out after the Lutheran majority blocked a Catholic religious procession.
6016:
in 1668, it includes a realistic portrayal of a soldier's life based on his own experiences, many of which are verified by other sources. Other less famous examples include the diaries of
4428:, ending direct military cooperation between Austria and Spain. Pressure grew on Olivares to make peace, especially after French and Swedish gains in Germany cut the Spanish Road, forcing
2814:
2809:
2799:
4270:, plus an additional 120,000 for 1630. While less than 2% of total French income, these payments boosted that of Sweden by more than 25%, and allowed Gustavus to maintain 36,000 troops.
1448:
4467:. Olivares now argued Spain should accept Dutch independence, and focus on preventing further French gains in the Spanish Netherlands. This appeared achievable since most of the Dutch
3970:
for his support against Frederick with estates confiscated from the Bohemian rebels, and now contracted with him to conquer the north on a similar basis. In May 1625, the Lower Saxony
2730:
2838:
2735:
3986:, the Dutch and English agreed to finance Danish intervention in the Empire. Hoping to create a wider coalition against Ferdinand, the Dutch invited France, Sweden, Savoy, and the
2417:
14792:
5891:. They lacked the offensive impact of columns, and Gustavus therefore compensated by requiring his cavalry to be far more aggressive, often employing his Finnish light cavalry or
2873:
2238:
11307:
2303:
13875:
5644:, the idea of non-interference in domestic affairs by outside powers, although this has since been challenged. The process, or 'Congress' model, was adopted for negotiations at
1609:
9833:
5303:
Throughout the 1630s, tax increases levied to pay for the war led to protests throughout Spanish territories, which in 1640 resulted in revolts: first in Portugal, then in the
4009:
Dutch and English subsidies enabled Christian to devise an ambitious three part campaign plan; while he led the main force down the Weser, Mansfeld would attack Wallenstein in
2582:
4122:, once again asserting his right to alter laws without consultation. This new assault on "German liberties" ensured continuing opposition and undermined his previous success.
3677:
At the same time, the strategic importance of the Spanish Road to their war in the Netherlands, and its proximity to the Palatinate, drew in the Spanish. When an army led by
8294:
2897:
2725:
2308:
2562:
3139:, then the most usual form of Protestantism, or Catholic, based on the religion of their ruler. Other provisions protected substantial religious minorities in cities like
2907:
2755:
2740:
2705:
2385:
2360:
2318:
2273:
2258:
2228:
2213:
2145:
3421:. This allowed him to move troops and supplies by road, rather than sea where the Dutch navy was dominant; by 1618, the only part not controlled by Spain ran through the
2268:
1682:
3697:
correctly interpreted them as an invitation to open negotiations, and in return for an Anglo-Spanish alliance offered to restore Frederick to his Rhineland possessions.
2609:
2497:
2452:
2427:
1721:
1634:
1624:
1619:
2487:
2447:
1977:
12799:
9388:
Ferretti, Giuliano (2014). "La politique italienne de la France et le duché de Savoie au temps de Richelieu; Franco-Savoyard Italian policy in the time of Richelieu".
2760:
2750:
2710:
2651:
2619:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2512:
1883:
1284:
3935:
As Duke of Holstein, Christian IV was also a member of the Lower Saxon circle, while the Danish economy relied on the Baltic trade and tolls from traffic through the
13764:
3336:
When the Imperial Diet opened in February 1608, both Lutherans and Calvinists sought formal re-confirmation of the Augsburg settlement. In return, the Habsburg heir
2804:
2765:
2745:
2720:
2676:
2666:
2646:
2624:
2594:
2537:
2527:
2482:
2457:
2432:
2390:
2370:
2298:
2288:
1746:
1339:
3689:, while James announced he would declare war if Spanish troops were not withdrawn by spring 1621. These actions were primarily designed to placate his opponents in
3655:
By abandoning Frederick, the German princes hoped to restrict the dispute to Bohemia, but Maximilian's dynastic ambitions made this impossible. In the October 1619
3595:, invaded Hungary with Ottoman support, although the Habsburgs persuaded them to avoid direct involvement; this was helped when the Ottomans became involved in the
12861:
9781:
4905:
to finish the war in Denmark, in May 1644 Torstensson marched into the Empire; Gallas was unable to stop him, while the Danes sued for peace after their defeat at
2819:
2715:
2671:
2552:
2522:
2517:
2472:
1781:
4076:. He began negotiations with Wallenstein, who despite his recent victories was concerned by the prospect of Swedish intervention, and thus anxious to make peace.
1965:
1699:
11255:
5656:
in 1697; unlike the 19th century 'Congress' system, these were to end wars, rather than prevent them, so references to the 'balance of power' can be misleading.
3440:
opposed the increase of Spanish influence in an area he considered his own, tried to create a coalition with Saxony and the Palatinate to support his candidacy.
2656:
2614:
2502:
2467:
2328:
2138:
1873:
1751:
5946:
A peasant begs for mercy in front of his burning farm; by the 1630s, being caught in the open by soldiers from either side was "tantamount to a death sentence".
5143:. One reason was control of this area allowed opponents to threaten the southern borders of France and Austria. In addition, it contained large sections of the
4473:
believed the war was won, the only question being the price of peace. They therefore reduced the army budget for 1640, despite objections from Frederick Henry.
3928:
became concerned Ferdinand intended to reclaim formerly Catholic bishoprics currently held by Protestants. These fears seemed confirmed when Tilly restored the
3563:
at home and refused to support them elsewhere. The revolt also provided opportunities for external opponents of the Habsburgs, including the Ottoman Empire and
14071:
14066:
3924:
had remained neutral during the campaigns in Bohemia and the Palatinate. However, Frederick's deposition in 1623 meant John George of Saxony and the Calvinist
3640:
2700:
2442:
1893:
4036:
and Saxony, had little interest in replacing Imperial domination with Danish, while few of the subsidies agreed to by the Treaty of The Hague were ever paid.
14817:
11415:
11355:
10094:
2532:
1953:
3685:
in October 1619, James I responded to this attack on his son-in-law. English naval forces were sent to threaten Spanish possessions in the Americas and the
1687:
1465:
4340:
Swedish defeat at Nördlingen triggered direct French intervention and thus expanded the conflict rather than ending it. Richelieu provided the Swedes with
4229:
However, Swedish expectations of widespread German support proved unrealistic. By the end of 1630, their only new ally was the Administrator of Magdeburg,
4222:
which secured his interests in Pomerania against his rival Sigismund. As a result, the Poles turned their attention to Russia, initiating the 1632 to 1634
4129:
had now shifted in favour of the Dutch Republic. The financial predicament of the Spanish Crown steadily deteriorated in the 1620s, particularly after the
2599:
2323:
12427:
11611:
11391:
4945:
2313:
1803:
1614:
9418:
13415:
12895:
11397:
6116:
Europe. Although the Franco-Spanish war continued until 1659, Westphalia allowed Louis XIV to begin replacing Spain as the predominant European power.
6027:
For German, and to a lesser extent Czech writers, the war was remembered as a defining moment of national trauma, the 18th century poet and playwright
5817:
Although some towns may have overstated their losses to avoid taxes, individual records confirm serious declines; from 1620 to 1650, the population of
2629:
2402:
2283:
2014:
1843:
1813:
1453:
13790:
11379:
5433:, whose position was threatened by Portuguese expansion. Although those gains proved short-lived, the Dutch retained territories elsewhere, like the
4281:
in April 1632, where Tilly was killed. Ferdinand turned once again to Wallenstein, who realised Gustavus was overextended and established himself at
3678:
2338:
2293:
1016:
6362:
As well as being brother-in-law to Frederick of the Palatinate, James I was also linked to Christian IV of Denmark, having married his elder sister
13865:
11474:
11409:
9056:
5690:
and disease inflicted severe losses on local civilian populations. While the war certainly ranks as one of the worst of these events, 19th century
5221:
4162:
3269:. In contrast, Austria was a land-based power, focused on ensuring their pre-eminence within Germany and securing their eastern border against the
1711:
1530:
9712:
Lesaffer, Randall (1997). "The Westphalia Peace Treaties and the Development of the Tradition of Great European Peace Settlements prior to 1648".
4332:
which destroyed Swedish power in Southern Germany and led to the defection of their German allies, who now sought to make peace with the Emperor.
4072:
who was also appointed governor. Von Arnim was forced to lift the siege on 4 August, but three weeks later, Christian suffered another defeat at
2278:
8959:
A. Mears, John (1988). "The Thirty Years' War, the "General Crisis," and the Origins of a Standing Professional Army in the Habsburg Monarchy".
14797:
14772:
14767:
11577:
10387:
5510:, capital of the Spanish Netherlands and previously the most important port in Northern Europe, would not recover until the late 19th century.
3225:
since 1440. The largest single landowner within the Holy Roman Empire, they controlled lands containing over eight million subjects, including
1277:
1028:
5740:
Casualty rates among those who actually did serve in the military could be extremely high. Of 230 men conscripted from the Swedish village of
14842:
14837:
13175:
12902:
5617:
from the treaty of Münster, allowing France to continue its campaign against Spain in the Low Countries, a war that continued until the 1659
5189:. His opposition to Ferdinand II divided the Catholic powers, and made it acceptable for France to employ Protestant allies against Austria.
5169:
died in December 1627, France and Spain backed rival claimants, resulting in the 1628 to 1631 War of the Mantuan Succession. The French-born
5021:
4862:
on 19 May. Defeat ended any prospect of re-opening the Spanish Road, and Madrid finally accepted the war against the Dutch could not be won.
4932:
3749:
12854:
11812:
9809:
Towards The Peace Congress of Münster and Osnabrück (1643–1648) and the Westphalian Order (1648–1806) in "A Westphalia for the Middle East"
5200:
then ceded the two fortresses to France and allowed their troops unrestricted passage through Savoyard territory, giving them control over
268:
5825:
from 48,000 to 21,000. The financial impact is less clear; while the war caused short-term economic dislocation, especially in the period
14822:
14812:
14777:
14762:
14136:
13448:
12941:
11248:
5502:
until 1728. The Dutch were also given a monopoly over trade conducted through the Scheldt estuary, ensuring the commercial ascendancy of
3702:
3694:
1004:
13830:
13129:
3262:
3090:
5806:
areas in Northwest Germany were relatively peaceful after 1630 and experienced almost no population loss, while those of Mecklenburg,
1982:
11441:
6334:
6013:
5752:
Based on local records, military action accounted for less than 3% of civilian deaths, with the major causes being starvation (12%),
4194:
still openly opposing the Emperor, Gustavus became an obvious ally for Richelieu. In September 1629, the latter helped negotiate the
3896:
1270:
5697:
4972:
in May 1648 and von Holzappel was killed. Although the bulk of the Imperial army escaped thanks to an effective rearguard action by
2994:
authority were important factors in causing the war, some contemporary commentators suggest its scope and extent were driven by the
13583:
5126:
5005:
in August 1648, Ferdinand finally agreed terms and on 24 October, he signed peace treaties with France and Sweden, ending the war.
3333:. In return, he was allowed to annex the town, and as agreed at Augsburg, the official religion changed from Lutheran to Catholic.
3172:
8283:
5629:
with Sweden, which also involved Denmark, Russia and Brandenburg, while two Swedish attempts to impose its control on the port of
12847:
4386:
on 4 October, and re-established their predominance in North-East Germany, despite the defection of most of their German allies.
3733:
was clearly lost; in March, James instructed Vere to surrender Frankenthal, while Tilly's victory over Christian of Brunswick at
3600:
10048:
5274:
In 1639, their quarrel erupted into open warfare, with France backing Christine and Spain the two brothers, and resulted in the
4855:
4190:, who also claimed the Swedish throne and had Imperial support. Once this conflict ended, and with only a few minor states like
2892:
13277:
13219:
12682:
12455:
11241:
11204:
10315:
5174:
4183:
4108:
3925:
3608:
3045:
and Spain, then engaged in the Eighty Years' War. In addition, the acquisition of territories within the empire by rulers like
2119:
860:
779:
9313:
Croxton, Derek (1998). "A Territorial Imperative? The Military Revolution, Strategy and Peacemaking in the Thirty Years War".
9074:
Non-splendid isolation: the Ottoman Empire and the Thirty Years War in The Ashgate Research Companion to the Thirty Years' War
5785:
susceptible to sickness and hunger. While flight saved lives in the short-term, in the long run it often proved catastrophic.
4405:
in December secured French control of Alsace and severed the Spanish Road, forcing Gallas to divert resources there. Although
3635:, and a guarantee of Lutheran rights in Bohemia. Maximilian of Bavaria funded a combined Imperial-Catholic League army led by
11129:
11030:
10943:
10890:
10767:
10748:
10729:
10710:
10662:
10643:
10479:
10460:
10304:
10285:
10217:
10198:
10178:
9968:
9858:
9816:
9770:
9751:
9702:
9683:
9645:
9604:
9510:
9462:
9359:
9303:
9284:
9252:
9214:
9195:
9138:
9119:
9100:
9081:
8170:
5487:
between Münster and Osnabrück. After the Swedes rejected Christian of Denmark as mediator, the negotiators finally agreed on
4325:
3929:
3245:
divided the two empires between different branches of the family. This bond was reinforced by frequent inter-marriage, while
2848:
1086:
4479:
14757:
13087:
12983:
12560:
11467:
5342:, establishing the current-day Franco-Spanish border in the Pyrenees. The revolt ended in 1651 with the Spanish capture of
3596:
2931:, an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from the effects of battle, famine, or disease, while parts of
11403:
10490:
3643:, which pacified Upper and Lower Austria and occupied western Bohemia before marching on Prague. Defeated by Tilly at the
3218:, which only assembled on an irregular basis, and then largely served as a forum for discussion, rather than legislation.
14651:
13949:
13847:
13734:
12575:
11894:
5264:
5192:
In March 1629, the French stormed Savoyard positions in the Pas de Suse, lifted the Spanish siege of Casale and captured
5166:
4828:
4126:
1958:
934:
12638:
12565:
11587:
10191:
Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries' Wars
4991:
district in July. The main objective was to gain as much loot as possible before the war ended; they failed to take the
3178:
Managing these issues was hampered by the fragmented nature of the empire. Its representative institutions included 300
14807:
14802:
14782:
14505:
13987:
13289:
13040:
12552:
12509:
10786:
9996:
9664:
9566:
9443:
9378:
9233:
6245:
6119:
While religion remained a divisive political issue in many countries, the Thirty Years' War is arguably the last major
4965:
4349:
4262:
provided funds for the Swedes and their Protestant allies, including Saxony and Brandenburg. These amounted to 400,000
4014:
3706:
3357:
in July 1609. Both were created to support the dynastic ambitions of their leaders, but combined with the 1609 to 1614
2944:
2162:
4141:
in 1628. The War of the Mantuan Succession further diverted Spanish resources from the Netherlands, while the loss of
3982:, France had agreed to subsidise the Dutch war against Spain for a minimum of three years, while in the December 1625
1382:
13119:
12707:
12628:
12317:
11734:
9626:
9585:
5936:
5562:
5170:
4397:
and the main Imperial army had forced Banér back to the Baltic, in March 1638, Bernard destroyed an Imperial army at
4390:
4150:
3725:. The remnants of Mansfeld's army took refuge in the Dutch Republic, as did Frederick, who spent most of his time in
3568:
3215:
3074:
2853:
2661:
2343:
2082:
1994:
1197:
958:
890:
705:
178:
31:
9520:
Hayden, J. Michael (1973). "Continuity in the France of Henry IV and Louis XIII: French Foreign Policy, 1598–1615".
5883:
Line formations were often harder to co-ordinate, as demonstrated by the victory of the supposedly obsolete Spanish
4980:
14742:
14636:
14231:
13890:
13370:
13260:
12600:
11699:
5645:
4230:
4057:
3670:
3636:
3337:
3330:
3022:
1064:
1052:
878:
803:
17:
11088:
Reilly, Pamela (1959). "Friedrich von Spee's Belief in Witchcraft: Some Deductions from the 'Cautio Criminalis'".
11021:
Polisensky, Joseph (2001). "A Note on Scottish Soldiers in the Bohemian War, 1619–1622". In Murdoch, Steve (ed.).
9262:
Costa, Fernando Dores (2005). "Interpreting the Portuguese War of Restoration (1641–1668) in a European Context".
5421:
in 1630, which was not returned until 1654. In 1641, the Dutch seized Portuguese slave trading hubs in Angola and
5311:. The Madrid government quickly assembled an army of 26,000 men to crush the revolt, which defeated the rebels at
4809:
4432:
to resupply their armies in Flanders by sea. However, their attempts to re-assert maritime control ended when the
14827:
14787:
14752:
14747:
14661:
14264:
14129:
13385:
13309:
12929:
12907:
11460:
10672:
Van Groesen, Michiel (2011). "Lessons Learned: The Second Dutch Conquest of Brazil and the Memory of the First".
6050:
5225:
5220:, with proportionate losses elsewhere. Richelieu took advantage of the diversion of Imperial resources to fund a
4215:
3293:. Since many foreign rulers were also Imperial princes, divisions within the empire drew in external powers like
1639:
1544:
12687:
10996:
Polišenský, J. V. (1968). "The Thirty Years' War and the Crises and Revolutions of Seventeenth-Century Europe".
6304:
3358:
2407:
1970:
1766:
14832:
14448:
14281:
14219:
13624:
13243:
12890:
12882:
12870:
12769:
11343:
10242:
9131:
The Dutch–Spanish War in the Low Countries 1621–1648 in The Ashgate Research Companion to the Thirty Years' War
5674:" of the mid-17th century. This term refers to a period of sustained conflict and unrest in areas ranging from
5181:. While a relatively minor conflict, the struggle had a disproportionate impact on the Thirty Years War, since
4794:
3948:
3526:
3346:
3322:
2057:
1786:
1402:
748:
14737:
11797:
11173:
Theibault, John (1997). "The Demography of the Thirty Years War Re-revisited: Günther Franz and his Critics".
10555:"'Causing misery and suffering miserably': Representations of the Thirty Years' War in Literature and History"
9881:
9597:
Spain in the Low Countries, (1635–1643) in Spain, Europe and the Atlantic: Essays in Honour of John H. Elliott
5888:
4925:
4329:
4086:
achieved great military success for the Empire but his power threatened both Ferdinand and the German princes.
3401:
External powers became involved in what was an internal German dispute due to the imminent expiry of the 1609
1943:
1646:
14656:
14565:
13919:
13498:
13473:
13082:
12824:
12223:
12161:
11869:
10492:
Lords of War: Maximilian I of Bavaria and the Institutions of Lordship in the Catholic League Army, 1619–1626
9410:
5841:", although whether tactics or technology were at the heart of these changes is still debated. Introduced by
4138:
4091:
3522:
3483:
3444:
3326:
3242:
3030:
2940:
2365:
736:
12643:
12200:
12179:
11361:
11023:
A Note on Scottish Soldiers in the Bohemian War, 1619–1622 in 'Scotland and the Thirty Years' war, 1618–1648
5963:, a devout Catholic eager to assert the church's authority in his territories. By the time he died in 1631,
4341:
4206:
in June 1630 with nearly 18,000 Swedish troops. Using Stralsund as a bridgehead, he marched south along the
3979:
3944:
3693:, who considered his pro-Spanish policy a betrayal of the Protestant cause. However, Spanish chief minister
3510:
760:
13959:
13478:
13468:
12924:
12748:
12653:
12585:
11802:
5868:
5765:
5529:
5209:
5147:, which allowed Spain to safely move recruits and supplies from their Italian possessions to support their
4824:
4274:
4175:
4142:
4033:
3631:
Union proclaimed its neutrality, while John George of Saxony backed Ferdinand in return for the cession of
3429:
2634:
1913:
1878:
1559:
1521:
1108:
476:
320:
11495:
5327:
4812:
in June, his largely German troops mutinied due to lack of pay. The situation was saved by the arrival of
3666:
2422:
1833:
1704:
14615:
14610:
14226:
13924:
13294:
13067:
12794:
12387:
12312:
12111:
11726:
11592:
11582:
11233:
11122:
Identity, Interest and Action: A Cultural Explanation of the Swedish Intervention in the Thirty Years War
10166:
5960:
5495:
4171:
3026:
2995:
1651:
1629:
52:
11984:
9046:
3659:, Ferdinand transferred the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria, and allowed Maximilian to annex the
14695:
14671:
14666:
14122:
13933:
12958:
12537:
12517:
12040:
11784:
11295:
5837:
Innovations made by Gustavus in particular are considered part of the tactical evolution known as the "
5781:
5583:
5367:
5312:
5282:
4460:
4316:
in April 1633. In July, their combined forces defeated an Imperial army under Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld at
4010:
3983:
3952:
2956:
2887:
2863:
2380:
2263:
2193:
2067:
2042:
1470:
1407:
1040:
6196:
5307:. Backed by France as part of Richelieu's 'war by diversion', in January 1641 the rebels proclaimed a
4959:
The planned offensive fell apart when Turenne's mostly German troops mutinied, while Bavarian general
4302:
3129:
tried to prevent their recurrence by fixing boundaries between the two faiths, using the principle of
1599:
77:
14641:
14395:
14356:
13992:
13694:
13005:
12692:
12338:
11739:
11561:
11313:
11301:
9006:"Plague and long-term development: the lasting effects of the 1629–30 epidemic on the Italian cities"
6004:
5842:
5343:
5304:
4061:
4046:
3612:
3131:
3018:
2902:
2542:
2462:
2097:
1584:
1511:
1496:
693:
70:
48:
12121:
12080:
10376:
10008:"The Socio-Economic Relations of Warfare and the Military Mortality Crises of the Thirty Years' War"
5983:
5955:, beginning in Franconia in 1626 and quickly spreading to other parts of Germany. They began in the
5606:, and the Prince-bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, which also gave them a seat in the Imperial Diet.
4348:
for an offensive in the Rhineland, and in May 1635 declared war on Spain, starting the 1635 to 1659
3214:", which primarily focused on defence and operated as autonomous bodies. Above all of these was the
2843:
1858:
1692:
13825:
13400:
12917:
12819:
12595:
12542:
12522:
12343:
12286:
12281:
11774:
11385:
11331:
6283:
5918:
5905:
Such tactics needed professional soldiers, who could retain formation, reload and fire disciplined
5579:
5575:
5410:
5386:
was an offshoot of the Dutch fight for independence from Spain. The Portuguese dominated the trans-
5383:
5363:
4906:
4452:
4286:
4219:
4130:
4083:
3967:
3940:
3644:
3354:
3298:
2102:
1903:
1589:
1539:
1412:
1344:
902:
408:
11779:
5956:
5208:
Several factors restored the French position in Northern Italy, notably a devastating outbreak of
2990:
beyond these boundaries destabilised the settlement. However, while differences over religion and
14646:
14304:
13443:
13299:
13026:
12620:
12527:
12397:
12333:
12195:
12075:
11319:
11277:
5853:. Gustavus further reduced the ten ranks used by Maurice to six, and increased the proportion of
5713:
includes factors such as emigration from rural to more secure urban areas and does not equate to
5641:
5308:
5268:
4984:
4969:
4937:
4835:
in December gave the Swedes a significant new base in Germany, and despite their failure to take
4827:
in October 1642, where Torstensson inflicted almost 10,000 casualties on an Imperial army led by
4018:
3656:
3647:
in November 1620, the Bohemian army disintegrated, and Frederick was forced to flee the country.
3294:
3046:
2963:
2477:
2375:
2062:
2026:
2004:
1999:
1677:
1506:
1491:
1349:
815:
791:
9245:
Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015
5964:
5811:
14470:
14299:
13914:
13800:
13513:
12633:
12412:
12402:
12307:
12205:
12174:
11954:
11543:
11523:
11483:
11367:
10655:
Republicanism and Constitutionalism in Early Modern Europe: A Shared European Heritage Volume I
6185:
at any one time, and exclude citizen militia, who often formed a large proportion of garrisons.
6037:
5665:
5634:
5618:
5178:
4921:
4406:
4353:
4345:
4134:
3592:
3518:
3402:
3066:
2787:
2492:
2355:
2087:
2019:
1938:
1776:
1458:
1367:
946:
836:
825:
486:
420:
11807:
4125:
At the same time, his Spanish allies were reluctant to antagonise German Protestants as their
2243:
1848:
14550:
14415:
13810:
13795:
13508:
13365:
13272:
13072:
13055:
12968:
12912:
12417:
12136:
12126:
11597:
11548:
11538:
10088:
6324:
also held territories within the Empire, which allowed them to intervene in Imperial affairs
5567:
5438:
5275:
5229:
4973:
4953:
4398:
4250:
3690:
3082:
2641:
2233:
2208:
2203:
2092:
1948:
1756:
1741:
1736:
1726:
1574:
1486:
1387:
1142:
1047:
395:
183:
13860:
11337:
9148:
Bireley, Robert (1976). "The Peace of Prague (1635) and the Counterreformation in Germany".
4259:
2437:
1918:
1838:
831:
669:
14605:
14600:
14540:
14380:
14042:
14037:
14032:
14027:
14022:
14017:
14012:
14007:
14002:
13969:
13896:
13739:
13518:
13420:
13395:
13334:
13139:
13114:
13050:
12465:
12407:
12169:
12131:
12090:
12004:
11935:
11864:
11669:
11283:
9919:
9827:
9578:
Geschichte in Daten. Mecklenburg-Vorpommern; History in data; Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
9503:
The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560–1800
6123:
conflict where it was a primary driver. Future conflicts were either internal, such as the
5991:
5979:
5975:
5649:
5252:
5148:
4879:
4425:
4115:
4064:, the only port with facilities large enough to build this fleet. However, this threat led
4037:
3718:
3556:
3536:
Thurn established a Protestant-dominated government in Bohemia, while unrest expanded into
3448:
3422:
3406:
3226:
3156:
3086:
2952:
2936:
2770:
2604:
2248:
2223:
2072:
1933:
1898:
1868:
1818:
1716:
1422:
1377:
1372:
1334:
810:
633:
346:
244:
11654:
9112:
France and the Thirty Years War in The Ashgate Research Companion to the Thirty Years' War
4094:, Wallenstein persuaded Ferdinand to agree with relatively lenient terms in the June 1629
3994:, main architect of the alliance, faced a new Huguenot rebellion at home and in the March
1443:
8:
14709:
14570:
14500:
14443:
14360:
14186:
14091:
13815:
13805:
13754:
13612:
13598:
13458:
13200:
12963:
12789:
12570:
12435:
11828:
11789:
11649:
11634:
11553:
11427:
11421:
11289:
10243:"Real Wages and the Origins of Modern Economic Growth in Germany, 16th to 19th Centuries"
5968:
5838:
5769:
5626:
5558:
5554:
5466:
5281:
In 1647, a French-backed rebellion succeeded in temporarily overthrowing Spanish rule in
5260:
5154:
4968:. Outnumbered by a Franco-Swedish army led by Wrangel and Turenne, they were defeated at
4920:
in March 1645. In May, a Bavarian force under von Mercy destroyed a French detachment at
4902:
4847:
4813:
4441:
4421:
4383:
4317:
3734:
3560:
3436:
3250:
3168:
3078:
3038:
2868:
2858:
2218:
2198:
2183:
2077:
2052:
1761:
1731:
1667:
1604:
1427:
1417:
1358:
980:
609:
597:
332:
174:
131:
84:
12070:
11325:
11051:
Rabb, Theodore K. (1962). "The Effects of the Thirty Years' War on the German Economy".
9923:
5534:
5483:
4095:
3995:
3714:
1923:
1397:
14676:
14580:
14364:
14316:
14311:
14214:
14204:
14161:
14153:
14103:
13880:
13649:
13573:
13541:
13360:
13329:
13166:
13154:
13015:
12953:
12738:
12590:
12480:
12475:
12450:
12440:
12228:
12019:
11994:
11949:
11879:
11849:
11820:
11744:
11689:
11674:
11629:
11624:
11517:
11148:
11105:
11076:
11068:
11009:
10984:
10922:
10842:
10813:
10689:
10622:
10614:
10576:
10439:
10338:
10154:
10146:
10035:
9942:
9907:
9545:
9537:
9489:
9338:
9330:
9165:
9033:
8992:
8984:
6120:
6028:
5987:
5846:
5776:
5701:
5691:
5671:
5491:
5442:
5375:
5320:
4913:
4417:
4402:
4366:, French chief minister from 1624 until 1642, and creator of the anti-Habsburg alliance
4363:
4203:
4187:
4099:
4021:
in April, and when Maurice refused to support him, Christian of Brunswick fell back on
3991:
3987:
3917:
3909:
3717:
in June. By November 1622, the Imperials controlled most of the Palatinate, apart from
3572:
3282:
3234:
3230:
3203:
3195:
3160:
2991:
2782:
1908:
1828:
1808:
1579:
992:
798:
786:
645:
527:
297:
220:
13669:
10909:
Kamen, Henry (1968). "The Economic and Social Consequences of the Thirty Years' War".
10297:
The Winter King: Frederick V of the Palatinate and the Coming of the Thirty Years' War
1594:
14555:
14530:
14510:
14490:
14480:
14370:
14352:
14321:
14254:
14171:
14145:
14049:
13954:
13729:
13715:
13689:
13674:
13578:
13563:
13493:
13483:
13352:
13284:
13185:
13149:
13045:
12532:
12271:
12243:
12116:
11884:
11769:
11694:
11198:
11125:
11080:
11041:
11026:
10939:
10886:
10782:
10763:
10744:
10725:
10706:
10693:
10658:
10639:
10626:
10580:
10475:
10456:
10443:
10342:
10300:
10281:
10213:
10194:
10174:
10158:
10040:
9992:
9964:
9947:
9854:
9812:
9766:
9747:
9698:
9679:
9660:
9641:
9622:
9600:
9581:
9562:
9549:
9506:
9458:
9439:
9374:
9355:
9342:
9299:
9280:
9248:
9229:
9210:
9191:
9169:
9134:
9115:
9096:
9077:
9037:
9025:
8996:
8976:
6093:
6021:
5826:
5683:
5614:
5603:
5550:
5475:
5454:
5434:
5430:
5403:
5399:
5240:
5158:
5136:
4992:
4456:
4433:
4254:
4242:
4146:
4073:
4065:
3710:
3607:
it, as did the Duke of Savoy, and his father-in-law James I. The exceptions included
3552:
3506:
3390:
3222:
3126:
3122:
3070:
3050:
3007:
2999:
2975:
2971:
2924:
2824:
1798:
1564:
1549:
1516:
1392:
1324:
1149:
1137:
1115:
1103:
1081:
1059:
975:
953:
941:
929:
917:
897:
885:
873:
676:
664:
652:
640:
628:
553:
501:
436:
369:
187:
165:
10544:
10527:
10346:
10007:
6257:
Wilson estimates that three soldiers died of disease for every one killed in combat.
5917:
On the other hand, strategic thinking failed to develop at the same pace. Historian
5417:
in 1624. After it was retaken by the Portuguese in 1625, a second fleet established
4885:
Soon after Rocroi, Ferdinand invited Sweden and France to attend peace talks in the
4167:
14545:
14460:
14405:
14375:
14326:
14286:
14269:
14259:
14194:
14166:
13939:
13744:
13724:
13644:
13629:
13528:
13430:
13304:
13144:
13102:
13097:
13077:
13060:
12973:
12784:
12779:
12648:
12248:
12238:
12233:
12085:
12060:
12055:
12045:
12014:
11930:
11910:
11889:
11874:
11854:
11754:
11749:
11684:
11664:
11533:
11373:
11349:
11182:
11097:
11060:
11001:
10976:
10914:
10834:
10805:
10681:
10606:
10566:
10539:
10499:
10429:
10419:
10330:
10138:
10115:
10104:"Crisis and Catastrophe: The global crisis of the seventeenth century reconsidered"
10076:
10030:
10022:
9937:
9927:
9908:"The face of war: Trauma analysis of a mass grave from the Battle of Lützen (1632)"
9870:"The Battle of Wittstock 1636: Conflicting Reports on a Swedish Victory in Germany"
9721:
9529:
9481:
9397:
9322:
9157:
9017:
8968:
6337:
were represented in the Imperial Diet or Circles. Most of the remaining 1,500 were
6222:
6009:
5850:
5653:
5622:
5571:
5426:
5391:
4960:
4917:
4859:
4851:
4820:
4447:
Spanish inability to adequately supply their troops allowed the French to over-run
4410:
4375:
4313:
4309:
4195:
4069:
4026:
4025:, where he died of disease shortly after. The Danes were comprehensively beaten at
3682:
3660:
3584:
3410:
3350:
3278:
3110:
3011:
2253:
1989:
1928:
1888:
1863:
1853:
1793:
1554:
1501:
1329:
1154:
1125:
1091:
1069:
963:
821:
657:
621:
573:
557:
308:
91:
10636:
The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century: Religion, the Reformation and Social Change
9352:
European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies
5797:
4816:
in November with 7,000 Swedish recruits and enough cash to satisfy the mutineers.
3258:
14585:
14560:
14348:
14331:
14176:
13997:
13964:
13908:
13902:
13759:
13664:
13568:
13380:
12874:
12839:
12702:
12580:
12500:
12291:
12065:
12009:
11999:
11979:
11971:
11915:
11859:
11764:
11759:
11659:
11161:
10863:Åberg, A. (1973). "The Swedish Army from Lützen to Narva". In Roberts, M. (ed.).
10685:
9932:
9614:
6363:
6338:
6271:
6061:
6017:
5959:, an area with a history of such events going back to 1616 and now re-ignited by
5899:
5746:
5610:
5414:
5298:
5182:
5162:
4898:
4875:
4464:
4394:
4359:
3588:
3530:
3495:
3478:
3473:
3456:
3286:
3211:
3179:
3144:
3106:
3089:, as well as acceptance of Dutch independence by Spain. The conflict shifted the
3081:, the terms of which included greater autonomy within the empire for states like
3034:
2979:
2412:
2350:
2188:
2130:
2047:
1823:
1771:
1672:
1319:
1310:
1120:
922:
848:
5864:
5845:
in the 1590s, these sought to increase infantry firepower by moving from massed
5586:, occupied by France since 1552, were formally ceded, as were the cities of the
5232:, this secured the French position in Northern Italy for the next twenty years.
4022:
3433:
14535:
14525:
14520:
14515:
14495:
14485:
14400:
14343:
14236:
14199:
14060:
13885:
13679:
13654:
13618:
13558:
13551:
13546:
13536:
13390:
13375:
13314:
13190:
13180:
12936:
12774:
12764:
12712:
12697:
12485:
12392:
12050:
12035:
11639:
11528:
10507:
10334:
9326:
9188:
Witches & Neighbors: The Social And Cultural Context of European Witchcraft
6321:
6317:
6128:
6045:
5775:
Modern historians generally agree the Holy Roman Empire experienced an overall
5753:
5542:
5538:
5515:
5354:
5326:
On 26 January, a combined French-Catalan force routed a larger Spanish army at
5316:
5286:
5197:
5165:
and their possession allowed the holder to threaten Milan. This meant when the
5002:
4278:
3623:
3564:
3452:
3381:
3362:
3270:
3254:
3246:
3238:
3191:
3187:
3164:
3054:
3042:
3003:
2948:
2928:
2333:
2009:
1569:
712:
700:
688:
513:
463:
449:
381:
282:
256:
251:
232:
120:
13253:
12382:
10571:
10554:
10080:
10026:
9899:
Alexander Leslie and the Scottish generals of the Thirty Years' War, 1618–1648
8972:
5694:
often exaggerated its impact to illustrate the dangers of a divided Germany.
5001:, now in Stockholm. When a Spanish offensive in Flanders ended with defeat at
4988:
4379:
3975:
wider struggle between France and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria.
3498:
in 1595, he had eliminated Protestantism in what had been a stronghold of the
3221:
Although, in theory, emperors were elected, the position had been held by the
585:
14731:
14721:
14631:
14430:
13944:
13870:
13836:
13820:
13780:
13463:
13438:
13214:
13124:
13109:
13031:
12743:
12667:
12490:
12470:
12372:
12276:
12215:
11989:
11925:
11833:
11619:
11194:
10424:
10407:
9029:
8980:
6033:
6024:
whose descriptions of the everyday brutalities of the war remain compelling.
5982:
from 1626 to 1631, claimed over one thousand lives; in 1629, 274 died in the
5893:
5858:
5788:
5679:
5482:
The Peace of Westphalia actually consisted of three separate agreements; the
5446:
5422:
5413:
was formed to achieve this, and a Dutch fleet captured the Brazilian port of
5379:
5359:
4865:
4437:
4420:, then entered Bohemia in May. To retrieve the situation, Ferdinand diverted
4068:
to send several thousand Scots and Swedish troops to Stralsund, commanded by
3686:
3545:
3541:
3514:
3490:
Ferdinand once claimed he would rather see his lands destroyed than tolerate
3199:
3190:, and present-day France. These ranged in size and importance from the seven
3183:
2987:
1262:
907:
717:
681:
169:
11220:
10528:"The Origins of the Thirty Years War and the Structure of European Politics"
10377:"The Long-term Impact of the Thirty Years War: What Grain Price Data Reveal"
9725:
5990:. Elsewhere, persecution followed Imperial military success, expanding into
5570:, effectively an autonomous part of the Empire since 1499. In Lorraine, the
4079:
3529:, both men were thrown out of the castle windows along with their secretary
3317:
Disputes occasionally resulted in full-scale conflict like the 1583 to 1588
3140:
14590:
14420:
14291:
14209:
14054:
13929:
13785:
13749:
13488:
13410:
13254:
13000:
12995:
12990:
12978:
12733:
12610:
12605:
12377:
11644:
11117:
11005:
10918:
10129:
Parker, Geoffrey (1976). "The 'Military Revolution', 1560–1660 – a Myth?".
10120:
10103:
10044:
9951:
9829:
Religion, revolt, and creation of regional identity in Catalonia, 1640–1643
6146:
States that fought against the Emperor at some point between 1618 and 1635.
6101:
6065:
6056:
6041:
5488:
5418:
5186:
5144:
5140:
4949:
4267:
4223:
4191:
3901:
3414:
3373:
843:
263:
60:
11263:
10980:
10825:
Zaller, Robert (1974). "'Interest of State': James I and the Palatinate".
10610:
10067:
Outram, Quentin (2002). "The Demographic impact of early modern warfare".
6436:
5235:
4894:
4842:
This seemed more likely when Richelieu died in December 1642, followed by
4029:
in August, and Mansfeld's army dissolved following his death in November.
3587:
forced him to return to Prague, Ferdinand's position continued to worsen.
3309:
14575:
14453:
14438:
14410:
14246:
13855:
13684:
13659:
13634:
13607:
13594:
13503:
13405:
13092:
12717:
12460:
12258:
11920:
11679:
11487:
11452:
10809:
10597:
Thornton, John (2016). "The Kingdom of Kongo and the Thirty Years' War".
9401:
6200:
5471:
5395:
4997:
4805:
4263:
4237:
4042:
3913:
3722:
3499:
3318:
3114:
2983:
2967:
11186:
10817:
10618:
10434:
9676:
Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present
9334:
6244:
France lost another 200,000 to 300,000 killed or wounded in the related
5587:
5362:; Spain's inability to protect Portuguese interests in the 1602 to 1663
4413:
in October, lack of supplies forced Gallas to withdraw from the Baltic.
3281:, as well as France, confronted by Habsburg lands on its borders to the
2935:
reported population declines of over 50%. Related conflicts include the
147:
14338:
13639:
13224:
11166:
The 'Thirty Years War' and the Conflict for European Hegemony 1600–1660
11109:
11072:
10846:
10150:
9541:
9296:
The Last Christian Peace: The Congress of Westphalia as A Baroque Event
8988:
7540:
5952:
5675:
5591:
5339:
5256:
4886:
4850:
as king. However, Richelieu's policies were continued by his successor
4843:
4371:
4001:
3065:
within the Holy Roman Empire, with support from external powers. After
2688:
11013:
10988:
10926:
10503:
9493:
9021:
5994:
and the Palatinate following their reconquest by Tilly, then into the
5942:
5768:. Described as the "worst mortality crisis to affect Italy during the
4995:
but captured the Imperial library, along with treasures including the
4890:
3936:
14385:
12266:
9906:
Nicklisch, Nicole; Ramsthaler, Frank; Meller, Harald; Others (2017).
7723:
6124:
5995:
5854:
5807:
5761:
5503:
5335:
5331:
4312:, and with French backing, Sweden and their German allies formed the
4308:
After his death, Gustavus' policies were continued by his Chancellor
3726:
3409:
between Spain and the Dutch Republic. Before restarting hostilities,
3368:
3266:
3152:
3118:
3094:
3062:
14114:
11101:
10838:
10796:
Wilson, Peter (2008). "The Causes of the Thirty Years War 1618–48".
10257:
6054:, while its enduring cultural resonance is illustrated by the novel
5741:
5686:
and the Holy Roman Empire. In each of these, fighting combined with
5670:
The Thirty Years' War forms part of what historians sometimes call "
4912:
In August 1644, the French and Bavarian armies met in the three day
4293:
3998:, France withdrew from Northern Italy, re-opening the Spanish Road.
3505:
On being elected king of Bohemia in May 1617, Ferdinand reconfirmed
3447:, a Calvinist who succeeded his father in 1610, and in 1613 married
3093:
in favour of France, and set the stage for the expansionist wars of
616:
604:
592:
580:
568:
548:
444:
227:
14595:
14390:
14098:
13453:
13207:
13195:
11064:
10408:"Myths of military revolution: European expansion and Eurocentrism"
10142:
9869:
9533:
9485:
9277:
The Thirty Years' War & German Memory in the Nineteenth Century
9161:
6127:
revolt in South-Western France, or relatively minor, like the 1712
5822:
5595:
5450:
5387:
5201:
5193:
4836:
4808:
in May where he died, and despite beating off an Imperial force at
4469:
4211:
4202:
Following failed negotiations with the Emperor, Gustavus landed in
3418:
3290:
3136:
304:
10210:
Richelieu's Army: War, Government and Society in France, 1624–1642
9744:
Denmark, 1513–1660: the rise and decline of a Renaissance monarchy
9472:
Gutmann, Myron P. (1988). "The Origins of the Thirty Years' War".
8570:
6076:
5549:
In terms of territorial concessions, Brandenburg-Prussia received
4352:. A few days later, the German states and Ferdinand agreed to the
4282:
3618:
3551:
Spanish involvement inevitably drew in the Dutch, and potentially
2923:, from 1618 to 1648, was one of the most destructive conflicts in
14704:
14465:
14276:
13710:
13324:
12946:
12445:
12364:
11203:. Vol. 4: The Thirty Years War. Cambridge University Press.
9207:
Lützen 1632: Climax of the Thirty Years War: The Clash of Empires
9129:
Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2014). Asbach, Olaf; Schröder, Peter (eds.).
8189:
6333:
Although there were nearly 1,800 separate Imperial Estates, only
6088:
5884:
5599:
5507:
5248:
4832:
4389:
Ferdinand II died in February 1637, and was succeeded by his son
4285:, from where he could threaten his supply lines. This led to the
4114:
Made overconfident by success, in March 1629 Ferdinand passed an
4050:
3632:
3537:
3207:
2932:
774:
755:
731:
151:
7333:
7189:
7165:
6096:(in blue) was confirmed in 1653, and finally ended only in 1815.
5640:
It has been argued the Peace established the principle known as
3939:. In 1621, Hamburg accepted Danish "supervision", while his son
3900:
Key locations, 1625–1629 on the map of the modern federal state
3417:, an overland route connecting Habsburg possessions in Italy to
13876:
Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary
13319:
13229:
13134:
9905:
9371:
Siege Warfare: The Fortress in the Early Modern World 1494–1660
9053:
Despair not: Twenty centuries of the history of the Netherlands
8777:
8146:
7629:
7627:
6442:
6341:
or individual members of the lower nobility, who were excluded.
5911:
5818:
5757:
5687:
5630:
5217:
5173:
was backed by France and the Republic of Venice, his rival the
4448:
4429:
3580:
3491:
3077:, whose principal ally was Spain. Fighting ended with the 1648
1436:
Transylvanian invasions of Hungary (1619–1621, 1623–1624, 1626)
157:
9072:
Baramova, Maria (2014). Asbach, Olaf; Schröder, Peter (eds.).
8837:
8558:
8462:
6507:
6505:
4335:
3143:, and confirmed Lutheran ownership of property taken from the
8902:
8900:
8705:
8401:
8399:
6691:
6667:
6414:
6412:
6164:
Since officers were paid for each man "present", the numbers
5906:
5749:
calculates an upper limit of 2,071,000 military casualties.
5213:
4119:
3960:
3486:, whose acceptance of the Bohemian Crown sparked the conflict
3413:, commander in the Spanish Netherlands, needed to secure the
1035:
1023:
1011:
999:
987:
508:
376:
161:
9783:
The Thirty Years' War: Examining the Origins and Effects of
8717:
8618:
8252:
8177:
8134:
8122:
8014:
7966:
7882:
7870:
7807:
7624:
7456:
7357:
6963:
6961:
4249:
Gustavus put pressure on Brandenburg by sacking Küstrin and
3626:'s campaign during the Bohemian revolt and Palatine campaign
3579:
By mid-June 1619, the Bohemian army under Thurn was outside
3069:, the empire became one theatre in a wider struggle between
9807:
Milton, Patrick; Axworthy, Michael; Simms, Brendan (2018).
9619:
The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806
9110:
Bely, Lucien (2014). Asbach, Olaf; Schröder, Peter (eds.).
9048:
Dispereert niet: Twintig eeuwen historie van de Nederlanden
8936:
8693:
8582:
8360:
8228:
7528:
7381:
7285:
7237:
7225:
7093:
7081:
7069:
6985:
6946:
6766:
6549:
6547:
6502:
6465:
6463:
6064:
and also set during the war, it was nominated for the 2020
4207:
4017:. The advance quickly fell apart; Mansfeld was defeated at
3956:
10827:
Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies
9989:
Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression
9963:. Translated by Merton, Charlotte. Nordic Academic Press.
8897:
8801:
8522:
8435:
8411:
8396:
8264:
8002:
7954:
7930:
7831:
7771:
7711:
7699:
7639:
7576:
7552:
7480:
7057:
6490:
6409:
5518:, and with Swedish troops on the verge of taking Prague.
13765:
Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution
10368:
Direction des Archives, Ministère des affaires étrangères
9851:
Britain, Denmark-Norway and the House of Stuart 1603–1660
8647:
8645:
8452:
8450:
8218:
8216:
7860:
7858:
7687:
7468:
7045:
7033:
7021:
6958:
6922:
6910:
6898:
6886:
6862:
6850:
6814:
6718:
6708:
6706:
6397:
6008:, often suggested as one of the earliest examples of the
5378:
also became ruler of the Portuguese Empire, creating the
4090:
With Austrian resources stretched by the outbreak of the
3494:
within them. Less than 18 months after taking control of
8885:
8849:
8729:
8546:
8384:
8336:
7978:
7942:
7906:
7675:
7663:
7516:
7432:
7297:
7129:
6997:
6643:
6633:
6631:
6606:
6604:
6602:
6600:
6598:
6596:
6594:
6581:
6579:
6566:
6564:
6562:
6544:
6534:
6532:
6480:
6478:
6460:
6199:
were ethnic Germans, while less than 50% even came from
4393:, who faced a deteriorating military position. Although
4013:, supported by forces led by Christian of Brunswick and
3990:
to join, but it was overtaken by events. In early 1626,
14793:
17th-century military history of the Kingdom of England
9436:
Epidemics and pandemics; their impacts on human history
8873:
8825:
8657:
8498:
8372:
8240:
8201:
8038:
7819:
7600:
7410:
7408:
7393:
7309:
7273:
7213:
7201:
7153:
7141:
7009:
6742:
6679:
6155:
States that allied at some point between 1618 and 1635.
3721:, which was held by a small English garrison under Sir
10902:
An Unofficial Alliance: Scotland and Sweden, 1569–1654
10703:
The Dutch Army and the Military Revolutions, 1588–1688
10278:
Muscovy and Sweden in the Thirty Years' War, 1630–1635
10276:
Porshnev, Boris Fedorovich (1995). Dukes, Paul (ed.).
10241:
Pfister, Ulrich; Riedel, Jana; Uebele, Martin (2012).
9961:
Mercenary Swedes; French subsidies to Sweden 1631–1796
8924:
8789:
8741:
8681:
8669:
8642:
8630:
8606:
8594:
8534:
8510:
8486:
8447:
8423:
8348:
8312:
8213:
8158:
8110:
8074:
8062:
7918:
7894:
7855:
7795:
7783:
7759:
7747:
7735:
7651:
7588:
7564:
7492:
7369:
7261:
7249:
6973:
6934:
6838:
6754:
6703:
5780:
1630 to 1635. The high mortality rate compared to the
5659:
5185:
viewed Habsburg expansion in Italy as a threat to the
4869:
Campaigns during the Franco-Swedish phase (until 1642)
2978:
attempted to resolve this by dividing the Empire into
14693:
13796:
Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary
10883:
Muscovy and Sweden in the Thirty Years' War 1630–1635
9867:
8912:
8861:
8765:
8753:
8098:
8086:
8050:
7843:
7546:
7504:
7444:
7345:
7321:
7177:
7117:
7105:
6874:
6826:
6790:
6778:
6655:
6628:
6616:
6591:
6576:
6559:
6529:
6517:
6475:
4459:
and opposition to heavy taxes led to revolts in both
4156:
3583:
and although Mansfeld's defeat by Imperial forces at
8474:
8324:
8026:
7990:
7420:
7405:
6802:
6730:
6448:
5382:; long-standing commercial rivals, the 1602 to 1663
5135:
Northern Italy had been contested by France and the
2986:
states, but over the next 50 years the expansion of
10971:Polišenský, J. V. (1954). "The Thirty Years' War".
10760:
Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War
10240:
9806:
8576:
7729:
7612:
6424:
6048:used it as the backdrop for his 1939 anti-war play
12869:
9735:War in the Modern Great Power System: 1495 to 1975
4301:Two months later, the Swedes and Imperials met at
3798:
3741:
3033:. Although Imperial forces quickly suppressed the
2160:
11141:Gustavus Adolphus: A History of Sweden, 1611–1632
10093:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
6172:, or those available for duty. Variances between
5315:on 23 January 1641. The French now persuaded the
3097:which dominated Europe for the next sixty years.
14729:
13866:Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII
10472:The Resilience of the Spanish Monarchy 1665–1700
10364:
5553:, and the bishoprics of Magdeburg, Halberstadt,
3673:whose seizure of the Palatinate expanded the war
3210:. Each also belonged to a regional grouping or "
518:
454:
288:
273:
10374:
9896:
9638:The Path of the Devil: Early Modern Witch Hunts
8813:
8564:
7195:
7171:
6195:2011, a high proportion of "Swedish" forces at
5598:. Sweden received an indemnity of five million
4098:. Christian retained his German possessions of
3517:with Ferdinand's two Catholic representatives,
11153:The History of the Thirty Years War in Germany
10375:Schulze, Max-Stefan; Volckart, Oliver (2019).
9093:For God and Kaiser; the Imperial Austrian Army
3135:. This designated individual states as either
1292:
14130:
12855:
11468:
11249:
11225:
11124:(2008 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
10964:Scotland and the Thirty Years' War, 1618–1648
9986:
9977:
9452:
9003:
8711:
8468:
8195:
7363:
7339:
5929:
5460:
5437:, as well as Portuguese trading posts on the
5212:; between 1629 and 1631, over 60,000 died in
4182:From 1626 to 1629, Gustavus was engaged in a
4163:Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War
4107:early 1628, Ferdinand deposed the hereditary
3353:, and Maximilian responded by setting up the
3061:The period from 1618 to 1635 was primarily a
2962:The war can be seen as a continuation of the
2146:
1278:
11157:in 2 vols; translation by William Blaquiere.
10700:
10652:
10633:
9868:Murdoch, S.; Zickerman, K; Marks, H (2012).
9575:
9226:The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough
9128:
8783:
7633:
6511:
6418:
5875:are deployed two companies deep, the Swedes
5625:of Poland-Lithuania led to the 1655 to 1660
4798:Key locations 1635 to 1648 mentioned in text
4416:In April 1639, Banér defeated the Saxons at
4409:defeated a combined Swedish-German force at
4273:Gustavus used this army to win victories at
10724:(2005 ed.). New York Review of Books.
10671:
10412:European Journal of International Relations
9559:The Thirty Years War: A Documentary History
8169:sfn error: no target: CITEREF2020Thornton (
8152:
6385:Not to be confused with Freiberg in Saxony.
5986:, plus another 50 in the adjacent Duchy of
5008:
4976:, Bavaria was left defenceless once again.
4846:in May 1643, leaving his five-year-old son
4370:In March 1635, French soldiers entered the
4336:Phase II: French intervention, 1635 to 1648
4174:, known as the "Lion of the North", at the
4032:Many of Christian's German allies, such as
3955:; possession ensured Danish control of the
3304:
14137:
14123:
13881:Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary
13831:Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart
12862:
12848:
11482:
11475:
11461:
11256:
11242:
11020:
10995:
10970:
10525:
10450:
9695:The Thirty Years War (Lancaster Pamphlets)
9556:
9455:Critical History of Jaffna – The Tamil Era
9242:
9204:
9044:
8843:
7693:
7645:
7438:
7399:
7051:
6697:
6673:
6553:
6469:
6303:Some commentators argue it began with the
6080:Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648
3249:retained Imperial territories such as the
2153:
2139:
1285:
1271:
11172:
11160:
10570:
10543:
10433:
10423:
10119:
10034:
9941:
9931:
9897:Murdoch, Steve; Grosjean, Alexia (2014).
9576:Heitz, Gerhard; Rischer, Henning (1995).
9349:
7135:
6212:Approved 120,000, actual 80,000 to 90,000
6071:
6014:Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen
5228:. With the exception of the 1639 to 1642
4936:The final battle of the war; the Swedish
3041:, whose strategic importance drew in the
3037:, Frederick's participation expanded the
386:
14818:Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)
11147:
11039:
10899:
10719:
10596:
10275:
9825:
9779:
9741:
9711:
9387:
9223:
9071:
8958:
8906:
8879:
8735:
8723:
8624:
8552:
8390:
8342:
8258:
8246:
8183:
8164:
8140:
8128:
8044:
8020:
8008:
7984:
7972:
7948:
7912:
7888:
7876:
7813:
7681:
7669:
7522:
7462:
7387:
7375:
7315:
7291:
7243:
7231:
7219:
7207:
7159:
7147:
7099:
7087:
7075:
7015:
6991:
6967:
6952:
6940:
6928:
6904:
6892:
6856:
6844:
6820:
6772:
6760:
6724:
6100:By laying the foundations of the modern
6087:
6075:
5941:
5863:
5832:
5787:
5696:
5528:
5470:
5394:, in which slaves were transported from
5353:
5234:
4931:
4864:
4358:
4292:
4236:
4166:
4078:
4000:
3665:
3617:
3477:
3462:
3367:
3308:
3167:competing with each other and Calvinist
427:
337:
11138:
11116:
10961:
10871:
10552:
10488:
10405:
10316:"Catholics and the Peace of Westphalia"
10294:
10207:
9958:
9848:
9613:
9594:
9471:
9312:
9293:
9147:
9090:
8942:
8867:
8831:
8699:
8663:
8588:
8366:
8234:
8207:
7825:
7606:
7534:
7498:
7303:
7267:
7255:
7111:
7063:
7003:
6979:
6916:
6880:
6496:
6430:
6403:
4924:, before he was defeated and killed at
27:Major war in Central Europe (1618–1648)
14:
14730:
11785:Council of Trent § Protestant response
11087:
10933:
10824:
10795:
10776:
10757:
10592:. Auzielle: Little Round Top Editions.
10590:French Armies of the Thirty Years' War
10469:
10188:
10165:
10128:
10101:
10066:
10005:
9760:
9635:
9519:
9500:
9274:
9185:
9176:
9004:Alfani, Guido; Percoco, Marco (2019).
8930:
8891:
8855:
8807:
8795:
8771:
8747:
8687:
8675:
8651:
8636:
8612:
8600:
8540:
8528:
8516:
8504:
8492:
8456:
8441:
8417:
8405:
8378:
8354:
8318:
8270:
8222:
8116:
8080:
8068:
7960:
7936:
7924:
7900:
7864:
7849:
7837:
7801:
7789:
7777:
7765:
7753:
7741:
7717:
7705:
7657:
7582:
7570:
7558:
7486:
7450:
7426:
7414:
7351:
7327:
7279:
7183:
7123:
7039:
7027:
6868:
6832:
6808:
6796:
6784:
6748:
6736:
6712:
6685:
6661:
6649:
6637:
6622:
6610:
6585:
6570:
6538:
6523:
6484:
6454:
4451:in 1640. At the same time, continuing
3926:George William, Elector of Brandenburg
3650:
3329:approved intervention by the Catholic
14798:Christianity in the Holy Roman Empire
14773:17th century in the Holy Roman Empire
14768:17th century in the Habsburg monarchy
14144:
14118:
12843:
12800:Synodical Conference of North America
11456:
11237:
11224:
10908:
10880:
10862:
10741:The Great Big Book of Horrible Things
10738:
10587:
10250:European Historical Economics Society
10226:
9832:(PhD thesis). Ohio State University.
9654:
9453:Gnanaprakasar, Nalloor Swamy (2003).
9368:
9354:(2014 ed.). Literary Licensing.
9261:
9059:from the original on 23 February 2023
8759:
8104:
8092:
8056:
7996:
7618:
7510:
7474:
6282:
4979:The Swedes sent a second force under
4570:
4326:Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria
3930:Roman Catholic Diocese of Halberstadt
3601:the 1623 to 1639 conflict with Persia
3100:
2134:
1266:
14843:Wars involving the Holy Roman Empire
14838:Wars involving the Habsburg monarchy
11808:Controversy on the Descent into Hell
11193:
11050:
10952:
10865:Sweden's Age of Greatness, 1632–1718
10313:
9790:(MA thesis). George Fox University.
9732:
9673:
9474:Journal of Interdisciplinary History
9433:
9350:Davenport, Frances Gardiner (1917).
9109:
8480:
8429:
8330:
8032:
7594:
5967:from all levels of society had been
5821:fell from 22,000 to 17,000, that of
5425:, with support from the kingdoms of
4612:
4500:
3882:
3017:Its outbreak is generally traced to
905:
207:Anti-Imperial alliance prior to 1635
78:death of Gustavus Adolphus at Lützen
14652:History of the Mediterranean region
13735:Suppression of the Society of Jesus
10781:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
9811:. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd.
9692:
9045:Algra, Hendrik; Algra, Ale (1956).
8918:
7547:Murdoch, Zickerman & Marks 2012
5737:falling to under 160,000 by 1648.
5660:Human and financial cost of the war
5478:after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648
5161:were subsidiary territories of the
4829:Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria
4766:
4556:
4486:
3784:
3073:, chiefly supported by Sweden, and
24:
14823:Warfare of the early modern period
14813:History of the Palatinate (region)
14778:17th century in the Spanish Empire
14763:17th century in the Dutch Republic
13290:Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran
11798:Adiaphoristic controversies (first
10855:
10230:Studia Histórica, Historia Moderna
9978:O'Connell, Daniel Patrick (1968).
9836:from the original on 17 April 2023
9580:(in German). Koehler&Amelang.
9421:from the original on 8 August 2021
9408:
8819:
6316:As explained below, the rulers of
6060:; written by Austro-German author
5914:in 1616 and others soon followed.
5887:over the "new model" Swedish army
5177:by Spain, Ferdinand II, Savoy and
5028:
4752:
4724:
4654:
4528:
4297:Campaigns during the Swedish phase
4157:Sweden invades Germany (1630–1635)
3729:until his death in November 1632.
3467:
2397:Northern Spain and Southern France
25:
14854:
12318:Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette
11207:from the original on 28 June 2011
10393:from the original on 28 July 2021
10054:from the original on 25 June 2022
9901:. London: Pickering & Chatto.
9794:from the original on 7 April 2022
8577:Pfister, Riedel & Uebele 2012
8300:from the original on 17 June 2012
7730:Milton, Axworthy & Simms 2018
5609:The Peace was later denounced by
5590:in Alsace, with the exception of
5349:
5251:in 1635, plus minor victories at
5013:
4640:
4514:
4440:won a significant victory at the
4153:in 1629 caused dismay in Madrid.
3812:
3770:
3569:Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy
3555:, although the strongly Catholic
1660:Swedish-French Period (1635–1648)
32:Thirty Years War (disambiguation)
14715:
14703:
14637:Bibliography of European history
14232:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
14097:
14085:
13416:Fourth Council of Constantinople
13371:Second Council of Constantinople
11155:. London, printed for W. Miller.
10955:The Wars of Louis XIV: 1667–1714
9884:from the original on 8 July 2022
9826:Mitchell, Andrew Joseph (2005).
8276:
6379:
6369:
6284:[ˈdʁaɪ̯sɪçˌjɛːʁɪɡɐkʁiːk]
5112:
5111:
5097:
5083:
5069:
5055:
5041:
5027:
5020:
4823:in January 1642 was followed by
4780:
4779:
4765:
4751:
4738:
4737:
4723:
4709:
4695:
4681:
4667:
4653:
4639:
4625:
4611:
4598:
4597:
4583:
4569:
4555:
4542:
4541:
4527:
4513:
4499:
4485:
4478:
3881:
3867:
3853:
3839:
3825:
3811:
3797:
3783:
3769:
3755:
3748:
3671:Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria
3622:The Catholic counter-offensive;
3297:, who joined the war in 1625 as
3182:distributed across Germany, the
1531:Swedish intervention (1630–1635)
1148:
1136:
1114:
1102:
1080:
1058:
1046:
1034:
1022:
1010:
998:
986:
974:
952:
940:
928:
916:
896:
884:
872:
854:
842:
830:
820:
809:
797:
785:
773:
766:
754:
742:
730:
723:
711:
699:
687:
675:
663:
651:
639:
627:
615:
603:
591:
579:
567:
547:
520:
507:
494:
470:
456:
443:
429:
402:
388:
375:
362:
339:
326:
314:
303:
290:
275:
262:
250:
238:
226:
213:
59:
14662:History of Western civilization
14265:Christianity in the Middle Ages
13386:Third Council of Constantinople
13310:First Council of Constantinople
12727:Australia / New Guinea
10938:(1990 ed.). Dorset Press.
10874:Germany in the Thirty Years War
10498:(PhD thesis). Duke University.
9737:. University Press of Kentucky.
9411:"Art and the Thirty Years' War"
9179:The Thirty Years' War 1618–1648
6356:
6344:
6327:
6310:
6297:
6260:
6251:
6238:
6228:
6215:
6206:
6051:Mother Courage and Her Children
5226:Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy
4710:
4668:
4584:
4216:Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania
4186:, ruled by his Catholic cousin
3826:
3742:Danish intervention (1625–1629)
3540:and the Habsburg heartlands of
3533:, although all three survived.
3237:. The Habsburgs also ruled the
3113:, a religious conflict between
3029:and replaced by the Protestant
2998:for European dominance between
1479:Danish intervention (1625–1629)
1359:Palatinate campaign (1620–1623)
356:Imperial alliance prior to 1635
14506:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
14449:Christianity in the modern era
14220:Christianity in late antiquity
13625:Dissolution of the monasteries
12891:History of the Catholic Church
10885:. Cambridge University Press.
10674:Colonial Latin American Review
10657:. Cambridge University Press.
10489:Stutler, James Oliver (2014).
10280:. Cambridge University Press.
10212:. Cambridge University Press.
9599:. Cambridge University Press.
9561:. Hackett Publishing Co, Inc.
9457:. Asian Educational Services.
6188:
6158:
6149:
6140:
5602:, the Imperial territories of
5070:
5056:
4696:
4682:
4626:
4127:war in the Spanish Netherlands
3943:became joint-administrator of
3868:
3854:
3840:
3756:
3527:Third Defenestration of Prague
3525:. In what became known as the
3432:had no surviving children, in
3347:Frederick IV, Elector Palatine
2966:initiated by the 16th-century
111:(30 years, 5 months and 1 day)
13:
1:
14657:History of the European Union
13499:Fourth Council of the Lateran
13474:Second Council of the Lateran
13083:Apostles in the New Testament
12224:Christoph Friedrich von Ammon
11735:Colloquy of Worms (1540–1541)
11043:Epidemics Resulting from Wars
10798:The English Historical Review
10653:Van Gelderen, Martin (2002).
10545:10.1093/ehr/cvii.ccccxxiv.587
10532:The English Historical Review
10131:The Journal of Modern History
10083:(inactive 12 September 2024).
9522:The Journal of Modern History
9264:Journal of Portuguese History
9228:. Spellmount Publishers Ltd.
9150:The Journal of Modern History
6391:
5704:within Germany, 1618 to 1648
5366:was a key factor in the 1640
5098:
5084:
5042:
4092:War of the Mantuan Succession
3507:Protestant religious freedoms
3484:Frederick V of the Palatinate
3445:Frederick V, Elector Palatine
3031:Frederick V of the Palatinate
2941:War of the Mantuan Succession
109:23 May 1618 – 24 October 1648
13613:Catholic Counter-Reformation
13479:Third Council of the Lateran
13469:First Council of the Lateran
12925:Catholic ecumenical councils
12749:Lutheran Church of Australia
11200:The Cambridge Modern History
11040:Prinzing, Friedrich (1916).
10779:Lützen: Great Battles Series
10686:10.1080/10609164.2011.585770
10634:Trevor-Roper, Hugh (2001) .
10470:Storrs, Christopher (2006).
10451:Spielvogel, Jackson (2017).
10295:Pursell, Brennan C. (2003).
9987:O'Connell, Robert L (1990).
9982:. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
9933:10.1371/journal.pone.0178252
9640:. Rowman & Littlefield.
9557:Helfferich, Tryntje (2009).
9247:(2017 ed.). McFarland.
9243:Clodfelter, Micheal (2008).
9205:Brzezinski, Richard (2001).
9055:] (in Dutch). T. Wever.
6352:Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg
6305:War of the Jülich Succession
5796:In 1940, agrarian historian
5292:
5167:last duke in the direct line
3359:War of the Jülich Succession
3313:Map of the Thirty Years' War
3039:fighting into the Palatinate
2178:Flanders and Northern France
1245:Military deaths from disease
1235:120,000 in Imperial service
186:gains independence from the
83:Dutch warships prior to the
7:
14758:17th century in Switzerland
14616:Russian invasion of Ukraine
14227:Crisis of the Third Century
12313:Karl Gottlieb Bretschneider
11729:Augsburg Confession Variata
11578:Denmark–Norway and Holstein
10957:. Harlow, England: Longman.
10701:Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2010).
10185:(with several contributors)
9746:. Oxford University Press.
9621:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
9369:Duffy, Christopher (1995).
9010:The Economic History Review
8565:Schulze & Volckart 2019
7196:Murdoch & Grosjean 2014
7172:Murdoch & Grosjean 2014
6350:Its official title remains
5319:to recognise Louis XIII as
5222:Swedish invasion of Germany
4344:, hired mercenaries led by
4172:Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
4056:On 13 May 1628, his deputy
3908:With Saxony dominating the
1311:Bohemian Revolt (1618–1620)
1237:30,000 in Bavarian service
1222:110,000 in Swedish service
1123:
1089:
1067:
961:
10:
14859:
14672:Military history of Europe
14667:Maritime history of Europe
12959:History of the Roman Curia
12491:Zillertal Valley expulsion
12201:Friedrich Gottlieb Süskind
12180:Johann Christoph Döderlein
11090:The Modern Language Review
10335:10.1177/004056394800900407
10189:Parker, Geoffrey (2004) .
10108:American Historical Review
9595:Israel, Jonathan (1995a).
9327:10.1177/096834459800500301
9279:. University of Nebraska.
8951:
5930:Social and cultural impact
5792:Soldiers plundering a farm
5782:Wars of the Three Kingdoms
5663:
5464:
5461:Peace of Westphalia (1648)
5402:to work on plantations in
5368:Portuguese Restoration War
5323:, and ruler of Catalonia.
5296:
4382:defeated the Imperials at
4160:
3805:Lübeck (Duchy of Holstein)
3567:. Funded by Frederick and
3471:
2957:Portuguese Restoration War
1041:Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand
29:
14808:History of Central Europe
14803:European wars of religion
14783:17th-century Christianity
14642:Genetic history of Europe
14624:
14429:
14245:
14185:
14152:
14080:
13980:
13846:
13773:
13708:
13695:European wars of religion
13592:
13527:
13429:
13351:
13242:
13165:
13025:
13014:
13006:Eastern Catholic Churches
12881:
12812:
12757:
12726:
12675:
12666:
12619:
12551:
12508:
12499:
12426:
12363:
12356:
12339:Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi
12326:
12300:
12257:
12214:
12188:
12160:
12149:
12104:
12028:
11964:
11948:
11903:
11842:
11815:Greek Augsburg Confession
11719:
11712:
11610:
11570:
11562:Nuremberg Religious Peace
11512:
11505:
11494:
11437:
11273:
11231:
11226:Links to related articles
11143:. Longmans, Green and Co.
11139:Roberts, Michael (1958).
11053:Journal of Modern History
10900:Grosjean, Alexia (2003).
10881:Dukes, Paul, ed. (1995).
10872:Benecke, Gerhard (1978).
10777:Wilson, Peter H. (2018).
10758:Wilson, Peter H. (2009).
10572:10.1177/03061973211007353
10553:Talbott, Siobhan (2021).
10102:Parker, Geoffrey (2008).
10081:10.1215/01455532-26-2-245
10027:10.1017/S0025727300067703
9780:McMurdie, Justin (2014).
9742:Lockhart, Paul D (2007).
9095:. Yale University Press.
9091:Bassett, Richard (2015).
8973:10.1017/S0008938900012711
8469:Alfani & Percoco 2019
8284:"The Peace of Westphalia"
6168:frequently differed from
6092:Swedish sovereignty over
6005:Simplicius Simplicissimus
5305:Principality of Catalonia
4987:, seizing the castle and
4266:per year, or one million
4184:war with Poland–Lithuania
3571:, a mercenary army under
3132:cuius regio, eius religio
2695:Franche-Comté and Germany
2174:
2115:
1304:
1243:
1226:30,000 in Danish service
1224:80,000 in French service
1212:
1163:
537:
200:
101:
71:Defenestrations of Prague
58:
49:European wars of religion
46:
41:
13826:Mary of the Divine Heart
13449:Clash against the empire
13401:Second Council of Nicaea
13295:Old St. Peter's Basilica
12820:Confessional Lutheranism
12344:Friedrich Schleiermacher
12287:Richard Adelbert Lipsius
12282:Ferdinand Christian Baur
11775:Colloquy of Worms (1557)
10934:Langer, Herbert (1980).
10743:. W.W. Norton & Co.
10599:Journal of World History
10588:Thion, Stephane (2008).
10455:. Wadsworth Publishing.
10425:10.1177/1354066117719992
10006:Outram, Quentin (2001).
9959:Norrhem, Svante (2019).
9636:Jensen, Gary F. (2007).
9501:Hanlon, Gregory (2016).
9224:Chandler, David (1990).
9177:Bonney, Richard (2002).
8961:Central European History
6419:Heitz & Rischer 1995
6134:
6036:in 1871, as well as the
5766:1629–1631 Italian plague
5623:political disintegration
5411:Dutch West India Company
5009:Conflict outside Germany
4287:Battle of the Alte Veste
4277:in September 1631, then
4131:Dutch West India Company
4084:Albrecht von Wallenstein
3968:Albrecht von Wallenstein
3703:Georg Friedrich of Baden
3645:Battle of White Mountain
3305:Background: 1556 to 1618
3299:Duke of Holstein-Gottorp
2558:Villefranche-de-Conflent
14743:17th century in Bohemia
14647:History of Christianity
14092:Vatican City portal
13444:Investiture Controversy
13300:First Council of Nicaea
12334:Johann Gottfried Herder
12196:Gottlob Christian Storr
10962:Murdoch, Steve (2001).
10739:White, Matthew (2012).
10720:Wedgwood, C.V. (1938).
10526:Sutherland, NM (1992).
10208:Parrott, David (2001).
9849:Murdoch, Steve (2000).
9726:10.1163/187607597X00064
9415:Die Welt der Habsburger
9294:Croxton, Derek (2013).
6020:, a participant in the
5646:Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668
5642:Westphalian sovereignty
5494:and the Venetian envoy
5141:end of the 15th century
4015:Maurice of Hesse-Kassel
3295:Christian IV of Denmark
3047:Christian IV of Denmark
3025:was deposed as king of
1175:100,000–140,000 Swedish
53:French–Habsburg rivalry
14828:Wars involving England
14788:17th-century conflicts
14753:17th century in France
14748:17th century in Europe
14471:Grand Duchy of Tuscany
14104:Catholicism portal
13915:Second Vatican Council
13801:Our Lady of La Salette
13608:Protestant Reformation
13595:Protestant Reformation
13514:Second Council of Lyon
12903:Ecclesiastical history
12308:Franz Volkmar Reinhard
12206:Johann Friedrich Flatt
12175:Johann David Michaelis
11985:Colloquy of Mumpelgart
11544:Protestation at Speyer
11524:Heidelberg Disputation
10953:Lynn, John A. (1999).
10121:10.1086/ahr.113.4.1053
10069:Social Science History
9765:. Palgrave Macmillan.
9763:Europe at War, 1600–50
9761:Maland, David (1980).
9657:Spain's Road to Empire
9409:Friehs, Julia Teresa.
9298:. Palgrave Macmillan.
9275:Cramer, Kevin (2007).
9186:Briggs, Robin (1996).
7646:Algra & Algra 1956
6275:
6097:
6081:
6072:Political consequences
6038:Greater Germanic Reich
5984:Eichstätt witch trials
5947:
5880:
5879:just one company deep.
5793:
5729:
5666:Second plague pandemic
5619:Treaty of the Pyrenees
5546:
5479:
5371:
5244:
5243:by French troops, 1630
4941:
4870:
4367:
4346:Bernard of Saxe-Weimar
4298:
4246:
4179:
4087:
4006:
3707:Christian of Brunswick
3674:
3627:
3593:Prince of Transylvania
3487:
3405:, which suspended the
3398:
3314:
2927:. Fought primarily in
837:Christian of Brunswick
826:Bernard of Saxe-Weimar
538:Commanders and leaders
14833:Wars involving France
14551:Industrial Revolution
13811:First Vatican Council
13509:First Council of Lyon
13273:Constantine the Great
12969:Christian monasticism
11727:Dissemination of the
11549:Articles of Schwabach
11539:Diet of Speyer (1529)
10936:The Thirty Years' War
10876:. St. Martin's Press.
10867:. St. Martin's Press.
10611:10.1353/jwh.2016.0100
10538:(CCCCXXIV): 587–625.
10406:Sharman, J.C (2018).
10171:The Thirty Years' War
9733:Levy, Jack S (1983).
9693:Lee, Stephen (2001).
9674:Kohn, George (1995).
9655:Kamen, Henry (2003).
6443:Nicklisch et al. 2017
6276:Dreißigjähriger Krieg
6221:1640 figures for the
6091:
6079:
5978:, held in the nearby
5957:Bishopric of Würzburg
5945:
5889:at Nördlingen in 1634
5867:
5833:Military developments
5791:
5700:
5568:Old Swiss Confederacy
5532:
5474:
5390:economy known as the
5357:
5239:Siege and capture of
5238:
5230:Piedmontese Civil War
5149:war against the Dutch
4974:Raimondo Montecuccoli
4935:
4868:
4362:
4296:
4251:Frankfurt an der Oder
4240:
4176:Battle of Breitenfeld
4170:
4082:
4004:
3669:
3621:
3481:
3463:Phase I: 1618 to 1635
3371:
3331:Maximilian of Bavaria
3312:
3075:Emperor Ferdinand III
2508:San Lorenzo de Mongay
1252:: 3,500,000–6,500,000
1213:Casualties and losses
1053:Maximilian of Bavaria
14606:European debt crisis
14601:European integration
14541:Age of Enlightenment
14381:Republic of Florence
13988:Sexual abuse scandal
13897:Mit brennender Sorge
13740:Age of Enlightenment
13519:Bernard of Clairvaux
13396:Byzantine Iconoclasm
13335:Council of Chalcedon
13115:Council of Jerusalem
12984:Role in civilization
12964:Religious institutes
12896:By country or region
12576:J. C. K. von Hofmann
12561:G. C. A. von Harless
12466:Lars Levi Laestadius
12170:Johann Salomo Semler
12132:Salzburg Protestants
12005:Matthias Hafenreffer
11895:John the Magnanimous
11865:Cyriacus Spangenberg
11813:Presentation of the
11670:Nicolaus von Amsdorf
11554:Presentation of the
11006:10.1093/past/39.1.34
10919:10.1093/past/39.1.44
10722:The Thirty Years War
10453:Western Civilisation
9787:'s Defining Conflict
9434:Hays, J. N. (2005).
9402:10.3917/dss.141.0007
9181:. Osprey Publishing.
8291:University of Oregon
5980:Bishopric of Bamberg
5976:Bamberg witch trials
5961:Bishop von Ehrenberg
5814:fell by nearly 50%.
5384:Dutch–Portuguese War
5364:Dutch–Portuguese War
5157:and its fortress of
5127:class=notpageimage|
4795:class=notpageimage|
4116:Edict of Restitution
4038:Charles I of England
3897:class=notpageimage|
3557:Louis XIII of France
3423:Electoral Palatinate
3267:much of the Americas
3023:Emperor Ferdinand II
2953:Dutch-Portuguese War
1502:Lutter am Barenberge
1247:: 700,000–1,350,000
1181:70,000–80,000 French
30:For other uses, see
14571:Revolutions of 1848
14501:Early modern France
14282:Anglo-Saxon England
14187:Classical antiquity
13816:Papal infallibility
13806:Our Lady of Lourdes
13755:Shimabara Rebellion
13599:Counter-Reformation
12683:Old Lutheran schism
12639:A. F. O. Münchmeyer
12571:Gottfried Thomasius
12189:Old Tübingen school
11829:Liturgical struggle
11792:Magdeburg Centuries
11790:Publication of the
11780:Counter-Reformation
11650:Argula von Grumbach
11635:Johannes Bugenhagen
11556:Augsburg Confession
10981:10.1093/past/6.1.31
10323:Theological Studies
10314:Ryan, E.A. (1948).
9924:2017PLoSO..1278252N
9390:Dix-septième Siècle
8945:, pp. 752–754.
8846:, pp. 283–284.
8810:, pp. 171–172.
8726:, pp. 257–258.
8702:, pp. 255–256.
8627:, pp. 130–137.
8591:, pp. 493–495.
8531:, pp. 245–246.
8444:, pp. 160–161.
8420:, pp. 156–159.
8408:, pp. 188–189.
8369:, pp. 331–332.
8273:, pp. 746–747.
8261:, pp. 500–501.
8237:, pp. 197–199.
8198:, pp. 153–172.
8186:, pp. 194–195.
8165:2020 & Thornton
8155:, pp. 167–168.
8143:, pp. 189–190.
8131:, pp. 431–448.
8023:, pp. 263–264.
7975:, pp. 235–236.
7963:, pp. 118–119.
7939:, pp. 740–741.
7891:, pp. 495–496.
7879:, pp. 493–494.
7840:, pp. 693–695.
7816:, pp. 472–473.
7780:, pp. 643–645.
7720:, pp. 641–642.
7708:, pp. 636–639.
7585:, pp. 661–662.
7561:, pp. 595–598.
7537:, pp. 272–273.
7489:, pp. 132–134.
7477:, pp. 385–386.
7465:, pp. 220–223.
7390:, pp. 305–306.
7342:, pp. 253–254.
7294:, pp. 385–386.
7246:, pp. 242–244.
7234:, pp. 232–233.
7102:, pp. 107–109.
7090:, pp. 179–181.
7078:, pp. 162–164.
7066:, pp. 182–185.
7042:, pp. 152–154.
7030:, pp. 147–148.
6994:, pp. 127–129.
6955:, pp. 121–122.
6871:, pp. 271–274.
6775:, pp. 159–161.
6700:, pp. 602–603.
6676:, pp. 589–590.
6499:, pp. 164–168.
6406:, pp. 225–226.
5871:1631; Tilly's army
5839:Military Revolution
5770:early modern period
5692:German nationalists
5627:Second Northern War
5467:Peace of Westphalia
5261:Christine of France
4814:Lennart Torstensson
4457:Portuguese colonies
4218:, into agreeing an
4109:Duke of Mecklenburg
4005:Danish intervention
3984:Treaty of The Hague
3980:Treaty of Compiègne
3966:Ferdinand had paid
3651:Palatinate Campaign
3609:Christian of Anhalt
3443:Another option was
3437:Philip III of Spain
3403:Twelve Years' Truce
3251:Spanish Netherlands
3079:Peace of Westphalia
2548:Castelló d'Empúries
1257:4,500,000–8,000,000
1250:Total civilian dead
1184:80,000–90,000 Dutch
1178:27,000 Danes (1626)
1109:Charles of Lorraine
780:Christian of Anhalt
333:Brandenburg-Prussia
175:Brandenburg-Prussia
146:France annexes the
132:Peace of Westphalia
85:Battle of the Downs
14677:Crusading movement
14581:Russian Revolution
14416:Hundred Years' War
14312:Maritime republics
14215:Early Christianity
14205:Hellenistic period
14162:Paleolithic Europe
13861:Our Lady of Fátima
13650:Ignatius of Loyola
13574:Catherine of Siena
13542:Pope Boniface VIII
13361:Benedict of Nursia
13330:Council of Ephesus
13167:Ante-Nicene period
13120:Split with Judaism
12954:Crusading movement
12739:Gotthard Fritzsche
12601:F. H. R. von Frank
12591:Theodosius Harnack
12518:E. W. Hengstenberg
12481:N. F. S. Grundtvig
12476:Carl Olof Rosenius
12451:Paavo Ruotsalainen
12441:Hans Nielsen Hauge
12229:Julius Wegscheider
12020:Stephan Praetorius
11995:Nikolaus Selnecker
11972:Acceptance of the
11880:Victorinus Strigel
11850:Philip Melanchthon
11823:Formula of Concord
11745:Regensburg Interim
11740:Diet of Regensburg
11700:Frederick the Wise
11690:Stephan Praetorius
11675:Laurentius Andreae
11630:Philip Melanchthon
11625:Katharina von Bora
11518:Ninety-five Theses
11149:Schiller, Frederic
11046:. Clarendon Press.
10810:10.1093/ehr/cen160
9785:Corpus Christianum
8786:, pp. 83–117.
8196:Gnanaprakasar 2003
6919:, pp. 12, 15.
6652:, pp. 4, 787.
6246:Franco-Spanish War
6098:
6082:
6029:Friedrich Schiller
5988:Palatinate-Neuburg
5948:
5881:
5794:
5777:population decline
5730:
5702:Population decline
5672:The General Crisis
5561:. Frederick's son
5547:
5480:
5376:Philip II of Spain
5372:
5321:Count of Barcelona
5245:
4942:
4914:Battle of Freiburg
4871:
4825:Second Breitenfeld
4819:French victory at
4368:
4364:Cardinal Richelieu
4350:Franco-Spanish War
4299:
4260:Treaty of Bärwalde
4247:
4180:
4088:
4007:
3992:Cardinal Richelieu
3988:Republic of Venice
3910:Upper Saxon Circle
3675:
3641:Charles of Bucquoy
3628:
3573:Ernst von Mansfeld
3488:
3453:James I of England
3399:
3338:Archduke Ferdinand
3321:, caused when its
3315:
3196:Holy Roman Emperor
3194:who voted for the
3101:Structural origins
2964:religious conflict
2945:Franco-Spanish War
2815:3rd Lérins Islands
2810:2nd Lérins Islands
2800:1st Lérins Islands
2164:Franco-Spanish War
221:Kingdom of Bohemia
80:(16 November 1632)
14738:Thirty Years' War
14691:
14690:
14685:
14684:
14611:COVID-19 pandemic
14556:French Revolution
14531:Habsburg monarchy
14511:Cossack Hetmanate
14491:Portuguese Empire
14481:Absolute monarchy
14476:Thirty Years' War
14371:Holy Roman Empire
14296:Bulgarian Empire
14255:Early Middle Ages
14172:Bronze Age Europe
14146:History of Europe
14112:
14111:
14072:COVID-19 pandemic
14050:Pope Benedict XVI
13955:Pope John Paul II
13730:Pope Benedict XIV
13716:French Revolution
13700:Thirty Years' War
13690:Robert Bellarmine
13675:John of the Cross
13579:Pope Alexander VI
13564:Council of Vienne
13494:Francis of Assisi
13484:Pope Innocent III
13353:Early Middle Ages
13347:
13346:
13343:
13342:
13285:Arian controversy
13238:
13237:
13186:Apostolic Fathers
12837:
12836:
12833:
12832:
12808:
12807:
12708:H. E. F. Guericke
12662:
12661:
12533:Carl Paul Caspari
12456:Finnish Awakening
12352:
12351:
12272:Philip Marheineke
12244:Adolf von Harnack
12145:
12144:
12117:Christian Scriver
12096:Thirty Years' War
11944:
11943:
11885:Johannes Agricola
11770:Peace of Augsburg
11708:
11707:
11695:Johann Pfeffinger
11655:Petrus Särkilahti
11606:
11605:
11450:
11449:
11266:Thirty Years' War
11187:10.1093/gh/15.1.1
11131:978-0-521-02603-1
11032:978-90-04-12086-0
10945:978-0-88029-262-7
10892:978-0-521-45139-0
10769:978-0-7139-9592-3
10750:978-0-393-08192-3
10731:978-1-59017-146-2
10712:978-1-84383-575-2
10705:. Boydell Press.
10664:978-0-521-80203-1
10645:978-0-86597-278-0
10481:978-0-19-924637-3
10462:978-1-305-95231-7
10306:978-0-7546-3401-0
10287:978-0-521-45139-0
10219:978-0-521-79209-7
10200:978-0-521-54392-7
10180:978-0-415-12883-4
9970:978-91-88661-82-1
9860:978-1-86232-182-3
9818:978-1-78738-023-3
9772:978-0-333-23446-4
9753:978-0-19-927121-4
9704:978-0-415-26862-2
9685:978-0-8160-2758-3
9678:. Facts on file.
9647:978-0-7425-4697-4
9606:978-0-521-47045-2
9512:978-1-138-15827-6
9464:978-81-206-1686-8
9361:978-1-4981-4446-9
9305:978-1-137-33332-2
9286:978-0-8032-1562-7
9254:978-0-7864-7470-7
9216:978-1-85532-552-4
9197:978-0-670-83589-8
9140:978-1-4094-0629-7
9121:978-1-4094-0629-7
9102:978-0-300-17858-6
9083:978-1-4094-0629-7
9022:10.1111/ehr.12652
8921:, pp. 67–68.
8909:, pp. 67–68.
8894:, pp. 89–90.
8858:, pp. 18–19.
8784:Trevor-Roper 2001
8432:, pp. 88–91.
8011:, pp. 12–18.
7732:, pp. 60–65.
7634:Van Gelderen 2002
7597:, pp. 94–95.
7549:, pp. 80–85.
7306:, pp. 28–29.
7282:, pp. 98–99.
7198:, pp. 48–49.
7174:, pp. 43–44.
7006:, pp. 37–38.
6970:, pp. 98–99.
6931:, pp. 81–82.
6907:, pp. 78–79.
6895:, pp. 74–75.
6859:, pp. 63–65.
6823:, pp. 47–49.
6751:, pp. 17–22.
6727:, pp. 22–24.
6688:, pp. 17–18.
6512:Van Nimwegen 2014
6094:Western Pomerania
6040:envisaged by the
6022:Sack of Magdeburg
5843:Maurice of Orange
5615:Burgundian Circle
5604:Swedish Pomerania
5551:Farther Pomerania
5545:, 30 January 1648
5476:Holy Roman Empire
5404:Portuguese Brazil
5400:Portuguese Angola
5241:Casale Monferrato
5175:Duke of Guastalla
5159:Casale Monferrato
4926:Second Nördlingen
4909:in October 1644.
4831:. The capture of
4444:in October 1639.
4401:. His capture of
4255:Sack of Magdeburg
4243:Sack of Magdeburg
4231:Christian William
4066:Gustavus Adolphus
3978:In the June 1624
3613:Maurice of Orange
3561:Protestant rebels
3482:"Winter's King",
3407:Eighty Years' War
3241:until 1556, when
3223:House of Habsburg
3200:prince-bishoprics
3127:Peace of Augsburg
3123:Holy Roman Empire
3051:Gustavus Adolphus
3010:, and the French
2976:Peace of Augsburg
2972:Holy Roman Empire
2937:Eighty Years' War
2921:Thirty Years' War
2916:
2915:
2683:France hinterland
2128:
2127:
2110:
2109:
1652:Strasbourg Bridge
1296:Thirty Years' War
1261:
1260:
804:Christian WIlliam
694:Maurice of Orange
554:Gustavus Adolphus
502:Holy Roman Empire
370:Habsburg Monarchy
196:
195:
188:Holy Roman Empire
184:Swiss Confederacy
179:Eastern Pomerania
166:Western Pomerania
87:(21 October 1639)
42:Thirty Years' War
16:(Redirected from
14850:
14720:
14719:
14718:
14708:
14707:
14699:
14546:Great Divergence
14461:Age of Discovery
14406:Late Middle Ages
14376:High Middle Ages
14287:Byzantine Empire
14270:Christianization
14260:Migration Period
14195:Classical Greece
14167:Neolithic Europe
14139:
14132:
14125:
14116:
14115:
14102:
14101:
14090:
14089:
14088:
14067:Patriarch Kirill
13940:Pope John Paul I
13745:Anti-clericalism
13725:Pope Innocent XI
13645:Society of Jesus
13630:Council of Trent
13584:Age of Discovery
13529:Late Middle Ages
13431:High Middle Ages
13421:East–West Schism
13305:Pope Sylvester I
13251:
13250:
13240:
13239:
13150:General epistles
13145:Pauline epistles
13078:John the Baptist
13061:Great Commission
13023:
13022:
12974:Catholic culture
12864:
12857:
12850:
12841:
12840:
12785:C. F. W. Walther
12780:F. C. D. Wyneken
12713:G. P. E. Huschke
12673:
12672:
12649:Theodor Kliefoth
12566:J. W. F. Höfling
12506:
12505:
12361:
12360:
12249:Wilhelm Herrmann
12239:Albrecht Ritschl
12234:Wilhelm Gesenius
12158:
12157:
12086:Johannes Musaeus
12071:Johann Hülsemann
12061:Jesper Brochmand
12056:Nicolaus Hunnius
12046:Abraham Calovius
12015:Aegidius Hunnius
11962:
11961:
11936:Crypto-Lutherans
11931:Gnesio-Lutherans
11911:Crypto-Calvinism
11890:Andreas Osiander
11875:Andreas Musculus
11870:Joachim Westphal
11855:Matthias Flacius
11755:Augsburg Interim
11750:Schmalkaldic War
11717:
11716:
11685:Laurentius Petri
11665:Stephan Agricola
11534:Marburg Colloquy
11510:
11509:
11503:
11502:
11477:
11470:
11463:
11454:
11453:
11264:Treaties of the
11258:
11251:
11244:
11235:
11234:
11222:
11221:
11216:
11214:
11212:
11190:
11169:
11168:. Edward Arnold.
11162:Steinberg, S. H.
11156:
11144:
11135:
11113:
11084:
11047:
11036:
11017:
10998:Past and Present
10992:
10973:Past and Present
10967:
10958:
10949:
10930:
10911:Past and Present
10905:
10904:. Leiden: Brill.
10896:
10877:
10868:
10850:
10821:
10804:(502): 554–586.
10792:
10773:
10754:
10735:
10716:
10697:
10668:
10649:
10638:. Liberty Fund.
10630:
10593:
10584:
10574:
10549:
10547:
10522:
10520:
10518:
10512:
10506:. Archived from
10497:
10485:
10466:
10447:
10437:
10427:
10402:
10400:
10398:
10392:
10384:Economic History
10381:
10371:
10361:
10359:
10357:
10351:
10345:. Archived from
10320:
10310:
10291:
10272:
10270:
10268:
10262:
10256:. Archived from
10247:
10237:
10223:
10204:
10184:
10167:Parker, Geoffrey
10162:
10125:
10123:
10114:(4): 1053–1079.
10098:
10092:
10084:
10063:
10061:
10059:
10053:
10038:
10012:
10002:
9983:
9974:
9955:
9945:
9935:
9902:
9893:
9891:
9889:
9874:Northern Studies
9864:
9845:
9843:
9841:
9822:
9803:
9801:
9799:
9776:
9757:
9738:
9729:
9708:
9689:
9670:
9651:
9632:
9615:Israel, Jonathan
9610:
9591:
9572:
9553:
9516:
9497:
9468:
9449:
9430:
9428:
9426:
9405:
9384:
9365:
9346:
9309:
9290:
9271:
9258:
9239:
9220:
9201:
9182:
9173:
9144:
9125:
9106:
9087:
9068:
9066:
9064:
9041:
9016:(4): 1175–1201.
9000:
8946:
8940:
8934:
8928:
8922:
8916:
8910:
8904:
8895:
8889:
8883:
8877:
8871:
8865:
8859:
8853:
8847:
8841:
8835:
8829:
8823:
8817:
8811:
8805:
8799:
8793:
8787:
8781:
8775:
8769:
8763:
8757:
8751:
8745:
8739:
8733:
8727:
8721:
8715:
8709:
8703:
8697:
8691:
8685:
8679:
8673:
8667:
8661:
8655:
8649:
8640:
8634:
8628:
8622:
8616:
8610:
8604:
8598:
8592:
8586:
8580:
8574:
8568:
8562:
8556:
8550:
8544:
8538:
8532:
8526:
8520:
8514:
8508:
8502:
8496:
8490:
8484:
8478:
8472:
8466:
8460:
8454:
8445:
8439:
8433:
8427:
8421:
8415:
8409:
8403:
8394:
8388:
8382:
8376:
8370:
8364:
8358:
8352:
8346:
8340:
8334:
8328:
8322:
8316:
8310:
8309:
8307:
8305:
8299:
8288:
8280:
8274:
8268:
8262:
8256:
8250:
8244:
8238:
8232:
8226:
8220:
8211:
8205:
8199:
8193:
8187:
8181:
8175:
8174:
8162:
8156:
8153:Van Groesen 2011
8150:
8144:
8138:
8132:
8126:
8120:
8114:
8108:
8102:
8096:
8090:
8084:
8078:
8072:
8066:
8060:
8054:
8048:
8042:
8036:
8030:
8024:
8018:
8012:
8006:
8000:
7994:
7988:
7982:
7976:
7970:
7964:
7958:
7952:
7946:
7940:
7934:
7928:
7922:
7916:
7910:
7904:
7898:
7892:
7886:
7880:
7874:
7868:
7862:
7853:
7847:
7841:
7835:
7829:
7823:
7817:
7811:
7805:
7799:
7793:
7787:
7781:
7775:
7769:
7763:
7757:
7751:
7745:
7739:
7733:
7727:
7721:
7715:
7709:
7703:
7697:
7691:
7685:
7679:
7673:
7667:
7661:
7655:
7649:
7643:
7637:
7631:
7622:
7616:
7610:
7604:
7598:
7592:
7586:
7580:
7574:
7568:
7562:
7556:
7550:
7544:
7538:
7532:
7526:
7520:
7514:
7508:
7502:
7496:
7490:
7484:
7478:
7472:
7466:
7460:
7454:
7448:
7442:
7436:
7430:
7424:
7418:
7412:
7403:
7397:
7391:
7385:
7379:
7373:
7367:
7361:
7355:
7349:
7343:
7337:
7331:
7325:
7319:
7313:
7307:
7301:
7295:
7289:
7283:
7277:
7271:
7265:
7259:
7253:
7247:
7241:
7235:
7229:
7223:
7217:
7211:
7205:
7199:
7193:
7187:
7181:
7175:
7169:
7163:
7157:
7151:
7145:
7139:
7133:
7127:
7121:
7115:
7109:
7103:
7097:
7091:
7085:
7079:
7073:
7067:
7061:
7055:
7049:
7043:
7037:
7031:
7025:
7019:
7013:
7007:
7001:
6995:
6989:
6983:
6977:
6971:
6965:
6956:
6950:
6944:
6938:
6932:
6926:
6920:
6914:
6908:
6902:
6896:
6890:
6884:
6878:
6872:
6866:
6860:
6854:
6848:
6842:
6836:
6830:
6824:
6818:
6812:
6806:
6800:
6794:
6788:
6782:
6776:
6770:
6764:
6758:
6752:
6746:
6740:
6734:
6728:
6722:
6716:
6715:, pp. 1–23.
6710:
6701:
6695:
6689:
6683:
6677:
6671:
6665:
6659:
6653:
6647:
6641:
6635:
6626:
6620:
6614:
6608:
6589:
6583:
6574:
6568:
6557:
6551:
6542:
6536:
6527:
6521:
6515:
6509:
6500:
6494:
6488:
6482:
6473:
6467:
6458:
6452:
6446:
6440:
6434:
6428:
6422:
6416:
6407:
6401:
6386:
6383:
6377:
6373:
6367:
6360:
6354:
6348:
6342:
6339:Imperial Knights
6331:
6325:
6314:
6308:
6301:
6295:
6294:
6293:
6292:
6286:
6281:
6270:
6264:
6258:
6255:
6249:
6242:
6236:
6232:
6226:
6223:Army of Flanders
6219:
6213:
6210:
6204:
6192:
6186:
6162:
6156:
6153:
6147:
6144:
6010:picaresque novel
5803:absolute decline
5726:
5720:
5650:Nijmegen in 1678
5572:Three Bishoprics
5535:Peace of Münster
5496:Alvise Contarini
5484:Peace of Münster
5392:Triangular trade
5309:Catalan Republic
5115:
5114:
5101:
5100:
5087:
5086:
5073:
5072:
5059:
5058:
5045:
5044:
5031:
5030:
5024:
4961:Johann von Werth
4852:Cardinal Mazarin
4783:
4782:
4769:
4768:
4755:
4754:
4741:
4740:
4727:
4726:
4713:
4712:
4699:
4698:
4685:
4684:
4671:
4670:
4657:
4656:
4643:
4642:
4629:
4628:
4615:
4614:
4601:
4600:
4587:
4586:
4573:
4572:
4559:
4558:
4545:
4544:
4531:
4530:
4517:
4516:
4503:
4502:
4489:
4488:
4482:
4314:Heilbronn League
4310:Axel Oxenstierna
4196:Truce of Altmark
4143:'s-Hertogenbosch
4096:Treaty of Lübeck
4070:Alexander Leslie
3996:Treaty of Monzón
3885:
3884:
3871:
3870:
3857:
3856:
3843:
3842:
3829:
3828:
3815:
3814:
3801:
3800:
3787:
3786:
3773:
3772:
3759:
3758:
3752:
3713:in May 1622 and
3683:Lower Palatinate
3661:Upper Palatinate
3657:Treaty of Munich
3523:Jaroslav Borzita
3449:Elizabeth Stuart
3430:Emperor Matthias
3411:Ambrosio Spinola
3397:: Ruled by Spain
3365:the Protestant.
3351:Protestant Union
3289:, and along the
3180:Imperial Estates
3111:Schmalkaldic War
3091:balance of power
3012:House of Bourbon
2925:European history
2638:
2347:
2169:
2165:
2155:
2148:
2141:
2132:
2131:
2088:2nd Saint Martin
2083:Cape St. Vincent
2058:1st Saint Martin
2023:
1986:
1974:
1962:
1790:
1708:
1696:
1643:
1522:'s-Hertogenbosch
1462:
1307:
1306:
1299:
1297:
1287:
1280:
1273:
1264:
1263:
1205:20,500 Bavarians
1153:
1152:
1141:
1140:
1132:
1130:
1119:
1118:
1107:
1106:
1098:
1096:
1085:
1084:
1076:
1074:
1063:
1062:
1051:
1050:
1039:
1038:
1027:
1026:
1015:
1014:
1003:
1002:
991:
990:
979:
978:
970:
968:
957:
956:
945:
944:
935:Archduke Leopold
933:
932:
921:
920:
912:
901:
900:
889:
888:
877:
876:
859:
858:
857:
847:
846:
834:
824:
814:
813:
802:
801:
790:
789:
778:
777:
771:
770:
769:
759:
758:
747:
746:
745:
735:
734:
728:
727:
726:
716:
715:
704:
703:
692:
691:
680:
679:
668:
667:
656:
655:
644:
643:
632:
631:
622:Alexander Leslie
620:
619:
608:
607:
596:
595:
584:
583:
572:
571:
562:
552:
551:
530:
526:
524:
523:
512:
511:
500:
498:
497:
475:
474:
473:
466:
462:
460:
459:
448:
447:
439:
435:
433:
432:
407:
406:
405:
398:
394:
392:
391:
380:
379:
368:
366:
365:
349:
345:
343:
342:
331:
330:
329:
319:
318:
317:
309:Heilbronn League
307:
300:
296:
294:
293:
285:
281:
279:
278:
267:
266:
255:
254:
243:
242:
241:
231:
230:
219:
217:
216:
103:
102:
92:Battle of Rocroi
63:
39:
38:
21:
18:Thirty Years war
14858:
14857:
14853:
14852:
14851:
14849:
14848:
14847:
14728:
14727:
14726:
14716:
14714:
14702:
14694:
14692:
14687:
14686:
14681:
14620:
14586:Interwar period
14561:Napoleonic Wars
14425:
14396:Mongol invasion
14349:Crown of Aragon
14241:
14181:
14177:Iron Age Europe
14148:
14143:
14113:
14108:
14096:
14086:
14084:
14076:
13998:World Youth Day
13976:
13965:World Youth Day
13909:Pacem in terris
13903:Pope John XXIII
13842:
13769:
13760:Edict of Nantes
13718:
13714:
13704:
13670:Teresa of Ávila
13665:Tridentine Mass
13601:
13597:
13588:
13569:Knights Templar
13523:
13425:
13381:Gregorian chant
13339:
13265:
13262:
13259:
13257:
13246:
13234:
13161:
13030:
13018:
13010:
12877:
12875:Catholic Church
12868:
12838:
12829:
12804:
12795:F. W. Stellhorn
12770:J. A. A. Grabau
12753:
12722:
12703:Henrik Steffens
12658:
12654:Heinrich Hansen
12629:A. F. C. Vilmar
12615:
12586:K. F. A. Kahnis
12581:Franz Delitzsch
12547:
12495:
12422:
12348:
12322:
12296:
12292:Otto Pfleiderer
12253:
12210:
12184:
12141:
12100:
12076:J. C. Dannhauer
12066:Salomo Glassius
12041:J. A. Quenstedt
12024:
12010:Leonhard Hutter
12000:David Chytraeus
11980:Martin Chemnitz
11974:Book of Concord
11957:
11953:
11940:
11916:Sacramentarians
11899:
11860:Nicolaus Gallus
11838:
11821:Signing of the
11765:Peace of Passau
11760:Leipzig Interim
11704:
11660:Mikael Agricola
11602:
11566:
11497:
11490:
11481:
11451:
11446:
11445:
11433:
11269:
11262:
11227:
11219:
11210:
11208:
11132:
11102:10.2307/3720833
11033:
10946:
10893:
10858:
10856:Further reading
10853:
10839:10.2307/4048141
10789:
10770:
10751:
10732:
10713:
10665:
10646:
10516:
10514:
10513:on 28 July 2021
10510:
10495:
10482:
10463:
10396:
10394:
10390:
10379:
10355:
10353:
10352:on 4 March 2016
10349:
10318:
10307:
10288:
10266:
10264:
10260:
10245:
10220:
10201:
10181:
10086:
10085:
10057:
10055:
10051:
10015:Medical History
10010:
9999:
9971:
9918:(5): e0178252.
9887:
9885:
9861:
9839:
9837:
9819:
9797:
9795:
9773:
9754:
9705:
9686:
9667:
9648:
9629:
9607:
9588:
9569:
9513:
9465:
9446:
9424:
9422:
9381:
9362:
9306:
9287:
9255:
9236:
9217:
9198:
9141:
9122:
9103:
9084:
9062:
9060:
8954:
8949:
8941:
8937:
8933:, pp. 6–7.
8929:
8925:
8917:
8913:
8905:
8898:
8890:
8886:
8878:
8874:
8866:
8862:
8854:
8850:
8844:Helfferich 2009
8842:
8838:
8834:, pp. 3–4.
8830:
8826:
8818:
8814:
8806:
8802:
8794:
8790:
8782:
8778:
8770:
8766:
8758:
8754:
8746:
8742:
8734:
8730:
8722:
8718:
8710:
8706:
8698:
8694:
8686:
8682:
8674:
8670:
8662:
8658:
8650:
8643:
8635:
8631:
8623:
8619:
8611:
8607:
8599:
8595:
8587:
8583:
8575:
8571:
8563:
8559:
8551:
8547:
8539:
8535:
8527:
8523:
8515:
8511:
8507:, p. 1058.
8503:
8499:
8491:
8487:
8479:
8475:
8471:, p. 1175.
8467:
8463:
8455:
8448:
8440:
8436:
8428:
8424:
8416:
8412:
8404:
8397:
8389:
8385:
8381:, p. 1053.
8377:
8373:
8365:
8361:
8353:
8349:
8341:
8337:
8329:
8325:
8317:
8313:
8303:
8301:
8297:
8286:
8282:
8281:
8277:
8269:
8265:
8257:
8253:
8245:
8241:
8233:
8229:
8221:
8214:
8210:, pp. 3–4.
8206:
8202:
8194:
8190:
8182:
8178:
8168:
8163:
8159:
8151:
8147:
8139:
8135:
8127:
8123:
8115:
8111:
8103:
8099:
8091:
8087:
8079:
8075:
8067:
8063:
8055:
8051:
8043:
8039:
8031:
8027:
8019:
8015:
8007:
8003:
7995:
7991:
7983:
7979:
7971:
7967:
7959:
7955:
7947:
7943:
7935:
7931:
7923:
7919:
7911:
7907:
7899:
7895:
7887:
7883:
7875:
7871:
7863:
7856:
7848:
7844:
7836:
7832:
7824:
7820:
7812:
7808:
7800:
7796:
7788:
7784:
7776:
7772:
7764:
7760:
7752:
7748:
7740:
7736:
7728:
7724:
7716:
7712:
7704:
7700:
7694:Clodfelter 2008
7692:
7688:
7680:
7676:
7668:
7664:
7656:
7652:
7648:, pp. 120.
7644:
7640:
7632:
7625:
7617:
7613:
7605:
7601:
7593:
7589:
7581:
7577:
7569:
7565:
7557:
7553:
7545:
7541:
7533:
7529:
7521:
7517:
7509:
7505:
7497:
7493:
7485:
7481:
7473:
7469:
7461:
7457:
7449:
7445:
7439:Brzezinski 2001
7437:
7433:
7425:
7421:
7413:
7406:
7400:Brzezinski 2001
7398:
7394:
7386:
7382:
7374:
7370:
7362:
7358:
7350:
7346:
7338:
7334:
7326:
7322:
7314:
7310:
7302:
7298:
7290:
7286:
7278:
7274:
7266:
7262:
7254:
7250:
7242:
7238:
7230:
7226:
7218:
7214:
7206:
7202:
7194:
7190:
7182:
7178:
7170:
7166:
7158:
7154:
7146:
7142:
7134:
7130:
7122:
7118:
7110:
7106:
7098:
7094:
7086:
7082:
7074:
7070:
7062:
7058:
7052:Spielvogel 2017
7050:
7046:
7038:
7034:
7026:
7022:
7014:
7010:
7002:
6998:
6990:
6986:
6978:
6974:
6966:
6959:
6951:
6947:
6939:
6935:
6927:
6923:
6915:
6911:
6903:
6899:
6891:
6887:
6879:
6875:
6867:
6863:
6855:
6851:
6843:
6839:
6831:
6827:
6819:
6815:
6807:
6803:
6795:
6791:
6783:
6779:
6771:
6767:
6759:
6755:
6747:
6743:
6735:
6731:
6723:
6719:
6711:
6704:
6698:Sutherland 1992
6696:
6692:
6684:
6680:
6674:Sutherland 1992
6672:
6668:
6660:
6656:
6648:
6644:
6636:
6629:
6621:
6617:
6609:
6592:
6584:
6577:
6569:
6560:
6554:Clodfelter 2008
6552:
6545:
6537:
6530:
6522:
6518:
6510:
6503:
6495:
6491:
6483:
6476:
6470:Clodfelter 2008
6468:
6461:
6453:
6449:
6441:
6437:
6429:
6425:
6417:
6410:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6380:
6374:
6370:
6364:Anne of Denmark
6361:
6357:
6349:
6345:
6332:
6328:
6315:
6311:
6302:
6298:
6288:
6287:
6279:
6266:
6265:
6261:
6256:
6252:
6243:
6239:
6233:
6229:
6220:
6216:
6211:
6207:
6193:
6189:
6163:
6159:
6154:
6150:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6074:
6062:Daniel Kehlmann
6018:Peter Hagendorf
5965:over 900 people
5932:
5900:Napoleonic Wars
5835:
5801:calculated the
5747:Pitirim Sorokin
5728:
5724:
5722:
5718:
5705:
5668:
5662:
5611:Pope Innocent X
5533:Signing of the
5469:
5463:
5415:Salvador, Bahia
5352:
5301:
5295:
5183:Pope Urban VIII
5163:Duchy of Mantua
5133:
5132:
5131:
5129:
5123:
5122:
5121:
5120:
5116:
5108:
5107:
5106:
5102:
5094:
5093:
5092:
5088:
5080:
5079:
5078:
5074:
5066:
5065:
5064:
5060:
5052:
5051:
5050:
5046:
5038:
5037:
5036:
5032:
5016:
5011:
4981:von Königsmarck
4938:Siege of Prague
4899:Torstensson War
4876:Franz von Mercy
4801:
4800:
4799:
4797:
4791:
4790:
4789:
4788:
4784:
4776:
4775:
4774:
4770:
4762:
4761:
4760:
4756:
4748:
4747:
4746:
4742:
4734:
4733:
4732:
4728:
4720:
4719:
4718:
4714:
4706:
4705:
4704:
4700:
4692:
4691:
4690:
4686:
4678:
4677:
4676:
4672:
4664:
4663:
4662:
4658:
4650:
4649:
4648:
4644:
4636:
4635:
4634:
4630:
4622:
4621:
4620:
4616:
4608:
4607:
4606:
4602:
4594:
4593:
4592:
4588:
4580:
4579:
4578:
4574:
4566:
4565:
4564:
4560:
4552:
4551:
4550:
4546:
4538:
4537:
4536:
4532:
4524:
4523:
4522:
4518:
4510:
4509:
4508:
4504:
4496:
4495:
4494:
4490:
4395:Matthias Gallas
4354:Peace of Prague
4338:
4165:
4159:
4151:Frederick Henry
4133:captured their
3932:in early 1625.
3906:
3905:
3904:
3899:
3893:
3892:
3891:
3890:
3886:
3878:
3877:
3876:
3872:
3864:
3863:
3862:
3858:
3850:
3849:
3848:
3844:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3830:
3822:
3821:
3820:
3816:
3808:
3807:
3806:
3802:
3794:
3793:
3792:
3788:
3780:
3779:
3778:
3774:
3766:
3765:
3764:
3760:
3744:
3653:
3597:1620 Polish war
3589:Gabriel Bethlen
3531:Filip Fabricius
3476:
3474:Bohemian Revolt
3470:
3468:Bohemian Revolt
3465:
3457:Bohemian Revolt
3393:
3385:
3376:
3355:Catholic League
3307:
3212:Imperial circle
3204:Imperial cities
3192:prince-electors
3145:Catholic Church
3107:Peace of Passau
3103:
3035:Bohemian Revolt
2917:
2912:
2736:Lons-le-Saunier
2632:
2341:
2239:Aire-sur-la-Lys
2170:
2167:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2129:
2124:
2123:
2111:
2098:Colberger Heide
2017:
1980:
1968:
1956:
1879:2nd Breitenfeld
1784:
1757:2nd Rheinfelden
1702:
1690:
1637:
1630:1st Rheinfelden
1560:1st Breitenfeld
1540:Swedish landing
1471:Vlach uprisings
1456:
1300:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1253:
1248:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1208:
1187:
1159:
1147:
1135:
1126:
1113:
1101:
1092:
1079:
1070:
1057:
1045:
1033:
1021:
1009:
997:
985:
973:
964:
951:
939:
927:
915:
895:
883:
871:
865:
855:
853:
849:Gabriel Bethlen
841:
808:
796:
784:
772:
767:
765:
753:
743:
741:
729:
724:
722:
710:
706:Frederick Henry
698:
686:
674:
662:
650:
638:
626:
614:
602:
590:
578:
566:
558:
546:
533:
521:
519:
506:
495:
493:
487:Peace of Prague
481:
471:
469:
457:
455:
442:
430:
428:
421:Peace of Prague
413:
409:Catholic League
403:
401:
389:
387:
374:
363:
361:
352:
340:
338:
327:
325:
315:
313:
291:
289:
276:
274:
261:
249:
239:
237:
225:
214:
212:
192:
139:
123:
110:
97:
65:Left to right:
64:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
14856:
14846:
14845:
14840:
14835:
14830:
14825:
14820:
14815:
14810:
14805:
14800:
14795:
14790:
14785:
14780:
14775:
14770:
14765:
14760:
14755:
14750:
14745:
14740:
14725:
14724:
14712:
14689:
14688:
14683:
14682:
14680:
14679:
14674:
14669:
14664:
14659:
14654:
14649:
14644:
14639:
14634:
14628:
14626:
14622:
14621:
14619:
14618:
14613:
14608:
14603:
14598:
14593:
14588:
14583:
14578:
14573:
14568:
14563:
14558:
14553:
14548:
14543:
14538:
14536:Russian Empire
14533:
14528:
14526:British Empire
14523:
14521:Dutch Republic
14518:
14516:Swedish Empire
14513:
14508:
14503:
14498:
14496:Spanish Empire
14493:
14488:
14486:Ottoman Empire
14483:
14478:
14473:
14468:
14463:
14458:
14457:
14456:
14446:
14441:
14435:
14433:
14427:
14426:
14424:
14423:
14418:
14413:
14408:
14403:
14401:Serbian Empire
14398:
14393:
14388:
14383:
14378:
14373:
14368:
14346:
14341:
14336:
14335:
14334:
14329:
14324:
14319:
14309:
14308:
14307:
14302:
14294:
14289:
14284:
14279:
14274:
14273:
14272:
14262:
14257:
14251:
14249:
14243:
14242:
14240:
14239:
14237:Late antiquity
14234:
14229:
14224:
14223:
14222:
14212:
14207:
14202:
14200:Roman Republic
14197:
14191:
14189:
14183:
14182:
14180:
14179:
14174:
14169:
14164:
14158:
14156:
14150:
14149:
14142:
14141:
14134:
14127:
14119:
14110:
14109:
14107:
14106:
14094:
14081:
14078:
14077:
14075:
14074:
14069:
14064:
14057:
14052:
14047:
14046:
14045:
14040:
14035:
14030:
14025:
14020:
14015:
14010:
14005:
13995:
13990:
13984:
13982:
13978:
13977:
13975:
13974:
13973:
13972:
13962:
13957:
13952:
13947:
13942:
13937:
13927:
13922:
13917:
13912:
13905:
13900:
13893:
13888:
13886:Lateran Treaty
13883:
13878:
13873:
13868:
13863:
13858:
13852:
13850:
13844:
13843:
13841:
13840:
13833:
13828:
13823:
13818:
13813:
13808:
13803:
13798:
13793:
13788:
13783:
13777:
13775:
13771:
13770:
13768:
13767:
13762:
13757:
13752:
13747:
13742:
13737:
13732:
13727:
13721:
13719:
13711:Baroque period
13709:
13706:
13705:
13703:
13702:
13697:
13692:
13687:
13682:
13680:Peter Canisius
13677:
13672:
13667:
13662:
13657:
13655:Francis Xavier
13652:
13647:
13642:
13637:
13632:
13627:
13622:
13619:Exsurge Domine
13615:
13610:
13604:
13602:
13593:
13590:
13589:
13587:
13586:
13581:
13576:
13571:
13566:
13561:
13559:Pope Clement V
13556:
13555:
13554:
13552:Avignon Papacy
13547:Western Schism
13544:
13539:
13537:Thomas Aquinas
13533:
13531:
13525:
13524:
13522:
13521:
13516:
13511:
13506:
13501:
13496:
13491:
13486:
13481:
13476:
13471:
13466:
13461:
13456:
13451:
13446:
13441:
13435:
13433:
13427:
13426:
13424:
13423:
13418:
13413:
13408:
13403:
13398:
13393:
13391:Saint Boniface
13388:
13383:
13378:
13376:Pope Gregory I
13373:
13368:
13363:
13357:
13355:
13349:
13348:
13345:
13344:
13341:
13340:
13338:
13337:
13332:
13327:
13322:
13317:
13315:Biblical canon
13312:
13307:
13302:
13297:
13292:
13287:
13282:
13281:
13280:
13269:
13267:
13248:
13244:Late antiquity
13236:
13235:
13233:
13232:
13227:
13222:
13217:
13212:
13211:
13210:
13205:
13204:
13203:
13198:
13193:
13191:Pope Clement I
13181:Church Fathers
13178:
13172:
13170:
13163:
13162:
13160:
13159:
13158:
13157:
13152:
13147:
13142:
13137:
13132:
13122:
13117:
13112:
13107:
13106:
13105:
13100:
13095:
13090:
13080:
13075:
13070:
13065:
13064:
13063:
13058:
13053:
13048:
13037:
13035:
13020:
13012:
13011:
13009:
13008:
13003:
12998:
12993:
12988:
12987:
12986:
12981:
12971:
12966:
12961:
12956:
12951:
12950:
12949:
12944:
12942:Biblical canon
12937:Catholic Bible
12934:
12933:
12932:
12922:
12921:
12920:
12910:
12905:
12900:
12899:
12898:
12887:
12885:
12879:
12878:
12867:
12866:
12859:
12852:
12844:
12835:
12834:
12831:
12830:
12828:
12827:
12822:
12816:
12814:
12810:
12809:
12806:
12805:
12803:
12802:
12797:
12792:
12787:
12782:
12777:
12775:Wilhelm Sihler
12772:
12767:
12765:Martin Stephan
12761:
12759:
12755:
12754:
12752:
12751:
12746:
12741:
12736:
12730:
12728:
12724:
12723:
12721:
12720:
12715:
12710:
12705:
12700:
12698:Eduard Huschke
12695:
12693:J. G. Scheibel
12690:
12685:
12679:
12677:
12670:
12664:
12663:
12660:
12659:
12657:
12656:
12651:
12646:
12641:
12636:
12631:
12625:
12623:
12617:
12616:
12614:
12613:
12608:
12603:
12598:
12596:C. E. Luthardt
12593:
12588:
12583:
12578:
12573:
12568:
12563:
12557:
12555:
12549:
12548:
12546:
12545:
12540:
12535:
12530:
12525:
12523:F. A. Philippi
12520:
12514:
12512:
12510:Repristination
12503:
12497:
12496:
12494:
12493:
12488:
12486:August Tholuck
12483:
12478:
12473:
12468:
12463:
12458:
12453:
12448:
12443:
12438:
12432:
12430:
12424:
12423:
12421:
12420:
12415:
12410:
12405:
12400:
12398:J. W. Petersen
12395:
12390:
12385:
12380:
12375:
12369:
12367:
12358:
12354:
12353:
12350:
12349:
12347:
12346:
12341:
12336:
12330:
12328:
12324:
12323:
12321:
12320:
12315:
12310:
12304:
12302:
12298:
12297:
12295:
12294:
12289:
12284:
12279:
12274:
12269:
12263:
12261:
12255:
12254:
12252:
12251:
12246:
12241:
12236:
12231:
12226:
12220:
12218:
12212:
12211:
12209:
12208:
12203:
12198:
12192:
12190:
12186:
12185:
12183:
12182:
12177:
12172:
12166:
12164:
12155:
12147:
12146:
12143:
12142:
12140:
12139:
12134:
12129:
12124:
12119:
12114:
12108:
12106:
12102:
12101:
12099:
12098:
12093:
12088:
12083:
12078:
12073:
12068:
12063:
12058:
12053:
12051:Georg Calixtus
12048:
12043:
12038:
12036:Johann Gerhard
12032:
12030:
12026:
12025:
12023:
12022:
12017:
12012:
12007:
12002:
11997:
11992:
11987:
11982:
11977:
11968:
11966:
11959:
11946:
11945:
11942:
11941:
11939:
11938:
11933:
11928:
11923:
11918:
11913:
11907:
11905:
11901:
11900:
11898:
11897:
11892:
11887:
11882:
11877:
11872:
11867:
11862:
11857:
11852:
11846:
11844:
11840:
11839:
11837:
11836:
11831:
11826:
11818:
11810:
11805:
11800:
11795:
11787:
11782:
11777:
11772:
11767:
11762:
11757:
11752:
11747:
11742:
11737:
11732:
11723:
11721:
11714:
11710:
11709:
11706:
11705:
11703:
11702:
11697:
11692:
11687:
11682:
11677:
11672:
11667:
11662:
11657:
11652:
11647:
11642:
11640:Johannes Brenz
11637:
11632:
11627:
11622:
11616:
11614:
11608:
11607:
11604:
11603:
11601:
11600:
11595:
11590:
11585:
11580:
11574:
11572:
11571:Reformation in
11568:
11567:
11565:
11564:
11559:
11551:
11546:
11541:
11536:
11531:
11529:Leipzig Debate
11526:
11521:
11513:
11507:
11500:
11492:
11491:
11480:
11479:
11472:
11465:
11457:
11448:
11447:
11439:
11438:
11435:
11434:
11432:
11431:
11425:
11419:
11413:
11407:
11401:
11395:
11389:
11383:
11377:
11371:
11365:
11359:
11353:
11347:
11341:
11335:
11329:
11323:
11317:
11311:
11305:
11299:
11293:
11287:
11281:
11274:
11271:
11270:
11261:
11260:
11253:
11246:
11238:
11232:
11229:
11228:
11218:
11217:
11191:
11175:German History
11170:
11158:
11145:
11136:
11130:
11114:
11085:
11065:10.1086/238995
11048:
11037:
11031:
11018:
10993:
10968:
10959:
10950:
10944:
10931:
10906:
10897:
10891:
10878:
10869:
10859:
10857:
10854:
10852:
10851:
10833:(2): 144–175.
10822:
10793:
10788:978-0199642540
10787:
10774:
10768:
10762:. Allen Lane.
10755:
10749:
10736:
10730:
10717:
10711:
10698:
10680:(2): 167–193.
10669:
10663:
10650:
10644:
10631:
10605:(2): 189–213.
10594:
10585:
10550:
10523:
10486:
10480:
10467:
10461:
10448:
10418:(3): 491–513.
10403:
10372:
10362:
10329:(4): 590–599.
10311:
10305:
10292:
10286:
10273:
10263:on 11 May 2022
10238:
10232:(in Spanish).
10224:
10218:
10205:
10199:
10186:
10179:
10163:
10143:10.1086/241429
10137:(2): 195–214.
10126:
10099:
10075:(2): 245–272.
10064:
10021:(2): 151–184.
10003:
9998:978-0195053593
9997:
9984:
9975:
9969:
9956:
9903:
9894:
9865:
9859:
9846:
9823:
9817:
9804:
9777:
9771:
9758:
9752:
9739:
9730:
9709:
9703:
9690:
9684:
9671:
9666:978-0140285284
9665:
9659:. Allen Lane.
9652:
9646:
9633:
9627:
9611:
9605:
9592:
9586:
9573:
9568:978-0872209398
9567:
9554:
9534:10.1086/240888
9517:
9511:
9498:
9486:10.2307/204823
9480:(4): 749–770.
9469:
9463:
9450:
9445:978-1851096589
9444:
9431:
9406:
9385:
9380:978-0415146494
9379:
9366:
9360:
9347:
9321:(3): 253–279.
9315:War in History
9310:
9304:
9291:
9285:
9272:
9259:
9253:
9240:
9235:978-0946771424
9234:
9221:
9215:
9202:
9196:
9183:
9174:
9162:10.1086/241519
9145:
9139:
9126:
9120:
9107:
9101:
9088:
9082:
9069:
9042:
9001:
8955:
8953:
8950:
8948:
8947:
8935:
8923:
8911:
8896:
8884:
8872:
8860:
8848:
8836:
8824:
8812:
8800:
8798:, p. 163.
8788:
8776:
8764:
8762:, p. 220.
8752:
8750:, p. 784.
8740:
8738:, p. 516.
8728:
8716:
8714:, p. 147.
8712:O'Connell 1990
8704:
8692:
8690:, p. 177.
8680:
8678:, p. 770.
8668:
8666:, p. 254.
8656:
8654:, p. 184.
8641:
8639:, p. 202.
8629:
8617:
8615:, p. 200.
8605:
8603:, p. 185.
8593:
8581:
8569:
8557:
8555:, p. 512.
8545:
8543:, p. 152.
8533:
8521:
8519:, p. 122.
8509:
8497:
8495:, p. 345.
8485:
8483:, p. 103.
8473:
8461:
8459:, p. 250.
8446:
8434:
8422:
8410:
8395:
8393:, p. 510.
8383:
8371:
8359:
8357:, p. 757.
8347:
8345:, p. 504.
8335:
8333:, p. 597.
8323:
8321:, p. 707.
8311:
8275:
8263:
8251:
8239:
8227:
8225:, p. 746.
8212:
8200:
8188:
8176:
8157:
8145:
8133:
8121:
8119:, p. 153.
8109:
8107:, p. 407.
8097:
8095:, p. 406.
8085:
8083:, p. 124.
8073:
8071:, p. 259.
8061:
8059:, p. 125.
8049:
8037:
8035:, p. 200.
8025:
8013:
8001:
7989:
7987:, p. 247.
7977:
7965:
7953:
7951:, p. 501.
7941:
7929:
7927:, p. 726.
7917:
7915:, p. 496.
7905:
7903:, p. 716.
7893:
7881:
7869:
7867:, p. 711.
7854:
7842:
7830:
7828:, p. 273.
7818:
7806:
7804:, p. 687.
7794:
7792:, p. 671.
7782:
7770:
7768:, p. 587.
7758:
7756:, p. 171.
7746:
7744:, p. 154.
7734:
7722:
7710:
7698:
7686:
7684:, p. 447.
7674:
7672:, p. 446.
7662:
7660:, p. 150.
7650:
7638:
7636:, p. 284.
7623:
7611:
7609:, p. 537.
7599:
7587:
7575:
7573:, p. 615.
7563:
7551:
7539:
7527:
7525:, p. 328.
7515:
7513:, p. 387.
7503:
7491:
7479:
7467:
7455:
7453:, p. 523.
7443:
7431:
7419:
7404:
7392:
7380:
7368:
7366:, p. 256.
7364:O'Connell 1968
7356:
7354:, p. 128.
7344:
7340:O'Connell 1968
7332:
7330:, p. 120.
7320:
7318:, p. 106.
7308:
7296:
7284:
7272:
7270:, p. 511.
7260:
7258:, p. 497.
7248:
7236:
7224:
7222:, p. 172.
7212:
7210:, p. 170.
7200:
7188:
7186:, p. 426.
7176:
7164:
7162:, p. 212.
7152:
7150:, p. 208.
7140:
7138:, p. 295.
7136:Davenport 1917
7128:
7126:, p. 382.
7116:
7104:
7092:
7080:
7068:
7056:
7054:, p. 447.
7044:
7032:
7020:
7018:, p. 117.
7008:
6996:
6984:
6982:, p. 469.
6972:
6957:
6945:
6933:
6921:
6909:
6897:
6885:
6873:
6861:
6849:
6837:
6835:, p. 557.
6825:
6813:
6801:
6799:, p. 224.
6789:
6787:, p. 222.
6777:
6765:
6753:
6741:
6729:
6717:
6702:
6690:
6678:
6666:
6664:, p. 189.
6654:
6642:
6640:, p. 248.
6627:
6625:, p. 787.
6615:
6613:, p. 790.
6590:
6588:, p. 173.
6575:
6573:, p. 791.
6558:
6543:
6541:, p. 231.
6528:
6526:, p. 395.
6516:
6514:, p. 166.
6501:
6489:
6487:, p. 387.
6474:
6459:
6457:, p. 484.
6447:
6435:
6423:
6421:, p. 232.
6408:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6387:
6378:
6368:
6355:
6343:
6326:
6318:Denmark-Norway
6309:
6296:
6259:
6250:
6237:
6227:
6214:
6205:
6187:
6157:
6148:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6129:Toggenburg War
6073:
6070:
6046:Bertolt Brecht
5935:rebellions in
5931:
5928:
5851:line formation
5834:
5831:
5754:bubonic plague
5723:
5717:
5684:Tsarist Russia
5661:
5658:
5543:Dutch Republic
5524:ius reformandi
5465:Main article:
5462:
5459:
5351:
5350:Outside Europe
5348:
5317:Catalan Courts
5297:Main article:
5294:
5291:
5287:Duchy of Parma
5276:Siege of Turin
5263:and brothers,
5216:and 46,000 in
5198:Treaty of Suza
5171:Duke of Nevers
5130:Northern Italy
5125:
5124:
5118:
5117:
5110:
5109:
5104:
5103:
5096:
5095:
5090:
5089:
5082:
5081:
5076:
5075:
5068:
5067:
5062:
5061:
5054:
5053:
5048:
5047:
5040:
5039:
5034:
5033:
5026:
5025:
5019:
5018:
5017:
5015:
5014:Northern Italy
5012:
5010:
5007:
4952:with Bavaria,
4793:
4792:
4786:
4785:
4778:
4777:
4772:
4771:
4764:
4763:
4758:
4757:
4750:
4749:
4744:
4743:
4736:
4735:
4730:
4729:
4722:
4721:
4716:
4715:
4708:
4707:
4702:
4701:
4694:
4693:
4688:
4687:
4680:
4679:
4674:
4673:
4666:
4665:
4660:
4659:
4652:
4651:
4646:
4645:
4638:
4637:
4632:
4631:
4624:
4623:
4618:
4617:
4610:
4609:
4604:
4603:
4596:
4595:
4590:
4589:
4582:
4581:
4576:
4575:
4568:
4567:
4562:
4561:
4554:
4553:
4548:
4547:
4540:
4539:
4534:
4533:
4526:
4525:
4520:
4519:
4512:
4511:
4506:
4505:
4498:
4497:
4492:
4491:
4484:
4483:
4477:
4476:
4475:
4337:
4334:
4161:Main article:
4158:
4155:
4135:treasure fleet
3895:
3894:
3888:
3887:
3880:
3879:
3874:
3873:
3866:
3865:
3860:
3859:
3852:
3851:
3846:
3845:
3838:
3837:
3832:
3831:
3824:
3823:
3818:
3817:
3810:
3809:
3804:
3803:
3796:
3795:
3790:
3789:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3775:
3768:
3767:
3762:
3761:
3754:
3753:
3747:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3652:
3649:
3599:, followed by
3559:faced his own
3472:Main article:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3451:, daughter of
3363:Dutch Republic
3327:Emperor Rudolf
3306:
3303:
3271:Ottoman Empire
3239:Spanish Empire
3188:Northern Italy
3161:Denmark–Norway
3147:since Passau.
3102:
3099:
3043:Dutch Republic
2949:Torstenson War
2929:Central Europe
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2785:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2697:
2696:
2692:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2386:2nd Gravelines
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2361:3rd Landrecies
2358:
2353:
2348:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2319:2nd Landrecies
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2274:2nd Saint Omer
2271:
2266:
2264:1st Gravelines
2261:
2259:2nd Thionville
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2224:1st Thionville
2221:
2219:1st Saint Omer
2216:
2214:1st Landrecies
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2172:
2171:
2158:
2157:
2150:
2143:
2135:
2126:
2125:
2117:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2037:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1975:
1963:
1951:
1946:
1944:2nd Nördlingen
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1697:
1685:
1680:
1678:Schenkenschans
1675:
1670:
1662:
1661:
1657:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1649:
1647:1st Nördlingen
1644:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1534:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1525:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1481:
1480:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1451:
1446:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1403:Bergen op Zoom
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1362:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1345:White Mountain
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1314:
1313:
1305:
1302:
1301:
1290:
1289:
1282:
1275:
1267:
1259:
1258:
1241:
1240:
1232:Combat deaths:
1229:
1219:Combat deaths:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1207:
1206:
1203:
1202:90,000 Spanish
1200:
1193:
1191:Maximum actual
1188:
1186:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1172:
1170:Maximum actual
1166:
1165:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1145:
1133:
1111:
1099:
1077:
1055:
1043:
1031:
1019:
1007:
995:
983:
971:
949:
937:
925:
913:
893:
881:
868:
866:
864:
863:
861:George William
851:
839:
828:
818:
806:
794:
782:
763:
761:Jindřich Thurn
751:
739:
720:
708:
696:
684:
672:
660:
648:
636:
624:
612:
600:
588:
576:
564:
543:
540:
539:
535:
534:
532:
531:
528:Denmark–Norway
516:
514:Spanish Empire
504:
490:
482:
480:
479:
467:
464:Dutch Republic
452:
440:
424:
415:
414:
412:
411:
399:
384:
382:Spanish Empire
372:
358:
353:
351:
350:
335:
323:
311:
301:
298:Denmark–Norway
286:
283:Dutch Republic
271:
259:
247:
235:
223:
209:
203:
202:
198:
197:
194:
193:
191:
190:
181:
172:
154:
143:
141:
135:
134:
129:
125:
124:
121:Central Europe
119:
117:
113:
112:
107:
99:
98:
96:
95:
88:
81:
74:
66:
56:
55:
44:
43:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
14855:
14844:
14841:
14839:
14836:
14834:
14831:
14829:
14826:
14824:
14821:
14819:
14816:
14814:
14811:
14809:
14806:
14804:
14801:
14799:
14796:
14794:
14791:
14789:
14786:
14784:
14781:
14779:
14776:
14774:
14771:
14769:
14766:
14764:
14761:
14759:
14756:
14754:
14751:
14749:
14746:
14744:
14741:
14739:
14736:
14735:
14733:
14723:
14713:
14711:
14706:
14701:
14700:
14697:
14678:
14675:
14673:
14670:
14668:
14665:
14663:
14660:
14658:
14655:
14653:
14650:
14648:
14645:
14643:
14640:
14638:
14635:
14633:
14632:Art of Europe
14630:
14629:
14627:
14623:
14617:
14614:
14612:
14609:
14607:
14604:
14602:
14599:
14597:
14594:
14592:
14589:
14587:
14584:
14582:
14579:
14577:
14574:
14572:
14569:
14567:
14564:
14562:
14559:
14557:
14554:
14552:
14549:
14547:
14544:
14542:
14539:
14537:
14534:
14532:
14529:
14527:
14524:
14522:
14519:
14517:
14514:
14512:
14509:
14507:
14504:
14502:
14499:
14497:
14494:
14492:
14489:
14487:
14484:
14482:
14479:
14477:
14474:
14472:
14469:
14467:
14464:
14462:
14459:
14455:
14452:
14451:
14450:
14447:
14445:
14442:
14440:
14437:
14436:
14434:
14432:
14431:Modern period
14428:
14422:
14419:
14417:
14414:
14412:
14409:
14407:
14404:
14402:
14399:
14397:
14394:
14392:
14389:
14387:
14384:
14382:
14379:
14377:
14374:
14372:
14369:
14366:
14362:
14358:
14354:
14350:
14347:
14345:
14342:
14340:
14337:
14333:
14330:
14328:
14325:
14323:
14320:
14318:
14315:
14314:
14313:
14310:
14306:
14303:
14301:
14298:
14297:
14295:
14293:
14290:
14288:
14285:
14283:
14280:
14278:
14275:
14271:
14268:
14267:
14266:
14263:
14261:
14258:
14256:
14253:
14252:
14250:
14248:
14244:
14238:
14235:
14233:
14230:
14228:
14225:
14221:
14218:
14217:
14216:
14213:
14211:
14208:
14206:
14203:
14201:
14198:
14196:
14193:
14192:
14190:
14188:
14184:
14178:
14175:
14173:
14170:
14168:
14165:
14163:
14160:
14159:
14157:
14155:
14151:
14147:
14140:
14135:
14133:
14128:
14126:
14121:
14120:
14117:
14105:
14100:
14095:
14093:
14083:
14082:
14079:
14073:
14070:
14068:
14065:
14063:
14062:
14058:
14056:
14053:
14051:
14048:
14044:
14041:
14039:
14036:
14034:
14031:
14029:
14026:
14024:
14021:
14019:
14016:
14014:
14011:
14009:
14006:
14004:
14001:
14000:
13999:
13996:
13994:
13991:
13989:
13986:
13985:
13983:
13979:
13971:
13968:
13967:
13966:
13963:
13961:
13958:
13956:
13953:
13951:
13948:
13946:
13945:Mother Teresa
13943:
13941:
13938:
13935:
13931:
13928:
13926:
13923:
13921:
13918:
13916:
13913:
13911:
13910:
13906:
13904:
13901:
13899:
13898:
13894:
13892:
13889:
13887:
13884:
13882:
13879:
13877:
13874:
13872:
13871:Pope Pius XII
13869:
13867:
13864:
13862:
13859:
13857:
13854:
13853:
13851:
13849:
13845:
13839:
13838:
13837:Rerum novarum
13834:
13832:
13829:
13827:
13824:
13822:
13821:Pope Leo XIII
13819:
13817:
13814:
13812:
13809:
13807:
13804:
13802:
13799:
13797:
13794:
13792:
13791:United States
13789:
13787:
13784:
13782:
13781:Pope Pius VII
13779:
13778:
13776:
13772:
13766:
13763:
13761:
13758:
13756:
13753:
13751:
13748:
13746:
13743:
13741:
13738:
13736:
13733:
13731:
13728:
13726:
13723:
13722:
13720:
13717:
13712:
13707:
13701:
13698:
13696:
13693:
13691:
13688:
13686:
13683:
13681:
13678:
13676:
13673:
13671:
13668:
13666:
13663:
13661:
13658:
13656:
13653:
13651:
13648:
13646:
13643:
13641:
13638:
13636:
13633:
13631:
13628:
13626:
13623:
13621:
13620:
13616:
13614:
13611:
13609:
13606:
13605:
13603:
13600:
13596:
13591:
13585:
13582:
13580:
13577:
13575:
13572:
13570:
13567:
13565:
13562:
13560:
13557:
13553:
13550:
13549:
13548:
13545:
13543:
13540:
13538:
13535:
13534:
13532:
13530:
13526:
13520:
13517:
13515:
13512:
13510:
13507:
13505:
13502:
13500:
13497:
13495:
13492:
13490:
13487:
13485:
13482:
13480:
13477:
13475:
13472:
13470:
13467:
13465:
13464:Scholasticism
13462:
13460:
13457:
13455:
13452:
13450:
13447:
13445:
13442:
13440:
13439:Pope Urban II
13437:
13436:
13434:
13432:
13428:
13422:
13419:
13417:
13414:
13412:
13409:
13407:
13404:
13402:
13399:
13397:
13394:
13392:
13389:
13387:
13384:
13382:
13379:
13377:
13374:
13372:
13369:
13367:
13364:
13362:
13359:
13358:
13356:
13354:
13350:
13336:
13333:
13331:
13328:
13326:
13323:
13321:
13318:
13316:
13313:
13311:
13308:
13306:
13303:
13301:
13298:
13296:
13293:
13291:
13288:
13286:
13283:
13279:
13276:
13275:
13274:
13271:
13270:
13268:
13264:
13256:
13252:
13249:
13245:
13241:
13231:
13228:
13226:
13223:
13221:
13218:
13216:
13215:Justin Martyr
13213:
13209:
13206:
13202:
13199:
13197:
13194:
13192:
13189:
13188:
13187:
13184:
13183:
13182:
13179:
13177:
13174:
13173:
13171:
13168:
13164:
13156:
13153:
13151:
13148:
13146:
13143:
13141:
13138:
13136:
13133:
13131:
13128:
13127:
13126:
13125:New Testament
13123:
13121:
13118:
13116:
13113:
13111:
13108:
13104:
13101:
13099:
13096:
13094:
13091:
13089:
13088:Commissioning
13086:
13085:
13084:
13081:
13079:
13076:
13074:
13071:
13069:
13066:
13062:
13059:
13057:
13054:
13052:
13049:
13047:
13044:
13043:
13042:
13039:
13038:
13036:
13033:
13032:Apostolic Age
13028:
13024:
13021:
13017:
13013:
13007:
13004:
13002:
12999:
12997:
12994:
12992:
12989:
12985:
12982:
12980:
12977:
12976:
12975:
12972:
12970:
12967:
12965:
12962:
12960:
12957:
12955:
12952:
12948:
12945:
12943:
12940:
12939:
12938:
12935:
12931:
12928:
12927:
12926:
12923:
12919:
12918:Papal primacy
12916:
12915:
12914:
12911:
12909:
12906:
12904:
12901:
12897:
12894:
12893:
12892:
12889:
12888:
12886:
12884:
12880:
12876:
12872:
12865:
12860:
12858:
12853:
12851:
12846:
12845:
12842:
12826:
12825:Homosexuality
12823:
12821:
12818:
12817:
12815:
12811:
12801:
12798:
12796:
12793:
12791:
12788:
12786:
12783:
12781:
12778:
12776:
12773:
12771:
12768:
12766:
12763:
12762:
12760:
12758:United States
12756:
12750:
12747:
12745:
12744:Johann Flierl
12742:
12740:
12737:
12735:
12732:
12731:
12729:
12725:
12719:
12718:Free churches
12716:
12714:
12711:
12709:
12706:
12704:
12701:
12699:
12696:
12694:
12691:
12689:
12686:
12684:
12681:
12680:
12678:
12674:
12671:
12669:
12665:
12655:
12652:
12650:
12647:
12645:
12644:J. K. W. Löhe
12642:
12640:
12637:
12635:
12632:
12630:
12627:
12626:
12624:
12622:
12618:
12612:
12609:
12607:
12604:
12602:
12599:
12597:
12594:
12592:
12589:
12587:
12584:
12582:
12579:
12577:
12574:
12572:
12569:
12567:
12564:
12562:
12559:
12558:
12556:
12554:
12550:
12544:
12543:L .A. Gotwald
12541:
12539:
12536:
12534:
12531:
12529:
12528:F. G. Hedberg
12526:
12524:
12521:
12519:
12516:
12515:
12513:
12511:
12507:
12504:
12502:
12498:
12492:
12489:
12487:
12484:
12482:
12479:
12477:
12474:
12472:
12471:Laestadianism
12469:
12467:
12464:
12462:
12459:
12457:
12454:
12452:
12449:
12447:
12444:
12442:
12439:
12437:
12434:
12433:
12431:
12429:
12425:
12419:
12416:
12414:
12411:
12409:
12408:J. F. Buddeus
12406:
12404:
12403:A. H. Francke
12401:
12399:
12396:
12394:
12391:
12389:
12388:J. V. Andreae
12386:
12384:
12381:
12379:
12376:
12374:
12373:Martin Moller
12371:
12370:
12368:
12366:
12362:
12359:
12355:
12345:
12342:
12340:
12337:
12335:
12332:
12331:
12329:
12325:
12319:
12316:
12314:
12311:
12309:
12306:
12305:
12303:
12299:
12293:
12290:
12288:
12285:
12283:
12280:
12278:
12277:David Strauss
12275:
12273:
12270:
12268:
12265:
12264:
12262:
12260:
12256:
12250:
12247:
12245:
12242:
12240:
12237:
12235:
12232:
12230:
12227:
12225:
12222:
12221:
12219:
12217:
12213:
12207:
12204:
12202:
12199:
12197:
12194:
12193:
12191:
12187:
12181:
12178:
12176:
12173:
12171:
12168:
12167:
12165:
12163:
12159:
12156:
12153:
12152:or critical
12150:Speculative
12148:
12138:
12135:
12133:
12130:
12128:
12125:
12123:
12122:V. E. Löscher
12120:
12118:
12115:
12113:
12112:David Hollatz
12110:
12109:
12107:
12103:
12097:
12094:
12092:
12089:
12087:
12084:
12082:
12079:
12077:
12074:
12072:
12069:
12067:
12064:
12062:
12059:
12057:
12054:
12052:
12049:
12047:
12044:
12042:
12039:
12037:
12034:
12033:
12031:
12027:
12021:
12018:
12016:
12013:
12011:
12008:
12006:
12003:
12001:
11998:
11996:
11993:
11991:
11990:Jakob Andreae
11988:
11986:
11983:
11981:
11978:
11976:
11975:
11970:
11969:
11967:
11963:
11960:
11956:
11951:
11947:
11937:
11934:
11932:
11929:
11927:
11926:Ubiquitarians
11924:
11922:
11919:
11917:
11914:
11912:
11909:
11908:
11906:
11902:
11896:
11893:
11891:
11888:
11886:
11883:
11881:
11878:
11876:
11873:
11871:
11868:
11866:
11863:
11861:
11858:
11856:
11853:
11851:
11848:
11847:
11845:
11841:
11835:
11834:Uppsala Synod
11832:
11830:
11827:
11825:
11824:
11819:
11817:
11816:
11811:
11809:
11806:
11804:
11801:
11799:
11796:
11794:
11793:
11788:
11786:
11783:
11781:
11778:
11776:
11773:
11771:
11768:
11766:
11763:
11761:
11758:
11756:
11753:
11751:
11748:
11746:
11743:
11741:
11738:
11736:
11733:
11731:
11730:
11725:
11724:
11722:
11718:
11715:
11713:Early turmoil
11711:
11701:
11698:
11696:
11693:
11691:
11688:
11686:
11683:
11681:
11678:
11676:
11673:
11671:
11668:
11666:
11663:
11661:
11658:
11656:
11653:
11651:
11648:
11646:
11643:
11641:
11638:
11636:
11633:
11631:
11628:
11626:
11623:
11621:
11620:Martin Luther
11618:
11617:
11615:
11613:
11609:
11599:
11596:
11594:
11591:
11589:
11586:
11584:
11581:
11579:
11576:
11575:
11573:
11569:
11563:
11560:
11558:
11557:
11552:
11550:
11547:
11545:
11542:
11540:
11537:
11535:
11532:
11530:
11527:
11525:
11522:
11520:
11519:
11515:
11514:
11511:
11508:
11504:
11501:
11499:
11493:
11489:
11485:
11478:
11473:
11471:
11466:
11464:
11459:
11458:
11455:
11444:
11443:
11436:
11429:
11426:
11423:
11420:
11417:
11414:
11411:
11408:
11405:
11402:
11399:
11396:
11393:
11390:
11387:
11384:
11381:
11378:
11375:
11372:
11369:
11366:
11363:
11360:
11357:
11354:
11351:
11348:
11345:
11344:Fontainebleau
11342:
11339:
11336:
11333:
11330:
11327:
11324:
11321:
11318:
11315:
11312:
11309:
11306:
11303:
11300:
11297:
11294:
11291:
11288:
11285:
11282:
11279:
11276:
11275:
11272:
11267:
11259:
11254:
11252:
11247:
11245:
11240:
11239:
11236:
11230:
11223:
11206:
11202:
11201:
11196:
11192:
11188:
11184:
11180:
11176:
11171:
11167:
11163:
11159:
11154:
11150:
11146:
11142:
11137:
11133:
11127:
11123:
11119:
11118:Ringmar, Erik
11115:
11111:
11107:
11103:
11099:
11095:
11091:
11086:
11082:
11078:
11074:
11070:
11066:
11062:
11058:
11054:
11049:
11045:
11044:
11038:
11034:
11028:
11024:
11019:
11015:
11011:
11007:
11003:
11000:(39): 34–43.
10999:
10994:
10990:
10986:
10982:
10978:
10974:
10969:
10965:
10960:
10956:
10951:
10947:
10941:
10937:
10932:
10928:
10924:
10920:
10916:
10913:(39): 44–61.
10912:
10907:
10903:
10898:
10894:
10888:
10884:
10879:
10875:
10870:
10866:
10861:
10860:
10848:
10844:
10840:
10836:
10832:
10828:
10823:
10819:
10815:
10811:
10807:
10803:
10799:
10794:
10790:
10784:
10780:
10775:
10771:
10765:
10761:
10756:
10752:
10746:
10742:
10737:
10733:
10727:
10723:
10718:
10714:
10708:
10704:
10699:
10695:
10691:
10687:
10683:
10679:
10675:
10670:
10666:
10660:
10656:
10651:
10647:
10641:
10637:
10632:
10628:
10624:
10620:
10616:
10612:
10608:
10604:
10600:
10595:
10591:
10586:
10582:
10578:
10573:
10568:
10564:
10560:
10556:
10551:
10546:
10541:
10537:
10533:
10529:
10524:
10509:
10505:
10501:
10494:
10493:
10487:
10483:
10477:
10473:
10468:
10464:
10458:
10454:
10449:
10445:
10441:
10436:
10431:
10426:
10421:
10417:
10413:
10409:
10404:
10389:
10385:
10378:
10373:
10369:
10363:
10348:
10344:
10340:
10336:
10332:
10328:
10324:
10317:
10312:
10308:
10302:
10298:
10293:
10289:
10283:
10279:
10274:
10259:
10255:
10251:
10244:
10239:
10235:
10231:
10225:
10221:
10215:
10211:
10206:
10202:
10196:
10192:
10187:
10182:
10176:
10173:. Routledge.
10172:
10168:
10164:
10160:
10156:
10152:
10148:
10144:
10140:
10136:
10132:
10127:
10122:
10117:
10113:
10109:
10105:
10100:
10096:
10090:
10082:
10078:
10074:
10070:
10065:
10050:
10046:
10042:
10037:
10032:
10028:
10024:
10020:
10016:
10009:
10004:
10000:
9994:
9990:
9985:
9981:
9976:
9972:
9966:
9962:
9957:
9953:
9949:
9944:
9939:
9934:
9929:
9925:
9921:
9917:
9913:
9909:
9904:
9900:
9895:
9883:
9879:
9875:
9871:
9866:
9862:
9856:
9852:
9847:
9835:
9831:
9830:
9824:
9820:
9814:
9810:
9805:
9793:
9789:
9788:
9784:
9778:
9774:
9768:
9764:
9759:
9755:
9749:
9745:
9740:
9736:
9731:
9727:
9723:
9719:
9715:
9710:
9706:
9700:
9697:. Routledge.
9696:
9691:
9687:
9681:
9677:
9672:
9668:
9662:
9658:
9653:
9649:
9643:
9639:
9634:
9630:
9628:0-19-873072-1
9624:
9620:
9616:
9612:
9608:
9602:
9598:
9593:
9589:
9587:3-7338-0195-4
9583:
9579:
9574:
9570:
9564:
9560:
9555:
9551:
9547:
9543:
9539:
9535:
9531:
9527:
9523:
9518:
9514:
9508:
9505:. Routledge.
9504:
9499:
9495:
9491:
9487:
9483:
9479:
9475:
9470:
9466:
9460:
9456:
9451:
9447:
9441:
9437:
9432:
9420:
9416:
9412:
9407:
9403:
9399:
9395:
9392:(in French).
9391:
9386:
9382:
9376:
9373:. Routledge.
9372:
9367:
9363:
9357:
9353:
9348:
9344:
9340:
9336:
9332:
9328:
9324:
9320:
9316:
9311:
9307:
9301:
9297:
9292:
9288:
9282:
9278:
9273:
9269:
9265:
9260:
9256:
9250:
9246:
9241:
9237:
9231:
9227:
9222:
9218:
9212:
9208:
9203:
9199:
9193:
9189:
9184:
9180:
9175:
9171:
9167:
9163:
9159:
9155:
9151:
9146:
9142:
9136:
9132:
9127:
9123:
9117:
9113:
9108:
9104:
9098:
9094:
9089:
9085:
9079:
9076:. Routledge.
9075:
9070:
9058:
9054:
9050:
9049:
9043:
9039:
9035:
9031:
9027:
9023:
9019:
9015:
9011:
9007:
9002:
8998:
8994:
8990:
8986:
8982:
8978:
8974:
8970:
8967:(2): 122–41.
8966:
8962:
8957:
8956:
8944:
8939:
8932:
8927:
8920:
8915:
8908:
8907:McMurdie 2014
8903:
8901:
8893:
8888:
8882:, p. 65.
8881:
8880:McMurdie 2014
8876:
8869:
8864:
8857:
8852:
8845:
8840:
8833:
8828:
8821:
8816:
8809:
8804:
8797:
8792:
8785:
8780:
8774:, p. 93.
8773:
8768:
8761:
8756:
8749:
8744:
8737:
8736:Wedgwood 1938
8732:
8725:
8724:Wedgwood 1938
8720:
8713:
8708:
8701:
8696:
8689:
8684:
8677:
8672:
8665:
8660:
8653:
8648:
8646:
8638:
8633:
8626:
8625:Chandler 1990
8621:
8614:
8609:
8602:
8597:
8590:
8585:
8579:, p. 18.
8578:
8573:
8567:, p. 30.
8566:
8561:
8554:
8553:Wedgwood 1938
8549:
8542:
8537:
8530:
8525:
8518:
8513:
8506:
8501:
8494:
8489:
8482:
8477:
8470:
8465:
8458:
8453:
8451:
8443:
8438:
8431:
8426:
8419:
8414:
8407:
8402:
8400:
8392:
8391:Wedgwood 1938
8387:
8380:
8375:
8368:
8363:
8356:
8351:
8344:
8343:Wedgwood 1938
8339:
8332:
8327:
8320:
8315:
8296:
8292:
8285:
8279:
8272:
8267:
8260:
8259:Wedgwood 1938
8255:
8249:, p. 71.
8248:
8247:Lesaffer 1997
8243:
8236:
8231:
8224:
8219:
8217:
8209:
8204:
8197:
8192:
8185:
8184:Thornton 2016
8180:
8172:
8166:
8161:
8154:
8149:
8142:
8141:Thornton 2016
8137:
8130:
8129:Mitchell 2005
8125:
8118:
8113:
8106:
8101:
8094:
8089:
8082:
8077:
8070:
8065:
8058:
8053:
8047:, p. 20.
8046:
8045:Ferretti 2014
8041:
8034:
8029:
8022:
8021:Wedgwood 1938
8017:
8010:
8009:Ferretti 2014
8005:
7999:, p. 62.
7998:
7993:
7986:
7985:Wedgwood 1938
7981:
7974:
7973:Wedgwood 1938
7969:
7962:
7957:
7950:
7949:Wedgwood 1938
7945:
7938:
7933:
7926:
7921:
7914:
7913:Wedgwood 1938
7909:
7902:
7897:
7890:
7889:Wedgwood 1938
7885:
7878:
7877:Wedgwood 1938
7873:
7866:
7861:
7859:
7852:, p. 64.
7851:
7846:
7839:
7834:
7827:
7822:
7815:
7814:Wedgwood 1938
7810:
7803:
7798:
7791:
7786:
7779:
7774:
7767:
7762:
7755:
7750:
7743:
7738:
7731:
7726:
7719:
7714:
7707:
7702:
7696:, p. 41.
7695:
7690:
7683:
7682:Wedgwood 1938
7678:
7671:
7670:Wedgwood 1938
7666:
7659:
7654:
7647:
7642:
7635:
7630:
7628:
7620:
7615:
7608:
7603:
7596:
7591:
7584:
7579:
7572:
7567:
7560:
7555:
7548:
7543:
7536:
7531:
7524:
7523:Wedgwood 1938
7519:
7512:
7507:
7501:, p. 32.
7500:
7495:
7488:
7483:
7476:
7471:
7464:
7463:Wedgwood 1938
7459:
7452:
7447:
7441:, p. 74.
7440:
7435:
7429:, p. 99.
7428:
7423:
7417:, p. 89.
7416:
7411:
7409:
7401:
7396:
7389:
7388:Wedgwood 1938
7384:
7378:, p. 38.
7377:
7376:Porshnev 1995
7372:
7365:
7360:
7353:
7348:
7341:
7336:
7329:
7324:
7317:
7316:Porshnev 1995
7312:
7305:
7300:
7293:
7292:Wedgwood 1938
7288:
7281:
7276:
7269:
7264:
7257:
7252:
7245:
7244:Wedgwood 1938
7240:
7233:
7232:Wedgwood 1938
7228:
7221:
7220:Lockhart 2007
7216:
7209:
7208:Lockhart 2007
7204:
7197:
7192:
7185:
7180:
7173:
7168:
7161:
7160:Wedgwood 1938
7156:
7149:
7148:Wedgwood 1938
7144:
7137:
7132:
7125:
7120:
7114:, p. 53.
7113:
7108:
7101:
7100:Lockhart 2007
7096:
7089:
7088:Wedgwood 1938
7084:
7077:
7076:Wedgwood 1938
7072:
7065:
7060:
7053:
7048:
7041:
7036:
7029:
7024:
7017:
7016:Wedgwood 1938
7012:
7005:
7000:
6993:
6992:Wedgwood 1938
6988:
6981:
6976:
6969:
6968:Wedgwood 1938
6964:
6962:
6954:
6953:Baramova 2014
6949:
6943:, p. 94.
6942:
6941:Wedgwood 1938
6937:
6930:
6929:Wedgwood 1938
6925:
6918:
6913:
6906:
6905:Wedgwood 1938
6901:
6894:
6893:Wedgwood 1938
6889:
6883:, p. 14.
6882:
6877:
6870:
6865:
6858:
6857:Wedgwood 1938
6853:
6847:, p. 50.
6846:
6845:Wedgwood 1938
6841:
6834:
6829:
6822:
6821:Wedgwood 1938
6817:
6811:, p. 11.
6810:
6805:
6798:
6793:
6786:
6781:
6774:
6773:Wedgwood 1938
6769:
6763:, p. 24.
6762:
6761:Wedgwood 1938
6757:
6750:
6745:
6739:, p. 21.
6738:
6733:
6726:
6725:Wedgwood 1938
6721:
6714:
6709:
6707:
6699:
6694:
6687:
6682:
6675:
6670:
6663:
6658:
6651:
6646:
6639:
6634:
6632:
6624:
6619:
6612:
6607:
6605:
6603:
6601:
6599:
6597:
6595:
6587:
6582:
6580:
6572:
6567:
6565:
6563:
6556:, p. 39.
6555:
6550:
6548:
6540:
6535:
6533:
6525:
6520:
6513:
6508:
6506:
6498:
6493:
6486:
6481:
6479:
6472:, p. 40.
6471:
6466:
6464:
6456:
6451:
6444:
6439:
6432:
6427:
6420:
6415:
6413:
6405:
6400:
6396:
6382:
6372:
6365:
6359:
6353:
6347:
6340:
6336:
6330:
6323:
6319:
6313:
6306:
6300:
6291:
6285:
6277:
6273:
6269:
6263:
6254:
6247:
6241:
6231:
6224:
6218:
6209:
6202:
6198:
6191:
6184:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6161:
6152:
6143:
6139:
6132:
6130:
6126:
6122:
6117:
6113:
6111:
6105:
6103:
6095:
6090:
6086:
6078:
6069:
6067:
6063:
6059:
6058:
6053:
6052:
6047:
6043:
6039:
6035:
6034:German Empire
6030:
6025:
6023:
6019:
6015:
6012:; written by
6011:
6007:
6006:
5999:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5972:
5970:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5954:
5944:
5940:
5938:
5937:Upper Austria
5927:
5923:
5920:
5915:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5901:
5896:
5895:
5894:Hakkapeliitta
5890:
5886:
5878:
5874:
5870:
5866:
5862:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5830:
5828:
5824:
5820:
5815:
5813:
5809:
5804:
5799:
5798:Günther Franz
5790:
5786:
5783:
5778:
5773:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5750:
5748:
5743:
5738:
5734:
5727: >66%
5716:
5712:
5708:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5680:British Isles
5677:
5673:
5667:
5657:
5655:
5651:
5647:
5643:
5638:
5636:
5635:1654 and 1666
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5607:
5605:
5601:
5597:
5593:
5589:
5585:
5581:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5564:
5563:Charles Louis
5560:
5556:
5552:
5544:
5540:
5536:
5531:
5527:
5525:
5519:
5517:
5511:
5509:
5505:
5499:
5497:
5493:
5490:
5485:
5477:
5473:
5468:
5458:
5456:
5452:
5448:
5447:Malabar Coast
5444:
5440:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5409:In 1621, the
5407:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5393:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5380:Iberian Union
5377:
5369:
5365:
5361:
5360:Iberian Union
5356:
5347:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5329:
5324:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5306:
5300:
5290:
5288:
5284:
5279:
5277:
5272:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5242:
5237:
5233:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5206:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5190:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5152:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5128:
5023:
5006:
5004:
5000:
4999:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4985:attack Prague
4982:
4977:
4975:
4971:
4970:Zusmarshausen
4967:
4966:von Holzappel
4962:
4957:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4939:
4934:
4930:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4910:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4883:
4882:in November.
4881:
4877:
4867:
4863:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4840:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4817:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4796:
4577:Zusmarshausen
4481:
4474:
4472:
4471:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4453:Dutch attacks
4450:
4445:
4443:
4439:
4438:Maarten Tromp
4435:
4431:
4427:
4424:'s army from
4423:
4419:
4414:
4412:
4408:
4407:von Hatzfeldt
4404:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4391:Ferdinand III
4387:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4342:new subsidies
4333:
4331:
4327:
4321:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4306:
4304:
4295:
4291:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4271:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4256:
4252:
4244:
4239:
4235:
4232:
4227:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4200:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4164:
4154:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4123:
4121:
4117:
4112:
4110:
4104:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4054:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4039:
4035:
4030:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4019:Dessau Bridge
4016:
4012:
4003:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3976:
3973:
3969:
3964:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3933:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3903:
3898:
3751:
3739:
3736:
3730:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3687:Mediterranean
3684:
3681:occupied the
3680:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3662:
3658:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3625:
3620:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3604:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3577:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3549:
3547:
3546:Upper Austria
3543:
3539:
3534:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3519:Vilem Slavata
3516:
3515:Prague Castle
3512:
3508:
3503:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3460:
3459:in May 1618.
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3441:
3438:
3435:
3431:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:dependencies
3383:
3379:
3375:
3370:
3366:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3342:
3339:
3334:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3311:
3302:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3274:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3259:Franche-Comté
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3219:
3217:
3216:Imperial Diet
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3184:Low Countries
3181:
3176:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3148:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3059:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2988:Protestantism
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2909:
2908:3rd Barcelona
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2883:Porto Longone
2882:
2877:
2875:
2874:Castellammare
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2859:1st Barcelona
2857:
2855:
2854:3rd Tarragona
2852:
2850:
2849:2nd Tarragona
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2794:Naval battles
2793:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2776:
2775:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2698:
2694:
2693:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2592:
2588:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2578:Castellfollit
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2543:2nd Barcelona
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2498:4th Tarragona
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2428:1st Tarragona
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2396:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2345:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2176:
2173:
2166:
2156:
2151:
2149:
2144:
2142:
2137:
2136:
2133:
2122:
2121:
2114:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2035:Naval battles
2034:
2033:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2005:Wevelinghoven
2003:
2001:
2000:Zusmarshausen
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1978:Hohentübingen
1976:
1972:
1967:
1964:
1960:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1722:2nd Magdeburg
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1698:
1694:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1683:Ray-sur-Saône
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1658:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1492:Dessau Bridge
1490:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1368:Bad Kreuznach
1366:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1350:Neu Titschein
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1288:
1283:
1281:
1276:
1274:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1242:
1233:
1230:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1211:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1167:
1162:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1006:
1001:
996:
994:
989:
984:
982:
977:
972:
969:
967:
960:
959:von Holzappel
955:
950:
948:
947:von Hatzfeldt
943:
938:
936:
931:
926:
924:
919:
914:
911:
910:
904:
899:
894:
892:
891:Ferdinand III
887:
882:
880:
875:
870:
869:
867:
862:
852:
850:
845:
840:
838:
833:
829:
827:
823:
819:
817:
816:John George I
812:
807:
805:
800:
795:
793:
788:
783:
781:
776:
764:
762:
757:
752:
750:
740:
738:
733:
721:
719:
718:Maarten Tromp
714:
709:
707:
702:
697:
695:
690:
685:
683:
678:
673:
671:
666:
661:
659:
654:
649:
647:
642:
637:
635:
630:
625:
623:
618:
613:
611:
606:
601:
599:
594:
589:
587:
582:
577:
575:
570:
565:
563:
561:
555:
550:
545:
544:
542:
541:
536:
529:
517:
515:
510:
505:
503:
492:
491:
489:
488:
483:
478:
468:
465:
453:
451:
446:
441:
438:
426:
425:
423:
422:
417:
416:
410:
400:
397:
385:
383:
378:
373:
371:
360:
359:
357:
354:
348:
336:
334:
324:
322:
312:
310:
306:
302:
299:
287:
284:
272:
270:
265:
260:
258:
253:
248:
246:
236:
234:
229:
224:
222:
211:
210:
208:
205:
204:
199:
189:
185:
182:
180:
176:
173:
171:
170:Bremen-Verden
167:
163:
159:
156:Sweden gains
155:
153:
149:
145:
144:
142:
137:
136:
133:
130:
127:
126:
122:
118:
115:
114:
108:
105:
104:
100:
94:(19 May 1643)
93:
89:
86:
82:
79:
75:
73:(23 May 1618)
72:
68:
67:
62:
57:
54:
50:
45:
40:
37:
33:
19:
14710:Christianity
14591:World War II
14475:
14444:Early modern
14421:Kalmar Union
14292:Papal States
14210:Roman Empire
14059:
14055:Pope Francis
13981:21st century
13930:Pope Paul VI
13907:
13895:
13848:20th century
13835:
13786:Pope Pius IX
13774:19th century
13750:Pope Pius VI
13699:
13617:
13489:Latin Empire
13459:Universities
13411:Pope Leo III
13278:Christianity
13263:state church
13255:Great Church
13056:Resurrection
13019:(30–325/476)
13016:Early Church
13001:Latin Church
12996:Papal States
12991:Vatican City
12734:August Kavel
12668:Old Lutheran
12611:Werner Elert
12606:Paul Althaus
12538:C. P. Krauth
12501:Neo-Lutheran
12436:J. G. Hamann
12413:J. A. Bengel
12393:P. J. Spener
12378:Johann Arndt
12327:Transitional
12151:
12095:
11973:
11822:
11814:
11791:
11728:
11645:Justus Jonas
11555:
11516:
11496:Start of the
11440:
11265:
11211:16 September
11209:. Retrieved
11199:
11178:
11174:
11165:
11152:
11140:
11121:
11096:(1): 51–55.
11093:
11089:
11059:(1): 40–51.
11056:
11052:
11042:
11022:
10997:
10975:(6): 31–43.
10972:
10963:
10954:
10935:
10910:
10901:
10882:
10873:
10864:
10830:
10826:
10801:
10797:
10778:
10759:
10740:
10721:
10702:
10677:
10673:
10654:
10635:
10602:
10598:
10589:
10562:
10558:
10535:
10531:
10517:21 September
10515:. Retrieved
10508:the original
10491:
10471:
10452:
10435:10072/385454
10415:
10411:
10395:. Retrieved
10383:
10370:(in French).
10367:
10354:. Retrieved
10347:the original
10326:
10322:
10296:
10277:
10265:. Retrieved
10258:the original
10253:
10249:
10233:
10229:
10209:
10190:
10170:
10134:
10130:
10111:
10107:
10089:cite journal
10072:
10068:
10056:. Retrieved
10018:
10014:
9988:
9979:
9960:
9915:
9911:
9898:
9886:. Retrieved
9877:
9873:
9853:. Tuckwell.
9850:
9838:. Retrieved
9828:
9808:
9796:. Retrieved
9786:
9782:
9762:
9743:
9734:
9720:(1): 71–95.
9717:
9713:
9694:
9675:
9656:
9637:
9618:
9596:
9577:
9558:
9525:
9521:
9502:
9477:
9473:
9454:
9438:. ABC-CLIO.
9435:
9423:. Retrieved
9414:
9393:
9389:
9370:
9351:
9318:
9314:
9295:
9276:
9267:
9263:
9244:
9225:
9206:
9187:
9178:
9156:(1): 31–69.
9153:
9149:
9130:
9111:
9092:
9073:
9061:. Retrieved
9052:
9047:
9013:
9009:
8964:
8960:
8943:Gutmann 1988
8938:
8926:
8914:
8887:
8875:
8870:, p. 6.
8868:Talbott 2021
8863:
8851:
8839:
8832:Talbott 2021
8827:
8815:
8803:
8791:
8779:
8767:
8755:
8743:
8731:
8719:
8707:
8700:Croxton 1998
8695:
8683:
8671:
8664:Croxton 1998
8659:
8632:
8620:
8608:
8596:
8589:Sharman 2018
8584:
8572:
8560:
8548:
8536:
8524:
8512:
8500:
8488:
8476:
8464:
8437:
8425:
8413:
8386:
8374:
8367:Croxton 2013
8362:
8350:
8338:
8326:
8314:
8304:30 September
8302:. Retrieved
8290:
8278:
8266:
8254:
8242:
8235:Israel 1995a
8230:
8208:Croxton 2013
8203:
8191:
8179:
8167:, p. ?.
8160:
8148:
8136:
8124:
8112:
8100:
8088:
8076:
8064:
8052:
8040:
8028:
8016:
8004:
7992:
7980:
7968:
7956:
7944:
7932:
7920:
7908:
7896:
7884:
7872:
7845:
7833:
7826:Croxton 1998
7821:
7809:
7797:
7785:
7773:
7761:
7749:
7737:
7725:
7713:
7701:
7689:
7677:
7665:
7653:
7641:
7621:, p. 4.
7614:
7607:Israel 1995b
7602:
7590:
7578:
7566:
7554:
7542:
7535:Israel 1995a
7530:
7518:
7506:
7499:Bireley 1976
7494:
7482:
7470:
7458:
7446:
7434:
7422:
7402:, p. 4.
7395:
7383:
7371:
7359:
7347:
7335:
7323:
7311:
7304:Norrhem 2019
7299:
7287:
7275:
7268:Israel 1995b
7263:
7256:Israel 1995b
7251:
7239:
7227:
7215:
7203:
7191:
7179:
7167:
7155:
7143:
7131:
7119:
7112:Murdoch 2000
7107:
7095:
7083:
7071:
7064:Pursell 2003
7059:
7047:
7035:
7023:
7011:
7004:Stutler 2014
6999:
6987:
6980:Israel 1995b
6975:
6948:
6936:
6924:
6917:Bassett 2015
6912:
6900:
6888:
6881:Bassett 2015
6876:
6864:
6852:
6840:
6828:
6816:
6804:
6792:
6780:
6768:
6756:
6744:
6732:
6720:
6693:
6681:
6669:
6657:
6645:
6618:
6519:
6497:Parrott 2001
6492:
6450:
6438:
6433:, p. 8.
6431:Parrott 2001
6426:
6404:Croxton 2013
6399:
6381:
6371:
6366:(1574–1619).
6358:
6351:
6346:
6329:
6312:
6299:
6262:
6253:
6240:
6235:nationality.
6230:
6217:
6208:
6190:
6182:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6160:
6151:
6142:
6118:
6114:
6109:
6106:
6102:nation state
6099:
6083:
6066:Booker Prize
6055:
6049:
6026:
6003:
6000:
5973:
5949:
5933:
5924:
5919:Jeremy Black
5916:
5904:
5892:
5882:
5876:
5872:
5836:
5827:1618 to 1623
5816:
5802:
5795:
5774:
5751:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5721: 33–66%
5714:
5710:
5706:
5669:
5639:
5608:
5548:
5523:
5520:
5512:
5500:
5489:Papal Legate
5481:
5419:Dutch Brazil
5408:
5373:
5330:and secured
5325:
5302:
5299:Reapers' War
5280:
5273:
5246:
5207:
5191:
5187:Papal States
5153:
5145:Spanish Road
5134:
4996:
4978:
4958:
4956:and Sweden.
4950:Truce of Ulm
4943:
4922:Herbsthausen
4911:
4884:
4872:
4841:
4818:
4810:Wolfenbüttel
4802:
4619:Herbsthausen
4507:Wolfenbüttel
4468:
4446:
4415:
4388:
4369:
4339:
4322:
4307:
4300:
4272:
4253:, while the
4248:
4228:
4224:Smolensk War
4214:and coerced
4201:
4192:Hesse-Kassel
4181:
4124:
4113:
4105:
4089:
4055:
4034:Hesse-Kassel
4031:
4023:Wolfenbüttel
4008:
3977:
3971:
3965:
3934:
3921:
3907:
3902:Lower Saxony
3889:Wolfenbüttel
3731:
3699:
3676:
3654:
3629:
3605:
3591:, Calvinist
3578:
3550:
3535:
3504:
3489:
3442:
3427:
3415:Spanish Road
3400:
3394:
3386:
3377:
3374:Spanish Road
3343:
3335:
3316:
3275:
3220:
3177:
3173:Baltic trade
3149:
3130:
3104:
3060:
3016:
2961:
2920:
2918:
2880:
2831:
2731:Sainte-Agnès
2418:Ille-sur-Têt
2408:Fuenterrabía
2366:Valenciennes
2118:
2063:Lizard Point
1914:Philippsburg
1884:2nd Freiberg
1859:Wolfenbüttel
1804:1st Freiberg
1799:2nd Breisach
1777:Wittenweiher
1767:Fuenterrabía
1625:1st Breisach
1610:Pfaffenhofen
1294:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:30,000 other
1231:
1228:50,000 other
1218:
1190:
1169:
1143:Montecuccoli
1127:
1093:
1071:
965:
908:
879:Ferdinand II
792:Christian IV
749:von Mansfeld
559:
484:
477:Hesse-Kassel
418:
355:
321:Hesse-Kassel
269:Transylvania
206:
201:Belligerents
47:Part of the
36:
14576:World War I
14566:Nationalism
14454:Reformation
14439:Renaissance
14411:Black Death
14344:Kievan Rus'
14247:Middle Ages
14061:Laudato si'
13856:Pope Pius X
13685:Philip Neri
13660:Pope Pius V
13635:Thomas More
13504:Inquisition
13406:Charlemagne
13366:Monasticism
13176:Persecution
13068:Holy Spirit
13051:Crucifixion
12930:First seven
12790:H. A. Preus
12634:F. J. Stahl
12621:High Church
12461:Claus Harms
12418:G. C. Knapp
12383:Jakob Böhme
12127:J. M. Goeze
12091:J. W. Baier
12081:J. F. König
11921:Philippists
11680:Olaus Petri
11498:Reformation
11488:Lutheranism
11268:(1618–1648)
11181:(1): 1–21.
10565:(1): 3–25.
10299:. Ashgate.
9888:28 December
9840:15 December
9528:(1): 1–23.
9133:. Ashgate.
9114:. Ashgate.
9063:23 February
8931:Storrs 2006
8892:Bonney 2002
8856:Cramer 2007
8808:Briggs 1996
8796:Briggs 1996
8772:Jensen 2007
8748:Wilson 2009
8688:Parker 1997
8676:Wilson 2009
8652:Parker 1997
8637:Parker 1976
8613:Parker 1976
8601:Parker 1997
8541:Outram 2001
8529:Outram 2002
8517:Parker 1997
8505:Parker 2008
8493:Wilson 2009
8457:Outram 2002
8442:Outram 2001
8418:Outram 2001
8406:Parker 1997
8379:Parker 2008
8355:Wilson 2009
8319:Wilson 2009
8271:Wilson 2009
8223:Wilson 2009
8117:Parker 1997
8081:Hanlon 2016
8069:Wilson 2009
7961:Hanlon 2016
7937:Wilson 2009
7925:Wilson 2009
7901:Wilson 2009
7865:Wilson 2009
7850:Bonney 2002
7838:Wilson 2009
7802:Wilson 2009
7790:Wilson 2009
7778:Wilson 2009
7766:Wilson 2009
7754:Parker 1997
7742:Parker 1997
7718:Wilson 2009
7706:Wilson 2009
7658:Parker 1997
7583:Wilson 2009
7571:Wilson 2009
7559:Wilson 2009
7487:Parker 1997
7451:Wilson 2009
7427:Wilson 2018
7415:Wilson 2018
7352:Parker 1997
7328:Parker 1997
7280:Maland 1980
7184:Wilson 2009
7124:Wilson 2009
7040:Zaller 1974
7028:Zaller 1974
6869:Wilson 2009
6833:Wilson 2008
6809:Parker 1997
6797:Wilson 2009
6785:Wilson 2009
6749:Wilson 2009
6737:Wilson 2009
6713:Hayden 1973
6686:Parker 1997
6662:Parker 1997
6650:Wilson 2009
6638:Outram 2002
6623:Wilson 2009
6611:Wilson 2009
6586:Parker 1997
6571:Wilson 2009
6539:Parker 2004
6524:Wilson 2009
6485:Wilson 2009
6455:Wilson 2009
6201:Scandinavia
5953:witch-hunts
5869:Breitenfeld
5812:Württemberg
5492:Fabio Chigi
5435:Cape Colony
5396:West Africa
4998:Codex Gigas
4989:Malá Strana
4887:Westphalian
4806:Halberstadt
4773:Halberstadt
4563:Rheinfelden
4493:Breitenfeld
4434:Dutch fleet
4422:Piccolomini
4399:Rheinfelden
4380:Johan Banér
4275:Breitenfeld
4264:Reichstaler
4043:Mecklenburg
3914:Brandenburg
3791:Halberstadt
3723:Horace Vere
3719:Frankenthal
3637:Count Tilly
3511:Count Thurn
3500:Reformation
3389:: Ruled by
3349:formed the
3319:Cologne War
3263:Philippines
3169:Brandenburg
3125:. The 1555
3121:within the
3115:Protestants
2974:. The 1555
2970:within the
2968:Reformation
2788:Fort Rocher
2751:2nd Poligny
2746:1st Poligny
2726:Saint-Amour
2677:3rd Valenza
2667:2nd Cremona
2652:1st Cremona
2647:2nd Valenza
2633: [
2595:1st Valenza
2538:3rd Tortosa
2528:2nd Tortosa
2458:1st Tortosa
2376:2nd Dunkirk
2371:2nd Mardyck
2342: [
2304:Armentières
2299:1st Dunkirk
2289:1st Mardyck
2168:(1635–1659)
2018: [
1981: [
1969: [
1957: [
1939:Mergentheim
1874:Schweidnitz
1785: [
1703: [
1691: [
1638: [
1457: [
1423:Frankenthal
1388:Mingolsheim
1255:Total dead:
981:Piccolomini
903:Wallenstein
737:Frederick V
670:Grand Condé
598:Torstensson
574:Oxenstierna
138:Territorial
14732:Categories
14339:Viking Age
14154:Prehistory
13934:coronation
13640:Pope Leo X
13225:Tertullian
13155:Revelation
13130:Background
12688:Background
12446:Haugeanism
12154:theologies
11955:Scholastic
11428:Westphalia
11308:Königsberg
11290:Nikolsburg
11195:Ward, A.W.
10504:10161/8754
9396:(262): 7.
9209:. Osprey.
9190:. Viking.
8760:White 2012
8105:Kamen 2003
8093:Kamen 2003
8057:Duffy 1995
7997:Thion 2008
7619:Costa 2005
7511:Kamen 2003
7475:Kamen 2003
6392:References
6280:pronounced
5855:musketeers
5760:(4%), and
5676:Ming China
5664:See also:
5633:failed in
5592:Strasbourg
5439:Gold Coast
5340:Roussillon
5257:Mombaldone
5253:Tornavento
5155:Montferrat
5139:since the
5035:Montferrat
4880:Tuttlingen
4844:Louis XIII
4759:Regensburg
4731:Thionville
4661:Tuttlingen
4535:Nördlingen
4426:Thionville
4376:March 1636
4372:Valtellina
4330:Nördlingen
4147:Dutch Army
3691:Parliament
3198:, down to
3141:Donauwörth
3109:ended the
2955:, and the
2898:Sant Feliu
2893:Formentera
2771:Tuttlingen
2756:Pontarlier
2741:Bletterans
2689:The Fronde
2605:Tornavento
2523:4th Lleida
2518:3rd Lleida
2493:2nd Lleida
2478:1st Lleida
2473:2nd Salses
2443:La Granada
2413:1st Salses
2309:Nieuwpoort
2249:Honnecourt
2229:Charlemont
2209:1st Corbie
2199:La Capelle
2194:Le Catelet
2093:Lister Dyb
1954:Korneuburg
1899:Tuttlingen
1869:Honnecourt
1819:Thionville
1762:Saint Omer
1717:Tornavento
1590:Alte Veste
1575:Maastricht
1449:Érsekújvár
1408:Heidelberg
1335:Wisternitz
1087:Pappenheim
634:Louis XIII
485:Post-1635
419:Post-1635
245:Palatinate
14386:Feudalism
14357:Catalonia
13950:Communism
13920:Ecumenism
13266:(380–451)
13258:(180–451)
13247:(313–476)
13169:(100–325)
12428:Awakening
12267:Karl Daub
11612:Reformers
11442:Campaigns
11416:Eulenberg
11404:Brömsebro
11362:Compiègne
11356:Ebersdorf
11350:Heilbronn
11314:Franzburg
11302:Pressburg
11296:The Hague
11081:154709047
11025:. Brill.
10694:218574377
10627:163706878
10581:234347328
10444:148771791
10397:6 October
10356:7 October
10343:170555324
10267:6 October
10169:(1997) .
10159:143661971
10058:7 October
9980:Richelieu
9798:8 October
9617:(1995b).
9550:144914347
9343:159915965
9170:143376778
9038:131730725
9030:1468-0289
8997:144482963
8981:0008-9389
8481:Hays 2005
8430:Levy 1983
8331:Ryan 1948
8033:Kohn 1995
7595:Bely 2014
6268:‹See Tfd›
6125:Camisards
5996:Rhineland
5808:Pomerania
5762:dysentery
5504:Amsterdam
5445:, on the
5374:In 1580,
5344:Barcelona
5336:Perpignan
5332:Barcelona
5313:Martorell
5293:Catalonia
5137:Habsburgs
4895:Osnabrück
4889:towns of
4848:Louis XIV
4647:Osnabrück
4521:Wittstock
4465:Catalonia
4384:Wittstock
4318:Oldendorf
4204:Pomerania
4188:Sigismund
4100:Schleswig
4062:Stralsund
4060:besieged
4058:von Arnim
4047:Pomerania
4011:Magdeburg
3941:Frederick
3819:Magdeburg
3777:Osnabrück
3735:Stadtlohn
3727:The Hague
3434:July 1617
3243:Charles V
3171:over the
3153:Calvinism
3119:Catholics
3105:The 1552
3095:Louis XIV
3063:civil war
2879:Piombino
2869:Orbetello
2864:Cartagena
2839:Île de Ré
2777:Caribbean
2706:Martignat
2583:Camprodon
2533:Montblanc
2503:2nd Roses
2468:1st Roses
2463:Perpignan
2453:Collioure
2381:The Dunes
2356:2nd Arras
2324:Diksmuide
2244:La Marfée
2234:1st Arras
2184:Les Avins
2078:The Downs
2053:The Slaak
2043:Gibraltar
1966:Totenhöhe
1949:3rd Hulst
1849:La Marfée
1737:2nd Breda
1732:Wittstock
1700:Haselünne
1668:Les Avins
1605:Oldendorf
1580:Nuremberg
1550:Magdeburg
1545:Frankfurt
1512:Stralsund
1497:Oldenzaal
1428:Stadtlohn
1378:Bacharach
1373:Oppenheim
1155:von Werth
1121:von Mercy
993:Philip IV
646:Richelieu
14625:See also
14596:Cold War
14391:Crusades
14361:Valencia
13960:HIV/AIDS
13454:Crusades
13208:Irenaeus
13201:Ignatius
13196:Polycarp
13046:Ministry
13034:(30–100)
12908:Timeline
12553:Erlangen
12357:Revivals
12301:Moderate
12259:Hegelian
12162:Wolffian
12137:Landlers
11950:Orthodox
11904:Factions
11338:Bärwalde
11205:Archived
11197:(1902).
11164:(1966).
11151:(1799).
11120:(1996).
10966:. Brill.
10818:20108541
10619:43901848
10388:Archived
10049:Archived
10045:11373858
9952:28542491
9912:PLOS ONE
9882:Archived
9834:Archived
9792:Archived
9714:Grotiana
9425:8 August
9419:Archived
9335:26007296
9057:Archived
8919:Lee 2001
8295:Archived
6307:in 1609.
6174:Reported
6166:Reported
6121:European
5969:executed
5823:Augsburg
5596:Mulhouse
5588:Décapole
5541:and the
5537:between
5451:Moluccas
5423:São Tomé
5388:Atlantic
5328:Montjuïc
5202:Piedmont
5194:Pinerolo
5119:Pinerolo
4993:Old Town
4837:Freiberg
4787:Freiburg
4745:Chemnitz
4605:Freiberg
4549:Breisach
4470:regenten
4461:Portugal
4418:Chemnitz
4403:Breisach
4220:alliance
4210:towards
4139:Matanzas
3963:rivers.
3695:Olivares
3419:Flanders
3291:Pyrenees
3137:Lutheran
3000:Habsburg
2992:Imperial
2984:Lutheran
2980:Catholic
2903:Bordeaux
2888:Cambrils
2805:Sardinia
2761:Jonvelle
2620:Vercelli
2610:Marbegno
2600:Morbegno
2563:Cadaqués
2513:Balaguer
2438:Montmeló
2423:Montjuïc
2334:2nd Lens
2314:Commines
2279:1st Lens
2120:Treaties
1934:2nd Brno
1919:Jüterbog
1909:Freiburg
1894:1st Brno
1839:Preßnitz
1834:Montjuïc
1829:Cambrils
1809:Chemnitz
1635:Liegnitz
1620:Konstanz
1585:Wiesloch
1418:Mannheim
1198:Imperial
1196:110,000
1164:Strength
1005:Olivares
177:obtains
148:Décapole
116:Location
14696:Portals
14466:Baroque
14365:Majorca
14277:Francia
13925:Judaism
13325:Vulgate
13135:Gospels
13110:Stephen
13027:Origins
12947:Vulgate
12883:General
12873:of the
12871:History
12813:Present
12676:Germany
12365:Pietist
12216:Kantian
11958:periods
11803:second)
11593:Iceland
11588:Germany
11583:Finland
11484:History
11392:Dorsten
11386:Hamburg
11332:Stettin
11110:3720833
11073:1874817
10847:4048141
10474:. OUP.
10193:. CUP.
10151:1879826
10036:1044352
9991:. OUP.
9943:5439951
9920:Bibcode
9542:1877591
8989:4546115
8952:Sources
6183:Maximum
5885:tercios
5877:(right)
5859:pikemen
5847:columns
5756:(64%),
5711:Decline
5678:to the
5654:Ryswick
5600:thalers
5508:Antwerp
5443:Malacca
5269:Maurice
5249:Valenza
5179:Tuscany
4954:Cologne
4946:Turenne
4940:in 1648
4907:Fehmarn
4903:Wrangel
4891:Münster
4833:Leipzig
4717:Leipzig
4675:Hamburg
4591:Münster
4245:in 1631
4234:leave.
4212:Stettin
4178:in 1631
4145:to the
4074:Wolgast
4051:Jutland
3937:Øresund
3920:, both
3833:Hamburg
3711:Wimpfen
3679:Córdoba
3633:Lusatia
3538:Silesia
3513:met in
3391:Austria
3382:Spanish
3279:Bavaria
3235:Hungary
3231:Bohemia
3227:Austria
3208:Hamburg
3083:Bavaria
3027:Bohemia
3021:, when
3008:Austria
3002:-ruled
2996:contest
2933:Germany
2834:Santoña
2830:Laredo
2825:Getaria
2783:Tortuga
2711:Savigny
2568:Solsona
2483:Miravet
2433:Almenar
2403:Leucate
2391:Bergues
2284:Bergues
2269:Béthune
2103:Fehmarn
2073:Channel
2068:Dunkirk
1904:Kolding
1854:Dorsten
1747:Leipzig
1615:Steinau
1565:Bamberg
1517:Wolgast
1507:Groenlo
1466:Hodonín
1444:Humenné
1413:Fleurus
1393:Wimpfen
1340:Bautzen
1325:Lomnice
1128:†
1094:†
1072:†
1029:Spinola
1017:Córdoba
966:†
682:Turenne
658:Mazarin
610:Wrangel
560:†
396:Bavaria
152:Sundgau
140:changes
14722:Europe
14353:Aragon
14332:Amalfi
14317:Venice
14305:Second
13891:Nazism
13713:to the
13320:Jerome
13230:Origen
12913:Papacy
11843:People
11720:Events
11598:Sweden
11506:Events
11430:(1648)
11424:(1647)
11418:(1646)
11412:(1645)
11406:(1645)
11400:(1642)
11398:Goslar
11394:(1639)
11388:(1638)
11382:(1636)
11376:(1636)
11374:Wismar
11370:(1635)
11368:Prague
11364:(1635)
11358:(1634)
11352:(1633)
11346:(1631)
11340:(1631)
11334:(1630)
11328:(1629)
11326:Lübeck
11322:(1628)
11320:Munich
11316:(1627)
11310:(1627)
11304:(1626)
11298:(1625)
11292:(1621)
11286:(1620)
11280:(1619)
11278:Munich
11128:
11108:
11079:
11071:
11029:
11014:649854
11012:
10989:649813
10987:
10942:
10927:649855
10925:
10889:
10845:
10816:
10785:
10766:
10747:
10728:
10709:
10692:
10661:
10642:
10625:
10617:
10579:
10478:
10459:
10442:
10341:
10303:
10284:
10216:
10197:
10177:
10157:
10149:
10043:
10033:
9995:
9967:
9950:
9940:
9857:
9815:
9769:
9750:
9701:
9682:
9663:
9644:
9625:
9603:
9584:
9565:
9548:
9540:
9509:
9494:204823
9492:
9461:
9442:
9377:
9358:
9341:
9333:
9302:
9283:
9251:
9232:
9213:
9194:
9168:
9137:
9118:
9099:
9080:
9036:
9028:
8995:
8987:
8979:
8820:Friehs
6322:Sweden
6272:German
6197:Lützen
6178:Actual
6170:Actual
5912:Siegen
5907:salvos
5873:(left)
5819:Munich
5758:typhus
5742:Bygdeå
5725:
5719:
5715:deaths
5688:famine
5652:, and
5631:Bremen
5621:. The
5584:Verdun
5559:Minden
5557:, and
5555:Kammin
5455:Ceylon
5449:, the
5431:Ndongo
5283:Naples
5265:Thomas
5218:Venice
5210:plague
5196:. The
5077:Casale
5063:Mantua
4944:Under
4918:Jankau
4860:Rocroi
4821:Kempen
4703:Kempen
4689:Prague
4633:Vlotho
4449:Artois
4436:under
4430:Madrid
4411:Vlotho
4303:Lützen
4268:livres
4149:under
4049:, and
4027:Lutter
3953:Verden
3951:, and
3949:Bremen
3945:Lübeck
3922:kreise
3875:Kassel
3861:Verden
3847:Lutter
3763:Bremen
3715:Höchst
3585:Sablat
3581:Vienna
3553:France
3496:Styria
3492:heresy
3428:Since
3378:Purple
3265:, and
3165:Sweden
3157:Saxony
3087:Saxony
3071:France
3055:Sweden
2951:, the
2947:, the
2943:, the
2939:, the
2766:Maynal
2721:Cornod
2716:Arbent
2662:Naples
2630:Casale
2625:Chieri
2553:Girona
2488:Monzón
2448:Monzón
2351:Mouzon
2339:Rethel
2294:Furnes
2254:Rocroi
2189:Leuven
2027:Prague
2015:Dachau
1995:Naples
1990:Triebl
1929:Jankau
1924:Bysjön
1889:Rocroi
1864:Kempen
1844:Plauen
1824:Salses
1814:Melnik
1794:Vlotho
1688:Dömitz
1673:Leuven
1600:Lützen
1555:Werben
1454:Tyrnau
1398:Höchst
1383:Jülich
1330:Sablat
1320:Pilsen
1124:
1090:
1068:
962:
923:Gallas
906:
835:
556:
525:
499:
461:
450:Sweden
437:France
434:
393:
367:
347:Saxony
344:
295:
280:
233:Sweden
218:
168:, and
162:Wollin
158:Wismar
150:, and
128:Result
14322:Genoa
14300:First
13993:Islam
13261:Roman
13220:Canon
13093:Peter
13041:Jesus
11965:Early
11380:Wesel
11106:JSTOR
11077:S2CID
11069:JSTOR
11010:JSTOR
10985:JSTOR
10923:JSTOR
10843:JSTOR
10814:JSTOR
10690:S2CID
10623:S2CID
10615:JSTOR
10577:S2CID
10511:(PDF)
10496:(PDF)
10440:S2CID
10391:(PDF)
10380:(PDF)
10350:(PDF)
10339:S2CID
10319:(PDF)
10261:(PDF)
10246:(PDF)
10155:S2CID
10147:JSTOR
10052:(PDF)
10011:(PDF)
9546:S2CID
9538:JSTOR
9490:JSTOR
9339:S2CID
9331:JSTOR
9166:S2CID
9051:[
9034:S2CID
8993:S2CID
8985:JSTOR
8298:(PDF)
8287:(PDF)
6376:this.
6135:Notes
6110:kreis
6042:Nazis
5992:Baden
5539:Spain
5441:, in
5427:Kongo
5214:Milan
5105:Genoa
5091:Milan
5049:Turin
4856:Condé
4442:Downs
4283:Fürth
4120:edict
3972:kreis
3961:Weser
3918:Lower
3624:Tilly
3565:Savoy
3542:Lower
3395:Brown
3387:Green
3323:ruler
3287:South
3283:North
3255:Milan
3247:Spain
3206:like
3004:Spain
2844:Cádiz
2820:Genoa
2672:Pavia
2642:Turin
2637:]
2615:Breme
2589:Italy
2573:Berga
2346:]
2329:Ypres
2204:Somme
2048:Genoa
2022:]
1985:]
1973:]
1961:]
1789:]
1782:Thann
1772:Kallo
1752:Hanau
1742:Venlo
1727:Somme
1707:]
1695:]
1642:]
1595:Fürth
1487:Breda
1461:]
1065:Tilly
586:Banér
257:Savoy
14327:Pisa
14043:2023
14038:2019
14033:2016
14028:2013
14023:2011
14018:2008
14013:2005
14008:2002
14003:2000
13970:1995
13140:Acts
13103:Paul
13098:John
13073:Mary
12105:Late
12029:High
11410:Linz
11213:2017
11126:ISBN
11027:ISBN
10940:ISBN
10887:ISBN
10783:ISBN
10764:ISBN
10745:ISBN
10726:ISBN
10707:ISBN
10659:ISBN
10640:ISBN
10559:Sage
10536:CVII
10519:2020
10476:ISBN
10457:ISBN
10399:2020
10358:2020
10301:ISBN
10282:ISBN
10269:2020
10214:ISBN
10195:ISBN
10175:ISBN
10095:link
10060:2020
10041:PMID
9993:ISBN
9965:ISBN
9948:PMID
9890:2014
9855:ISBN
9842:2022
9813:ISBN
9800:2020
9767:ISBN
9748:ISBN
9699:ISBN
9680:ISBN
9661:ISBN
9642:ISBN
9623:ISBN
9601:ISBN
9582:ISBN
9563:ISBN
9507:ISBN
9459:ISBN
9440:ISBN
9427:2021
9375:ISBN
9356:ISBN
9300:ISBN
9281:ISBN
9270:(1).
9249:ISBN
9230:ISBN
9211:ISBN
9192:ISBN
9135:ISBN
9116:ISBN
9097:ISBN
9078:ISBN
9065:2023
9026:ISSN
8977:ISSN
8306:2021
8171:help
6320:and
6176:and
6057:Tyll
5974:The
5810:and
5707:Note
5594:and
5582:and
5580:Toul
5576:Metz
5516:Lens
5453:and
5429:and
5398:and
5358:The
5338:and
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