398:
47:
417:
387:
946:
216:
727:(mRNA) molecule. Each amino acid added is matched to a three-nucleotide subsequence of the mRNA. For each such triplet possible, the corresponding amino acid is accepted. The successive amino acids added to the chain are matched to successive nucleotide triplets in the mRNA. In this way, the sequence of nucleotides in the template mRNA chain determines the sequence of amino acids in the generated amino acid chain. The addition of an amino acid occurs at the
330:
869:. The Shine–Dalgarno sequence binds to a complementary pyrimidine-rich sequence on the 3' end of the 16S rRNA part of the 30S ribosomal subunit. The binding of these complementary sequences ensures that the 30S ribosomal subunit is bound to the mRNA and is aligned such that the initiation codon is placed in the 30S portion of the P-site. Once the mRNA and 30S subunit are properly bound, an initiation factor brings the initiator tRNA–amino acid complex,
672:
375:
5772:
763:(tRNAs) are small noncoding RNA chains (74–93 nucleotides) that transport amino acids to the ribosome. The repertoire of tRNA genes varies widely between species, with some bacteria having between 20 and 30 genes while complex eukaryotes could have thousands. tRNAs have a site for amino acid attachment, and a site called an anticodon. The anticodon is an RNA triplet complementary to the mRNA triplet that codes for their cargo
873:-tRNA, to the 30S P site. The initiation phase is completed once a 50S subunit joins the 30S subunit, forming an active 70S ribosome. Termination of the polypeptide occurs when the A site of the ribosome is occupied by a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) on the mRNA, creating the primary structure of a protein. tRNA usually cannot recognize or bind to stop codons. Instead, the stop codon induces the binding of a
5784:
959:
916:. Cancer cells must frequently regulate the translation phase of gene expression, though it is not fully understood why translation is targeted over steps like transcription. While cancer cells often have genetically altered translation factors, it is much more common for cancer cells to modify the levels of existing translation factors. Several major oncogenic signaling pathways, including the
887:
is coupled to the wrong amino acid. The rate of error in synthesizing proteins has been estimated to be between 1 in 10 and 1 in 10 misincorporated amino acids, depending on the experimental conditions. The rate of premature translation abandonment, instead, has been estimated to be of the order of magnitude of 10 events per translated codon.
900:
provides valuable insights into translation dynamics, revealing the complex interplay between gene sequence, mRNA structure, and translation regulation. For example, research utilizing this method has revealed that genetic differences and their subsequent expression as mRNAs can also impact translation rate in an RNA-specific manner.
660:
886:
Even though the ribosomes are usually considered accurate and processive machines, the translation process is subject to errors that can lead either to the synthesis of erroneous proteins or to the premature abandonment of translation, either because a tRNA couples to a wrong codon or because a tRNA
420:
The three phases of translation: (1) in initiation, the small ribosomal subunit binds to the RNA strand and the initiator tRNA–amino acid complex binds to the start codon, culminating in attachment of the large subunit; (2) elongation occurs as a cycle, in which codons are sequentially recognized by
1149:
AAs = FFLLSSSSYY**CC*WLLLLPPPPHHQQRRRRIIIMTTTTNNKKSSRRVVVVAAAADDEEGGGG Starts = ---M---------------M---------------M---------------------------- Base1 = TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG Base2 = TTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGG
953:
of protein synthesis. Here, * M – amount of mRNA with translation initiation site not occupied by assembling ribosome, * F – amount of mRNA with translation initiation site occupied by assembling ribosome, * R – amount of ribosomes sitting on mRNA synthesizing proteins, * P – amount of synthesized
723:. A ribosome is made up of two subunits, a small subunit, and a large subunit. These subunits come together before the translation of mRNA into a protein to provide a location for translation to be carried out and a polypeptide to be produced. The choice of amino acid type to add is determined by a
903:
Expanding on this concept, a more recent development is single-cell ribosome profiling, a technique that allows us to study the translation process at the resolution of individual cells. This is particularly significant as cells, even those of the same type, can exhibit considerable variability in
877:
protein (RF1 & RF2) that prompts the disassembly of the entire ribosome/mRNA complex by the hydrolysis of the polypeptide chain from the peptidyl transferase center of the ribosome. Drugs or special sequence motifs on the mRNA can change the ribosomal structure so that near-cognate tRNAs are
899:
To delve deeper into this intricate process, scientists typically use a technique known as ribosome profiling. This method enables researchers to take a snapshot of the translatome, showing which parts of the mRNA are being translated into proteins by ribosomes at a given time. Ribosome profiling
797:
to specific tRNA anticodons. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases that mispair tRNAs with the wrong amino acids can produce mischarged aminoacyl-tRNAs, which can result in inappropriate amino acids at the respective position in the protein. This "mistranslation" of the genetic code naturally occurs at low
810:
holds the tRNA with the growing polypeptide chain. When an aminoacyl-tRNA initially binds to its corresponding codon on the mRNA, it is in the A site. Then, a peptide bond forms between the amino acid of the tRNA in the A site and the amino acid of the charged tRNA in the P/E site. The growing
1134:
There are many computer programs capable of translating a DNA/RNA sequence into a protein sequence. Normally this is performed using the
Standard Genetic Code, however, few programs can handle all the "special" cases, such as the use of the alternative initiation codons which are biologically
904:
their protein synthesis. Single-cell ribosome profiling has the potential to shed light on the heterogeneous nature of cells, leading to a more nuanced understanding of how translation regulation can impact cell behavior, metabolic state, and responsiveness to various stimuli or conditions.
1055:
First, convert each template DNA base to its RNA complement (note that the complement of A is now U), as shown below. Note that the template strand of the DNA is the one the RNA is polymerized against; the other DNA strand would be the same as the RNA, but with thymine instead of uracil.
999:
The process of amino acid building to create protein in translation is a subject of various physic models for a long time starting from the first detailed kinetic models such as or others taking into account stochastic aspects of translation and using computer simulations. Many chemical
801:
The ribosome has two binding sites for tRNA. They are the aminoacyl site (abbreviated A), and the peptidyl site/ exit site (abbreviated P/E). Concerning the mRNA, the three sites are oriented 5' to 3' E-P-A, because ribosomes move toward the 3' end of mRNA. The
1726:
928:
pathways, ultimately reprogram the genome via translation. Cancer cells also control translation to adapt to cellular stress. During stress, the cell translates mRNAs that can mitigate the stress and promote survival. An example of this is the expression of
421:
charged tRNAs, followed by peptide bond formation with transfer of the polypeptide between tRNAs within the ribosome and finally translocation of the ribosome to the next codon; (3) termination, when a stop codon is reached, a release factor binds and the
1051:
It is also possible to translate either by hand (for short sequences) or by computer (after first programming one appropriately, see section below); this allows biologists and chemists to draw out the chemical structure of the encoded protein on paper.
811:
polypeptide chain is transferred to the tRNA in the A site. Translocation occurs, moving the tRNA to the P/E site, now without an amino acid; the tRNA that was in the A site, now charged with the polypeptide chain, is moved to the P/E site and the
895:
The process of translation is highly regulated in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. Regulation of translation can impact the global rate of protein synthesis which is closely coupled to the metabolic and proliferative state of a cell.
1225:
1207:
1016:
have been applied to model the detailed kinetics of protein synthesis or some of its stages. A basic model of protein synthesis that takes into account all eight 'elementary' processes has been developed, following the
457:
in the RNA. The nucleotides are considered three at a time. Each such triple results in addition of one specific amino acid to the protein being generated. The matching from nucleotide triple to amino acid is called the
1037:
on protein synthesis. Most of models in this hierarchy can be solved analytically. These solutions were used to extract 'kinetic signatures' of different specific mechanisms of synthesis regulation.
853:-1. The rate of translation varies; it is significantly higher in prokaryotic cells (up to 17–21 amino acid residues per second) than in eukaryotic cells (up to 6–9 amino acid residues per second).
1153:
The "Starts" row indicate three start codons, UUG, CUG, and the very common AUG. It also indicates the first amino acid residue when interpreted as a start: in this case it is all methionine.
1175:
genome, it is often desired to be able to use alternative translation tables—namely for translation of the mitochondrial genes. Currently the following translation tables are defined by the
937:(programmed cell death) triggered by nutrition deprivation. Future cancer therapies may involve disrupting the translation machinery of the cell to counter the downstream effects of cancer.
4661:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4626:
4616:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4576:
4551:
4541:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4481:
818:
After the new amino acid is added to the chain, and after the tRNA is released out of the ribosome and into the cytosol, the energy provided by the hydrolysis of a GTP bound to the
2544:
Heinrich R, Rapoport TA (September 1980). "Mathematical modelling of translation of mRNA in eucaryotes; steady state, time-dependent processes and application to reticulocytes".
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
878:
bound to the stop codon instead of the release factors. In such cases of 'translational readthrough', translation continues until the ribosome encounters the next stop codon.
2956:
4952:
1131:
are incorporated into the protein, which is coded for by a conventional stop codon in combination with a downstream hairpin (SElenoCysteine
Insertion Sequence, or SECIS).
4229:
1000:
kinetics-based models of protein synthesis have been developed and analyzed in the last four decades. Beyond chemical kinetics, various modeling formalisms such as
738:
information encoded as a ribonucleotide sequence from the chromosomes to the ribosomes. The ribonucleotides are "read" by translational machinery in a sequence of
865:(IF). In bacteria and a minority of archaea, initiation of protein synthesis involves the recognition of a purine-rich initiation sequence on the mRNA called the
977:
initiation of these molecules with help of initiation factors (e.g., the initiation can include the circularization step though it is not universally required),
555:: When a stop codon is reached, the ribosome releases the polypeptide. The ribosomal complex remains intact and moves on to the next mRNA to be translated.
3880:
4945:
3704:
2346:
1219:
1316:
798:
levels in most organisms, but certain cellular environments cause an increase in permissive mRNA decoding, sometimes to the benefit of the cell.
789:. When the tRNA has an amino acid linked to it, the tRNA is termed "charged". In bacteria, this aminoacyl-tRNA is carried to the ribosome by
719:
The basic process of protein production is the addition of one amino acid at a time to the end of a protein. This operation is performed by a
511:. The tRNAs carry specific amino acids that are chained together into a polypeptide as the mRNA passes through and is "read" by the ribosome.
3291:
2749:
1176:
629:. Prokaryotic ribosomes have a different structure from that of eukaryotic ribosomes, and thus antibiotics can specifically target bacterial
4938:
583:(ER), and the new protein is synthesized and released into the ER; the newly created polypeptide can be stored inside the ER for future
4259:
1245:
1233:
361:
2904:
1895:"Stop codon recognition and interactions with peptide release factor RF3 of truncated and chimeric RF1 and RF2 from Escherichia coli"
4862:
4852:
4847:
4837:
4827:
4807:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4742:
4269:
4006:
3890:
563:(bacteria and archaea), translation occurs in the cytosol, where the large and small subunits of the ribosome bind to the mRNA. In
534:
4732:
4712:
4707:
4697:
3387:
3377:
1292:
1263:
1799:
Nakamoto T (February 2011). "Mechanisms of the initiation of protein synthesis: in reading frame binding of ribosomes to mRNA".
1116:, the amino acid sequence, called primary structure, can be determined solely from the nucleic acid sequence with the aid of a
594:
Many types of transcribed RNA, such as tRNA, ribosomal RNA, and small nuclear RNA, do not undergo a translation into proteins.
17:
4306:
4302:
3072:
1710:
1523:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4656:
4636:
4631:
4621:
4611:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4546:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4298:
1322:
1301:
1001:
753:
molecules translate this code to a specific sequence of amino acids. The ribosome is a multisubunit structure containing
4491:
4486:
4476:
3359:
2936:
1372:
970:
The transcription-translation process description, mentioning only the most basic "elementary" processes, consists of:
3269:
3284:
3044:
2804:
2785:
2136:"A data-driven estimation of the ribosome drop-off rate in S. cerevisiae reveals a correlation with the genes length"
1577:
1548:
2590:
Skjøndal-Bar N, Morris DR (January 2007). "Dynamic model of the process of protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells".
1310:
1278:
2242:"Integrative analysis of RNA, translation, and protein levels reveals distinct regulatory variation across humans"
4249:
4244:
4239:
3354:
3349:
3198:
3142:
1213:
584:
5606:
5201:
4064:
3137:
1251:
354:
1752:"Growth-rate-dependent adjustment of ribosome function in chemostat-grown cells of the fungus Mucor racemosus"
1123:
This approach may not give the correct amino acid composition of the protein, in particular if unconventional
234:
5809:
5742:
3225:
3156:
2897:
1195:
5390:
5071:
3430:
3277:
2961:
1361:
1286:
1113:
5076:
1062:
Then split the RNA into triplets (groups of three bases). Note that there are 3 translation "windows", or
579:. In co-translational translocation, the entire ribosome/mRNA complex binds to the outer membrane of the
5819:
5310:
5066:
3397:
3341:
1257:
1029:
is represented by the reaction kinetic mechanism (Figure M0). It was generalised to include 40S, 60S and
1005:
866:
580:
5804:
5762:
4427:
4367:
4214:
4204:
4194:
4154:
4134:
4109:
4084:
4059:
3176:
123:
1166:
425:
is released (note that labels for translocation and peptide bond formation are reversed in this image)
5611:
4895:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4292:
4234:
4224:
4219:
4209:
4199:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4054:
4039:
2501:
MacDonald CT, Gibbs JH, Pipkin AC (1968). "Kinetics of biopolymerization on nucleic acid templates".
1569:
1337:
1146:
Example: Condensed translation table for the
Standard Genetic Code (from the NCBI Taxonomy webpage).
933:
in various cancers; its activation triggers a cascade that can ultimately allow the cancer to escape
861:
Initiation involves the small subunit of the ribosome binding to the 5' end of mRNA with the help of
770:
496:
and performs its functions in the cell. The ribosome facilitates decoding by inducing the binding of
347:
5814:
5458:
5359:
5276:
4919:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4312:
4287:
4282:
4049:
4044:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
3220:
3008:
2921:
2890:
1331:
1269:
1201:
1067:
141:
5485:
5261:
4915:
3181:
2998:
2983:
2185:"Genome-wide analysis in vivo of translation with nucleotide resolution using ribosome profiling"
1346:
5713:
5029:
4461:
3316:
3186:
3111:
3003:
2872:
1355:
654:
521:: The ribosome assembles around the target mRNA. The first tRNA is attached at the start codon.
5473:
5446:
5061:
3308:
3101:
2966:
2340:
1406:
1239:
1162:
925:
921:
664:
646:
572:
314:
294:
259:
171:
166:
5049:
2381:
2364:
2240:
Cenik C, Cenik ES, Byeon GW, Grubert F, Candille SI, Spacek D, et al. (November 2015).
5417:
5412:
5288:
4317:
4277:
3312:
3300:
3208:
3106:
3024:
2745:
2692:
Morozova N, Zinovyev A, Nonne N, Pritchard LL, Gorban AN, Harel-Bellan A (September 2012).
2646:
2553:
2302:
2196:
845:. The energy required for translation of proteins is significant. For a protein containing
650:
1518:(Third international student ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill Education. p. 249.
397:
8:
5653:
5495:
5451:
5407:
5145:
3842:
3034:
1098:
289:
269:
204:
161:
155:
146:
118:
2840:
2815:
2650:
2557:
2323:
2306:
2290:
2200:
2160:
2135:
2042:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
1208:
mold, protozoan, and coelenterate mitochondrial code and the mycoplasma/spiroplasma code
757:(rRNA) and proteins. It is the "factory" where amino acids are assembled into proteins.
462:. The translation is performed by a large complex of functional RNA and proteins called
46:
5703:
3299:
3169:
3052:
2853:
2718:
2693:
2669:
2634:
2615:
2526:
2463:
2422:
2397:
2266:
2241:
2217:
2184:
2111:
2086:
2062:
2037:
2013:
1986:
1962:
1935:
1870:
1843:
1824:
1678:
1653:
1629:
1594:
1491:
1466:
1109:
1102:
1075:
1022:
1018:
870:
862:
284:
279:
254:
176:
4930:
1776:
1751:
5698:
5402:
3988:
3805:
3332:
2845:
2800:
2781:
2723:
2674:
2607:
2569:
2565:
2518:
2483:
2427:
2328:
2271:
2222:
2165:
2116:
2067:
2018:
1967:
1916:
1911:
1894:
1875:
1816:
1781:
1706:
1683:
1634:
1616:
1573:
1544:
1519:
1496:
1082:
1030:
1013:
576:
490:
416:
391:
334:
219:
98:
3253:
2857:
2619:
2530:
2288:
1828:
849:
amino acids, the number of high-energy phosphate bonds required to translate it is 4
5788:
5434:
5328:
4961:
2835:
2827:
2713:
2705:
2664:
2654:
2599:
2561:
2510:
2473:
2417:
2409:
2376:
2365:"The Role of Translation Control in Tumorigenesis and Its Therapeutic Implications"
2318:
2310:
2261:
2253:
2212:
2204:
2155:
2147:
2106:
2098:
2057:
2049:
2008:
1998:
1957:
1947:
1906:
1865:
1855:
1808:
1771:
1763:
1673:
1665:
1624:
1606:
1486:
1478:
1117:
917:
226:
1767:
1669:
5691:
5385:
5364:
5293:
5096:
3230:
3067:
2913:
2003:
1952:
1860:
1436:
1416:
1411:
1396:
1189:
1086:
610:
486:
467:
1059:
DNA -> RNA A -> U T -> A C -> G G -> C A=T-> A=U
945:
785:. The amino acid is joined by its carboxyl group to the 3' OH of the tRNA by an
5776:
5681:
5568:
5439:
5298:
5281:
5086:
5016:
3950:
3057:
3029:
2639:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2514:
2314:
1543:(Fourth ed.). The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. pp. 309–310.
1386:
1128:
1063:
986:
elongation, (i.e. movement of ribosomes along mRNA with production of protein),
874:
812:
782:
634:
438:
386:
274:
199:
2831:
2603:
1812:
5798:
5721:
5686:
5529:
5519:
5490:
5123:
5116:
4900:
3258:
2945:
2291:"Single-cell quantification of ribosome occupancy in early mouse development"
2151:
2038:"Evolutionary optimization of speed and accuracy of decoding on the ribosome"
2036:
Wohlgemuth I, Pohl C, Mittelstaet J, Konevega AL, Rodnina MV (October 2011).
1620:
1391:
754:
724:
606:
474:
379:
2659:
2208:
815:
leaves, and another aminoacyl-tRNA enters the A site to repeat the process.
781:
that their anticodon sequences call for. The product of this reaction is an
731:
of the peptide; thus, translation is said to be amine-to-carboxyl directed.
477:(mRNA) is decoded in a ribosome, outside the nucleus, to produce a specific
5708:
5551:
5511:
5478:
5250:
5236:
5134:
3502:
3369:
3132:
3062:
2931:
2849:
2727:
2709:
2678:
2611:
2487:
2431:
2332:
2275:
2226:
2169:
2120:
2071:
2053:
2022:
1971:
1920:
1879:
1820:
1687:
1638:
1500:
1071:
1046:
966:
with explicit presentation of 40S, 60S and initiation factors (IF) binding.
760:
735:
622:
618:
614:
543:). The ribosome then moves to the next mRNA codon to continue the process (
500:
459:
406:
264:
2573:
2522:
2289:
Ozadam H, Tonn T, Han CM, Segura A, Hoskins I, Rao S; et al. (2023).
2257:
1785:
1611:
1482:
1150:
Base3 = TCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAG
1135:
significant. For instance, the rare alternative start codon CTG codes for
5732:
5598:
5546:
5541:
5054:
4905:
3235:
3164:
2102:
1441:
1401:
1094:
1090:
819:
778:
560:
482:
454:
422:
2816:"Translation initiation: variations in the mechanism can be anticipated"
2478:
2451:
2413:
1727:"Computational Analysis of Genomic Sequences utilizing Machine Learning"
1033:(IF) binding (Figure M1'). It was extended further to include effect of
5640:
5635:
5588:
5581:
5576:
5561:
5556:
5397:
5332:
5081:
5023:
4910:
3193:
2635:"Reply to Baveye and Darnault: Useful models are simple and extendable"
1136:
1124:
834:
786:
764:
743:
739:
728:
630:
602:
598:
564:
478:
450:
410:
402:
194:
108:
88:
63:
1987:"Errors in translational decoding: tRNA wobbling or misincorporation?"
1705:(9th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 335–339.
912:
Translational control is critical for the development and survival of
806:
binds the incoming tRNA with the complementary codon on the mRNA. The
671:
659:
5645:
5630:
5617:
5369:
5157:
4988:
3997:
2633:
Coyte KZ, Tabuteau H, Gaffney EA, Foster KR, Durham WM (April 2017).
1936:"Functional Translational Readthrough: A Systems Biology Perspective"
1009:
934:
842:
794:
626:
588:
568:
504:
497:
151:
742:
triplets called codons. Each of those triplets codes for a specific
374:
5771:
5676:
5622:
5524:
5468:
5463:
5354:
5315:
5271:
5173:
4978:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3213:
3203:
3127:
2780:(3rd ed.). Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
1595:"The Evolution of tRNA Copy Number and Repertoire in Cellular Life"
1034:
826:
750:
720:
463:
210:
93:
83:
38:
2882:
2877:
2468:
2449:
1066:, depending on where you start reading the code. Finally, use the
980:
initiation of translation, recruiting the small ribosomal subunit,
5658:
5536:
5320:
5305:
5008:
4983:
3633:
2949:
2452:"Basic, simple and extendable kinetic model of protein synthesis"
2183:
Ingolia NT, Ghaemmaghami S, Newman JR, Weissman JS (April 2009).
2182:
2035:
1180:
1171:
Even when working with ordinary eukaryotic sequences such as the
1140:
838:
493:
442:
430:
1893:
Mora L, Zavialov A, Ehrenberg M, Buckingham RH (December 2003).
5749:
5727:
5424:
5347:
5342:
5107:
4998:
4993:
4867:
4857:
4842:
4832:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4802:
4797:
4777:
4772:
4752:
4747:
3924:
3897:
3885:
3758:
3714:
3709:
3692:
3687:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3598:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3514:
3509:
3497:
3473:
3468:
2450:
Gorban AN, Harel-Bellan A, Morozova N, Zinovyev A (July 2019).
1892:
1426:
913:
807:
803:
774:
508:
449:
molecules as templates. The generated protein is a sequence of
103:
78:
2691:
401:
Initiation and elongation stages of translation involving RNA
5231:
5223:
5041:
5003:
4737:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4702:
4447:
4254:
3976:
3971:
3929:
3919:
3875:
3827:
3822:
3765:
3753:
3726:
3721:
3699:
3682:
3660:
3638:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3524:
3519:
3456:
3382:
2971:
2398:"New frontiers in translational control of the cancer genome"
1172:
958:
790:
1985:
Ou X, Cao J, Cheng A, Peppelenbosch MP, Pan Q (March 2019).
1513:
856:
5737:
5429:
4970:
3961:
3936:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3837:
3832:
3787:
3777:
3748:
3738:
3650:
3568:
3556:
3487:
3461:
3451:
3441:
1431:
1421:
930:
830:
822:
663:
A ribosome translating a protein that is secreted into the
2873:
Virtual Cell
Animation Collection: Introducing Translation
2632:
1842:
Baggett NE, Zhang Y, Gross CA (March 2017). Ibba M (ed.).
527:: The last tRNA validated by the small ribosomal subunit (
2941:
2087:"Quantitative assessment of ribosome drop-off in E. coli"
446:
73:
68:
4960:
1984:
1844:"Global analysis of translation termination in E. coli"
1514:
Brooker RJ, Widmaier EP, Graham LE, Stiling PD (2014).
1467:"The Peptidyl Transferase Center: a Window to the Past"
1465:
Tirumalai MR, Rivas M, Tran Q, Fox GE (November 2021).
1179:
Taxonomy Group for the translation of the sequences in
1108:
Whereas other aspects such as the 3D structure, called
940:
2239:
2133:
793:, where mRNA codons are matched through complementary
777:) catalyze the bonding between specific tRNAs and the
537:
which binds it to one of the preceding admitted tRNA (
5760:
2084:
1593:
Santos, Fenícia Brito; Del-Bem, Luiz-Eduardo (2023).
1464:
2500:
962:
Figure M1'. The extended model of protein synthesis
2775:
2794:
2589:
974:production of mRNA molecules (including splicing),
2744:Elzanowski, Andrzej; Ostell, Jim (January 2019).
1841:
453:. This sequence is determined by the sequence of
5796:
2799:(4th ed.). San Francisco...: W.H. Freeman.
2743:
2694:"Kinetic signatures of microRNA modes of action"
2543:
1651:
1220:ciliate, dasycladacean and hexamita nuclear code
841:) moves the ribosome down one codon towards the
2585:
2583:
2134:Awad S, Valleriani A, Chiarugi D (April 2024).
1317:candidate division SR1 and gracilibacteria code
1025:are simple and extendable". The simplest model
2778:Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Biochemistry
2085:Sin C, Chiarugi D, Valleriani A (April 2016).
1167:Genetic code § List of alternative codons
1101:can often still be guessed at, but the proper
533:) transfers the amino acid. It carries to the
4946:
3285:
2898:
2813:
2750:National Center for Biotechnology Information
2445:
2443:
2441:
2395:
1933:
1592:
601:act by inhibiting translation. These include
355:
2685:
2626:
2580:
2345:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2282:
2176:
1792:
1749:
1652:Moghal A, Mohler K, Ibba M (November 2014).
2739:
2737:
2494:
1927:
1002:Totally Asymmetric Simple Exclusion Process
591:outside the cell, or immediately secreted.
4953:
4939:
3292:
3278:
3053:Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA)
2905:
2891:
2438:
1246:bacterial, archaeal and plant plastid code
1234:echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code
362:
348:
2878:Translate tool (from DNA or RNA sequence)
2839:
2776:Champe PC, Harvey RA, Ferrier DR (2004).
2717:
2668:
2658:
2477:
2467:
2421:
2380:
2362:
2322:
2265:
2233:
2216:
2159:
2110:
2061:
2012:
2002:
1961:
1951:
1910:
1869:
1859:
1775:
1700:
1677:
1628:
1610:
1490:
1112:, of protein can only be predicted using
857:Initiation and termination of translation
2734:
2456:Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering
1798:
957:
949:Figure M0. Basic and the simplest model
944:
907:
881:
670:
658:
415:
396:
385:
373:
2795:Cox M, Nelson DR, Lehninger AL (2005).
2382:10.1146/annurev-cancerbio-030419-033420
1264:alternative flatworm mitochondrial code
14:
5797:
1563:
514:Translation proceeds in three phases:
4934:
3273:
3073:Histone acetylation and deacetylation
2886:
2358:
2356:
1750:Ross JF, Orlowski M (February 1982).
1538:
1460:
1458:
1156:
27:Cellular process of protein synthesis
3138:Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC)
2820:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
2797:Lehninger principles of biochemistry
1654:"Mistranslation of the genetic code"
1139:when used as a start codon, and for
941:Mathematical modeling of translation
2912:
2814:Malys N, McCarthy JE (March 2011).
2396:Truitt ML, Ruggero D (April 2016).
1934:Schueren F, Thoms S (August 2016).
640:
24:
2768:
2353:
1455:
1373:Cephalodiscidae mitochondrial code
390:Translation of mRNA and ribosomal
25:
5831:
2866:
1105:is often very hard to determine.
633:without any harm to a eukaryotic
5782:
5770:
2592:Bulletin of Mathematical Biology
1912:10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03799.x
1703:Introduction to Genetic Analysis
1311:Pterobranchia mitochondrial code
1279:chlorophycean mitochondrial code
549:), creating an amino acid chain.
329:
328:
215:
214:
45:
3143:Post-translational modification
2537:
2389:
2369:Annual Review of Cancer Biology
2140:NAR Genomics and Bioinformatics
2127:
2078:
2029:
1978:
1886:
1835:
1214:invertebrate mitochondrial code
1040:
466:. The entire process is called
5607:Last universal common ancestor
5202:Defective interfering particle
2546:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2363:Xu Y, Ruggero D (March 2020).
1743:
1719:
1694:
1645:
1586:
1557:
1532:
1507:
1252:alternative yeast nuclear code
1074:to translate the above into a
1006:Probabilistic Boolean Networks
992:degradation of mRNA molecules,
577:co-translational translocation
571:or across the membrane of the
13:
1:
5743:Clonally transmissible cancer
5179:Satellite-like nucleic acids
1768:10.1128/JB.149.2.650-653.1982
1731:scholar.googleusercontent.com
1670:10.1016/j.febslet.2014.08.035
1448:
1196:vertebrate mitochondrial code
890:
2566:10.1016/0022-5193(80)90008-9
2004:10.1371/journal.pgen.1008017
1953:10.1371/JOURNAL.PGEN.1006196
1861:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006676
1287:trematode mitochondrial code
675:Tertiary structure of tRNA (
567:, translation occurs in the
7:
1379:
1258:ascidian mitochondrial code
989:termination of translation,
983:assembly of full ribosomes,
581:rough endoplasmic reticulum
10:
5836:
5299:Class II or DNA transposon
5294:Class I or retrotransposon
2515:10.1002/bip.1968.360060102
2315:10.1038/s41586-023-06228-9
1160:
1097:segments along the chain.
1085:of the protein. However,
1044:
771:Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases
644:
5669:
5612:Earliest known life forms
5597:
5510:
5486:Repeated sequences in DNA
5378:
5260:
5249:
5222:
5194:
5144:
5133:
5106:
5095:
5040:
4969:
4896:Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase
4888:
4690:
4469:
4460:
4268:
4005:
3996:
3987:
3949:
3866:
3813:
3804:
3774:
3735:
3647:
3565:
3484:
3438:
3429:
3396:
3368:
3340:
3331:
3324:
3246:
3155:
3120:
3094:
3085:
3043:
3017:
2991:
2982:
2920:
2832:10.1007/s00018-010-0588-z
2604:10.1007/s11538-006-9128-2
1813:10.1007/s11033-010-0176-1
1801:Molecular Biology Reports
1701:Griffiths A (2008). "9".
1570:W. H. Freeman and Company
667:(tRNAs colored dark blue)
437:is the process in living
5459:Endogenous viral element
5277:Horizontal gene transfer
4920:Kozak consensus sequence
3204:sequestration (P-bodies)
1370:
1332:karyorelict nuclear code
1284:
1202:yeast mitochondrial code
1143:in all other positions.
1114:sophisticated algorithms
995:degradation of proteins.
485:. The polypeptide later
5156:dsDNA satellite virus (
4916:Shine-Dalgarno sequence
3182:Gene regulatory network
2660:10.1073/pnas.1702303114
2209:10.1126/science.1168978
1756:Journal of Bacteriology
1231:
1089:, depending in part on
867:Shine–Dalgarno sequence
535:large ribosomal subunit
378:Overview of eukaryotic
5714:Helper dependent virus
5030:Biological dark matter
3187:cis-regulatory element
2710:10.1261/rna.032284.112
2402:Nature Reviews. Cancer
2152:10.1093/nargab/lqae036
2091:Nucleic Acids Research
2054:10.1098/rstb.2011.0138
1899:Molecular Microbiology
1471:Microbiol Mol Biol Rev
1356:peritrich nuclear code
1324:Pachysolen tannophilus
1078:as used in chemistry.
967:
955:
716:
668:
655:Eukaryotic translation
426:
413:
394:
383:
18:Translation (genetics)
5474:Endogenous retrovirus
5447:Origin of replication
5163:ssDNA satellite virus
5153:ssRNA satellite virus
2258:10.1101/gr.193342.115
1612:10.3390/genes14010027
1483:10.1128/MMBR.00104-21
1407:Expanded genetic code
1240:euplotid nuclear code
1163:List of genetic codes
1087:proteins tend to fold
961:
948:
908:Clinical significance
882:Errors in translation
674:
665:endoplasmic reticulum
662:
647:Bacterial translation
645:Further information:
573:endoplasmic reticulum
419:
400:
389:
377:
315:Personalized medicine
309:Personalized medicine
172:Quantitative genetics
167:Mendelian inheritance
5810:Protein biosynthesis
5418:Secondary chromosome
5413:Extrachromosomal DNA
5289:Transposable element
3816:Mitochondrial
3301:Protein biosynthesis
3209:alternative splicing
3199:Post-transcriptional
3025:Transcription factor
1294:Scenedesmus obliquus
651:Archaeal translation
575:in a process called
235:Branches of genetics
5654:Model lipid bilayer
5496:Interspersed repeat
3133:Transfer RNA (tRNA)
2746:"The Genetic Codes"
2651:2017PNAS..114E2804C
2645:(14): E2804–E2805.
2558:1980JThBi..86..279H
2479:10.3934/mbe.2019329
2414:10.1038/nrc.2016.27
2307:2023Natur.618.1057O
2301:(7967): 1057–1064.
2201:2009Sci...324..218I
1099:Secondary structure
1081:This will give the
445:are produced using
205:Genetic engineering
162:Population genetics
33:Part of a series on
5820:Cellular processes
4964:organic structures
3989:Ribosomal Proteins
3247:Influential people
3226:Post-translational
3045:Post-transcription
2103:10.1093/nar/gkw137
1568:(Fifth ed.).
1305:mitochondrial code
1296:mitochondrial code
1157:Translation tables
1110:tertiary structure
1103:tertiary structure
1076:structural formula
1031:initiation factors
968:
956:
863:initiation factors
717:
669:
507:sequences to mRNA
427:
414:
395:
384:
382:(mRNA) translation
177:Molecular genetics
136:History and topics
5805:Molecular biology
5758:
5757:
5699:Non-cellular life
5506:
5505:
5245:
5244:
5218:
5217:
5172:ssRNA satellite (
4928:
4927:
4884:
4883:
4880:
4879:
4876:
4875:
4456:
4455:
3945:
3944:
3869:Eukaryotic
3806:Elongation factor
3800:
3799:
3796:
3795:
3333:Initiation factor
3267:
3266:
3151:
3150:
3081:
3080:
2957:Special transfers
2048:(1580): 2979–86.
1712:978-0-7167-6887-6
1564:Stryer L (2002).
1525:978-981-4581-85-1
1118:translation table
1083:primary structure
734:The mRNA carries
392:protein synthesis
372:
371:
99:Genetic variation
16:(Redirected from
5827:
5787:
5786:
5785:
5775:
5774:
5766:
5435:Gene duplication
5258:
5257:
5254:self-replication
5142:
5141:
5104:
5103:
4962:Self-replicating
4955:
4948:
4941:
4932:
4931:
4467:
4466:
4003:
4002:
3994:
3993:
3868:
3815:
3811:
3810:
3781:
3742:
3654:
3572:
3491:
3445:
3436:
3435:
3338:
3337:
3329:
3328:
3294:
3287:
3280:
3271:
3270:
3092:
3091:
2989:
2988:
2907:
2900:
2893:
2884:
2883:
2861:
2843:
2810:
2791:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2741:
2732:
2731:
2721:
2689:
2683:
2682:
2672:
2662:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2587:
2578:
2577:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2481:
2471:
2462:(6): 6602–6622.
2447:
2436:
2435:
2425:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2360:
2351:
2350:
2344:
2336:
2326:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2269:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2220:
2195:(5924): 218–23.
2180:
2174:
2173:
2163:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2114:
2082:
2076:
2075:
2065:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2016:
2006:
1997:(3): 2979–2986.
1982:
1976:
1975:
1965:
1955:
1931:
1925:
1924:
1914:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1873:
1863:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1779:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1738:
1737:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1681:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1632:
1614:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1539:Neill C (1996).
1536:
1530:
1529:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1494:
1462:
1303:Thraustochytrium
1226:kinetoplast code
1014:max-plus algebra
714:
704:
698:
692:
686:
680:
641:Basic mechanisms
540:transpeptidation
473:In translation,
405:, the ribosome,
364:
357:
350:
337:
332:
331:
227:Medical genetics
223:
218:
217:
49:
30:
29:
21:
5835:
5834:
5830:
5829:
5828:
5826:
5825:
5824:
5815:Gene expression
5795:
5794:
5793:
5783:
5781:
5769:
5761:
5759:
5754:
5704:Synthetic virus
5692:Artificial cell
5665:
5593:
5502:
5391:RNA replication
5386:DNA replication
5374:
5365:Group II intron
5263:
5253:
5241:
5232:Mammalian prion
5214:
5190:
5169:dsRNA satellite
5166:ssDNA satellite
5136:
5129:
5098:
5091:
5036:
4965:
4959:
4929:
4924:
4872:
4686:
4452:
4264:
3983:
3941:
3862:
3792:
3775:
3770:
3736:
3731:
3648:
3643:
3566:
3561:
3485:
3480:
3439:
3425:
3392:
3364:
3320:
3298:
3268:
3263:
3242:
3177:Transcriptional
3147:
3116:
3077:
3068:Polyadenylation
3039:
3013:
2978:
2972:Protein→Protein
2923:
2916:
2914:Gene expression
2911:
2869:
2864:
2826:(6): 991–1003.
2807:
2788:
2771:
2769:Further reading
2766:
2765:
2755:
2753:
2742:
2735:
2690:
2686:
2631:
2627:
2588:
2581:
2542:
2538:
2499:
2495:
2448:
2439:
2394:
2390:
2361:
2354:
2338:
2337:
2287:
2283:
2252:(11): 1610–21.
2246:Genome Research
2238:
2234:
2181:
2177:
2132:
2128:
2083:
2079:
2034:
2030:
1983:
1979:
1946:(8): e1006196.
1932:
1928:
1891:
1887:
1854:(3): e1006676.
1840:
1836:
1797:
1793:
1748:
1744:
1735:
1733:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1713:
1699:
1695:
1664:(23): 4305–10.
1650:
1646:
1591:
1587:
1580:
1572:. p. 826.
1562:
1558:
1551:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1512:
1508:
1477:(4): e0010421.
1463:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1437:Protein methods
1417:Gene regulation
1412:Gene expression
1397:DNA codon table
1382:
1377:
1363:Blastocrithidia
1169:
1161:Main articles:
1159:
1151:
1060:
1049:
1043:
943:
910:
893:
884:
859:
710:
700:
694:
688:
682:
676:
657:
643:
611:chloramphenicol
468:gene expression
368:
327:
320:
319:
310:
302:
301:
300:
299:
248:
240:
239:
231:
209:
190:
182:
181:
137:
129:
128:
115:
114:
113:
57:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5833:
5823:
5822:
5817:
5812:
5807:
5792:
5791:
5779:
5756:
5755:
5753:
5752:
5747:
5746:
5745:
5740:
5730:
5724:
5718:
5717:
5716:
5711:
5701:
5696:
5695:
5694:
5689:
5679:
5673:
5671:
5667:
5666:
5664:
5663:
5662:
5661:
5656:
5648:
5643:
5638:
5633:
5627:
5626:
5625:
5614:
5609:
5603:
5601:
5595:
5594:
5592:
5591:
5586:
5585:
5584:
5579:
5571:
5569:Kappa organism
5566:
5565:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5549:
5544:
5534:
5533:
5532:
5527:
5516:
5514:
5508:
5507:
5504:
5503:
5501:
5500:
5499:
5498:
5493:
5483:
5482:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5456:
5455:
5454:
5444:
5443:
5442:
5440:Non-coding DNA
5437:
5432:
5422:
5421:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5395:
5394:
5393:
5382:
5380:
5376:
5375:
5373:
5372:
5367:
5362:
5360:Group I intron
5357:
5352:
5351:
5350:
5340:
5339:
5338:
5335:
5326:
5323:
5318:
5313:
5303:
5302:
5301:
5296:
5286:
5285:
5284:
5282:Genomic island
5279:
5268:
5266:
5262:Mobile genetic
5255:
5247:
5246:
5243:
5242:
5240:
5239:
5234:
5228:
5226:
5220:
5219:
5216:
5215:
5213:
5212:
5211:
5210:
5207:
5198:
5196:
5192:
5191:
5189:
5188:
5187:
5186:
5183:
5177:
5170:
5167:
5164:
5161:
5154:
5150:
5148:
5139:
5131:
5130:
5128:
5127:
5120:
5112:
5110:
5101:
5093:
5092:
5090:
5089:
5087:dsDNA-RT virus
5084:
5082:ssRNA-RT virus
5079:
5077:(−)ssRNA virus
5074:
5072:(+)ssRNA virus
5069:
5064:
5059:
5058:
5057:
5046:
5044:
5038:
5037:
5035:
5034:
5033:
5032:
5027:
5017:Incertae sedis
5013:
5012:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4986:
4981:
4975:
4973:
4967:
4966:
4958:
4957:
4950:
4943:
4935:
4926:
4925:
4923:
4922:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4892:
4890:
4889:Other concepts
4886:
4885:
4882:
4881:
4878:
4877:
4874:
4873:
4871:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4687:
4685:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4473:
4471:
4464:
4458:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4274:
4272:
4266:
4265:
4263:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4011:
4009:
4000:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3979:
3974:
3966:
3965:
3964:
3955:
3953:
3951:Release factor
3947:
3946:
3943:
3942:
3940:
3939:
3934:
3933:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3916:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3895:
3894:
3893:
3888:
3872:
3870:
3864:
3863:
3861:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3819:
3817:
3808:
3802:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3790:
3784:
3782:
3772:
3771:
3769:
3768:
3763:
3762:
3761:
3751:
3745:
3743:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3718:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3697:
3696:
3695:
3690:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3657:
3655:
3645:
3644:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3575:
3573:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3559:
3554:
3553:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3494:
3492:
3482:
3481:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3466:
3465:
3464:
3459:
3448:
3446:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3402:
3400:
3394:
3393:
3391:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3374:
3372:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3346:
3344:
3335:
3326:
3322:
3321:
3297:
3296:
3289:
3282:
3274:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3261:
3256:
3254:François Jacob
3250:
3248:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3233:
3223:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3196:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3184:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3161:
3159:
3153:
3152:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3124:
3122:
3118:
3117:
3115:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3098:
3096:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3076:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3049:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3030:RNA polymerase
3027:
3021:
3019:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2995:
2993:
2986:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2954:
2953:
2952:
2934:
2928:
2926:
2918:
2917:
2910:
2909:
2902:
2895:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2875:
2868:
2867:External links
2865:
2863:
2862:
2811:
2805:
2792:
2786:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2733:
2704:(9): 1635–55.
2684:
2625:
2579:
2552:(2): 279–313.
2536:
2493:
2437:
2408:(5): 288–304.
2388:
2375:(1): 437–457.
2352:
2281:
2232:
2175:
2146:(2): lqae036.
2126:
2097:(6): 2528–37.
2077:
2028:
1977:
1926:
1905:(5): 1467–76.
1885:
1834:
1791:
1742:
1718:
1711:
1693:
1644:
1585:
1578:
1556:
1549:
1531:
1524:
1506:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1387:Cell (biology)
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1375:
1369:
1367:
1358:
1352:
1343:
1334:
1328:
1319:
1313:
1307:
1298:
1289:
1283:
1281:
1275:
1266:
1260:
1254:
1248:
1242:
1236:
1230:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1198:
1192:
1185:
1158:
1155:
1148:
1129:selenocysteine
1064:reading frames
1058:
1045:Main article:
1042:
1039:
997:
996:
993:
990:
987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
942:
939:
909:
906:
892:
889:
883:
880:
875:release factor
858:
855:
813:uncharged tRNA
783:aminoacyl-tRNA
642:
639:
587:transport and
557:
556:
550:
522:
370:
369:
367:
366:
359:
352:
344:
341:
340:
339:
338:
322:
321:
318:
317:
311:
308:
307:
304:
303:
298:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
275:Immunogenetics
272:
267:
262:
257:
251:
250:
249:
246:
245:
242:
241:
238:
237:
230:
229:
224:
207:
202:
200:DNA sequencing
197:
191:
188:
187:
184:
183:
180:
179:
174:
169:
164:
159:
149:
144:
138:
135:
134:
131:
130:
127:
126:
121:
112:
111:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
60:
59:
58:
56:Key components
55:
54:
51:
50:
42:
41:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5832:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5806:
5803:
5802:
5800:
5790:
5780:
5778:
5773:
5768:
5767:
5764:
5751:
5748:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5735:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5725:
5723:
5722:Nanobacterium
5719:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5706:
5705:
5702:
5700:
5697:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5687:Cell division
5685:
5684:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5674:
5672:
5668:
5660:
5657:
5655:
5652:
5651:
5649:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5621:
5620:
5619:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5604:
5602:
5600:
5596:
5590:
5587:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5574:
5572:
5570:
5567:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5539:
5538:
5535:
5531:
5530:Hydrogenosome
5528:
5526:
5523:
5522:
5521:
5520:Mitochondrion
5518:
5517:
5515:
5513:
5512:Endosymbiosis
5509:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5491:Tandem repeat
5489:
5488:
5487:
5484:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5461:
5460:
5457:
5453:
5450:
5449:
5448:
5445:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5431:
5428:
5427:
5426:
5423:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5400:
5399:
5396:
5392:
5389:
5388:
5387:
5384:
5383:
5381:
5379:Other aspects
5377:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5349:
5346:
5345:
5344:
5341:
5336:
5334:
5330:
5327:
5324:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5309:
5308:
5307:
5304:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5291:
5290:
5287:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5275:
5274:
5273:
5270:
5269:
5267:
5265:
5259:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5229:
5227:
5225:
5221:
5208:
5205:
5204:
5203:
5200:
5199:
5197:
5193:
5184:
5181:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5171:
5168:
5165:
5162:
5159:
5155:
5152:
5151:
5149:
5147:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5132:
5126:
5125:
5124:Avsunviroidae
5121:
5119:
5118:
5117:Pospiviroidae
5114:
5113:
5111:
5109:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5094:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5056:
5053:
5052:
5051:
5048:
5047:
5045:
5043:
5039:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5025:
5021:
5020:
5019:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4972:
4971:Cellular life
4968:
4963:
4956:
4951:
4949:
4944:
4942:
4937:
4936:
4933:
4921:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4901:Reading frame
4899:
4897:
4894:
4893:
4891:
4887:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4695:
4693:
4689:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4462:Mitochondrial
4459:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4271:
4267:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4012:
4010:
4008:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3986:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3952:
3948:
3938:
3935:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3900:
3899:
3896:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3865:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3820:
3818:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3803:
3789:
3786:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3773:
3767:
3764:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3734:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3701:
3698:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3685:
3684:
3681:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3663:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3646:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3564:
3558:
3555:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3527:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3504:
3501:
3500:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3489:
3483:
3475:
3472:
3471:
3470:
3467:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3454:
3453:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3443:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3428:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3399:
3395:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3371:
3370:Mitochondrial
3367:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3345:
3343:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3330:
3327:
3323:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3295:
3290:
3288:
3283:
3281:
3276:
3275:
3272:
3260:
3259:Jacques Monod
3257:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3245:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3228:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3221:Translational
3219:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3175:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3084:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3046:
3042:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2984:Transcription
2981:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2958:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2937:Central dogma
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2919:
2915:
2908:
2903:
2901:
2896:
2894:
2889:
2888:
2885:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2812:
2808:
2806:0-7167-4339-6
2802:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2787:0-7817-2265-9
2783:
2779:
2774:
2773:
2751:
2747:
2740:
2738:
2729:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2688:
2680:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2629:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2598:(1): 361–93.
2597:
2593:
2586:
2584:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2540:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2446:
2444:
2442:
2433:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2392:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2359:
2357:
2348:
2342:
2334:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2285:
2277:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2228:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2171:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2130:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2032:
2024:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1991:PLOS Genetics
1988:
1981:
1973:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1940:PLOS Genetics
1937:
1930:
1922:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1889:
1881:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1848:PLOS Genetics
1845:
1838:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1807:(2): 847–55.
1806:
1802:
1795:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1732:
1728:
1722:
1714:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1689:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1589:
1581:
1579:0-7167-4684-0
1575:
1571:
1567:
1560:
1552:
1550:0-8053-1940-9
1546:
1542:
1535:
1527:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1461:
1459:
1454:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1392:Cell division
1390:
1388:
1385:
1384:
1374:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1359:
1357:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1312:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1290:
1288:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1235:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1191:
1190:standard code
1187:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1168:
1164:
1154:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1021:that "useful
1020:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
994:
991:
988:
985:
982:
979:
976:
973:
972:
971:
965:
960:
952:
947:
938:
936:
932:
927:
926:WNT–β-catenin
923:
922:PI3K/AKT/mTOR
919:
915:
905:
901:
897:
888:
879:
876:
872:
868:
864:
854:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
821:
816:
814:
809:
805:
799:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
766:
762:
761:Transfer RNAs
758:
756:
755:ribosomal RNA
752:
747:
745:
741:
737:
732:
730:
726:
725:messenger RNA
722:
713:
708:
705:in blue with
703:
702:Anticodon arm
697:
691:
690:Variable loop
685:
684:Acceptor stem
679:
673:
666:
661:
656:
652:
648:
638:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
607:cycloheximide
604:
600:
595:
592:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
554:
551:
548:
547:
546:translocation
542:
541:
536:
532:
531:
530:accommodation
526:
523:
520:
517:
516:
515:
512:
510:
506:
502:
499:
498:complementary
495:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
475:messenger RNA
471:
469:
465:
461:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
424:
418:
412:
408:
404:
399:
393:
388:
381:
380:messenger RNA
376:
365:
360:
358:
353:
351:
346:
345:
343:
342:
336:
326:
325:
324:
323:
316:
313:
312:
306:
305:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
252:
244:
243:
236:
233:
232:
228:
225:
221:
212:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
192:
186:
185:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
157:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
139:
133:
132:
125:
122:
120:
117:
116:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
70:
67:
65:
62:
61:
53:
52:
48:
44:
43:
40:
37:
36:
32:
31:
19:
5709:Viral vector
5552:Gerontoplast
5479:Transpoviron
5251:Nucleic acid
5237:Fungal prion
5135:Helper-virus
5122:
5115:
5022:
5015:
3968:Class 2/RF3
3776:
3737:
3649:
3567:
3486:
3440:
3304:
3236:irreversible
3121:Key elements
3086:
3018:Key elements
2932:Genetic code
2922:Introduction
2823:
2819:
2796:
2777:
2754:. Retrieved
2701:
2697:
2687:
2642:
2638:
2628:
2595:
2591:
2549:
2545:
2539:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2459:
2455:
2405:
2401:
2391:
2372:
2368:
2341:cite journal
2298:
2294:
2284:
2249:
2245:
2235:
2192:
2188:
2178:
2143:
2139:
2129:
2094:
2090:
2080:
2045:
2041:
2031:
1994:
1990:
1980:
1943:
1939:
1929:
1902:
1898:
1888:
1851:
1847:
1837:
1804:
1800:
1794:
1762:(2): 650–3.
1759:
1755:
1745:
1734:. Retrieved
1730:
1721:
1702:
1696:
1661:
1658:FEBS Letters
1657:
1647:
1602:
1598:
1588:
1566:Biochemistry
1565:
1559:
1540:
1534:
1515:
1509:
1474:
1470:
1365:nuclear code
1362:
1350:nuclear code
1347:
1341:nuclear code
1339:Condylostoma
1338:
1326:nuclear code
1323:
1302:
1293:
1273:nuclear code
1270:
1170:
1152:
1145:
1133:
1122:
1107:
1080:
1072:Genetic code
1061:
1054:
1050:
1047:Genetic code
1041:Genetic code
1026:
998:
969:
963:
950:
911:
902:
898:
894:
885:
860:
850:
846:
817:
800:
795:base pairing
769:
759:
748:
733:
718:
711:
706:
701:
695:
689:
683:
677:
623:erythromycin
619:streptomycin
615:tetracycline
596:
593:
558:
552:
545:
544:
539:
538:
529:
528:
524:
518:
513:
501:transfer RNA
472:
460:genetic code
434:
428:
407:transfer RNA
295:Quantitative
265:Cytogenetics
260:Conservation
142:Introduction
5733:Cancer cell
5599:Abiogenesis
5547:Chromoplast
5542:Chloroplast
5325:Degradative
5067:dsRNA virus
5062:ssDNA virus
5055:Giant virus
5050:dsDNA virus
4906:Start codon
4691:28S subunit
4470:39S subunit
4270:40S subunit
4007:60S subunit
3998:Cytoplasmic
3462:SUI1 family
3305:translation
3087:Translation
2924:to genetics
2503:Biopolymers
1442:Start codon
1402:Epigenetics
1271:Blepharisma
1125:amino acids
1095:hydrophobic
1091:hydrophilic
924:, MYC, and
820:translocase
779:amino acids
693:in orange,
687:in purple,
681:in yellow,
599:antibiotics
561:prokaryotes
553:Termination
483:polypeptide
455:nucleotides
451:amino acids
435:translation
423:polypeptide
411:amino acids
403:nucleobases
5799:Categories
5641:Proteinoid
5636:Coacervate
5589:Nitroplast
5582:Trophosome
5577:Bacteriome
5562:Apicoplast
5557:Leucoplast
5398:Chromosome
5316:Resistance
5024:Parakaryon
4911:Stop codon
4255:RRP15-like
4065:RPL10-like
3814:Bacterial/
3431:Eukaryotic
3317:eukaryotic
3231:reversible
3194:lac operon
3170:imprinting
3165:Epigenetic
3157:Regulation
3112:Eukaryotic
3058:5' capping
3009:Eukaryotic
2509:(1): 1–5.
1736:2022-01-12
1449:References
1348:Mesodinium
1137:Methionine
1010:Petri Nets
891:Regulation
835:eukaryotes
787:ester bond
765:amino acid
744:amino acid
740:nucleotide
729:C-terminus
712:T arm
709:in black,
696:D arm
637:'s cells.
631:infections
603:anisomycin
565:eukaryotes
525:Elongation
519:Initiation
481:chain, or
479:amino acid
290:Population
270:Ecological
195:Geneticist
109:Amino acid
89:Nucleotide
64:Chromosome
5789:Astronomy
5650:Research
5631:Protocell
5370:Retrozyme
5329:Virulence
5311:Fertility
5158:Virophage
5146:Satellite
5137:dependent
4989:Eukaryota
3867:Archaeal/
3342:Bacterial
3309:bacterial
3102:Bacterial
2999:Bacterial
2469:1204.5941
1621:2073-4425
1605:(1): 27.
954:proteins.
935:apoptosis
715:in green)
707:Anticodon
627:puromycin
589:secretion
569:cytoplasm
505:anticodon
464:ribosomes
441:in which
285:Molecular
280:Microbial
255:Classical
156:molecular
152:Evolution
5677:Organism
5670:See also
5646:Sulphobe
5623:Ribozyme
5618:RNA life
5525:Mitosome
5469:Prophage
5464:Provirus
5452:Replicon
5408:Circular
5355:Phagemid
5272:Mobilome
5264:elements
5174:Virusoid
5097:Subviral
5009:Protista
4994:Animalia
4979:Bacteria
3958:Class 1
3398:Archaeal
3325:Proteins
3313:archaeal
3214:microRNA
3128:Ribosome
3107:Archaeal
3063:Splicing
3035:Promoter
3004:Archaeal
2948: →
2944: →
2858:31720000
2850:21076851
2841:11115079
2728:22850425
2679:28341710
2620:83701439
2612:17031456
2531:27559249
2488:31698578
2432:27112207
2333:37344592
2324:10307641
2276:26297486
2227:19213877
2170:38638702
2161:11025885
2121:26935582
2072:30921315
2023:21930591
1972:27490485
1921:14651631
1880:28301469
1829:22038744
1821:20467902
1688:25220850
1639:36672768
1501:34756086
1380:See also
1127:such as
1035:microRNA
1019:paradigm
918:RAS–MAPK
827:bacteria
808:P/E-site
751:ribosome
721:ribosome
699:in red,
678:CCA tail
597:Several
489:into an
443:proteins
335:Category
220:template
211:Genomics
189:Research
94:Mutation
84:Heredity
39:Genetics
5777:Biology
5763:Portals
5659:Jeewanu
5573:Organs
5537:Plastid
5337:Cryptic
5306:Plasmid
5004:Plantae
4984:Archaea
4260:RSL24D1
3937:a/eEF-2
3876:a/eEF-1
2967:RNA→DNA
2962:RNA→RNA
2950:Protein
2719:3425779
2670:5389313
2647:Bibcode
2574:7442295
2554:Bibcode
2523:5641411
2423:5491099
2303:Bibcode
2267:4617958
2218:2746483
2197:Bibcode
2189:Science
2112:4824120
2063:6438450
2014:3158919
1963:4973966
1871:5373646
1786:6799491
1679:4254111
1630:9858662
1541:Biology
1516:Biology
1492:8579967
1181:GenBank
1141:Leucine
839:archaea
831:a/eEF-2
775:enzymes
736:genetic
585:vesicle
503:(tRNA)
494:protein
431:biology
147:History
119:Outline
5750:Virome
5728:Nanobe
5425:Genome
5403:Linear
5348:Fosmid
5343:Cosmid
5108:Viroid
5099:agents
4428:RPS27A
4368:RPS15A
4307:RPS4Y2
4303:RPS4Y1
4297:RPS4 (
4215:RPL37A
4205:RPL36A
4195:RPL35A
4155:RPL27A
4135:RPL23A
4110:RPL18A
4085:RPL13A
4060:RPL10A
3515:γ
3510:β
3503:kinase
3498:α
2856:
2848:
2838:
2803:
2784:
2756:31 May
2752:(NCBI)
2726:
2716:
2677:
2667:
2618:
2610:
2572:
2529:
2521:
2486:
2430:
2420:
2331:
2321:
2295:Nature
2274:
2264:
2225:
2215:
2168:
2158:
2119:
2109:
2070:
2060:
2021:
2011:
1970:
1960:
1919:
1878:
1868:
1827:
1819:
1784:
1777:216554
1774:
1709:
1686:
1676:
1637:
1627:
1619:
1576:
1547:
1522:
1499:
1489:
1427:Genome
1023:models
914:cancer
843:3' end
829:) and
804:A-site
653:, and
625:, and
509:codons
491:active
409:, and
333:
247:Fields
104:Allele
79:Genome
5224:Prion
5195:Other
5042:Virus
4999:Fungi
4698:MRPS1
4477:MRPL1
4448:RACK1
4443:RPS30
4438:RPS29
4433:RPS28
4423:RPS27
4418:RPS26
4413:RPS25
4408:RPS24
4403:RPS23
4398:RPS21
4393:RPS20
4388:RPS19
4383:RPS18
4378:RPS17
4373:RPS16
4363:RPS15
4358:RPS14
4353:RPS13
4348:RPS12
4343:RPS11
4338:RPS10
4299:RPS4X
4293:RPS3A
4250:RPLP2
4245:RPLP1
4240:RPLP0
4235:RPL41
4230:RPL40
4225:RPL39
4220:RPL38
4210:RPL37
4200:RPL36
4190:RPL35
4185:RPL34
4180:RPL32
4175:RPL31
4170:RPL30
4165:RPL29
4160:RPL28
4150:RPL27
4145:RPL26
4140:RPL24
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