507:
do, so we watched the battle for a while. But by midnight Salaan Abdi Shide had a lucky shot when he put an RPG-7 shell right in the middle of a warehouse where millions of rounds of ammunitions were piled up side by side with armoured vehicles and other military supplies. Everything exploded and then it went on burning all night long till dawn. The next morning our commander, Mohamed Ali, asked me to lead a patrol of four and go into the village of
Adadley to see how things had developed. When we reached Adadley we were surprised to see our combatants sitting down with the villagers and enjoying breakfast. But they told us another strong government force was heading towards us from the south, with heavy artillery. So we went for the garrison, which was demoralised, and we surrounded them. They just ran away and we did not even try to stop them. As we entered the compound we found the dead body of the commander of the Adadley base, who had committed suicide by shooting himself through the head when he realised that his big military base had fallen into the hands of SNM.
495:
487:) captured Debis, a place in the mid-point of both the Hargeisa-Burao and Hargeisa-Berbera roads, with the goal being preventing Somali government forces from moving between the three cities. On 29 May, the Sayid Ali and Barkhad Brigades from the central regiment captured Adadley. Upon receiving news of Somali army reinforcements being sent to Werarta in preparations for a counteroffensive on Adadley, the SNM launched a sudden attack, with the SNM capturing material, including field guns and jeeps. The SNM then advanced to Abdaal, where the SNM ambushed convoys of reinforcements arriving from southern Somalia, and attacked
199:
188:
177:
161:
130:
535:, as well as capturing the Birjeex arms depot where the SNM collected ammunition. An SNM fighter who partook in the Hargeisa offensive described Somali troops dropping their uniforms on the ground and fleeing. The SNM encountered stiff resistance from the Somalian Army as they surrounded Radio Hargeisa's headquarters. The Somalian army units withdrew to Hargeisa Airport and the hills east of the city. Due to heavy bombardment from Somalian heavy artillery and tanks, the SNM force tasked with capturing Hargeisa airport fell back and retreated to Adadley.
420:, and to then advance into Hargeisa and Berbera, however the plan was changed at the last minute by the SNM High Command. This new plan prioritized the symbolic capture of the northern capital, Hargeisa, over a logistical blockade, and would further lengthen the war. Despite light attacks conducted by the SNM, Berbera remained under Somali government control, and the port city served as a beachhead for receiving troops and supplies from southern Somalia and overseas, unloading them, and redistributing them across the region.
689:'s Africa Watch, the soldiers, upon entering the city, went on a rampage on 27 and 28 May. This included "dragging men out of their houses and shooting them at point blank range" and summary killing of civilians, the report also noted that "civilians of all ages who had gathered in the centre of town, or those standing outside their homes watching the events were killed on the spot. Among the victims were many students." There was also widespread looting by the soldiers, and some people were reportedly killed as a result.
666:
devoid of doors, window frames, appliances, clothes, and furniture. The looting has resulted in the opening of what are called "Hargeisa markets" throughout the region, including
Mogadishu and Ethiopia, were former residents have spotted their possessions. One observer remarked that Hargeisa is being dismantled piece by piece. We were told that long lines of trucks heavily laden with Hargeisa goods could be seen leaving the city, heading south towards Mogadishu after the heavy fighting had stopped.
432:
397:. Ethiopia was in agreement and a deal was signed on 3 April 1988 that included a clause confirming agreement not to assist rebel organisations based in each other's territories. The SNM felt the pressure to cease their activities on the Ethiopia-Somalia border, and had no option but to attack the northern territories of Somalia to take control of the major cities in the north. The brutal nature of the Siad Barre government response was unprecedented, and led to what
709:
Hargeisa. A majority of the refugees we interviewed stated that their homes were destroyed by shelling despite the absence of SNM combatants from their neighbourhoods....The refugees told similar stories of bombings, strafings, and artillery shelling in both cities and, in Burao, the use of armored tanks. The majority saw their houses either damaged or destroyed by the shelling. Many reported seeing members of their families killed in the barrage....
222:
211:
142:
583:
killed inside mosques. A significant number of civilian deaths at the time occurred as a result of government soldiers robbing them, those who refused to hand valuables (watches, jewellery and money) or were not quick enough to comply with soldiers' demands were shot on the spot. Another major cause of civilian deaths was food robbery, this was reportedly because the soldiers were not being supplied by the government.
962:"Somalia: 1) Detailed map of Somalia and map showing Somalia in the African continent; 2) Information regarding reprisals against Isaaq clan members throughout Somalia, particularly Mogadishu, and against Somali National Movement (SNM) members; 3) Information on the government's attack on Hargeisa in May 1988 and an SNM assault on Mohammed Siyaad Barre Prison in July 1988"
460:) in the outskirts of the city, as well as two police stations (including the central police station of Burao), Burao prison and a variety of government offices in the city. Government troops fled, leaving behind large amounts of ammunition, guns, and tanks captured and used by the SNM troops. The SNM executed a number of Somali military officers and officials.
745:
aircraft started intense aerial bombardment of Burao on
Tuesday 31 May. Burao, then the third largest city in Somalia was "razed to the ground", and most of its inhabitants fled the country to seek refuge in Ethiopia. Foreign aid workers who fled the fighting confirmed that Burao was "emptied out" as
671:
The
Governor of Hargeisa estimates the present population to be around 70,000, down from a pre-conflict population figure of 370,000. However, the current residents of Hargeisa are not believed to be the former Issak residents. Observers believe that Hargeisa is now composed largely of dependents of
582:
Anticipating fighting to start, people stock-piled food, coal and other essential supplies. Government forces looted all warehouses and shops, with the open market of the city being one of their prime targets. Soldiers raided mosques and looted its carpets and loudspeakers. Later, civilians would be
566:
they were also able to collect water from rooftops. All vehicles (including taxis) were confiscated to control the movement of civilian population, this also ensured sufficient transport was available for the use of military and government officials. Top government officials evacuated their families
506:
After this bit of luck, we continued our march until we reached the hill over
Adadley, the strong government military base and depot. In Adadley, the Hussein Dheere fighters and those of the Sayid Ali and Barkhad units had attacked the government garrison from several sides. We could not see what to
447:
At dusk on 26 May, the SNM units left the village of
Samatar Ahmed. The unit consisted of roughly 1,200 fighters, with minimal ammunition and vehicles, and was led by Colonel Ahmed Mire. They arrived in the town of Dhoqoshay at sunset and by early morning the next day, the SNM advanced to Badhka, an
771:
By June 1989, the SNM was actively mounting attacks on major hubs across the North-West, blockading transport routes and interfering with regime supplies to military garrisons. As a result, the Barre regime gradually lost control of the area by
December 1989 with exception to major towns which were
515:
clan in southern
Somalia were to their surprise spared and left unharmed, being sent back to their villages of origin upon their recovery and told to not join government forces ever again. Occasionally captured Somali soldiers would, upon realizing SNM forces would not harm them, reveal hidden guns
708:
The Somali army reportedly responded to the SNM attacks in May 1988 with extreme force, inflicting heavy civilian casualties and damages to
Hargeisa and Burao....The Somali military resorted to using artillery and aerial shelling in heavily populated urban centres in its effort to retake Burao and
642:
Siad Barre focused his wrath (and
American-supported military might) against his Northern opposition. Hargeisa, Somalia's second city and the former capital of British Somaliland was bombed, strafed and rocketed. Some 50,000 people are believed to have lost their lives there as a result of summary
614:
In an attempt to dislodge the SNM, the government is using artillery and air bombardment, especially Hargeisa and Buroa, on a daily basis, aiming particularly at civilian population targets. Reports from eye witnesses speak of the town of Hargeisa as mere rubble, devastated to the point that it is
337:
population. Over the following years, the SNM made numerous clandestine military incursions into northwest Somalia. Although these attacks never posed a direct threat to the regime's control of the area, such activities and the boldness and tenacity of its small force were a constant irritation to
328:
regions. A growing number of northern civilian recruits and defectors from the Somali army, drawn almost exclusively from the Isaaq clan, were shaped into a guerrilla force and trained to produce a hard-core of disciplined fighters. Although the Ethiopians were said to have initially only supplied
692:
Following the first two days of the conflict, angered by the extent to which Isaaqs welcomed the SNM incursion, and frustrated by their inability to contain the SNM advance, the military started attacking the civilian population without restraint "as if it was the enemy". The military used "heavy
659:
Hargeisa, the second largest city in Somalia, has suffered extensive damage from artillery and aerial shelling. The most extensive damage appeared to be in the residential areas where the concentration of civilians was highest, in the marketplace, and in public buildings in the downtown area. The
561:
As news of the SNM advance on Burao and its capture reached government officials in Hargeisa, all banks were ordered to close, and army units surrounded the banks to prevent people from approaching. Both electricity and water-supply lines were cut from the city, and residents resorted to fetching
475:
To relieve the pressure on the SNM forces attacking Burao, 300 men were sent to attack Adadley, which hosted one of the largest Somali army defenses in northern Somalia, as well as a large weapons depot. Around 30 armed vehicles were captured, with the captured armed vehicles being distributed to
665:
Much of Hargeisa appears to be a "ghost town," and many homes and building are virtually empty. Extensive looting has taken place even though the military has controlled the city since late July 1988. We were told that private property was taken from homes by the military in Hargeisa. Homes are
650:
confirmed the large-scale targeting and killing of civilian population by Somali government troops. The campaign had completely destroyed Hargeisa, causing its population of 500,000 to flee across the border and the city was "reduced to a ghost town with 14,000 buildings destroyed and a further
451:
On 27 May the Medina Front forces of the SNM launched an offensive on Burao early on Friday morning, overrunning it within 2 hours. When SNM forces reached the Baarsiigo restaurant, the unit was divided into two sections. One was heading for Burao's main bridge and the other heading for Burao's
463:
After capturing Burao's central prison the SNM freed political prisoners (including schoolchildren). Somali troops subsequently retreated to their base in Goon Ad. Upon capturing Burao the SNM was overwhelmed with recruits, with over 30,000 men picking up arms and joining the group. During the
628:
The civil war left Hargeisa in ruins: 80 percent of the building in the town were destroyed, many of them by the aerial bombardment of General Siad Barre's Zimbabwean mercenary pilots. The view from the air is of a town without roofs. The exposed pale green and blue plaster walls reflect the
676:
The report also stated that the city was without electricity or a functioning water system, and that the Somali government was "actively soliciting multilateral and bilateral donors for reconstruction assistance" of cities primarily destroyed by the government's own forces.
530:
The SNM attack on Hargeisa started at 2:15 a.m. on 31 May. The SNM force attacking Hargeisa was estimated at 500 men equipped with 84 vehicles, of whom only 14 were left due to vehicles being sent to the front in Adadley. The SNM captured the headquarters of the
578:
A curfew was imposed on 27 May starting at 6:00 p.m, the army began systematic house-to-house searches, looking for SNM fighters. On the following day the curfew started earlier at 4:00 pm; the third day at 2:00 pm; and on the fourth day at 11:00 am.
643:
executions, aerial bombardments and ground attacks. The city itself was destroyed. Streams of refugees fleeing the devastation were not spared by government planes. The term "genocide" came to be used more and more frequently by human rights observers.
754:
The Somalian army recaptured Burao on 17 July, and by the end of July 1988 the Somalian army managed to regain full control of both cities, due to unprecedented levels of internal reinforcements, the employment of non-Isaaq militias and armed
360:
increased its activities against dissidents and SNM sympathizers. In response, the SNM carried out the assassination of the regional National Security Service Chief in 1986 which led to the newly appointed Northern military commander
601:
The scale of destruction was unprecedented, up to 90 percent of the city (then the second largest city in Somalia) was destroyed, (United States embassy estimated 70 percent of the city was damaged or destroyed). The testimony of
404:
On the 14th of March 1988, The Government attacked a convoy of SNM Fighters in the vicinity of Gabiley and Tog Wajaale but were driven off. The Government troops responded by executing 25 civilians in retaliation.
1882:
Reported Massacres and Indiscriminate Killings in Somalia: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Africa of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, Second Session, July 14,
1641:
Reported Massacres and Indiscriminate Killings in Somalia: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Africa of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, Second Session, July 14,
767:
and Italy played a large role in recapturing the cities. Approximately, 50,000 people were killed between March 1988 and March 1989 as a result of the Somalian Army's "savage assault" on the Isaaq population.
1372:
2118:
1835:
733:?" . They appealed to the non-Isaaks to leave so they could burn the town and all those who remained behind. Most of the people from these towns left; the government provided them with transportation.
634:
Many of the houses are boarded up because of the small anti-personnel mines scattered by Gen Siad Barre's forces when tens of thousands of Hargeisa residents fled. What was not destroyed was looted.
452:
military headquarters. Almost immediately SNM fighters took over the military compound at Burao airport where the majority of Somali army soldiers were stationed, the military compound at Goon Ad (
393:
in the north of country, offered the Ethiopian government a deal in which they stop sheltering and giving support to the SNM in return for Somalia giving up its territorial claim over Ethiopia's
519:
On 30 May the SNM reached Sheikh Mowdhle at 5 pm, and advanced to Sheikh Omar, Adrosh and Hagal. By 7:30 pm the SNM units were roughly 300 metres from the military headquarters of the
1836:
Subcommittee on Africa, Global Human Rights, and International Operations; Subcommittee on International Terrorism and Nonproliferation; Committee on International Relations (1 January 2006).
472:
The western SNM forces were still behind in their preparation, thereby delaying the attack on Hargeisa. The unit marched from Masaajidka, on the Ethiopia-Somalia border at noon on 27 May.
349:
where a small force attacked a fuel tanker supplying the Somalian regime's base in the town. This operation was organised by local commanders without prior planning using a local force of
294:. The SNM captured Burao on 27 May within two hours, while the SNM entered Hargeisa on 29 May, overrunning most of the city apart from its airport by 1 June. During the offensive the
2187:
1565:
697:, machine guns, hand grenades and other weapons of mass destruction were also directed against civilian targets in Hargeisa which had also been attacked as well as in Burao."
2250:
1595:
672:
the military, which has a substantial, visible presence in Hargeisa, a significant number of Ogadeni refugees, and squatters who are using the properties of those who fled.
2144:
2377:
2066:
2109:
1723:
Mburu, Chris; Rights, United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human; Office, United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country (1 January 2002).
1639:
685:
After Somali troops retreated to Goon Ad, in the late afternoon, off-duty soldiers regrouped and entered the center of the city. According to reports by
428:
The SNM's forces were divided into three regiments; Mecca, Medina and the Central Front. A total of 5,700 SNM troops took part in the large offensive.
1767:
717:
As soon as the fighting broke out, the government used loudspeakers to sort the civilians out into Darood and Isaak. They would shout, "Who is from
713:
Refugee interviews conducted by Africa Watch described how the government separated the non-Isaaqs from the Isaaqs before the attack was initiated:
527:
mercenary planes conducted airstrikes against the SNM forces. Although the SNM forces managed to shoot down a plane they took heavy casualties.
464:
fighting the commander of the SNM units in Burao, Colonel Ahmed Mire, suffered a head injury and was temporarily replaced by Colonel Handulleh.
1880:
2245:
1724:
1741:
1150:
448:
execution site outside of Burao used by Barre's government. SNM troops passed Badhka and advanced directly to Burao without any resistance.
2171:
1961:
542:, the SNM overran the city. During the Somali army counterattack the SNM line of defense in the city was behind Hargeisa's radio station.
1934:
1557:
660:
U.S. Embassy estimated that 70 percent of the city has been damaged or destroyed. Our rough visual inspection confirms this estimate.
1810:
2044:
1587:
1286:
2372:
2345:
2318:
2217:
2093:
1971:
1944:
1863:
1820:
1794:
1751:
1483:
1447:
1355:
1325:
1296:
1194:
1081:
1001:
865:
827:
800:
922:
357:
1865:
Somalia: Observations Regarding the Northern Conflict and Resulting Conditions : Report to Congressional Requesters
1726:
Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)
946:
Past Human Rights Abuses in Somalia: Report of a Preliminary Study Conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)
1373:"State-sponsored violence and conflict under Mahamed Siyad Barre: the emergence of path dependent patterns of violence"
298:
committed gross human rights violations, including attacking the civilian population using heavy artillery and tanks.
2154:
1847:
1232:
1120:
1026:
494:
701:
333:. Soon after, the Somalian army established the "Isaaq Exterminator" command which aimed to ethnically cleanse the
915:"Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 – 2000"
2037:"Is the conflict against the SNM in northern Somalia condemned by the international community? [SOM2850]"
1637:
759:
refugees. Moreover, external assistance to the Somalian regime including mercenary pilots from South Africa and
1183:
Division, Library of Congress (Wash ) Federal Research; Division, Library of Congress Federal Research (1993).
889:
772:
under active siege by the SNM. On December 5, 1989, the SNM announced that they had taken control of Hargeisa.
307:
275:
28:
1113:
Somalia: a government at war with its own people: testimonies about the killings and the conflict in the north
1155:
586:
Artillery shelling of Hargeisa started on the third day of the fighting and was accompanied by large-scale
491:, where they freed 664 prisoners, including the former mayor of Hargeisa, Ethiopians and southern Somalis.
1919:
2367:
1249:
362:
226:
146:
652:
1507:
2392:
2016:
1704:
1685:
1661:
1619:
587:
390:
279:
203:
192:
181:
134:
91:
1837:
532:
520:
320:
where 3 key military bases were established. From here, it would launch guerrilla raids into the
1879:
Africa, United States Congress House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on (1989-01-01).
502:
An SNM fighter who partook in the battle of Adadley recounted the SNM offensive on the village:
1638:
United States Congress House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Africa (1989-01-01).
370:
165:
1784:
1345:
1224:
1071:
571:. The period between 27 and 31 May was marked by much looting by government forces as well as
329:
ammunition, Isaaq recruits came with their own arms in addition the equipment seized from the
2083:
991:
790:
647:
435:
312:
In 1982, the Somali National Movement (shortened SNM) moved its headquarters from London to
2308:
815:
764:
655:
team noted the extent to which residential districts were especially targeted by the army:
8:
330:
295:
2036:
1053:
Somalia 1991-1993: Civil War, Famine Alert and a UN "Military-Humanitarian" Intervention
1906:
686:
607:
563:
2387:
2382:
2341:
2314:
2267:
2223:
2213:
2179:
2150:
2089:
1967:
1940:
1843:
1816:
1790:
1747:
1489:
1479:
1453:
1443:
1351:
1321:
1314:
1292:
1267:
1228:
1217:
1190:
1126:
1116:
1077:
1032:
1022:
997:
871:
861:
823:
796:
1769:
Summary of World Broadcasts. Part 4, The Middle East, Africa, and Latin America: SWB
2259:
1257:
742:
595:
591:
539:
99:
2335:
1184:
1051:
961:
944:
817:
480:
453:
321:
267:
914:
693:
artillery and tanks, causing severe damage, both to civilians and to property.
551:
488:
413:
109:
2227:
1493:
1457:
875:
2361:
2271:
2263:
2183:
1772:. Monitoring Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation. 1 January 1993.
1271:
1262:
756:
431:
394:
2293:. Berlin: Berlin Information-center for Transatlantic Security (BITS). 1999.
1151:"Seizing the Moment- A Case Study on Conflict and Peacemaking in Somaliland"
1130:
1036:
704:
team reported the Somali government's response to the SNM attack as follows:
2285:
1990:
620:
610:, confirms the large-scale nature of government attacks against civilians:
959:
912:
603:
572:
398:
346:
389:, frustrated by lack of success of the army against insurgents from the
382:
339:
215:
78:
2146:
Lives in the Balance: Perspectives on Global Injustice and Inequality
1992:
Observations Regarding the Northern Conflict and Resulting Conditiond
722:
568:
524:
313:
816:
Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies (2012).
726:
598:
and then turned around to make repeated bombing runs on the city".
325:
317:
283:
66:
1347:
After The Storm: The Changing Military Balance in the Middle East
730:
718:
694:
417:
386:
291:
221:
210:
141:
74:
1558:"The Rebirth Of Somaliland (13): How The SNM Invaded The North"
512:
409:
2172:"Over 300,000 Somalis, Fleeing Civil War, Cross into Ethiopia"
737:
545:
2251:
Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East
760:
366:
334:
287:
70:
1219:
Blood and bone : the call of kinship in Somali society
1115:. New York, NY: Africa Watch Committee. 1990. p. 128.
350:
1743:
Me Against My Brother: At War in Somalia, Sudan and Rwanda
638:
Other descriptions of what took place in Hargeisa include:
1812:
Congressional Record, October 26, 1999 to November 3 1999
1288:
The Country that Does Not Exist: A History of Somaliland
345:
The first military offensive of the SNM took place near
2210:
The country that does not exist a history of Somaliland
2035:
Canada, Immigration and Refugee Board of (1989-11-01).
1476:
The country that does not exist a history of Somaliland
1440:
The country that does not exist a history of Somaliland
858:
The country that does not exist a history of Somaliland
401:
described as one of the "worst civil wars in Africa".
2310:
Clan Cleansing in Somalia: The Ruinous Legacy of 1991
353:
clansmen based in the organisation's Lanqeyrta base.
1998:. United States General Accounting Office. May 1989.
2143:Lauderdale, Pat; Amster, Randall (1 January 1997).
2287:Small Arms in Somaliland: Their Role and Diffusion
2068:The civil war in Somalia: its genesis and dynamics
1313:
1216:
1073:Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation
763:in addition to economic and military aid from the
1722:
511:Wounded Somali troops who claimed to be from the
2359:
2142:
2111:Somalia: A Government at War with Its Own People
2018:Somalia: A Government at War With Its Own People
1706:Somalia: A Government at War With Its Own People
1687:Somalia: A Government at War With Its Own People
1663:Somalia: A government at War With Its Own People
1621:Somalia: A Government at War With Its Own People
1592:Bandhige- Wararka Somaliland iyo faallooyinkooda
1182:
594:. Somali government aircraft "took off from the
1839:Somalia: expanding crisis in the Horn of Africa
1656:
1654:
1652:
1585:
1478:. London: Hurst & Company. pp. 91–92.
1442:. London: Hurst & Company. pp. 95–99.
1223:. Lawrenceville, N.J.: Red Sea Press. pp.
960:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
913:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
860:. London: Hurst & Company. pp. 91–92.
365:in unleashing a new wave of terror against the
1627:. Human Rights Watch. 1990. pp. 137, 145.
476:other attacking groups in Hargeisa and Burao.
290:, then the second and third largest cities of
2246:"Somalia: An Illusory Political Nation-State"
1815:. Government Printing Office. 10 April 2017.
624:reported the scale of destruction as follows:
274:) was a major offensive conducted during the
2378:Battles of the Somali Civil War (1980s–2006)
2212:. London: Hurst & Company. p. 110.
1649:
615:barely recognizable even to its inhabitants.
562:water from streams, and due to it being the
2169:
1555:
822:. Cambridge University Press. p. 150.
738:Aerial bombardment and destruction of Burao
651:12,000 heavily damaged". The Congressional
590:of the city carried out by aircraft of the
546:Government retaliation and counteroffensive
438:, commemorating the May–June 1988 offensive
98:SNM captures Burao and Hargeisa (excluding
2082:Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003).
1782:
1469:
1467:
996:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 37.
575:. Killings in Hargeisa started on 31 May.
16:SNM military offensive in northern Somalia
2306:
1586:Yuusuf Dhakhtar, Suleymaan (2020-05-29).
1370:
1343:
1261:
1250:"The Rise and Fall of Somali Nationalism"
989:
851:
849:
847:
845:
843:
841:
839:
788:
2117:. Human Rights Watch. 1990. p. 31.
2064:
2024:. Human Rights Watch. 1990. p. 129.
1739:
1712:. Human Rights Watch. 1990. p. 144.
1693:. Human Rights Watch. 1990. p. 133.
1669:. Human Rights Watch. 1990. p. 132.
1588:"Maanta oo kale, Cadaadley, 29.MAY.1988"
1344:Cordesman, Anthony H. (6 October 2016).
1056:. Médecins Sans Frontières. p. 214.
493:
430:
105:Massive increase in manpower for the SNM
2337:Networks Of Dissolution: Somalia Undone
2239:
2237:
2207:
2081:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1556:Mohamed Nur, Dr. Hussein (2018-03-17).
1473:
1464:
1437:
1332:in return for depriving the snm of its.
1316:The Cambridge Survey of World Migration
1284:
1247:
1214:
855:
746:a result of the government's campaign.
2360:
2333:
2302:
2300:
2034:
1985:
1983:
1959:
1932:
1878:
1614:
1612:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1148:
1065:
1063:
1016:
836:
819:Small Arms Survey 2012: Moving Targets
2124:from the original on 17 February 2017
1680:
1678:
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1541:
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1533:
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1529:
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1172:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1069:
1049:
942:
408:The SNM originally planned to attack
2313:. University of Pennsylvania Press.
2243:
2234:
2163:
2002:
1254:Refuge: Canada's Journal on Refugees
1248:Mohamed, Saeed Sheikh (1992-11-01).
985:
983:
981:
479:On 28 May, the Sayyid Omar Brigade (
2297:
2075:
1980:
1609:
1060:
523:of the Somalian army. The same day
256:300+ killed, two aircraft destroyed
243:100 armed vehicles and two aircraft
13:
1963:The A to Z of Civil Wars in Africa
1886:. U.S. Government Printing Office.
1786:Contested States in World Politics
1673:
1645:. U.S. Government Printing Office.
1631:
1524:
1398:
1203:
1169:
1137:
1090:
1076:. The Red Sea Press. p. 152.
990:Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye (2001).
789:Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye (2001).
14:
2404:
2307:Kapteijns, Lidwien (2012-12-18).
1960:Arnold, Guy (15 September 2009).
1933:Cutter, Charles H. (2005-01-01).
1896:
1389:
1021:. Oxford: Oxfam. pp. 10–12.
978:
538:By 1 June, with the exception of
2085:Historical Dictionary of Somalia
1783:Geldenhuys, D. (22 April 2009).
1740:Peterson, Scott (4 April 2014).
1371:Compagnon, Daniel (2013-10-22).
1312:Cohen, Robin (2 November 1995).
220:
209:
197:
186:
175:
159:
140:
128:
2327:
2278:
2201:
2190:from the original on 2017-04-27
2136:
2102:
2058:
2047:from the original on 2017-04-27
2028:
1953:
1926:
1890:
1872:
1856:
1829:
1803:
1776:
1760:
1733:
1716:
1697:
1598:from the original on 2020-12-13
1579:
1568:from the original on 2018-03-20
1500:
1364:
1337:
1305:
1278:
1241:
1070:Tekle, Amare (1 January 1994).
1043:
925:from the original on 2013-09-17
2373:Somaliland War of Independence
2065:Bongartz, Maria (1991-01-01).
1320:. Cambridge University Press.
1050:Binet, Laurence (2013-10-03).
1010:
993:Culture and Customs of Somalia
953:
936:
906:
882:
809:
795:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
792:Culture and Customs of Somalia
782:
700:A United States Congressional
369:population as set out by his "
308:Somaliland War of Independence
276:Somaliland War of Independence
272:Gudo-galkii Hargeysa iyo Burco
29:Somaliland War of Independence
1:
2244:Adan, Amina H. (1994-05-01).
1939:. Stryker-Post Publications.
1868:. The Office. 1 January 1989.
1508:"digital photograph (colour)"
1156:Future Generations University
775:
556:
301:
264:1988 Hargeisa-Burao offensive
22:1988 Hargeisa-Burao offensive
2071:. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
1897:P, Biles (31 October 1991).
749:
423:
7:
2334:Simons, Anna (1995-12-28).
1291:. Oxford University Press.
467:
10:
2409:
2170:Jane Perlez (1988-08-13).
1149:Master, Web (2010-01-27).
890:"Somaliland: Ten Years On"
680:
549:
363:Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan
305:
227:Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan
147:Somali Democratic Republic
702:General Accounting Office
653:General Accounting Office
358:National Security Service
247:
232:
152:
121:
34:
26:
21:
2264:10.1215/07323867-14-1-99
2208:Prunier, GĂ©rard (2021).
1474:Prunier, GĂ©rard (2021).
1438:Prunier, GĂ©rard (2021).
1285:Prunier, GĂ©rard (2021).
1263:10.25071/1920-7336.21675
1186:Somalia: A Country Study
856:Prunier, GĂ©rard (2021).
442:
391:Somali National Movement
376:
280:Somali National Movement
135:Somali National Movement
1350:. Bloomsbury Academic.
1215:Ioan M., Lewis (1994).
498:SNM fighters in Adadley
356:In the late 1980s, the
50:– 1 June 1988
1019:Rwanda: which way now?
1017:Waller, David (1993).
735:
711:
674:
668:
662:
645:
636:
631:
617:
509:
499:
484:
457:
439:
271:
166:Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud
153:Commanders and leaders
2340:. Avalon Publishing.
943:Mburu, Chris (2002).
715:
706:
669:
663:
657:
648:Amnesty International
640:
632:
626:
612:
504:
497:
436:Hargeisa War Memorial
434:
248:Casualties and losses
42:27 May 1988
606:, the co-founder of
516:and hand them over.
296:Somali National Army
2088:. Scarecrow Press.
1966:. Scarecrow Press.
485:Guutada Sayid Cumar
385:, the president of
278:in May 1988 by the
2176:The New York Times
1512:The British Museum
687:Human Rights Watch
608:Human Rights Watch
500:
440:
204:Ibrahim Dhegaweyne
108:Escalation of the
2368:Conflicts in 1988
2347:978-0-8133-2580-4
2320:978-0-8122-0758-3
2219:978-1-78738-529-0
2095:978-0-8108-6604-1
1973:978-0-8108-6885-4
1946:978-1-887985-63-5
1914:Missing or empty
1822:978-0-16-073157-0
1796:978-0-230-23418-5
1753:978-1-135-95552-6
1485:978-1-78738-529-0
1449:978-1-78738-529-0
1377:Reinventing Peace
1357:978-1-4742-9257-3
1327:978-0-521-44405-7
1298:978-1-78738-203-9
1196:978-0-8444-0775-3
1083:978-0-932415-97-4
1003:978-0-313-31333-2
894:BBC World Service
867:978-1-78738-529-0
829:978-0-521-14687-6
802:978-0-313-31333-2
282:on the cities of
260:
259:
240:84 armed vehicles
117:
116:
2400:
2352:
2351:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2304:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2241:
2232:
2231:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2196:
2195:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2123:
2116:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2013:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1987:
1978:
1977:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1917:
1912:
1910:
1902:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1876:
1870:
1869:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1833:
1827:
1826:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1682:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1658:
1647:
1646:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1626:
1616:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1603:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1574:
1573:
1553:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1518:
1504:
1498:
1497:
1471:
1462:
1461:
1435:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1386:
1384:
1383:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1319:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1265:
1245:
1239:
1238:
1222:
1212:
1201:
1200:
1189:. The Division.
1180:
1167:
1166:
1164:
1163:
1146:
1135:
1134:
1109:
1088:
1087:
1067:
1058:
1057:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1014:
1008:
1007:
987:
976:
975:
973:
972:
957:
951:
950:
940:
934:
933:
931:
930:
910:
904:
903:
901:
900:
886:
880:
879:
853:
834:
833:
813:
807:
806:
786:
743:Somali Air Force
596:Hargeisa Airport
592:Somali Air Force
540:Hargeisa Airport
225:
224:
214:
213:
202:
201:
200:
191:
190:
189:
180:
179:
178:
164:
163:
162:
145:
144:
133:
132:
131:
100:Hargeisa Airport
57:
55:
49:
47:
36:
35:
19:
18:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2397:
2393:Battles in 1988
2358:
2357:
2356:
2355:
2348:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2305:
2298:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2279:
2242:
2235:
2220:
2206:
2202:
2193:
2191:
2168:
2164:
2157:
2141:
2137:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2096:
2080:
2076:
2063:
2059:
2050:
2048:
2033:
2029:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2003:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1981:
1974:
1958:
1954:
1947:
1931:
1927:
1915:
1913:
1904:
1903:
1895:
1891:
1877:
1873:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1850:
1834:
1830:
1823:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1781:
1777:
1766:
1765:
1761:
1754:
1738:
1734:
1721:
1717:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1698:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1674:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1650:
1636:
1632:
1624:
1618:
1617:
1610:
1601:
1599:
1584:
1580:
1571:
1569:
1554:
1525:
1516:
1514:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1486:
1472:
1465:
1450:
1436:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1381:
1379:
1369:
1365:
1358:
1342:
1338:
1328:
1310:
1306:
1299:
1283:
1279:
1246:
1242:
1235:
1213:
1204:
1197:
1181:
1170:
1161:
1159:
1147:
1138:
1123:
1111:
1110:
1091:
1084:
1068:
1061:
1048:
1044:
1029:
1015:
1011:
1004:
988:
979:
970:
968:
958:
954:
941:
937:
928:
926:
911:
907:
898:
896:
888:
887:
883:
868:
854:
837:
830:
814:
810:
803:
787:
783:
778:
752:
740:
683:
567:to the capital
559:
554:
548:
470:
445:
426:
379:
371:Letter of Death
322:Waqooyi Galbeed
310:
304:
239:
219:
218:
208:
198:
196:
195:
187:
185:
184:
176:
174:
173:
160:
158:
139:
129:
127:
82:
53:
51:
45:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2406:
2396:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2354:
2353:
2346:
2326:
2319:
2296:
2277:
2233:
2218:
2200:
2162:
2155:
2135:
2101:
2094:
2074:
2057:
2027:
2001:
1979:
1972:
1952:
1945:
1925:
1889:
1871:
1855:
1848:
1842:. U.S. G.P.O.
1828:
1821:
1802:
1795:
1775:
1759:
1752:
1732:
1715:
1696:
1672:
1648:
1630:
1608:
1578:
1523:
1499:
1484:
1463:
1448:
1397:
1388:
1363:
1356:
1336:
1326:
1304:
1297:
1277:
1240:
1233:
1202:
1195:
1168:
1136:
1121:
1089:
1082:
1059:
1042:
1027:
1009:
1002:
977:
952:
935:
905:
881:
866:
835:
828:
808:
801:
780:
779:
777:
774:
751:
748:
739:
736:
682:
679:
588:aerial bombing
558:
555:
552:Isaaq genocide
550:Main article:
547:
544:
489:Mandera Prison
469:
466:
444:
441:
425:
422:
378:
375:
306:Main article:
303:
300:
258:
257:
254:
250:
249:
245:
244:
241:
235:
234:
230:
229:
206:
193:Hussein Dheere
155:
154:
150:
149:
137:
124:
123:
119:
118:
115:
114:
113:
112:
110:Isaaq genocide
106:
103:
88:
84:
83:
65:
63:
59:
58:
40:
32:
31:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2405:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2365:
2363:
2349:
2343:
2339:
2338:
2330:
2322:
2316:
2312:
2311:
2303:
2301:
2289:
2288:
2281:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2258:(1): 99–109.
2257:
2253:
2252:
2247:
2240:
2238:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2215:
2211:
2204:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2158:
2156:9789004108752
2152:
2148:
2147:
2139:
2120:
2113:
2112:
2105:
2097:
2091:
2087:
2086:
2078:
2070:
2069:
2061:
2046:
2043:(in German).
2042:
2038:
2031:
2020:
2019:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
1994:
1993:
1986:
1984:
1975:
1969:
1965:
1964:
1956:
1948:
1942:
1938:
1937:
1929:
1921:
1908:
1900:
1893:
1885:
1884:
1875:
1867:
1866:
1859:
1851:
1849:9780160773211
1845:
1841:
1840:
1832:
1824:
1818:
1814:
1813:
1806:
1798:
1792:
1788:
1787:
1779:
1771:
1770:
1763:
1755:
1749:
1746:. Routledge.
1745:
1744:
1736:
1728:
1727:
1719:
1708:
1707:
1700:
1689:
1688:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1665:
1664:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1644:
1643:
1634:
1623:
1622:
1615:
1613:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1582:
1567:
1563:
1562:Horn Diplomat
1559:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1468:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1445:
1441:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1392:
1378:
1374:
1367:
1359:
1353:
1349:
1348:
1340:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1318:
1317:
1308:
1300:
1294:
1290:
1289:
1281:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1244:
1236:
1234:9780932415929
1230:
1226:
1221:
1220:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1198:
1192:
1188:
1187:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1158:
1157:
1152:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1122:0-929692-33-0
1118:
1114:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1085:
1079:
1075:
1074:
1066:
1064:
1055:
1054:
1046:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1028:0-85598-217-9
1024:
1020:
1013:
1005:
999:
995:
994:
986:
984:
982:
967:
963:
956:
949:. p. 12.
948:
947:
939:
924:
921:. p. 6.
920:
916:
909:
895:
891:
885:
877:
873:
869:
863:
859:
852:
850:
848:
846:
844:
842:
840:
831:
825:
821:
820:
812:
804:
798:
794:
793:
785:
781:
773:
769:
766:
762:
758:
747:
744:
734:
732:
728:
724:
720:
714:
710:
705:
703:
698:
696:
690:
688:
678:
673:
667:
661:
656:
654:
649:
644:
639:
635:
630:
625:
623:
622:
616:
611:
609:
605:
599:
597:
593:
589:
584:
580:
576:
574:
570:
565:
553:
543:
541:
536:
534:
533:26th Division
528:
526:
525:South African
522:
521:26th Division
517:
514:
508:
503:
496:
492:
490:
486:
482:
477:
473:
465:
461:
459:
455:
449:
437:
433:
429:
421:
419:
415:
411:
406:
402:
400:
396:
395:Somali Region
392:
388:
384:
374:
372:
368:
364:
359:
354:
352:
348:
343:
341:
336:
332:
331:Somalian army
327:
323:
319:
315:
309:
299:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
255:
252:
251:
246:
242:
237:
236:
231:
228:
223:
217:
212:
207:
205:
194:
183:
171:
167:
157:
156:
151:
148:
143:
138:
136:
126:
125:
120:
111:
107:
104:
101:
97:
96:
95:
93:
89:
86:
85:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
61:
60:
41:
38:
37:
33:
30:
25:
20:
2336:
2329:
2309:
2286:
2280:
2255:
2249:
2209:
2203:
2192:. Retrieved
2175:
2165:
2145:
2138:
2126:. Retrieved
2110:
2104:
2084:
2077:
2067:
2060:
2049:. Retrieved
2040:
2030:
2017:
1991:
1962:
1955:
1936:Africa, 2005
1935:
1928:
1916:|title=
1899:The Guardian
1898:
1892:
1881:
1874:
1864:
1858:
1838:
1831:
1811:
1805:
1789:. Springer.
1785:
1778:
1768:
1762:
1742:
1735:
1725:
1718:
1705:
1699:
1686:
1662:
1640:
1633:
1620:
1600:. Retrieved
1591:
1581:
1570:. Retrieved
1561:
1515:. Retrieved
1511:
1502:
1475:
1439:
1395:Cohen, p.444
1391:
1380:. Retrieved
1376:
1366:
1346:
1339:
1331:
1315:
1307:
1287:
1280:
1253:
1243:
1218:
1185:
1160:. Retrieved
1154:
1112:
1072:
1052:
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604:Aryeh Neier
399:Robin Cohen
347:Baligubadle
73:, northern
2362:Categories
2228:1242464786
2194:2017-04-13
2051:2017-03-31
1602:2022-01-14
1572:2022-01-20
1517:2022-01-14
1494:1242464786
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1162:2020-07-15
971:2022-01-19
929:2022-01-14
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876:1242464786
776:References
383:Siad Barre
302:Background
216:Siad Barre
182:Ahmed Mire
79:Somaliland
54:1988-06-01
46:1988-05-27
2272:1089-201X
2184:0362-4331
2149:. Brill.
1907:cite news
1272:1920-7336
750:Aftermath
723:Mogadishu
629:sunlight.
569:Mogadishu
424:Offensive
381:In 1987,
314:Dire Dawa
253:90 killed
170:Siilaanyo
2388:Togdheer
2383:Hargeisa
2188:Archived
2119:Archived
2045:Archived
2041:ecoi.net
1596:Archived
1566:Archived
1131:24108168
1037:29513928
966:Refworld
923:Archived
919:Refworld
727:Las Anod
695:Bazookas
557:Hargeisa
468:Hargeisa
458:Goon Cad
342:regime.
326:Togdheer
318:Ethiopia
284:Hargeisa
233:Strength
94:victory
67:Hargeisa
62:Location
1256:: 4–7.
719:Galkayo
418:Berbera
414:Mandera
410:Adadley
387:Somalia
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761:Libya
731:Garoe
681:Burao
443:Burao
377:Cause
367:Isaaq
340:Barre
335:Isaaq
288:Burao
238:5,700
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2342:ISBN
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