Abu Bakr al-Razi - Knowledge

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swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breathe and cough. Additional symptoms are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with "measles" than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one shows an overall shining redness, with a very pronounced redness of the gums. (Rhazes, Encyclopaedia of Medicine)

44: 1013: 480: 804:) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveller, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century. Al-Razi described in its 36 chapters, diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary, a market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results. 672: 881: 1828: 429:, an honorary title given to one entitled to teach and surrounded by several circles of students. When someone raised a question, it was passed on to students of the 'first circle'; if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second circle', and so on. When all students would fail to answer, al-Razi himself would consider the query. Al-Razi was a generous person by nature, with a considerate attitude towards his patients. He was charitable to the poor, treated them without payment in any form, and wrote for them a treatise 957:" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Al-Razi noted that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. ( 310: 1759:

through God-given reason. According to these sources, his skepticism of prophecy and view that no one group or religion has privileged access to the truth is driven by his view that all people have an equal basic capacity for rationality and discovery of truth, and that apparent differences in this capacity are simply a feature of interest, opportunity, and effort. Because of his supposed rejection of prophecy and acceptance of reason as the primary method for accessing the truth, al-Razi came to be admired as a

6990: 1160: 1037: 497: 3574:, vol. 1, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 353, quote: "Among the other eminent figures who attacked Rāzī are the Ismāʿīlī philosopher Abū Ḥatem Rāzī, who wrote two books to refute Rāzī's views on theodicy, prophecy, and miracles; and Nāṣir-i Khusraw. Shahrastānī, however, indicates that such accusations should be doubted since they were made by Ismāʿīlīs, who had been severely attacked by Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā Rāzī" 1949: 3461:

unnecessary and delusional, and indeed he criticizes all revealed religions as provincial and divisive. No one individual or group can legitimately claim a monopoly on the truth; each succeeding generation has the ability to improve upon and even transcend its predecessor's insights through rational argumentation and empirical inquiry.

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and Sarah Stroumsa accepted that the extracts found in Abu Hatim's book were either said by al-Razi during a debate or were quoted from a now lost work. According to the debate with Abu Hatim, al-Razi denied the validity of prophecy or other authority figures, and rejected prophetic miracles. He also

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I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been

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missionary who debated al-Razi, but whether he has faithfully recorded the views of al-Razi is disputed. Some historians claim that Abu Hatim accurately represented al-Razi's scepticism of revealed religion while others argue that Abu Hatim's work should be treated with scepticism given that he is a

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the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, al-Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making

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Smallpox appears when blood "boils" and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as "bubbles found

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Accordingly, al-Razi takes a rather dim view of prophecy, which in his view is both unnecessary and delusional, and indeed he criticizes all revealed religions as provincial and divisive. No one individual or group can legitimately claim a monopoly on the truth; each succeeding generation has the

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It is worth noting that Stroumsa’s work predates Rashed’s discovery of this evidence in Fakhr al-Dīn, so that she did not have the benefit of being able to consider how this new information could be reconciled with the Proofs. That is the goal I will set for myself in this chapter. I should lay my

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Although al-Razi wrote extensively on philosophy, most of his works on this subject are now lost. Most of his religio-philosophical ideas, including his belief in five "eternal principles", are only known from fragments and testimonies found in other authors, who were often strongly opposed to his

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A number of contradictory works and statements about religion have been ascribed to al-Razi. Many sources claim that al-Razi viewed prophecy and revealed religion as unnecessary and delusional, claiming that all humans have the ability to access and discover truth (including the existence of God)

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is not a formal medical encyclopedia, but a posthumous compilation of al-Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It is significant since it contains a celebrated

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The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompanied by fever and an itching felt by the patient all over his body. A

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and "cures". At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, al-Razi

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wrote, al-Razi rewarded him for his intentions and sent him back home, proclaiming that his final days were approaching. According to Biruni, al-Razi died in Rey in 925 sixty years of age. Biruni, who considered al-Razi his mentor, among the first penned a short biography of al-Razi including a

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More specifically, freethinking might be defined as independent thinking within an Islamicate context which (1) relies upon natural reason alone as a means to reach the truth, and (2) rejects the authority and veracity of revelation, prophecy and tradition... See belief; Ibn al-Rawandi; Islam;

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Elsewhere, he argues that all human beings have the same fundamental capacity for reason and that the apparent inequality of people in this respect is ultimately a function of opportunity, interest and effort. Accordingly, al-Razi takes a rather dim view of prophecy, which in his view is both

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and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy, and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen's descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds

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from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to

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advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and

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who noted "that such accusations should be doubted since they were made by Ismāʿīlīs, who had been severely attacked by Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā Rāzī". Al-'Abd points out that the views allegedly expressed by al-Razi contradict what is found in al-Razi's own works, like the

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The doctor's aim is to do good, even to our enemies, so much more to our friends, and my profession forbids us to do harm to our kindred, as it is instituted for the benefit and welfare of the human race, and God imposed on physicians the oath not to compose mortiferous

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that a certain General Simjur confronted al-Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. "It appeared to those present that al-Razi was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and

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Chief among his positive contributions is his advocacy of a doctrine of equal aptitude in all humans, which grants no special role for unique and divinely favoured prophets and which recognizes the possibility of future progress in the advancement of

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Al-Razi's challenge to the current fundamentals of medical theory was quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his contributions and labours, saying:

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undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published.

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Al-Razi's works present the first systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity.

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in wine" (as blisters)... this disease can also occur at other times (meaning: not only during childhood). The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic.

1790:). According to Biruni, the first "was claimed to be against religions" and the second "was claimed as attacking the necessity of the prophets." However, Biruni also listed some other works of al-Razi on religion, including 249:

A comprehensive thinker, al-Razi made fundamental and enduring contributions to various fields, which he recorded in over 200 manuscripts, and is particularly remembered for numerous advances in medicine through his

1890:). Peter Adamson concurs that Abu Hatim may have "deliberately misdescribed" al-Razi's position as a rejection of Islam and revealed religions. Instead, al-Razi was only arguing against the use of miracles to prove 2935:

Gunton, Simon. The History of the Church of Peterborough. London, Richard Chiswell, publisher, 1686. Facsimile edition published by Clay, Tyas, and Watkins in Peterborough and Stamford (1990). Item Fv. on pp.

270:, he attracted students of all backgrounds and interests and was said to be compassionate and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor. He was the first to clinically distinguish between 3288:

While we have ample surviving evidence for his medical thought, his philosophical ideas mostly have to be pieced together on the basis of reports found in other authors, who are often hostile to him.

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Ar-Razi. In: Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums Bd. III: Medizin – Pharmazie – Zoologie – Tierheilkunde = History of the Arabic literature Vol. III: Medicine – Pharmacology – Veterinary Medicine

246:. However, the religio-philosophical aspects of his thought, which also included a belief in five "eternal principles", are fragmentary and only reported by authors who were often hostile to him. 1710:

Al-Razi's metaphysical doctrine derives from the theory of the "five eternals", according to which the world is produced out of an interaction between God and four other eternal principles (

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In keeping with the Epicureanism he might have imbibed from Galenic sources, he rejects special prophecy as imposture, arguing that reason, God's gift to all alike, is sufficient guidance.

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Ar-Razi was a pioneer in many areas of medicine and treatment and the health sciences in general. In particular, he was a pioneer in the fields of pediatrics, obstetrics and ophthalmology.

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Through translation, his medical works and ideas became known among medieval European practitioners and profoundly influenced medical education in the Latin West. Some volumes of his work

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claimed that the cause was a diet of beans only. Allegedly, he was approached by a physician offering an ointment to cure his blindness. Al-Razi then asked him how many layers does the

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considers him as "probably the greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians, and one of the most prolific as an author". Additionally, he has been described as the father of

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cards on the table and say that I am persuaded by Rashed’s account, and do not believe that Razi was staging a general attack on prophecy or religion as Abū Ḥātim would have us think.

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This is al-Razi's most famous book. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical operations important to the history of pharmacy. In this book al-Razi divides the subject of "

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Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example, he prescribed for a feverish headache: " 2 parts of

367:. Because of his newly acquired popularity as physician, al-Razi was invited to Baghdad where he assumed the responsibilities of a director in a new hospital named after its founder 3505:

Deuraseh, Nurdeng (2008). "Risalat Al-Biruni Fi Fihrist Kutub Al-Razi: A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Works of Abu Bakr Al-Rāzī (d. 313 A.h/925) and Al-Birūni (d. 443/1051)".

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Knowledge and identification of the medical components within substances derived from plants, animals, and minerals, and descriptions of the best types for medical treatments.

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contain and when he was unable to receive an answer, he declined the treatment stating "my eyes will not be treated by one who does not know the basics of its anatomy".

1877:(d. after 411AH/1020CE), were Isma'ili extremists who often misrepresented the views of al-Razi in their works. This view is also corroborated by early historians like 5838: 5575: 5517:." Educational podcast released by the Leiden Learning & Innovation Centre as part of the Massive Open Online Course "Cosmopolitan Medieval Arabic World." 1820:

and others hold that al-Razi did not reject revealed religion, on the basis of more recent evidence found in the writings of the theologian and philosopher

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ointments" and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century.

3874: 766:, after al-Razi had observed many clinical cases which did not follow Galen's descriptions of fevers. For example, he stated that Galen's descriptions of 8171: 6152: 1135:

Apparently al-Razi's contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning iron and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in

8096: 1124:' in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy. Al-Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: 3835:

Al-Razi was posthumously accused of having plagiarized his master in Nasr-i-Khosraw polemics, and the latter did not hide his sympathy for Iranshahri.

10072: 10022: 7043: 5592: 1661:. Then he separately defines and describes each of these substances, the best forms and colours of each, and the qualities of various adulterations. 10027: 6762: 1924:

directed a scathing critique on revealed religions and the miraculous quality of the Quran. They suggest that this lost work is either his famous

968:, on which it was grounded. Al-Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or 5970: 5223: 1817: 735:, and expresses innovative views on many subjects. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider al-Razi the greatest medical doctor of the 6539: 2755: 9683: 9008: 4405: 3861:"Monument to Be Inaugurated at the Vienna International Centre, 'Scholars Pavilion' donated to International Organizations in Vienna by Iran" 3157: 2223:

give 865 CE / 251 AH. For his date of death as 925 or 935 CE / 313 or 323 AH, see Goodman 1960–2007; some sources only give 925 CE / 313 AH (

390:. His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness. The cause of his blindness is uncertain. One account mentioned by 8144: 8020: 7236: 383:

approach suggesting having fresh meat hung in various places throughout the city and to build the hospital where meat took longest to rot.

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This line of criticism essentially had the potential to completely refute Galen's theory of humors, as well as Aristotle's theory of the

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Instruments used for the dissolving and melting of metals such as the blacksmith's hearth, bellows, crucible, thongs (tongue or ladle),

1120:'s denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mun founder of Baghdad, to 'the 10017: 7026: 3256:, pp. 389–396. Of these, only three are extant in full (see p. 396), though fragments of many other works also survive (edited by 10047: 10037: 10012: 9581: 8650: 6574: 2033: 2950: 2914: 2604:"Commentary on the Chapter Nine of the Book of Medicine Dedicated to Mansur – Commentaria in nonum librum Rasis ad regem Almansorem" 10007: 8282: 7919: 1857:

The views and quotes that are often ascribed to al-Razi where he appears to be critical of religion are found in a book written by

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After his death, his fame spread beyond the Middle East to Medieval Europe, and lived on. In an undated catalog of the library at

10002: 8207: 8202: 7720: 215: 1997:. Avicenna, who was himself a physician and philosopher, also criticized al-Razi. During a debate with Biruni, Avicenna stated: 9977: 5561: 2097: 336:

that for centuries facilitated trade and cultural exchanges between East and West. It is located on the southern slopes of the

207: 1936:). Abu Hatim, however, did not explicitly mention al-Razi by name in his book, but referred to his interlocutor simply as the 8277: 8254: 5584: 5126:(a survey of all Latin alchemical texts attributed to authors writing in Arabic, including Latin texts attributed to al-Razi) 4917: 4255: 4211: 4118: 4099: 4047: 4025: 3791: 3760: 2867: 2834: 2702: 2444: 4057:

Goodman, L.E (1960–2007). "al-Rāzī". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.).

2068: 442: 8360: 7971: 7246: 4398:, I, pp. 268–71 (second edition), Suppl., Vol. I, pp. 418–21. (overview of extant manuscripts of al-Razi's works) 3385:

ability to improve upon and even transcend its predecessor's insights through rational argumentation and empirical inquiry.

1541:, and glass (then identified as made of sand and alkali of which the transparent crystal damascene is considered the best). 9540: 8610: 7478: 5106:"Min al-kīmiyāʾ ad alchimiam. The Transmission of Alchemy from the Arab-Muslim World to the Latin West in the Middle Ages" 3980:

Arabian Medicine, Being the Fitzpatrick Lectures Delivered at the College of Physicians in November 1919 and November 1920

1253:) was written in response to a request from al-Razi's close friend, colleague, and former student, Abu Muhammad ibn Yunis 464:

as al-Razi read them to him out loud after the student learned fluent Arabic in 5 months and attended al-Razi's lectures.

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Dhanani, Alnoor (2013). "Atomism". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

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hostile source of al-Razi's beliefs and might have portrayed him as a heretic to discount his critique of the Ismāʿīlīs.

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Al-Razi was one of the world's first great medical experts. He is considered the father of psychology and psychotherapy.

3029: 2349:. Frankfurt am Main: Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, 1999. 839:, 20 drams of sugar for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either 8584: 8518: 7842: 7226: 6970: 6776: 4334: 4233: 4184: 3723: 3689: 2298: 1874: 1858: 1116:

in Latin). Nadim attributed a series of twelve books to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to

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I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man

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On a professional level, al-Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked

285:, namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in Western universities. 9676: 9001: 6006: 4876: 4601: 4496: 4401: 4308: 4277: 3964: 3828: 3731: 3642: 3613: 3482: 3453: 3409: 3377: 3349: 3324: 3237: 3005: 2960: 2884: 1207: 1181: 1076: 1054: 536: 514: 1189: 359:, then the governor of Ray, and became a bimaristan's head. He dedicated two books on medicine to Mansur ibn Ishaq, 8137: 7584: 6911: 6560: 1680:

Utensils used to carry out the process of transmutation and various parts of the distilling apparatus: the retort,

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This article is about the 10th-century physician and polymath. For the 12th-century theologian and polymath, see

1012: 43: 10067: 10057: 10042: 9301: 9235: 7543: 7463: 7019: 6372: 5064: 4847:(2017). "Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (d. 925), The Spiritual Medicine". In El-Rouayheb, Khaled; Schmidtke, Sabine (eds.). 3878: 1873:

According to Abdul Latif al-'Abd, Islamic philosophy professor at Cairo University, Abu Hatim and his student,

1692:, heating lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- and water-bath, sieve, flat stone mortar and chafing-dish. 1185: 1058: 697:

This 23-volume set medical textbooks contains the foundation of gynaecology, obstetrics and ophthalmic surgery

518: 8691: 4129: 10052: 9692: 8917: 8907: 8862: 8498: 7533: 7155: 6961: 6956: 6843: 6497: 4580:. Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Medizin. Vol. VI. Berlin: Springer. 1994: 9260: 1746:

and thus expressed criticism about some of their views. This is evident from the title of one of his works,

9669: 8994: 7781: 7473: 7468: 7321: 6442: 5922: 4528:. Universitatis Fouadi I litterarum facultatis publicationum. Vol. 22. Cairo: Jāmiʿat Fuʾād al-Awwal. 3846: 3230:

Greco-Arab and Islamic Herbal Medicine: Traditional System, Ethics, Safety, Efficacy, and Regulatory Issues

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around 1180. A Latin translation of it was edited in the 16th century by the Dutch anatomist and physician

222:. He is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of medicine, and also wrote on 7710: 1806:), listed under his works on the "divine sciences". None of his works on religion are now extant in full. 8470: 8262: 8244: 8197: 8176: 8130: 7958: 7796: 6815: 6801: 4897: 4856: 4844: 4832: 4526:

Abi Bakr Mohammadi Filii Zachariae Raghensis: Opera Philosophica, fragmentaque quae supersunt. Pars Prior

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By writing a monograph on 'Diseases in Children' he may also be looked upon as the father of paediatrics.

2060: 1953: 1813: 7863: 3271: 976:, which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements. 479: 10062: 10032: 9469: 8762: 8543: 8006: 7791: 7740: 6694: 6680: 6618: 4288: 3936: 2091: 941:, al-Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the 9459: 9360: 8967: 8777: 7715: 7634: 7316: 7012: 6673: 6666: 6437: 6331: 6261: 5914: 5700: 4985:(1975). "Razi's Myth of the Fall of the Soul: Its Function in His Philosophy". In Hourani, G. (ed.). 4248:

Freethinkers of Medieval Islam: Ibn al-Rāwandī, Abū Bakr al-Rāzī, and Their Impact on Islamic Thought

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Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā, Fuat Sezgin, Māzin ʻAmāwī, Carl Ehrig-Eggert, and E. Neubauer.

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were inaccurate as he had only seen three cases, while al-Razi had studied hundreds of such cases in

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Al-Rāzī's Buch Geheimnis der Geheimnisse. Mit Einleitung und Erläuterungen in deutscher Übersetzung

3860: 2759: 1170: 3030:"The valuable contributions of Al-Razi (Rhazes) in the history of pharmacy during the middle ages" 2738: 471:, most likely from the 14th century, al-Razi is listed as a part author of ten books on medicine. 375:(r. 902–908) al-Razi was commissioned to build a new hospital, which should be the largest of the 9941: 9509: 9147: 9122: 8594: 8503: 8426: 7992: 7938: 7894: 7776: 7639: 7362: 7291: 6739: 6397: 6137: 6048: 5943: 5242:, in Bulletin de la Société Française d'Histoire de la Médicine, Mars-avril, pp. 203 et seq. 3978: 3974: 3685: 3054: 1684:, shallow iron pan, potters kiln and blowers, large oven, cylindrical stove, glass cups, flasks, 1174: 1047: 507: 286: 9152: 5385:; Garbers, Karl (1939). "Vorschriften zur Herstellung von scharfen Wässern bei Gabir und Razi". 5219:, in Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Congress of Medicine, London, pp. 237–68. 5208: 1407:) are also described, as well as how colors will last for years without tarnishing or changing. 9916: 9782: 9652: 9626: 9611: 9591: 9489: 9484: 8927: 8877: 8872: 8838: 8706: 8533: 8523: 8355: 8070: 7730: 7644: 7589: 7488: 7382: 7352: 7256: 6931: 6251: 5813: 5757: 5695: 5430: 4645: 4614: 468: 4835:(2016). "Atomismus bei ar-Rāzī". In Buchheim, Thomas; Meißner, David; Wachsmann, Nora (eds.). 4638: 4618: 2824: 1865:(Signs of Prophecy), which documents a debate between Abu Hatim and al-Razi. Abu Hatim was an 1338:

This last category contains additional descriptions of other methods and applications used in

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Mysticism and Philosophy in al-Andalus: Ibn Masarra, Ibn al-ʿArabī and the Ismāʿīlī Tradition

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were named after him. A "Razi Day" ("Pharmacy Day") is commemorated in Iran every 27 August.

255: 235: 24: 7296: 4250:. Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Science. Texts and Studies. Vol. 35. Leiden: Brill. 9921: 9870: 9616: 9586: 9250: 9117: 9102: 9072: 9025: 8942: 8818: 8752: 8701: 8696: 8625: 8615: 7837: 7761: 7594: 7538: 7180: 7063: 6185: 6083: 6078: 5726: 5293: 4521: 4155:(1913–1936). "al-Rāzī". In Houtsma, M. Th.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R. (eds.). 4148: 1920: 1909: 1821: 800:

Al-Razi was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home medical manual (

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Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures

3952: 3875:"Permanent mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations office – Vienna" 3152: 2551:"The Book of Medicine Dedicated to Mansur and Other Medical Tracts – Liber ad Almansorem" 2002: 1719: 1443: 1380: 1279: 880: 6468: 5553: 5297: 2732: 1812:

has argued that al-Razi was a freethinker who rejected all revealed religions. However,

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Obligation to Propagate the Teachings of the Prophet Against Those who Denied Prophecies

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monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by

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reliance on clinical observation show al-Razi's medical methods. For example, he wrote:

379:. To pick the future hospital's location, al-Razi adopted what is nowadays known as an 325: 219: 211: 97: 5227: 4909: 4837:

Sōma: Körperkonzepte und körperliche Existenz in der antiken Philosophie und Literatur

1373:

which quickly and permanently colors lesser metals for more lucrative sale and profit.

1360:) that can or cannot be transmuted into corporal substances such of metals and salts ( 419: 368: 9715: 9439: 9345: 9270: 8828: 8747: 8671: 7654: 7629: 7483: 7098: 6966: 6891: 6836: 6580: 6520: 6427: 6377: 6291: 6266: 6053: 5445: 5406: 5369: 5337: 5199: 5182: 5138: 4913: 4872: 4669:(pp. 369–393 contain an English translation of two introductory sections of the 4660: 4597: 4550: 4529: 4506: 4492: 4444: 4330: 4304: 4273: 4251: 4229: 4207: 4180: 4114: 4095: 4066: 4043: 4021: 3984: 3960: 3824: 3787: 3756: 3727: 3638: 3609: 3478: 3449: 3405: 3373: 3345: 3320: 3233: 3011: 3001: 2956: 2863: 2852: 2830: 2698: 2662: 2440: 2372: 1968: 1421: 1314: 1090: 1004:

was the first monograph to deal with pediatrics as an independent field of medicine.

913: 870: 849: 832: 630: 376: 314: 155: 5415:'s and Abu Bakr al-Razi's knowledge of chemical apparatus, processes and substances) 4005: 2734:

The Penny cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, Volume 19

1827: 1665:

Al-Razi gives also a list of apparatus used in alchemy. This consists of 2 classes:

1387:, al-Razi gives methods and procedures of coloring a silver object to imitate gold ( 1132:(سر الاسرار "The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates much of the previous work. 9946: 9769: 9727: 9434: 9380: 9311: 9230: 9225: 8952: 8922: 8897: 8882: 8742: 8343: 8101: 7771: 7705: 7649: 7387: 7311: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7035: 6993: 6645: 6612: 6513: 6483: 6357: 6347: 6326: 6210: 6205: 6101: 5992: 5895: 5628: 5607: 5412: 5394: 5357: 5325: 5301: 5269: 5194: 5162: 5150: 5117: 5044: 5023: 4946: 4905: 4896:

Daiber, Hans (2017) . "Abū Bakr al-Rāzī". In Rudolph, Ulrich; Hansberger, Rotraud;

4864: 4725: 4712: 4484: 4391: 4296: 4164: 4160: 4062: 4001: 3783: 3752: 2652: 2642: 2169: 1895: 1384: 1104:

of lesser metals to silver and gold was attested half a century after his death by

917: 905: 461: 395: 356: 329: 309: 7817: 5495: 5027: 4839:. Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte, Sonderheft 13. Hamburg: Meiner. pp. 345–360. 4416: 9956: 9722: 9265: 9240: 9185: 8937: 8932: 8887: 8348: 8333: 8328: 7827: 7442: 7231: 7195: 7058: 6974: 6719: 6700: 6473: 6447: 6352: 6306: 6271: 6246: 6170: 6093: 6063: 5951: 5762: 5612: 5526: 4994: 4982: 4966: 4934: 4805: 4542: 4300: 4287:

Walker, Paul E. (1998). "al-Razi, Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya' (d. 925)". In

4199: 4035: 3940: 3187: 3061: 2994:

Evans, Imogen; Thornton, Hazel; Chalmers, Iain; Glasziou, Paul (1 January 2011).

2302: 2041: 1654: 1634: 1302:

Knowledge of equipment and tools of interest to and used by either alchemists or

1258: 1121: 748: 646: 617:

with the outcome of those treated without it to see if blood-letting could help.

2756:"Saab Medical Library – كتاب في الجدري و الحصبة – American University of Beirut" 2295: 1674: 9885: 9835: 9753: 9499: 9400: 9321: 9316: 9205: 9190: 9157: 9112: 9041: 8867: 8843: 8823: 8803: 8338: 8219: 7832: 7812: 7523: 7432: 7427: 7407: 7377: 7336: 7210: 6906: 6896: 6748: 6599: 6362: 5875: 5818: 5721: 5375: 5329: 5079: 4243: 4013: 3635:

The Political aspects of Islamic philosophy: essays in honor of Muhsin S. Mahdi

2995: 2017: 1977: 1878: 1832: 1809: 969: 942: 866: 828: 659: 484: 380: 6392: 5539: 4716: 4700: 1670: 9971: 9576: 9296: 9245: 9132: 9107: 9096: 8757: 8681: 8655: 8589: 7999: 7695: 7690: 7614: 7579: 7402: 7306: 6936: 6850: 6713: 6463: 6412: 6276: 6195: 5929: 5752: 5654: 5449: 5398: 5305: 5246: 5166: 5142: 5048: 4788: 4703:(1951). "The Arabic Literature on Alchemy According to An-Nadīm (A.D. 987)". 4664: 4554: 4533: 4448: 4221: 4087: 3988: 3033: 2647: 2376: 2078: 1646: 715:

This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes—known in Europe also as

614: 403: 298: 143: 7508: 4111:

The Sanskrit, Syriac and Persian Sources in the Comprehensive Book of Rhazes

3693: 2631:"Rhazes' concepts and manuscripts on nutrition in treatment and health care" 2005:

and exceeds his competence. He should have remained confined to surgery and

9951: 9761: 9631: 9621: 9375: 9286: 9215: 9180: 8947: 8892: 8716: 8645: 8401: 8386: 8224: 7745: 7619: 7437: 7150: 6631: 6432: 6387: 6382: 6367: 6311: 6296: 6256: 5705: 5382: 5345: 5313: 5281: 5257: 4819:, Vol. V, Part 2, ff. 301-03 (photostat copy in Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyyah). 4573: 4318: 4152: 3775: 3744: 3715: 3015: 2666: 2072: 1731: 1518: 1425: 1388: 1303: 1105: 862: 449: 414: 399: 8579: 4488: 2888: 1100:

Al-Razi's interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of

9931: 9875: 9776: 9636: 9474: 9405: 9390: 9365: 9331: 9255: 9220: 9200: 9195: 9127: 9057: 8808: 8732: 8538: 7978: 7680: 7624: 7276: 7083: 6886: 6808: 6659: 6638: 6321: 6316: 6281: 6111: 5418:

Shader, H. H., ZDMG, 79, pp. 228–35 (see translation into Arabic by

5273: 5121: 4795:, (ed. Muhyi al-Din 'Abd al-Hamid), Cairo, 1948, No. 678, pp. 244–47 2976: 1986: 1982: 1866: 1760: 1326: 1017: 824: 801: 736: 592: 251: 8986: 5481: 5465: 4481:

Abū Bakr al-Rāzī: Doutes sur Galien. Introduction, édition et traduction

2384: 2360: 1975:

in the early 11th century. Biruni in particular wrote a short treatise (

9901: 9555: 9535: 9395: 9385: 8737: 8640: 8559: 8474: 8318: 8049: 7873: 7786: 7685: 7675: 7609: 7574: 7528: 7513: 7412: 7301: 7266: 7145: 6901: 6567: 6478: 6422: 6230: 6225: 6215: 6116: 5907: 5860: 5783: 5778: 5669: 4958: 2578:"The Book on Medicine Dedicated to al-Mansur – الكتاب المنصوري في الطب" 2045: 2021: 2010: 2006: 1061: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 774: 610: 521: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 438: 391: 372: 352: 328:"al-Razi"), into a family of Persian stock and was a native speaker of 294: 290: 243: 147: 139: 60: 9661: 5183:"Two New Texts on Medicine and Natural Philosophy by Abū Bakr al-Rāzī" 5105: 4549:. Tehran: International Institute of Islamic Though and Civilization. 3902:"Negareh: Persian Scholars Pavilion at United Nations Vienna, Austria" 3805:

Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence",

3188:"Rāzī, Liber Almansoris (Cambridge, University Library, MS Add. 9213)" 2361:"Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Yahya Al-Razi: Universal Scholar and Scientist" 9845: 9795: 9734: 9596: 9504: 9494: 9464: 8798: 8686: 8620: 8564: 8513: 8381: 8323: 8313: 8122: 7985: 7725: 7503: 7422: 7417: 7367: 7281: 7185: 7160: 7140: 7114: 7078: 7068: 6921: 6301: 6200: 6190: 6175: 6165: 6058: 5888: 5747: 5731: 5649: 5011: 3278:(Summer 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 3162: 2081:

remarked him as "greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages".

2013:—indeed he exposed himself and showed his ignorance in these matters. 1967:

Al-Razi's religious and philosophical views were later criticized by

1530: 1500: 1496: 1486: 1396: 946: 874: 819:

cloth is dipped and compressed on the forehead". He recommended as a

728: 645:

and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their

642: 587:

as distinct diseases. It was translated more than a dozen times into

407: 386:

He spent the last years of his life in his native Rey suffering from

333: 321: 263: 227: 151: 134:

The first to write up limited or extensive notes on diseases such as

65: 5984: 4950: 4744:

Al-Biruni als Quelle für das Leben und die Schriften al-Razi's, Isis

2603: 2413:

Tschanz David W., PhD (2003). "Arab(?) Roots of European Medicine".

2336:

Influence of Islam on World Civilization" by Prof. Z. Ahmed, p. 127.

1900: 1159: 1036: 953:

He criticized Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate "

496: 9911: 9906: 9880: 9865: 9850: 9707: 9560: 9545: 9530: 9525: 9444: 9052: 8635: 8574: 8569: 8493: 8391: 8080: 7700: 7518: 7498: 7493: 7392: 7135: 7004: 6951: 6407: 6220: 6180: 6142: 5685: 5659: 5361: 4206:. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 64–67. 4204:

Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume XII/1: Harem I–Hedāyat al-mota'allemin

2577: 2550: 2064: 1972: 1891: 1727: 1658: 1538: 1476: 1433: 1318: 1117: 973: 954: 836: 820: 676: 626: 580: 387: 271: 267: 135: 5550:, dating from 1882, features a biography, in Arabic, about Rhazes. 5545: 3780:

Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science

3749:

Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science

3566: 3564: 3127: 3100: 3075: 1391:) and the reverse technique of removing its color back to silver. 727:)—contains considerations and criticism on the Greek philosophers 258:, he became a successful doctor, and served as chief physician of 9860: 9855: 9210: 8416: 8396: 8267: 8186: 8013: 6876: 6871: 6106: 6073: 6015: 5828: 5823: 5247:"Medieval Arabic views on speech disorders: Al-Razi (c. 865–925)" 5175:

Die Atomenlehre ar-Razi's in Beitrage zur islamischen Atomenlehre

4989:. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. pp. 25–40. 4751:

Epitre de Beruni, contenant le répertoire des oeuvres de Muhammad

2569: 2296:

Exchanges between India and Central Asia in the field of Medicine

1989:

writings, his religious and philosophical views, for refusing to

1948: 1723: 1681: 1642: 1545: 1526: 1437: 1392: 1370: 1310: 1254: 1101: 909: 858: 778: 770: 767: 690: 651: 584: 348: 275: 259: 231: 121: 2952:

No Wonder You Wonder!: Great Inventions and Scientific Mysteries

9802: 9745: 9077: 8446: 8287: 6946: 6043: 5808: 5466:"The Kitab al-Asrar: An Alchemy Manual in Tenth-Century Persia" 4608:(English translation of Ruska 1937's translation of the Arabic) 3561: 2795:

Brilliant Biruni: A Life Story of Abu Rayhan Mohammad Ibn Ahmad

2129: 1743: 1715: 1689: 1621: 1617: 1602:) vitriols (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green ( 1522: 1514: 1429: 1286: 425: 398:, for failing to provide proof for his alchemy theories; while 341: 337: 313:

Depiction of al-Razi in a 13th-century manuscript of a work by

107: 4594:

The Alchemy of Al-Razi: A Translation of the "Book of Secrets"

2811:

Al-Birūni als Quelle für das Leben und die Schriften al-Rāzi's

2782:

The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity

2347:

Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyāʼ ar-Rāzī (d. 313/925): texts and studies

1981:) dealing with al-Razi, criticizing him for his sympathy with 873:. Each tablet was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of 9926: 9789: 8451: 8441: 8436: 8406: 7331: 6941: 6881: 4902:

Philosophy in the Islamic World. Volume 1: 8th–10th Centuries

4483:. Scientia Graeco-Arabica. Vol. 25. Berlin: De Gruyter. 4321:(2005). "Recent trends in Arabic and Persian philosophy". In 3901: 3344:. Cambridge: The Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–21. 2993: 2037: 1913: 1739: 1735: 1685: 1650: 1504: 1404: 985: 854: 844: 840: 816: 763: 755:, and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe. 732: 588: 457: 453: 223: 1282:(also known as Sirr al-Asrar, 'The Secret Book of Secrets'). 591:

and other European languages. Its lack of dogmatism and its

9816: 9739: 8782: 8676: 8431: 8421: 8411: 8234: 4329:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 405–425. 3593:. Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahḍa al-Miṣriyya. pp. 4, 13, 18. 3588: 3448:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 180–181. 3372:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 180–181. 2052: 1711: 1555: 1534: 1459: 1400: 1322: 1313:

procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation of

812: 5429: 5260:(1924). "Über den gegenwärtigen Stand der Raziforschung". 4937:(1971). "The Epicurean Ethic of M. b. Zakariya' al-Razi". 3076:"The Comprehensive Book on Medicine – كتاب الحاوى فى الطب" 815:, to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which a piece of 625:

Al-Razi contributed in many ways to the early practice of

394:

attributed the cause to a blow to his head by his patron,

5583: 4179:(Oriental Studies I ed.). Harvard University Press. 3983:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–53. 3477:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd. p. 41. 2997:

Testing Treatments: Better Research for Better Healthcare

2628: 1638: 1469: 1330: 5435:"Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D." 5374:(argues that most Latin texts attributed to al-Razi are 4650:"Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D." 4042:(Reprint ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. 1673:, stirring rod, cutter, grinder (pestle), file, shears, 5542:, encyclopedia article about al-Razi by Paul E. Walker. 4421:. Tehran: Commission Nationale Iranienne pour l'UNESCO. 3684: 2822: 853:(clover dodder) or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised 629:

by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of "

5284:(1928). "Der Salmiak in der Geschichte der Alchemie". 4739:, (ed. Fu'ad Sayyid), Cairo, 1355/1936, pp. 77–78 4018:

History of Medicine: A Scandalously Short Introduction

1792:

Fi Wujub Da‘wat al-Nabi ‘Ala Man Nakara bi al-Nubuwwat

1726:

of the bodies, and for that he differed from both the

1348:

The amount of heat (fire) used, 'bodies and stones', (

1321:(gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron), salts, glass, 1317:, precipitation of sulfur, and arsenic calcination of 3669: 3064:, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. 2439:(1st ed.). London: Cambridge. pp. 202–203. 2437:

A Medical History of Persia and The Eastern Caliphate

2412: 1379:

Similar to the commentary on the 8th century text on

679:(from a Latin translation of a work by al-Razi, 1466) 5455: 4676: 4670: 4632: 4583: 4560: 4512: 4454: 4430: 4424: 4094:(2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer. pp. 155–156. 3631:"The Political Implications of Al-Razi's Philosophy" 3128:"The Comprehensive Book on Medicine—Continens Rasis" 2695:

A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded

2155: 2143: 2001:

Or from Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al-Razi, who meddles

1628: 1603: 1592: 1581: 1570: 1559: 1549: 1508: 1490: 1480: 1463: 1453: 1447: 1415: 1361: 1355: 1349: 1290: 1269: 1264: 1229: 928: 751:, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by 413:

The lectures of al-Razi attracted many students. As

178: 4464:Figurovsky, N.A. (1962). "Review of Karimov 1957". 2272:

A History of Islamic Philosophy: Third Edition

483:al-Razi examining a patient (miniature painting by 5426:, Islamica, Vol. XI, Cairo, 1950, pp. 37–44). 4851:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 63–82. 4410:Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy. 3101:"The Comprehensive Book on Medicine – كتاب الحاوي" 2851: 2215:gives 854 CE / 250 AH, but this is a typo), while 2059:, now placed in the central Memorial Plaza of the 371:(d. 902 CE). Under the reign of Al-Mutadid's son, 5500:Geschichte der Arabischen Arzte und Naturforscher 4441:Neizvestnoe sochinenie ar-Razi "Kniga taĭny taĭn" 4157:Encyclopaedia of Islam, First Edition (1913–1936) 3821:The Voyage and the Messenger: Iran and Philosophy 3720:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines 2944: 2942: 2055:donated a "Scholars Pavilion" or Chartagi to the 2024:, whom Khosraw considered the master of al-Razi. 1289:' into three categories, as in his previous book 1145:no answer. I very much doubt if it is possible... 912:governor of Ray. It was translated into Latin by 683: 355:(hospital). Later, he was invited back to Rey by 158:, also the author of several philosophical works. 9969: 8469: 6763:Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air 4443:. Tashkent: Izd-vo Akademii nauk Uzbekskoĭ SSR. 4226:Introduction to the History of Science, Volume 1 4193: 4127: 2787: 2216: 2063:. The pavilion features the statues of al-Razi, 1410:Al-Razi classified minerals into six divisions: 5245:Rockey, Denyse and Johnstone, Penelope (1979). 4619:"An Alchemical Compilation of the 13th Century" 4596:. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. 4147: 3690:"BĪRŪNĪ and the study of non-Islamic Religions" 2816: 2208: 2182:, p. 1 of the introduction), though instead of 2020:posthumously accused him of having plagiarized 549: 6540:Book of the Silvery Water and the Starry Earth 5062: 4177:Greek Into Arabic Essays on Islamic Philosophy 3628: 2939: 2849: 1345:The added mixture and use of solvent vehicles. 1095: 609:Al-Razi compared the outcome of patients with 278:, and suggest sound treatment for the former. 9677: 9002: 8138: 7020: 6000: 5569: 5180: 5016:British Journal for the History of Philosophy 4459:in a Tashkent ms., with Russian translation) 4414: 4020:(3rd ed.). University of Toronto Press. 3158:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3126:Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā (1529). 3000:(2nd ed.). London: Pinter & Martin. 2829:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219–. 2758:. Ddc.aub.edu.lb. 1 June 2003. Archived from 2189: 2183: 2179: 2173: 2161: 1800:Fi anna li al-Insan Khaliqan Mutqinan Hakiman 437:, with medical advice. One former pupil from 7237:Abu Bakr Rabee Ibn Ahmad Al-Akhawyni Bokhari 6171:pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana (Balīnūs/Balīnās) 5381: 5063:Karpenko, Vladimír; Norris, John A. (2002). 5035:Heym, Gerard (1938). "Al-Rāzī and Alchemy". 4613: 4511:(critical edition and French translation of 4327:The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy 4056: 3774: 3743: 3663: 3637:. Harvard University Press. pp. 87–89. 3570:Seyyed Hossein Nasr, and Mehdi Amin Razavi, 3431: 3402:Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2805: 2803: 2629:Nikaein F, Zargaran A, Mehdizadeh A (2012). 2212: 2149: 2137: 1608: 1597: 1586: 1575: 1564: 894: 474: 351:where he studied and practiced at the local 238:, especially with regard to the concepts of 172: 3670:Kraus, P; Pines, S (1913–1938). "Al-Razi". 3319:. Oxford University Press. pp. 69–70. 3155:(1996), "Medicine", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., 2975: 2408: 2406: 1928:or another shorter independent work called 1452:): silver, gold, copper, iron, black lead ( 1257:, a Muslim mathematician, philosopher, and 1188:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 865:, 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of 835:and well mixed, then strained. Add to this 16:10th-century Iranian physician and polymath 9684: 9670: 9009: 8995: 8145: 8131: 7027: 7013: 6287:John of Rupescissa (Jean de Roquetaillade) 6007: 5993: 5576: 5562: 5348:(1939). "Pseudepigraphe Rasis-Schriften". 5149: 4463: 4130:"Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al- Razi" 4086:Iskandar, Albert Z. (2008). "Al-Rāzī". In 3340:Goodman, Lenn (1995). Audi, Robert (ed.). 3317:The Oxford Handbook of Medieval Philosophy 2843: 2430: 2428: 2274:, Columbia University Press (2004), p. 98. 904:Al-Razi dedicated this work to his patron 796:)—A medical adviser for the general public 786:For One Who Has No Physician to Attend Him 42: 9582:Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi 9016: 8021:Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon 6575:Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz 5520: 5198: 5181:Pormann, Peter E.; Selove, Emily (2017). 4892:, Vol. II, Cairo, 1945, pp. 198–228. 4849:The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Philosophy 4781:Abu Al-Faraj ibn al-'Ibri (Bar-Hebraeus), 4566: 4541: 4478: 3584: 3582: 3580: 3500: 3498: 3490:prophecy; rationalism; al-Razi (Abu Bakr) 3310: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3216: 3212: 2983:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 276, 283. 2800: 2656: 2646: 2195: 2165: 1774:), al-Razi wrote two "heretical books": " 1224: 1208:Learn how and when to remove this message 1149: 1077:Learn how and when to remove this message 655:it most difficult being their physician. 537:Learn how and when to remove this message 10073:Psychology in the medieval Islamic world 10023:Alchemists of the medieval Islamic world 5890:al-ʿIlm al-muktasab fī zirāʿat al-dhahab 5438:Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 5433:; Azo, R.F.; Hidayat Husain, M. (1927). 5187:Journal of the American Oriental Society 5129: 4987:Essays in Islamic Philosophy and Science 4890:Min Tarlkh al-Ilhad fi al-Islam Islamica 4855: 4653:Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 4648:; Azo, R.F.; Hidayat Husain, M. (1927). 4623:Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 4242: 4085: 3931: 3657: 3651: 3555: 3535: 3523: 3504: 3427: 3425: 3395: 3393: 3314: 3174: 2497: 2403: 2324: 2283: 2258: 2254: 2228: 2220: 1952:Stained-glass window depicting al-Razi ( 1947: 1919:In contrast, earlier historians such as 1852: 1826: 1011: 879: 670: 478: 308: 180:Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī 10028:Inventors of the medieval Islamic world 9691: 9353: 7721:Najm al-Din Mahmud ibn Ilyas al-Shirazi 5490:Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie 5103: 4993: 4981: 4965: 4933: 4843: 4831: 4824: 4538:(edition of extant philosophical works) 4438: 4362: 4264: 4040:The Cambridge history of Iran, Volume 4 3995: 3951: 3945:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3603: 3339: 3276:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3269: 3055:Islamic Science, the Scholar and Ethics 2858:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 2521: 2493: 2491: 2425: 1916:and the prophets to support his views. 1804:That Man has a Wise and Perfect Creator 557: 254:and discoveries. An early proponent of 9970: 8152: 6363:George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes) 5540:"al-Razi" on Islamic Philosophy Online 5463: 5454:(contains an in-depth analysis of the 5222: 5009: 4895: 4591: 4286: 4220: 4171: 4059:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 4012: 3973: 3916:Introduction to the History of Science 3818: 3799: 3577: 3543: 3539: 3495: 3399: 3342:The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy 3293: 3253: 3074:Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā. 2948: 2784:. New York: W. W. Norton, 1997, p. 97. 2692: 2576:Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā. 2549:Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā. 2536: 2526: 2434: 2397: 2358: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2314: 2312: 2310: 2250: 2224: 2098:Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran 1912:where al-Razi is quoted as citing the 1722:). He accepted a pre-socratic type of 77:925 (aged 60–61) CE or 9665: 8990: 8468: 8126: 7008: 6443:Thomas Vaughan (Eugenius Philalethes) 6014: 5988: 5585:Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world 5557: 5344: 5312: 5280: 5256: 5065:"Vitriol in the History of Chemistry" 4863:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4695:, (ed. Flugel), pp. 299 et sqq. 4572: 4520: 4415:Dānish-pazhūh, Muḥammad Taqī (1964). 4350: 4073: 3604:Ebstein, Michael (25 November 2013). 3591:Al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī li Abū Bakr al-Rāzī 3507:Journal of Aqidah and Islamic Thought 3472: 3443: 3422: 3390: 3367: 3257: 3211:Edited and translated into French by 2531: 2515: 2133: 636: 9455:Ikhwan al-Safa' (Brethren of Purity) 7972:Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye 7034: 5034: 4699: 4396:Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur 4317: 4293:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4108: 4034: 3899: 3823:. North Atlantic Books. p. 72. 3678: 3589:Abdul Latif Muhammad al-Abd (1978). 3572:An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia 3404:. New York: Routledge. p. 744. 3125: 2797:. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press, 2009. 2730: 2683:. New York: M. Dekker, 1992, p. 140. 2509: 2488: 1753: 1186:adding citations to reliable sources 1153: 1059:adding citations to reliable sources 1030: 519:adding citations to reliable sources 490: 452:recorded an account by al-Razi of a 446:bibliography of his numerous works. 324:(modern Rey, also the origin of his 7823:Abul Qasim ibn Mohammed al-Ghassani 6594:De consideratione quintae essentiae 5869:Masāʾil Khālid li-Maryānus al-rāhib 5758:Abū l-ʿAbbās al-Nabātī (pharmacist) 5532:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4997:(2015). "How Epicurean was Rāzī?". 4904:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 381–420. 4764:, (ed. M. Ghafi), Lahore, 1351/1932 4631:(contains edited extracts from the 3633:. In Charles E. Butterworth (ed.). 2307: 2190: 2184: 2174: 2150: 2138: 1898:, and the uncritical acceptance of 1688:, beakers, glass funnel, crucible, 1609: 1598: 1587: 1576: 1565: 1403:, calcium salts, iron, copper, and 173: 79:935 (aged 70–71) CE 13: 5972:Nihāyat al-rutba fī ṭalab al-ḥisba 5316:(1935). "Die Alchemie ar-Rāzī's". 5251:Journal of Communication Disorders 5228:"Abū Bakr Al-Rāzī Et La Prophétie" 4869:10.1093/oso/9780197555033.001.0001 4757:, publié par P. Kraus, Paris, 1936 4345: 3724:State University of New York Press 3252:See the list of 35 works given by 2882: 2823:Joseph Needham; Ling Wang (1954). 2693:Magner, Lois N. (13 August 2002). 1908:. Adamson points out to a work by 1677:, and semi-cylindrical iron mould. 435:Who Has No Physician to Attend Him 150:, making leading contributions in 14: 10084: 10018:10th-century Iranian philosophers 7247:Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi 5515:Dr Al Razi's city tour of Baghdad 5507: 5286:Zeitschrift für angewandte Chemie 5153:(1938). "The Chemistry of Rāzī". 5086:, Paris, Vol. I, pp. 337–54. 4910:10.1163/2543-2729_PIWO_COM_001601 4776:Uyun al-Anba fi Tabaqat al-Atibba 2949:Phipps, Claude (5 October 2015). 2911:"قلم لنكبرده ولساكسه , قلم الصين" 2854:A History of Chinese Civilization 10048:Scholars from the Samanid Empire 10038:Medieval Iranian pharmacologists 10013:9th-century Iranian philosophers 7585:Amin al-Din Rashid al-Din Vatvat 6989: 6988: 6561:Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit 5862:al-Burhān fī asrār ʿilm al-mīzān 5209:10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.2.0279 5200:10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.2.0279 4861:Great Medieval Thinkers: al-Rāzī 4771:, (ed. Lippert), pp. 27–177 4406:The Book of the Philosophic Life 4067:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6267 3858: 3073: 2813:. Bruxelles: Weissenbruch, 1922. 2719:Historia Compendosia Dynastiarum 2575: 2548: 2464:"Ar-Razi (Rhazes), 864–930 C.E." 1738:and the medical writers, mainly 1158: 1035: 579:) was the first book describing 495: 320:Al-Razi was born in the city of 10008:10th-century Iranian physicians 9063:Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite 7859:Qiwam al-Din Muhammad al-Hasani 7843:Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf 6528:Liber de compositione alchemiae 6252:(pseudo-)Arnaldus de Villa Nova 6211:pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid) 6059:Hermes Trismegistus (legendary) 5608:pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid) 5240:A propos du millenaire de Razes 5177:, Berlin, 1936, pp. 34–93. 5100:, Leiden, 1938, pp. 8, 16. 4785:, (ed. A. Salhani), p. 291 4746:, Vol. V, 1924, pp. 26–50. 4418:Kitāb al-asrār wa-Sirr al-asrār 4365:The Spiritual Physick of Rhazes 4194:Richter-Bernburg, Lutz (2003). 4006:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_24249 3908: 3893: 3867: 3852: 3840: 3812: 3768: 3737: 3708: 3622: 3597: 3549: 3529: 3517: 3466: 3437: 3361: 3333: 3315:Marenbon, John (14 June 2012). 3263: 3246: 3232:, John Wiley & Sons, 2011. 3222: 3205: 3180: 3168: 3146: 3119: 3093: 3067: 3048: 3022: 2987: 2969: 2929: 2903: 2876: 2774: 2748: 2724: 2711: 2686: 2673: 2622: 2596: 2542: 2503: 2456: 2391: 2352: 2136:. Sometimes it is also spelled 2057:United Nations Office in Vienna 1934:The Prophets' Fraudulent Tricks 1788:On the Tricks of False Prophets 1772:Risāla fī Fihrist Kutub al-Rāzī 1046:needs additional citations for 658:He also wrote the following on 506:needs additional citations for 456:student who copied down all of 441:came to look after him, but as 347:In his youth, al-Razi moved to 188: 864 or 865–925 or 935 CE 10003:9th-century Iranian physicians 9236:Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt 7464:Abu Jafar ibn Harun al-Turjali 6777:Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine 5012:"Razian prophecy rationalized" 4547:Kitâb Al – Shukûk ʻAlâ Jâlînûs 4272:. Edinburgh University Press. 4165:10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_3693 3957:Revelation and Reason in Islam 2850:Jacques Gernet (31 May 1996). 2339: 2330: 2288: 2277: 2264: 2244: 2201: 2122: 1705: 684:Books and articles on medicine 146:, author of the first book on 1: 9978:Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi 8918:Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani 8908:Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas 8499:Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari 7534:Muhammad ibn Aslam Al-Ghafiqi 7156:Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari 6844:Theatrum chemicum Britannicum 5084:Histoire de la medicine arabe 5057:Geschichte der Augenheilkunde 5028:10.1080/09608788.2023.2235613 4969:(1972). "Razi's Psychology". 4737:Tabaqat al-Atibba w-al-Hukama 4355: 4325:; Taylor, Richard C. (eds.). 3998:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 3274:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), 2359:ANSARI, A. S. BAZMEE (1976). 2164:, p. 1 of the edition, or in 2110: 1957: 1836: 1734:. While he was influenced by 1696: 1533:(iron oxide), arsenic oxide, 1128:(الاسرار "The Secrets"), and 1021: 877:water and used as eye drops. 762:also criticized the views of 604: 340:mountain range situated near 184: 174:أبو بکر محمد بن زکریاء الرازي 8585:Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi 7782:Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Harawi 7570:Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon 7474:Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam 7469:Abu al-Bayan ibn al-Mudawwar 7322:Mohammed ibn Abdun al-Jabali 7227:'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi 5923:One Hundred and Twelve Books 5217:The Life and Works of Rhazes 4685: 4617:; Azo, Rizkallah F. (1910). 4592:Taylor, Gail Marlow (2015). 4301:10.4324/9780415249126-H043-1 2238: 1993:, and his active opposition 1943: 1824:(died 1210). Adamson states: 1091:Sulfuric acid § History 550:Psychology and psychotherapy 304: 7: 7959:Anatomy Charts of the Arabs 7544:Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Israili 6816:Deutsches Theatrum Chemicum 6802:Bibliotheca chemica curiosa 5909:al-Miṣbāḥ fī ʿilm al-miftāḥ 5456: 5104:Moureau, Sébastien (2020). 4677: 4671: 4633: 4584: 4582:(German translation of the 4561: 4513: 4479:Koetschet, Pauline (2019). 4455: 4431: 4425: 2209:Kraus & Pines 1913–1936 2156: 2144: 2084: 2061:Vienna International Center 1954:Princeton University Chapel 1629: 1624:, and impure sodium borate. 1604: 1593: 1582: 1571: 1560: 1550: 1509: 1491: 1481: 1464: 1454: 1448: 1416: 1362: 1356: 1350: 1291: 1270: 1230: 1096:The transmutation of metals 1016:al-Razi in his laboratory ( 929: 886:Book of Medicine for Mansur 620: 423:, al-Razi was considered a 266:hospitals. As a teacher of 234:. He is also known for his 179: 10: 10089: 8863:Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei 8763:Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi 8677:Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi 8007:Kamel al-Sanaat al-Tibbyya 7792:Shaykh Muhammad ibn Thaleb 7741:Yusuf ibn Ismail al-Kutubi 6695:Rosary of the Philosophers 6681:Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis 6620:Liber Hermetis de alchemia 5763:Ḥasan al-Rammāḥ (engineer) 5753:Ibn al-Bayṭār (pharmacist) 5613:pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana 5411:(contains a comparison of 5330:10.1515/islm.1935.22.4.281 5215:Ranking, G. S. A. (1913). 4439:Karimov, Usmon I. (1957). 3924: 2092:List of Iranian scientists 1277: 1088: 1020:painting by Ernest Board, 1007: 332:. Ray was situated on the 18: 9894: 9828: 9811: 9699: 9649: 9569: 9541:Abu l-Barakat al-Baghdadi 9518: 9490:Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani 9450:Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes) 9427: 9418: 9361:Isaac Israeli ben Solomon 9344: 9279: 9166: 9086: 9033: 9024: 8852: 8791: 8725: 8664: 8611:Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī 8603: 8552: 8486: 8482: 8464: 8374: 8299: 8164: 8160: 8089: 8063: 8037: 7928: 7907: 7887: 7851: 7805: 7754: 7716:Muhammad ibn Mahmud Amuli 7711:Mas‘ud ibn Muhammad Sijzi 7668: 7635:Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta 7557: 7479:Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī 7456: 7345: 7317:Isaac Israeli ben Solomon 7219: 7128: 7107: 7051: 7042: 6984: 6864: 6786: 6505: 6496: 6456: 6358:pseudo-Bernard of Treviso 6340: 6239: 6191:Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith) 6161:Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes) 6151: 6125: 6092: 6031: 6022: 5837: 5801: 5771: 5740: 5714: 5706:Ibn al-Wāfid (pharmacist) 5678: 5650:Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith) 5645:Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes) 5637: 5621: 5600: 5591: 5238:Renaud, H. P. J. (1931). 4783:Mukhtasar Tarikh al-Duwal 4778:, Vol. I, pp. 309–21 4717:10.1179/amb.1951.4.3-4.81 4675:; contains an edition of 4128:Oxford Reference (2022). 3192:Cambridge Digital Library 3060:22 September 2007 at the 2955:. Springer. p. 111. 2697:. CRC Press. p. 60. 2227:; Richter-Bernburg 2003; 2027: 1766:According to al-Biruni's 790:Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib 475:Contributions to medicine 431:Man La Yaḥḍuruhu al-Ṭabīb 162: 128: 114: 103: 93: 89: 73: 53: 41: 34: 9607:Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi 9500:Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) 9435:Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) 8076:Ancient Iranian medicine 7864:Abd El Razzaq Al-Jazaïri 7736:Sadid al-Din al-Kazaruni 7600:Hussam al-Din al-Jarrahi 7565:Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi 7388:Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili 7287:Al-Tamimi, the physician 7074:Ibn Abi Ramtha al-Tamimi 6206:Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber) 6039:Agathodaemon (legendary) 5629:Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber) 5399:10.1515/islm.1938.25.1.1 5306:10.1002/ange.19280415006 5167:10.1179/amb.1938.1.3.192 5135:The Origins of Chemistry 5049:10.1179/amb.1938.1.3.184 5010:Güngör, Hüseyin (2023). 4244:Stroumsa, Sarah Stroumsa 3849:, Razi commemoration day 3400:Walker, Paul E. (2000). 3228:Bashar Saad, Omar Said, 3161:, Vol. 3, pp. 903–962 . 2648:10.4103/0257-7941.107357 2175:ابوبکر محمدبن زکریا رازی 2172:his name is rendered as 2128:For the spelling of his 2115: 1432:, and arsenic sulphide ( 1278:Not to be confused with 1002:The Diseases of Children 995:The Diseases of Children 9470:Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani 9465:Al-Farabi (Alpharabius) 9148:Dominicus Gundissalinus 9123:Richard of Saint Victor 8595:Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani 8544:Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani 8504:Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri 8028:Lives of the Physicians 7993:Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi 7939:Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah 7895:Al-Khurasani al-Shirazi 7777:Muhammad Ali Astarabadi 7640:Najib ad-Din Samarqandi 7363:Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani 7292:Eutychius of Alexandria 7267:Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi 6398:Jan Baptist van Helmont 6138:Stephanus of Alexandria 5547:Lives of the Physicians 5492:, Vol. II, p. 181. 4762:Tatimmah Siwan al-Hikma 4402:Butterworth, Charles E. 3686:William Montgomery Watt 3629:Paul E. Walker (1992). 3270:Adamson, Peter (2021), 2721:. Oxford, 1663, p. 291. 2584:(in Amharic and Arabic) 2207:For his date of birth, 2168:, p. 5. In modern 1831:al-Razi as depicted by 1768:Bibliography of al-Razi 1110:The Philosopher's Stone 831:flowers with 20 pears, 717:The Large Comprehensive 577:On Smallpox and Measles 287:Edward Granville Browne 124:, criticism of religion 9783:Mandragora officinarum 9653:Renaissance philosophy 9627:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 9612:Athir al-Din al-Abhari 8928:Mohammed Abed al-Jabri 8878:Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr 8839:Shah Waliullah Dehlawi 8707:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 8534:Abu Sulayman Sijistani 8356:Transcendent theosophy 8071:Ancient Greek medicine 7731:Rashid-al-Din Hamadani 7645:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 7489:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi 7383:Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi 7353:Abdollah ibn Bukhtishu 7257:Abu al-Hasan al-Tabari 6231:al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis) 5789:Abū l-Ashbā ibn Tammām 5701:Aḥmad ibn ʿImād al-Dīn 5691:al-Khawārizmī al-Kāthī 5670:al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis) 5665:Abū Manṣūr al-Muwaffaq 5470:Arab Studies Quarterly 5093:, pp. 323 et seq. 4812:, Vol. II, p. 263 4678:al-Madkhal al-Talʿlīmī 4562:al-Shukūk ʿalā Jalīnūs 4514:al-Shukūk ʿalā Jalīnūs 4363:Arberry, A.J. (1950). 4079:Makers of Arab History 3900:Hosseini, Mir Masood. 3819:Corbin, Henry (1998). 3475:Islamic Philosophy A-Z 3446:Islamic Philosophy A-Z 3370:Islamic Philosophy A-Z 3215:. An older edition is 3165:, London and New York. 2435:Elgood, Cyril (2010). 2301:6 October 2008 at the 2211:give 864 CE / 250 AH ( 2132:name, see for example 2015: 1964: 1850: 1843: 1784:Fī Ḥiyal al-Mutanabbīn 1150:Major works on alchemy 1147: 1028: 991: 930:al-Shukūk ʿalā Jalīnūs 895: 888: 884:Colophon of al-Razi's 680: 669: 602: 573:al-Judari wa al-Hasbah 569: 488: 365:Al-Mansūrī on Medicine 317: 120:Medicine, philosophy, 23:. For other uses, see 10068:9th-century inventors 10058:Iranian psychologists 10043:People from Ray, Iran 9551:Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani 9546:Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) 9018:Medieval philosophers 8712:Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi 8055:Nur al-Din Bimaristan 7946:The Canon of Medicine 7767:Burhan-ud-din Kermani 7373:Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal 7358:Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani 7262:Abu al-Qasim Muqane'i 7206:Yuhanna ibn Bukhtishu 6667:Nabataean Agriculture 6554:Books of the Balances 6403:Johann Rudolf Glauber 6373:Giovanni da Correggio 5916:Nabataean Agriculture 5855:Books of the Balances 5464:Taylor, Gail (2010). 5137:. London: Oldbourne. 4999:Studia graeco-arabica 4489:10.1515/9783110629767 4435:in ms. Goharshad 953) 4429:and fascimile of the 4109:Kahl, Oliver (2015). 4081:. St. Martin's Press. 3672:Encyclopedia of Islam 3608:. BRILL. p. 41. 3473:Groff, Peter (2007). 3444:Groff, Peter (2007). 3368:Groff, Peter (2007). 3132:World Digital Library 3105:World Digital Library 3080:World Digital Library 2737:. C. Knight. p. 2731:Long, George (1841). 2681:A History of Medicine 2608:World Digital Library 2582:World Digital Library 2555:World Digital Library 2294:Hakeem Abdul Hameed, 2217:Richter-Bernburg 2003 2160:), as for example in 1999: 1951: 1853:Debate with Abu Hatim 1845: 1830: 1142: 1137:Mohammad Zakaria Razi 1015: 982: 883: 674: 664: 597: 564: 482: 312: 256:experimental medicine 236:criticism of religion 218:who lived during the 25:Razi (disambiguation) 10053:Critics of religions 9617:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 9587:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi 9561:Ibn Rushd (Averroes) 9536:Al-Ghazali (Algazel) 9251:Godfrey of Fontaines 9153:Gilbert de la Porrée 9118:Hugh of Saint Victor 9103:Anselm of Canterbury 9073:John Scotus Eriugena 8943:Reza Davari Ardakani 8819:Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji 8753:Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki 8702:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi 8616:Afdal al-Din Kashani 7838:Sultan Ali Khorasani 7539:Serapion the Younger 7181:Jabril ibn Bukhtishu 7064:Al-Harith ibn Kalada 6912:In art/entertainment 6322:(pseudo-)Roger Bacon 6084:Zosimos of Panopolis 6079:Paphnutia the Virgin 5488:Von Lippmann, E. O. 5274:10.1484/J.arch.3.159 5096:Mieli, Aldo (1938). 4825:Secondary literature 3953:Arberry, Arthur John 3881:on 14 September 2019 1910:Fakhr al-din al-Razi 1888:Fī al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī 1875:Ḥamīd al-dīn Karmānī 1822:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi 1633:): including brine, 1369:The use of a liquid 1182:improve this section 1055:improve this article 893:Book for al-Mansur ( 558:Smallpox vs. measles 515:improve this article 361:The Spiritual Physic 21:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi 9693:Ancient anaesthesia 9526:Ibn Sina (Avicenna) 9445:Al-Kindi (Alkindus) 9371:Solomon ibn Gabirol 9292:Marsilius of Inghen 9143:Bernard of Chartres 8903:Seyyed Hossein Nasr 8824:Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani 8814:Mohsen Fayz Kashani 8773:Sayyid Haydar Amuli 8283:Medieval psychology 8255:Natural philosophy 8107:Medical Renaissance 7965:The Book of Healing 7869:Qurayshi al-Shirazi 7660:Zakariya al-Qazwini 7549:Zayn al-Din Gorgani 7191:Salmawaih ibn Bunan 6932:Philosophers' stone 6927:Pill of Immortality 6823:Fasciculus chemicus 6770:Turba philosophorum 6688:Physika kai mystika 6418:Michael Sendivogius 6297:pseudo-Michael Scot 6133:pseudo-Olympiodorus 6074:Ostanes (legendary) 5965:Turba Philosophorum 5814:Philosopher's stone 5696:al-Muʿizz ibn Bādīs 5431:Stapleton, Henry E. 5298:1928AngCh..41.1321R 5131:Multhauf, Robert P. 4971:Philosophical Forum 4886:Badawi, Abdurrahman 4810:Shadharat al-Dhahab 4646:Stapleton, Henry E. 4615:Stapleton, Henry E. 4075:Hitti, Philip Khuri 3807:Islam & Science 3696:on 10 February 2009 3153:Emilie Savage-Smith 2473:on 20 February 2020 1991:mathematize physics 1930:Makharīq al-Anbiyāʾ 1309:Knowledge of seven 1280:Secretum Secretorum 1114:Lapis Philosophorum 906:Abū Ṣāliḥ al-Manṣūr 293:, and a pioneer of 9327:Lambertus de Monte 9307:Francesc Eiximenis 9176:Robert Grosseteste 9138:Alexander of Hales 9068:Isidore of Seville 9048:Augustine of Hippo 8913:Abdolkarim Soroush 8758:Aziz Mahmud Hudayi 8672:Hajji Bektash Wali 8208:medieval astronomy 8154:Islamic philosophy 8045:Al-'Adudi Hospital 7953:Tacuinum Sanitatis 7879:Maqsud-Ali Tabrizi 7398:Badi' al-Asturlabi 7297:Ibn Abi al-Ashʿath 7272:Abu ul-Ala Shirazi 7252:Abu Zayd al-Balkhi 7201:Yahya ibn Sarafyun 7094:Rufaida Al-Aslamia 7089:Nafi ibn al-Harith 6830:Musaeum Hermeticum 6756:Summa perfectionis 6735:(pseudo-Aristotle) 6725:Secret of Creation 6674:Ordinal of Alchemy 6317:pseudo-Ramon Llull 6221:Maslama al-Qurṭubī 5957:Secret of Creation 5939:(pseudo-Aristotle) 5883:Five Hundred Books 5660:Maslama al-Qurṭubī 5523:"Abu Bakr al-Razi" 5420:Abdurrahman Badawi 4930:, RAAD, DIB, 62/4. 4774:Ibn Abi Usaibi'ah, 4453:(fascimile of the 4351:Primary literature 4077:(1 January 1969). 3937:"Abu Bakr al-Razi" 3272:"Abu Bakr al-Razi" 3107:(in Arabic). 1674 3036:on 4 December 2017 2793:Kamiar, Mohammad. 2188:one may also find 2180:Dānish-pazhūh 1964 2162:Dānish-pazhūh 1964 2104:Medical literature 1965: 1940:(lit. "heretic"). 1884:Spiritual Medicine 1844: 1748:Doubts About Galen 1029: 939:Doubts about Galen 925:Doubts about Galen 889: 811:(oily extract) of 794:من لا يحضره الطبيب 681: 675:Doctor performing 637:Ethics of medicine 489: 469:Peterborough Abbey 318: 220:Islamic Golden Age 98:Islamic Golden Age 81:313 or 323 AH 57:864 or 865 CE 48:Portrait of Rhazes 10063:Iranian ethicists 10033:Iranian inventors 9965: 9964: 9765:(devil's trumpet) 9716:Atropa belladonna 9659: 9658: 9645: 9644: 9414: 9413: 9340: 9339: 9271:William of Ockham 8984: 8983: 8980: 8979: 8976: 8975: 8829:Rajab Ali Tabrizi 8768:Mahmud Shabistari 8748:Jalaladdin Davani 8697:Nasir al-Din Tusi 8519:Abu Hatim al-Razi 8460: 8459: 8120: 8119: 8112:Medieval medicine 7903: 7902: 7762:Abu Sa'id al-Afif 7595:Da'ud Abu al-Fadl 7484:Ahmad ibn Farrokh 7099:Zaynab al-Awadiya 7002: 7001: 6860: 6859: 6837:Theatrum chemicum 6653:Mirror of Alchimy 6605:Tabula Smaragdina 6582:Clavis sapientiae 6521:Aurora consurgens 6492: 6491: 6428:Pierre-Jean Fabre 6378:Heinrich Khunrath 6292:Magister Salernus 6267:Guido di Montanor 6054:pseudo-Democritus 6016:Alchemy (general) 5982: 5981: 5901:Clavis sapientiae 5797: 5796: 5424:al-Insan al-Kamil 5292:(50): 1321–1324. 5151:Partington, J. R. 4919:978-90-04-32316-2 4802:, pp. 249–50 4726:Sa'id al-Andalusi 4634:Kitāb al-Shawāhid 4392:Brockelmann, Carl 4268:(February 1997). 4257:978-90-04-11374-9 4213:978-0-933273-74-0 4120:978-90-04-29024-2 4101:978-1-4020-4559-2 4049:978-0-521-20093-6 4027:978-1-4875-0917-0 3975:Browne, Edward G. 3793:978-965-223-626-5 3762:978-965-223-626-5 3688:(14 April 2004). 3432:Goodman 1960–2007 2869:978-0-521-49781-7 2836:978-0-521-05799-8 2704:978-0-8247-4360-4 2446:978-1-108-01588-2 2213:Goodman 1960–2007 2069:Abu Rayhan Biruni 1969:Abu Rayhan Biruni 1859:Abu Hatim al-Razi 1754:Views on religion 1399:of other metals ( 1266:Secret of Secrets 1259:natural scientist 1251:'Book of Secrets' 1218: 1217: 1210: 1087: 1086: 1079: 914:Gerard of Cremona 850:Cuscuta epithymum 702:The Virtuous Life 547: 546: 539: 377:Abbasid Caliphate 315:Gerard of Cremona 190:, often known as 166: 165: 156:organic chemistry 10080: 9770:Hyoscyamus niger 9700:Plants / animals 9686: 9679: 9672: 9663: 9662: 9425: 9424: 9381:Abraham ibn Daud 9351: 9350: 9312:Nicholas of Cusa 9302:Albert of Saxony 9231:Boetius of Dacia 9226:Siger of Brabant 9031: 9030: 9011: 9004: 8997: 8988: 8987: 8958:Hasanzadeh Amoli 8953:Mostafa Malekian 8923:Taha Abdurrahman 8898:Ismail al-Faruqi 8856: 8778:Dawūd al-Qayṣarī 8509:Abu Bakr al-Razi 8484: 8483: 8466: 8465: 8291: 8278:Medieval science 8273: 8258: 8240: 8230: 8193: 8182: 8162: 8161: 8147: 8140: 8133: 8124: 8123: 8102:Learned medicine 8097:Ibn Sina Academy 7797:Şerafeddin Kadir 7772:Husayni Isfahani 7706:Mansur ibn Ilyas 7650:Rashidun al-Suri 7529:Moshe ben Maimon 7312:Ibrahim ibn Baks 7242:Abu Bakr al-Razi 7176:Jabir ibn Hayyan 7171:Ishaq ibn Hunayn 7166:Hunayn ibn Ishaq 7049: 7048: 7036:Islamic medicine 7029: 7022: 7015: 7006: 7005: 6992: 6991: 6706:Step of the Sage 6646:Mappae clavicula 6613:Leyden papyrus X 6514:Atalanta fugiens 6503: 6502: 6484:Mary Anne Atwood 6469:Eugène Canseliet 6348:Andreas Libavius 6327:Taddeo Alderotti 6102:Fang (alchemist) 6049:pseudo-Cleopatra 6029: 6028: 6009: 6002: 5995: 5986: 5985: 5897:Mifthāḥ al-ḥikma 5598: 5597: 5578: 5571: 5564: 5555: 5554: 5536: 5527:Zalta, Edward N. 5485: 5459: 5453: 5413:Jabir ibn Hayyan 5410: 5373: 5341: 5309: 5277: 5235: 5212: 5202: 5170: 5146: 5125: 5098:La science arabe 5076: 5052: 5031: 5006: 4995:Goodman, Lenn E. 4990: 4983:Goodman, Lenn E. 4978: 4967:Goodman, Lenn E. 4962: 4935:Goodman, Lenn E. 4923: 4882: 4852: 4840: 4817:Masalik al-Absar 4793:Wafayat al-A'yan 4769:Tarikh al-Hukama 4755:Zakariya ar-Razi 4720: 4680: 4674: 4668: 4636: 4630: 4607: 4587: 4581: 4565:, superseded by 4564: 4558: 4543:Mohaghegh, Mehdi 4537: 4516: 4510: 4473: 4458: 4452: 4434: 4428: 4423:(edition of the 4422: 4388: 4382: 4378: 4376: 4368: 4340: 4314: 4283: 4270:Islamic Medicine 4266:Ullmann, Manfred 4261: 4239: 4217: 4200:Yarshater, Ehsan 4190: 4168: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4134:Oxford Reference 4124: 4105: 4082: 4070: 4053: 4036:Frye, Richard N. 4031: 4009: 3992: 3970: 3948: 3941:Zalta, Edward N. 3919: 3918:(1927–48), 1.609 3912: 3906: 3905: 3897: 3891: 3890: 3888: 3886: 3877:. 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E. Goodman) 749:Faraj ben Salim 721:Continens Liber 686: 639: 623: 607: 571:Al-Razi's book 562:Al-Razi wrote: 560: 552: 543: 532: 526: 523: 512: 500: 477: 334:Great Silk Road 307: 187: 142:, a pioneer in 131: 117: 85: 82: 80: 78: 69: 63: 58: 49: 37: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10086: 10076: 10075: 10070: 10065: 10060: 10055: 10050: 10045: 10040: 10035: 10030: 10025: 10020: 10015: 10010: 10005: 10000: 9995: 9990: 9985: 9980: 9963: 9962: 9960: 9959: 9954: 9949: 9944: 9939: 9934: 9929: 9924: 9919: 9914: 9909: 9904: 9898: 9896: 9892: 9891: 9889: 9888: 9883: 9878: 9873: 9868: 9863: 9858: 9853: 9848: 9843: 9832: 9830: 9826: 9825: 9815: 9813: 9809: 9808: 9806: 9805: 9800: 9792: 9787: 9779: 9774: 9766: 9758: 9754:Datura innoxia 9750: 9742: 9737: 9732: 9731: 9730: 9720: 9712: 9703: 9701: 9697: 9696: 9689: 9688: 9681: 9674: 9666: 9657: 9656: 9650: 9647: 9646: 9643: 9642: 9640: 9639: 9634: 9629: 9624: 9619: 9614: 9609: 9604: 9599: 9594: 9589: 9584: 9579: 9573: 9571: 9567: 9566: 9564: 9563: 9558: 9553: 9548: 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8940: 8935: 8930: 8925: 8920: 8915: 8910: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8875: 8870: 8868:Muhammad Iqbal 8865: 8859: 8857: 8850: 8849: 8847: 8846: 8844:Hādī Sabzavārī 8841: 8836: 8831: 8826: 8821: 8816: 8811: 8806: 8804:Mir Fendereski 8801: 8795: 8793: 8789: 8788: 8786: 8785: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8755: 8750: 8745: 8740: 8735: 8729: 8727: 8723: 8722: 8720: 8719: 8714: 8709: 8704: 8699: 8694: 8689: 8684: 8679: 8674: 8668: 8666: 8662: 8661: 8659: 8658: 8653: 8648: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8628: 8623: 8618: 8613: 8607: 8605: 8601: 8600: 8598: 8597: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8567: 8562: 8556: 8554: 8550: 8549: 8547: 8546: 8541: 8536: 8531: 8529:Ikhwan al-Safa 8526: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8490: 8488: 8480: 8479: 8462: 8461: 8458: 8457: 8455: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8439: 8434: 8429: 8424: 8419: 8414: 8409: 8404: 8399: 8394: 8389: 8384: 8378: 8376: 8372: 8371: 8369: 8368: 8363: 8361:Traditionalist 8358: 8353: 8352: 8351: 8346: 8341: 8331: 8326: 8321: 8316: 8311: 8305: 8303: 8297: 8296: 8294: 8293: 8285: 8280: 8275: 8265: 8260: 8252: 8247: 8242: 8232: 8222: 8217: 8212: 8211: 8210: 8205: 8195: 8184: 8174: 8168: 8166: 8158: 8157: 8150: 8149: 8142: 8135: 8127: 8118: 8117: 8115: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8093: 8091: 8087: 8086: 8084: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8067: 8065: 8061: 8060: 8058: 8057: 8052: 8047: 8041: 8039: 8035: 8034: 8032: 8031: 8024: 8017: 8010: 8003: 7996: 7989: 7982: 7975: 7968: 7961: 7956: 7949: 7942: 7934: 7932: 7926: 7925: 7923: 7922: 7917: 7911: 7909: 7905: 7904: 7901: 7900: 7898: 7897: 7891: 7889: 7885: 7884: 7882: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7855: 7853: 7849: 7848: 7846: 7845: 7840: 7835: 7833:Hakim-e-Gilani 7830: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7813:Rostam Gorgani 7809: 7807: 7803: 7802: 7800: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7764: 7758: 7756: 7752: 7751: 7749: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7672: 7670: 7666: 7665: 7663: 7662: 7657: 7655:Sa'ad al-Dawla 7652: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7561: 7559: 7555: 7554: 7552: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7524:Ibn al-Tilmīdh 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7460: 7458: 7454: 7453: 7451: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7433:Ibn al-Kattani 7430: 7428:Ibn al-Haytham 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7408:Ibn Al-Thahabi 7405: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7378:Ali ibn Ridwan 7375: 7370: 7365: 7360: 7355: 7349: 7347: 7343: 7342: 7340: 7339: 7337:Qusta ibn Luqa 7334: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7223: 7221: 7217: 7216: 7214: 7213: 7211:Yusuf al-Khuri 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7132: 7130: 7126: 7125: 7123: 7122: 7120:Ja'ar al-Sadiq 7117: 7111: 7109: 7105: 7104: 7102: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7055: 7053: 7046: 7040: 7039: 7032: 7031: 7024: 7017: 7009: 7000: 6999: 6997: 6996: 6985: 6982: 6981: 6979: 6978: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6907:Iatrochemistry 6904: 6899: 6897:Elixir of life 6894: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6868: 6866: 6862: 6861: 6858: 6857: 6855: 6854: 6847: 6840: 6833: 6826: 6819: 6812: 6805: 6798: 6790: 6788: 6784: 6783: 6781: 6780: 6773: 6766: 6759: 6752: 6749:Splendor solis 6745: 6737: 6729: 6717: 6710: 6698: 6691: 6684: 6677: 6670: 6663: 6656: 6649: 6642: 6635: 6628: 6616: 6609: 6601:Emerald Tablet 6597: 6590: 6578: 6571: 6564: 6557: 6550: 6543: 6536: 6524: 6517: 6509: 6507: 6500: 6494: 6493: 6490: 6489: 6487: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6460: 6458: 6454: 6453: 6451: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6435: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6344: 6342: 6338: 6337: 6335: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6243: 6241: 6237: 6236: 6234: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6186:Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6157: 6155: 6153:Arabic-Islamic 6149: 6148: 6146: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6129: 6127: 6123: 6122: 6120: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6098: 6096: 6090: 6089: 6087: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6035: 6033: 6032:Greco-Egyptian 6026: 6020: 6019: 6012: 6011: 6004: 5997: 5989: 5980: 5979: 5977: 5976: 5968: 5961: 5949: 5941: 5933: 5926: 5919: 5912: 5905: 5893: 5886: 5879: 5876:Emerald Tablet 5872: 5865: 5858: 5851: 5843: 5841: 5835: 5834: 5832: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5805: 5803: 5799: 5798: 5795: 5794: 5792: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5775: 5773: 5769: 5768: 5766: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5744: 5742: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5734: 5729: 5727:Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs 5724: 5718: 5716: 5712: 5711: 5709: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5682: 5680: 5676: 5675: 5673: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5641: 5639: 5635: 5634: 5632: 5631: 5625: 5623: 5619: 5618: 5616: 5615: 5610: 5604: 5602: 5595: 5589: 5588: 5581: 5580: 5573: 5566: 5558: 5552: 5551: 5543: 5537: 5518: 5509: 5508:External links 5506: 5504: 5503: 5496:Wüstenfeld, F. 5493: 5486: 5461: 5457:Kitāb al-asrār 5444:(6): 317–418. 5427: 5416: 5379: 5376:pseudepigraphs 5362:10.1086/368502 5342: 5324:(4): 281–319. 5310: 5278: 5254: 5243: 5236: 5224:Rashed, Marwan 5220: 5213: 5193:(2): 279–299. 5178: 5171: 5161:(3): 192–196. 5147: 5127: 5101: 5094: 5087: 5077: 5069:Chemické listy 5060: 5059:, p. 101. 5053: 5043:(3): 184–191. 5032: 5022:(3): 401–425. 5007: 4991: 4979: 4963: 4931: 4928:Kimiya al-Razi 4924: 4918: 4898:Adamson, Peter 4893: 4883: 4877: 4857:Adamson, Peter 4853: 4845:Adamson, Peter 4841: 4833:Adamson, Peter 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4820: 4813: 4803: 4800:Nakt al-Himyan 4796: 4786: 4779: 4772: 4765: 4758: 4747: 4740: 4733: 4723: 4722: 4721: 4698:Translated in 4691:Ibn Al-Nadim, 4687: 4684: 4683: 4682: 4672:Kitāb al-asrār 4659:(6): 317–418. 4642: 4611: 4610: 4609: 4602: 4585:Kitāb al-asrār 4570: 4567:Koetschet 2019 4539: 4518: 4497: 4476: 4475: 4474: 4436: 4426:Kitāb al-asrār 4412: 4399: 4389: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4341: 4336:978-0521520690 4335: 4323:Adamson, Peter 4315: 4309: 4284: 4278: 4262: 4256: 4240: 4235:978-0443092060 4234: 4222:Sarton, George 4218: 4212: 4191: 4186:978-0674362758 4185: 4169: 4145: 4125: 4119: 4106: 4100: 4088:Selin, Helaine 4083: 4071: 4054: 4048: 4032: 4026: 4010: 3993: 3971: 3965: 3949: 3933:Adamson, Peter 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3920: 3907: 3892: 3866: 3851: 3839: 3829: 3811: 3798: 3792: 3767: 3761: 3736: 3707: 3677: 3662: 3650: 3643: 3621: 3614: 3596: 3576: 3560: 3558:, p. 123. 3548: 3528: 3526:, p. 122. 3516: 3494: 3483: 3465: 3454: 3436: 3421: 3410: 3389: 3378: 3360: 3350: 3332: 3325: 3292: 3262: 3245: 3221: 3217:Mohaghegh 1993 3213:Koetschet 2019 3204: 3179: 3167: 3145: 3118: 3092: 3066: 3047: 3021: 3006: 2986: 2968: 2961: 2938: 2928: 2902: 2875: 2868: 2842: 2835: 2815: 2799: 2786: 2773: 2747: 2723: 2710: 2703: 2685: 2672: 2621: 2595: 2568: 2541: 2502: 2487: 2455: 2445: 2424: 2402: 2390: 2371:(3): 155–166. 2351: 2338: 2329: 2306: 2287: 2276: 2263: 2242: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2233: 2200: 2198:, p. 18). 2196:Mohaghegh 1993 2166:Mohaghegh 1993 2148:) rather than 2120: 2119: 2117: 2114: 2112: 2109: 2107: 2106: 2101: 2094: 2088: 2086: 2083: 2051:In June 2009, 2034:Razi Institute 2029: 2026: 2018:Nasr-i-Khosraw 2003:in metaphysics 1995:to mathematics 1945: 1942: 1879:al-Shahrastani 1854: 1851: 1833:Veloso Salgado 1810:Sarah Stroumsa 1776:Fī al-Nubuwwāt 1755: 1752: 1742:, he rejected 1707: 1704: 1698: 1695: 1694: 1693: 1678: 1663: 1662: 1627:Eleven salts ( 1625: 1614: 1569:), and white ( 1542: 1473: 1441: 1414:Four spirits ( 1377: 1376: 1375: 1374: 1367: 1346: 1335: 1334: 1307: 1300: 1275: 1263: 1247:Kitāb al-Asrār 1235: 1223: 1216: 1215: 1166: 1164: 1157: 1151: 1148: 1097: 1094: 1085: 1084: 1067:September 2021 1043: 1041: 1034: 1009: 1006: 998: 997: 970:inflammability 943:Greek language 935: 934: 902: 901: 867:yellow arsenic 843:or its juice ( 798: 797: 713: 712: 695: 694: 685: 682: 660:medical ethics 638: 635: 622: 619: 606: 603: 559: 556: 551: 548: 545: 544: 503: 501: 494: 485:Hossein Behzad 476: 473: 381:evidence-based 306: 303: 164: 163: 160: 159: 132: 129: 126: 125: 118: 116:Main interests 115: 112: 111: 105: 101: 100: 95: 91: 90: 87: 86: 83: 75: 71: 70: 64: 55: 51: 50: 47: 39: 38: 35: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10085: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10059: 10056: 10054: 10051: 10049: 10046: 10044: 10041: 10039: 10036: 10034: 10031: 10029: 10026: 10024: 10021: 10019: 10016: 10014: 10011: 10009: 10006: 10004: 10001: 9999: 9996: 9994: 9991: 9989: 9986: 9984: 9981: 9979: 9976: 9975: 9973: 9958: 9955: 9953: 9950: 9948: 9945: 9943: 9940: 9938: 9935: 9933: 9930: 9928: 9925: 9923: 9920: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9899: 9897: 9893: 9887: 9884: 9882: 9879: 9877: 9874: 9872: 9869: 9867: 9864: 9862: 9859: 9857: 9854: 9852: 9849: 9847: 9844: 9841: 9837: 9834: 9833: 9831: 9827: 9822: 9818: 9814: 9810: 9804: 9801: 9798: 9797: 9793: 9791: 9788: 9785: 9784: 9780: 9778: 9775: 9772: 9771: 9767: 9764: 9763: 9759: 9757:(thorn-apple) 9756: 9755: 9751: 9748: 9747: 9743: 9741: 9738: 9736: 9733: 9729: 9726: 9725: 9724: 9721: 9718: 9717: 9713: 9710: 9709: 9705: 9704: 9702: 9698: 9694: 9687: 9682: 9680: 9675: 9673: 9668: 9667: 9664: 9654: 9648: 9638: 9635: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9618: 9615: 9613: 9610: 9608: 9605: 9603: 9600: 9598: 9595: 9593: 9592:Rashid al-Din 9590: 9588: 9585: 9583: 9580: 9578: 9575: 9574: 9572: 9568: 9562: 9559: 9557: 9554: 9552: 9549: 9547: 9544: 9542: 9539: 9537: 9534: 9532: 9529: 9527: 9524: 9523: 9521: 9517: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9481: 9480:Abd al-Jabbar 9478: 9476: 9473: 9471: 9468: 9466: 9463: 9461: 9458: 9456: 9453: 9451: 9448: 9446: 9443: 9441: 9438: 9436: 9433: 9432: 9430: 9426: 9423: 9421: 9417: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9382: 9379: 9377: 9374: 9372: 9369: 9367: 9364: 9362: 9359: 9358: 9356: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9343: 9333: 9330: 9328: 9325: 9323: 9320: 9318: 9315: 9313: 9310: 9308: 9305: 9303: 9300: 9298: 9297:Nicole Oresme 9295: 9293: 9290: 9288: 9285: 9284: 9282: 9278: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9264: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9246:Giles of Rome 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9212: 9209: 9207: 9204: 9202: 9199: 9197: 9194: 9192: 9189: 9187: 9184: 9182: 9179: 9177: 9174: 9173: 9171: 9165: 9159: 9156: 9154: 9151: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9141: 9139: 9136: 9134: 9133:Peter Lombard 9131: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9108:Peter Abelard 9106: 9104: 9101: 9098: 9097:Scholasticism 9094: 9093: 9091: 9085: 9079: 9076: 9074: 9071: 9069: 9066: 9064: 9061: 9059: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9046: 9043: 9039: 9038: 9036: 9032: 9029: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9012: 9007: 9005: 9000: 8998: 8993: 8992: 8989: 8969: 8966: 8964: 8961: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8949: 8946: 8944: 8941: 8939: 8936: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8926: 8924: 8921: 8919: 8916: 8914: 8911: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8860: 8858: 8851: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8830: 8827: 8825: 8822: 8820: 8817: 8815: 8812: 8810: 8807: 8805: 8802: 8800: 8797: 8796: 8794: 8790: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8731: 8730: 8728: 8724: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8708: 8705: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8693: 8690: 8688: 8685: 8683: 8680: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8670: 8669: 8667: 8663: 8657: 8656:Shams Tabrizi 8654: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8608: 8606: 8602: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8590:Nasir Khusraw 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8565:Ibn Miskawayh 8563: 8561: 8558: 8557: 8555: 8551: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8491: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8476: 8472: 8467: 8463: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8443: 8440: 8438: 8435: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8379: 8377: 8373: 8367: 8364: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8354: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8336: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8306: 8304: 8302: 8298: 8292: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8264: 8261: 8259: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8237: 8233: 8231: 8227: 8223: 8221: 8218: 8216: 8213: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8200: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8190: 8185: 8183: 8179: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8169: 8167: 8163: 8159: 8155: 8148: 8143: 8141: 8136: 8134: 8129: 8128: 8125: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8094: 8092: 8088: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8069: 8068: 8066: 8062: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8042: 8040: 8036: 8030: 8029: 8025: 8023: 8022: 8018: 8016: 8015: 8011: 8009: 8008: 8004: 8002: 8001: 8000:Adab al-Tabib 7997: 7995: 7994: 7990: 7988: 7987: 7983: 7981: 7980: 7976: 7974: 7973: 7969: 7967: 7966: 7962: 7960: 7957: 7955: 7954: 7950: 7948: 7947: 7943: 7941: 7940: 7936: 7935: 7933: 7931: 7927: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7915:Ophthalmology 7913: 7912: 7910: 7906: 7896: 7893: 7892: 7890: 7886: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7856: 7854: 7850: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7834: 7831: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7818:ʽImad Shirazi 7816: 7814: 7811: 7810: 7808: 7804: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7759: 7757: 7753: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7696:Ibn al-Khatib 7694: 7692: 7691:Ibn al-Akfani 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7673: 7671: 7667: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7630:Ibn al‐Raqqam 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7615:Ibn al-Baitar 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7603: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7580:Al-Shahrazuri 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7562: 7560: 7556: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7461: 7459: 7455: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7403:Ibn Abi Sadiq 7401: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7350: 7348: 7344: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7307:Ibn al-Jazzar 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7224: 7222: 7218: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7133: 7131: 7127: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7112: 7110: 7106: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7056: 7054: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7030: 7025: 7023: 7018: 7016: 7011: 7010: 7007: 6995: 6987: 6986: 6983: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6937:Prima materia 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6869: 6867: 6863: 6853: 6852: 6851:Tripus aureus 6848: 6846: 6845: 6841: 6839: 6838: 6834: 6832: 6831: 6827: 6825: 6824: 6820: 6818: 6817: 6813: 6811: 6810: 6806: 6804: 6803: 6799: 6797: 6796: 6795:Aureum vellus 6792: 6791: 6789: 6785: 6779: 6778: 6774: 6772: 6771: 6767: 6765: 6764: 6760: 6758: 6757: 6753: 6751: 6750: 6746: 6744: 6742: 6741:Sirr al-asrār 6738: 6736: 6734: 6733:Sirr al-asrār 6730: 6728: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6716: 6715: 6714:Seventy Books 6711: 6709: 6707: 6703: 6699: 6697: 6696: 6692: 6690: 6689: 6685: 6683: 6682: 6678: 6676: 6675: 6671: 6669: 6668: 6664: 6662: 6661: 6657: 6655: 6654: 6650: 6648: 6647: 6643: 6641: 6640: 6636: 6634: 6633: 6629: 6627: 6625: 6624:Liber dabessi 6621: 6617: 6615: 6614: 6610: 6608: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6596: 6595: 6591: 6589: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6577: 6576: 6572: 6570: 6569: 6565: 6563: 6562: 6558: 6556: 6555: 6551: 6549: 6548: 6547:Book of Mercy 6544: 6542: 6541: 6537: 6535: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6523: 6522: 6518: 6516: 6515: 6511: 6510: 6508: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6495: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6461: 6459: 6455: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6438:Samuel Norton 6436: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6413:Michael Maier 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6345: 6343: 6339: 6333: 6332:Thomas Norton 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6277:Johann of Laz 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6262:George Ripley 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6244: 6242: 6240:Late medieval 6238: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6196:Ibn Waḥshiyya 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6158: 6156: 6154: 6150: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6130: 6128: 6124: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6095: 6091: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6036: 6034: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6010: 6005: 6003: 5998: 5996: 5991: 5990: 5987: 5975: 5974:(al-Nabarawi) 5973: 5969: 5967: 5966: 5962: 5960: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5948: 5946: 5945:Sirr al-asrār 5942: 5940: 5938: 5937:Sirr al-asrār 5934: 5932: 5931: 5930:Seventy Books 5927: 5925: 5924: 5920: 5918: 5917: 5913: 5911: 5910: 5906: 5904: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5892: 5891: 5887: 5885: 5884: 5880: 5878: 5877: 5873: 5871: 5870: 5866: 5864: 5863: 5859: 5857: 5856: 5852: 5850: 5849: 5848:Book of Mercy 5845: 5844: 5842: 5840: 5836: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5806: 5804: 5800: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5784:Ibn al-Rassām 5782: 5780: 5777: 5776: 5774: 5770: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5745: 5743: 5739: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5719: 5717: 5713: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5677: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5655:Ibn Waḥshiyya 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5642: 5640: 5636: 5630: 5627: 5626: 5624: 5620: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5605: 5603: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5579: 5574: 5572: 5567: 5565: 5560: 5559: 5556: 5549: 5548: 5544: 5541: 5538: 5534: 5533: 5528: 5524: 5519: 5516: 5512: 5511: 5501: 5497: 5494: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5462: 5458: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5414: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5383:Ruska, Julius 5380: 5377: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5346:Ruska, Julius 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5314:Ruska, Julius 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5282:Ruska, Julius 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5258:Ruska, Julius 5255: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5179: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5123: 5122:2078.1/211340 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5102: 5099: 5095: 5092: 5089:Meyerhof, M. 5088: 5085: 5081: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5061: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4894: 4891: 4887: 4884: 4880: 4878:9780197555033 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4829: 4818: 4814: 4811: 4807: 4804: 4801: 4797: 4794: 4790: 4789:Ibn Khallikan 4787: 4784: 4780: 4777: 4773: 4770: 4766: 4763: 4759: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4745: 4741: 4738: 4734: 4731: 4727: 4724: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4690: 4689: 4679: 4673: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4640: 4635: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4605: 4603:9781507778791 4599: 4595: 4590: 4589: 4586: 4579: 4575: 4574:Ruska, Julius 4571: 4568: 4563: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4498:9783110629767 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4477: 4472:(3): 146–149. 4471: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4457: 4456:Sirr al-asrār 4450: 4446: 4442: 4437: 4433: 4432:Sirr al-asrār 4427: 4420: 4419: 4413: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4400: 4397: 4393: 4390: 4386: 4374: 4366: 4361: 4360: 4338: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4319:Ziai, Hossein 4316: 4312: 4310:9780415250696 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4289:Craig, Edward 4285: 4281: 4279:9780748609079 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4192: 4188: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4153:Pines, Shlomo 4150: 4146: 4135: 4131: 4126: 4122: 4116: 4112: 4107: 4103: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4055: 4051: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3981: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3966:9780415438872 3962: 3959:. Routledge. 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3929: 3917: 3911: 3903: 3896: 3880: 3876: 3870: 3862: 3855: 3848: 3843: 3836: 3832: 3830:9781556432699 3826: 3822: 3815: 3808: 3802: 3795: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3771: 3764: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3740: 3733: 3732:0-7914-1516-3 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3711: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3681: 3673: 3666: 3659: 3658:Stroumsa 1999 3654: 3646: 3644:9780932885074 3640: 3636: 3632: 3625: 3617: 3615:9789004255371 3611: 3607: 3600: 3592: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3573: 3567: 3565: 3557: 3556:Adamson 2021b 3552: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3536:Adamson 2021a 3532: 3525: 3524:Adamson 2021b 3520: 3512: 3508: 3501: 3499: 3491: 3486: 3484:9780748620890 3480: 3476: 3469: 3462: 3457: 3455:9780748620890 3451: 3447: 3440: 3433: 3428: 3426: 3418: 3413: 3411:0-415-22364-4 3407: 3403: 3396: 3394: 3386: 3381: 3379:9780748620890 3375: 3371: 3364: 3357: 3353: 3351:0-521-40224-7 3347: 3343: 3336: 3328: 3326:9780195379488 3322: 3318: 3311: 3309: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3289: 3277: 3273: 3266: 3259: 3255: 3249: 3243: 3239: 3238:9781118002261 3235: 3231: 3225: 3218: 3214: 3208: 3193: 3189: 3183: 3177:, p. 17. 3176: 3175:Adamson 2021b 3171: 3164: 3160: 3159: 3154: 3149: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3106: 3102: 3096: 3081: 3077: 3070: 3063: 3059: 3056: 3051: 3035: 3031: 3025: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3007:9781905177486 3003: 2999: 2998: 2990: 2982: 2978: 2972: 2964: 2962:9783319216805 2958: 2954: 2953: 2945: 2943: 2932: 2916: 2912: 2906: 2890: 2886: 2879: 2871: 2865: 2861: 2856: 2855: 2846: 2838: 2832: 2828: 2827: 2819: 2812: 2806: 2804: 2796: 2790: 2783: 2780:Porter, Roy. 2777: 2761: 2757: 2751: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2735: 2727: 2720: 2714: 2706: 2700: 2696: 2689: 2682: 2676: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2625: 2609: 2605: 2599: 2583: 2579: 2572: 2556: 2552: 2545: 2538: 2534:, p. 188 2533: 2529:, p. 590 2528: 2523: 2517: 2511: 2506: 2499: 2498:Adamson 2021a 2494: 2492: 2484: 2472: 2468: 2465: 2459: 2452: 2448: 2442: 2438: 2431: 2429: 2420: 2416: 2409: 2407: 2400:, p. 44. 2399: 2394: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2355: 2348: 2342: 2333: 2326: 2325:Iskandar 2008 2321: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2304: 2300: 2297: 2291: 2285: 2284:Adamson 2021a 2280: 2273: 2267: 2260: 2259:Adamson 2021a 2256: 2255:Iskandar 2008 2252: 2247: 2243: 2230: 2229:Adamson 2021a 2226: 2222: 2221:Adamson 2021a 2218: 2214: 2210: 2204: 2197: 2181: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2158: 2146: 2135: 2131: 2125: 2121: 2105: 2102: 2100: 2099: 2095: 2093: 2090: 2089: 2082: 2080: 2079:George Sarton 2076: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2049: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2012: 2011:stool testing 2008: 2004: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1955: 1950: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1922: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1894:'s prophecy, 1893: 1889: 1885: 1880: 1876: 1871: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1849: 1834: 1829: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1818:Marwan Rashed 1815: 1814:Peter Adamson 1811: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1780:On Prophecies 1777: 1773: 1769: 1764: 1762: 1751: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1703: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1667: 1666: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1631: 1626: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1606: 1595: 1584: 1573: 1562: 1557: 1552: 1547: 1543: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1483: 1478: 1474: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1450: 1445: 1442: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1412: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1358: 1352: 1347: 1344: 1343: 1341: 1340:transmutation 1337: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1305: 1301: 1298: 1297: 1296: 1293: 1288: 1281: 1272: 1271:Sirr al-Asrar 1267: 1262: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1239:'The Secrets' 1232: 1227: 1222: 1212: 1209: 1201: 1198:November 2021 1191: 1187: 1183: 1177: 1176: 1172: 1167:This section 1165: 1161: 1156: 1155: 1146: 1141: 1138: 1133: 1131: 1130:Sirr al-Asrar 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1102:transmutation 1092: 1081: 1078: 1070: 1060: 1056: 1050: 1049: 1044:This section 1042: 1038: 1033: 1032: 1019: 1014: 1005: 1003: 996: 993: 992: 990: 987: 981: 977: 975: 971: 967: 966:four elements 962: 960: 956: 951: 948: 944: 940: 931: 926: 923: 922: 921: 919: 915: 911: 907: 900: 897: 891: 890: 887: 882: 878: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 851: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 805: 803: 795: 791: 787: 784: 783: 782: 780: 776: 772: 769: 765: 761: 756: 754: 750: 745: 740: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 710: 707: 703: 700: 699: 698: 693: 692: 688: 687: 678: 673: 668: 663: 661: 656: 653: 648: 644: 634: 632: 628: 618: 616: 615:blood-letting 613:treated with 612: 601: 596: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 568: 563: 555: 541: 538: 530: 520: 516: 510: 509: 504:This section 502: 498: 493: 492: 486: 481: 472: 470: 465: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 427: 422: 421: 416: 411: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 384: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 345: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 316: 311: 302: 300: 299:ophthalmology 296: 292: 288: 284: 279: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 247: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 181: 170: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 144:ophthalmology 141: 137: 133: 130:Notable ideas 127: 123: 119: 113: 109: 106: 102: 99: 96: 92: 88: 76: 72: 67: 62: 56: 52: 45: 40: 33: 30: 26: 22: 9952:Theophrastus 9936: 9812:Preparations 9794: 9781: 9768: 9762:Datura metel 9760: 9752: 9744: 9719:(belladonna) 9714: 9706: 9632:Ibn Taymiyya 9622:Ibn al-Nafis 9449: 9376:Judah Halevi 9287:Jean Buridan 9216:John Peckham 9181:Michael Scot 8968:Partawi Shah 8963:Javadi Amoli 8948:Ahmad Fardid 8893:Martin Lings 8743:Hajji Bayram 8717:Ibn Taymiyya 8646:Omar Khayyám 8631:Ayn-al-Quzat 8626:Ahmad Yasavi 8539:Ibn Masarrah 8508: 8473:by century ( 8471:Philosophers 8366:Contemporary 8268: 8235: 8225: 8188: 8177: 8026: 8019: 8012: 8005: 7998: 7991: 7984: 7977: 7970: 7963: 7951: 7944: 7937: 7888:18th century 7852:17th century 7806:16th century 7755:15th century 7746:Zayn-e-Attar 7669:14th century 7620:Ibn al-Nafis 7558:13th century 7457:12th century 7438:Ibn al-Wafid 7346:11th century 7241: 7220:10th century 7151:Ali al-Ridha 6994:All articles 6849: 6842: 6835: 6828: 6821: 6814: 6807: 6800: 6793: 6787:Compilations 6775: 6768: 6761: 6754: 6747: 6740: 6732: 6724: 6720: 6712: 6705: 6701: 6693: 6686: 6679: 6672: 6665: 6658: 6651: 6644: 6637: 6632:Liber ignium 6630: 6623: 6619: 6611: 6604: 6600: 6592: 6585: 6581: 6573: 6566: 6559: 6552: 6545: 6538: 6531: 6527: 6519: 6512: 6433:Robert Boyle 6388:Isaac Newton 6383:Hennig Brand 6368:Gerhard Dorn 6341:Early modern 6312:Petrus Bonus 6257:pseudo-Geber 6160: 6069:pseudo-Moses 5971: 5963: 5956: 5952: 5944: 5936: 5928: 5921: 5915: 5908: 5900: 5896: 5889: 5881: 5874: 5867: 5861: 5853: 5846: 5772:14th century 5741:13th century 5715:12th century 5679:11th century 5644: 5638:10th century 5546: 5530: 5499: 5489: 5473: 5469: 5441: 5437: 5423: 5390: 5386: 5353: 5349: 5321: 5317: 5289: 5285: 5265: 5261: 5250: 5239: 5231: 5216: 5190: 5186: 5174: 5158: 5154: 5134: 5113: 5109: 5097: 5090: 5083: 5072: 5068: 5056: 5040: 5036: 5019: 5015: 5002: 4998: 4986: 4974: 4970: 4942: 4938: 4927: 4901: 4889: 4860: 4848: 4836: 4816: 4809: 4806:Ibn al-'Imad 4799: 4792: 4782: 4775: 4768: 4761: 4760:Al-Baihaqi, 4754: 4750: 4743: 4736: 4735:Ibn Juljul, 4732:, p. 33 4729: 4708: 4704: 4692: 4656: 4652: 4626: 4622: 4593: 4577: 4559:(edition of 4546: 4525: 4480: 4469: 4465: 4440: 4417: 4409: 4395: 4364: 4326: 4292: 4269: 4247: 4225: 4203: 4176: 4156: 4137:. 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Ruska, 4462:Review in 4356:By al-Razi 3722:, p. 166. 3700:25 January 3417:knowledge. 3258:Kraus 1939 3134:(in Latin) 2921:2 November 2766:15 October 2557:(in Latin) 2532:Hitti 1969 2516:Ruska 1937 2157:Zakariyyāʾ 2134:Kraus 1939 2111:References 2046:Kermanshah 2022:Iranshahri 1987:Hermetical 1921:Paul Kraus 1697:Philosophy 1675:descensory 1492:marqashita 1311:alchemical 1255:al-Bukhari 1089:See also: 1000:Al-Razi's 643:charlatans 611:meningitis 605:Meningitis 439:Tabaristan 392:Ibn Juljul 373:Al-Muktafi 353:bimaristan 295:obstetrics 291:pediatrics 283:Al-Mansuri 244:revelation 194:or by his 148:pediatrics 140:chickenpox 110:(writings) 84:Ray (Iran) 9947:Sushrutha 9902:Abulcasis 9846:Aconitine 9829:Compounds 9796:Saussurea 9773:(henbane) 9749:(hemlock) 9735:Castoreum 9711:(aconite) 9651:See also 9597:Ibn Arabi 9505:al-Biruni 9495:Miskawayh 9440:al-Nazzam 9026:Christian 8799:Mir Damad 8792:17th–19th 8726:14th–16th 8692:al-Abharī 8687:Ibn Arabi 8621:Ahi Evren 8580:Bahmanyār 8339:cosmology 8324:Averroism 8257:(physics) 8203:astrology 8198:Cosmology 7986:Al-Tasrif 7726:Nakhshabi 7504:Ibn Habal 7423:Ibn Jazla 7418:Ibn Hindu 7368:Al-Biruni 7282:Al-Natili 7186:Masawaiyh 7161:Bukhtishu 7141:Al-Ruhawi 7115:Bukhtishu 7079:Ibn Uthal 7069:Bukhtishu 6957:Processes 6922:Ouroboros 6743:(al-Rāzī) 6464:Carl Jung 6302:Ortolanus 6201:al-ʿIrāqī 6176:Artephius 6166:Alphidius 6126:Byzantine 5947:(al-Rāzī) 5748:al-Simāwī 5732:Artephius 5450:706947607 5407:161055255 5387:Der Islam 5370:143373785 5356:: 31–94. 5338:161271862 5318:Der Islam 5143:977570829 4859:(2021b). 4767:Al-Qifti, 4686:By others 4665:706947607 4555:257281952 4534:496583777 4507:189234965 4449:246883935 4383:ignored ( 4373:cite book 4113:. 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