Nuclear reactor - Knowledge

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fuel. In practice it is economics that determines the lifetime of nuclear fuel in a reactor. Long before all possible fission has taken place, the reactor is unable to maintain 100%, full output power, and therefore, income for the utility lowers as plant output power lowers. Most nuclear plants operate at a very low profit margin due to operating overhead, mainly regulatory costs, so operating below 100% power is not economically viable for very long. The fraction of the reactor's fuel core replaced during refueling is typically one-third, but depends on how long the plant operates between refueling. Plants typically operate on 18 month refueling cycles, or 24 month refueling cycles. This means that one refueling, replacing only one-third of the fuel, can keep a nuclear reactor at full power for nearly two years.

755:, which in turn decays (with a half-life of 6.57 hours) to new xenon-135. When the reactor is shut down, iodine-135 continues to decay to xenon-135, making restarting the reactor more difficult for a day or two, as the xenon-135 decays into cesium-135, which is not nearly as poisonous as xenon-135, with a half-life of 9.2 hours. This temporary state is the "iodine pit." If the reactor has sufficient extra reactivity capacity, it can be restarted. As the extra xenon-135 is transmuted to xenon-136, which is much less a neutron poison, within a few hours the reactor experiences a "xenon burnoff (power) transient". Control rods must be further inserted to replace the neutron absorption of the lost xenon-135. Failure to properly follow such a procedure was a key step in the 3222:. The spent fuel pool is a large pool of water that provides cooling and shielding of the spent nuclear fuel as well as limit radiation exposure to on-site personnel. Once the energy has decayed somewhat (approximately five years), the fuel can be transferred from the fuel pool to dry shielded casks, that can be safely stored for thousands of years. After loading into dry shielded casks, the casks are stored on-site in a specially guarded facility in impervious concrete bunkers. On-site fuel storage facilities are designed to withstand the impact of commercial airliners, with little to no damage to the spent fuel. An average on-site fuel storage facility can hold 30 years of spent fuel in a space smaller than a football field. 1638: 1272: 3149:

opportunity to fission U-235 when it is moving at this same vibrational speed. On the other hand, U-238 is more likely to capture a neutron when the neutron is moving very fast. This U-239 atom will soon decay into plutonium-239, which is another fuel. Pu-239 is a viable fuel and must be accounted for even when a highly enriched uranium fuel is used. Plutonium fissions will dominate the U-235 fissions in some reactors, especially after the initial loading of U-235 is spent. Plutonium is fissionable with both fast and thermal neutrons, which make it ideal for either nuclear reactors or nuclear bombs.

81: 1675:. Most commercial PWRs and naval reactors use pressurizers. During normal operation, a pressurizer is partially filled with water, and a steam bubble is maintained above it by heating the water with submerged heaters. During normal operation, the pressurizer is connected to the primary reactor pressure vessel (RPV) and the pressurizer "bubble" provides an expansion space for changes in water volume in the reactor. This arrangement also provides a means of pressure control for the reactor by increasing or decreasing the steam pressure in the pressurizer using the pressurizer heaters. 2438: 1200: 70: 2212: 1157: 3314: 774:. For this reason many designs use highly enriched uranium but incorporate burnable neutron poison in the fuel rods. This allows the reactor to be constructed with an excess of fissionable material, which is nevertheless made relatively safe early in the reactor's fuel burn cycle by the presence of the neutron-absorbing material which is later replaced by normally produced long-lived neutron poisons (far longer-lived than xenon-135) which gradually accumulate over the fuel load's operating life. 869: 1653: 1202: 2488: 61: 8099: 7586: 2378: 1268: 1196: 854: 2880:

considered second- or third-generation systems, with the first-generation systems having been retired some time ago. Research into these reactor types was officially started by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals. The primary goals being to improve nuclear safety, improve proliferation resistance, minimize waste and natural resource utilization, and to decrease the cost to build and run such plants.

8135: 2151: 408: 966:(written by Szilárd) suggesting that the discovery of uranium's fission could lead to the development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type", giving impetus to the study of reactors and fission. Szilárd and Einstein knew each other well and had worked together years previously, but Einstein had never thought about this possibility for nuclear energy until Szilard reported it to him, at the beginning of his quest to produce the 2516: 2299: 884: 2136:: Typically reactors used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. These are much smaller than power reactors or those propelling ships, and many are on university campuses. There are about 280 such reactors operating, in 56 countries. Some operate with high-enriched uranium fuel, and international efforts are underway to substitute low-enriched fuel. 8123: 8089: 7574: 7598: 2423: 1333: 2412:. Their main attraction is their use of light water and unenriched uranium. As of 2022, 8 remain open, mostly due to safety improvements and help from international safety agencies such as the DOE. Despite these safety improvements, RBMK reactors are still considered one of the most dangerous reactor designs in use. RBMK reactors were deployed only in the former 1274: 815:. The costs for replacements or improvements required for continued safe operation may be so high that they are not cost-effective. Or they may be shut down due to technical failure. Other ones have been shut down because the area was contaminated, like Fukushima, Three Mile Island, Sellafield, Chernobyl. The British branch of the French concern 2758:

contaminants that can become radioactive. Typical designs have more layers (up to 7) of passive containment than light water reactors (usually 3). A unique feature that may aid safety is that the fuel balls actually form the core's mechanism, and are replaced one by one as they age. The design of the fuel makes fuel reprocessing expensive.

3156:, some other kind of coolant is used which will not moderate or slow the neutrons down much. This enables fast neutrons to dominate, which can effectively be used to constantly replenish the fuel supply. By merely placing cheap unenriched uranium into such a core, the non-fissionable U-238 will be turned into Pu-239, "breeding" fuel. 803:

as 80 years or longer with proper maintenance and management. While most components of a nuclear power plant, such as steam generators, are replaced when they reach the end of their useful lifetime, the overall lifetime of the power plant is limited by the life of components that cannot be replaced when aged by wear and

4460: 2742:(IFR) was built, tested and evaluated during the 1980s and then retired under the Clinton administration in the 1990s due to nuclear non-proliferation policies of the administration. Recycling spent fuel is the core of its design and it therefore produces only a fraction of the waste of current reactors. 3503:

estimates that a person drinking water for one year out of a well contaminated by what they would consider to be a significant tritiated water spill would receive a radiation dose of 0.3 millirem. For comparison, this is an order of magnitude less than the 4 millirem a person receives on a round trip

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The natural nuclear reactors formed when a uranium-rich mineral deposit became inundated with groundwater that acted as a neutron moderator, and a strong chain reaction took place. The water moderator would boil away as the reaction increased, slowing it back down again and preventing a meltdown. The

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is frequently expressed in terms of "full-power days," which is the number of 24-hour periods (days) a reactor is scheduled for operation at full power output for the generation of heat energy. The number of full-power days in a reactor's operating cycle (between refueling outage times) is related to

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are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs. These are generally not expected to be available for commercial use before 2040–2050, although the World Nuclear Association suggested that some might enter commercial operation before 2030. Current reactors in operation around the world are generally

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to regulate the number of neutrons that continue the reaction, ensuring the reactor operates safely. The efficiency of energy conversion in nuclear reactors is significantly higher compared to conventional fossil fuel plants; a kilo of uranium-235 can release millions of times more energy than a kilo

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Such reactors can no longer form on Earth in its present geologic period. Radioactive decay of formerly more abundant uranium-235 over the time span of hundreds of millions of years has reduced the proportion of this naturally occurring fissile isotope to below the amount required to sustain a chain

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The rate of fission reactions within a reactor core can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of neutrons that are able to induce further fission events. Nuclear reactors typically employ several methods of neutron control to adjust the reactor's power output. Some of these methods arise naturally

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The disposition and storage of this spent fuel is one of the most challenging aspects of the operation of a commercial nuclear power plant. This nuclear waste is highly radioactive and its toxicity presents a danger for thousands of years. After being discharged from the reactor, spent nuclear fuel

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in the United States were reactors of this type. The sodium is relatively easy to obtain and work with, and it also manages to actually prevent corrosion on the various reactor parts immersed in it. However, sodium explodes violently when exposed to water, so care must be taken, but such explosions

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Modern nuclear power plants are typically designed for a lifetime of 60 years, while older reactors were built with a planned typical lifetime of 30-40 years, though many of those have received renovations and life extensions of 15-20 years. Some believe nuclear power plants can operate for as long

582:– is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates. The heat is carried away from the reactor and is then used to generate steam. Most reactor systems employ a cooling system that is physically separated from the water that will be boiled to produce pressurized steam for the 3281:

or to limit their consequences. The nuclear power industry has improved the safety and performance of reactors, and has proposed new, safer (but generally untested) reactor designs but there is no guarantee that the reactors will be designed, built and operated correctly. Mistakes do occur and the

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At the end of the operating cycle, the fuel in some of the assemblies is "spent", having spent four to six years in the reactor producing power. This spent fuel is discharged and replaced with new (fresh) fuel assemblies. Though considered "spent," these fuel assemblies contain a large quantity of

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of the fuel's neutron cross-section. It uses ceramic fuels so its safe operating temperatures exceed the power-reduction temperature range. Most designs are cooled by inert helium. Helium is not subject to steam explosions, resists neutron absorption leading to radioactivity, and does not dissolve

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Using lead as the liquid metal provides excellent radiation shielding, and allows for operation at very high temperatures. Also, lead is (mostly) transparent to neutrons, so fewer neutrons are lost in the coolant, and the coolant does not become radioactive. Unlike sodium, lead is mostly inert, so

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These reactors use a pressure vessel to contain the nuclear fuel, control rods, moderator, and coolant. The hot radioactive water that leaves the pressure vessel is looped through a steam generator, which in turn heats a secondary (nonradioactive) loop of water to steam that can run turbines. They

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BWRs are characterized by boiling water around the fuel rods in the lower portion of a primary reactor pressure vessel. A boiling water reactor uses U, enriched as uranium dioxide, as its fuel. The fuel is assembled into rods housed in a steel vessel that is submerged in water. The nuclear fission

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warned that the lifetime extension of ageing nuclear power plants amounts to entering a new era of risk. It estimated the current European nuclear liability coverage in average to be too low by a factor of between 100 and 1,000 to cover the likely costs, while at the same time, the likelihood of a

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and therefore absorb neutrons. When a control rod is inserted deeper into the reactor, it absorbs more neutrons than the material it displaces – often the moderator. This action results in fewer neutrons available to cause fission and reduces the reactor's power output. Conversely, extracting the

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released from nuclear power plants under normal operations is so low as to be undetectable above natural background radiation. Detectable strontium-90 in ground water and the general environment can be traced to weapons testing that occurred during the mid-20th century (accounting for 99% of the

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in the world fueled by highly enriched (weapons-grade/90% enrichment) uranium. Theft risk of this fuel (potentially used in the production of a nuclear weapon) has led to campaigns advocating conversion of this type of reactor to low-enrichment uranium (which poses less threat of proliferation).

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Thorium-based reactors — It is possible to convert Thorium-232 into U-233 in reactors specially designed for the purpose. In this way, thorium, which is four times more abundant than uranium, can be used to breed U-233 nuclear fuel. U-233 is also believed to have favourable nuclear properties as

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in Europe. The U.S. was not yet officially at war, but in October, when the Einstein-Szilárd letter was delivered to him, Roosevelt commented that the purpose of doing the research was to make sure "the Nazis don't blow us up." The U.S. nuclear project followed, although with some delay as there

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causes the water to boil, generating steam. This steam flows through pipes into turbines. The turbines are driven by the steam, and this process generates electricity. During normal operation, pressure is controlled by the amount of steam flowing from the reactor pressure vessel to the turbine.

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are fissionable with fast neutrons, but they are more difficult to build and more expensive to operate. Overall, fast reactors are less common than thermal reactors in most applications. Some early power stations were fast reactors, as are some Russian naval propulsion units. Construction of

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U-238 are both used in the fission process. U-235 is fissionable by thermal (i.e. slow-moving) neutrons. A thermal neutron is one which is moving about the same speed as the atoms around it. Since all atoms vibrate proportionally to their absolute temperature, a thermal neutron has the best

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Generation V reactors are designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered or researched at present. Though some generation V reactors could potentially be built with current or near term technology, they trigger little interest for reasons of economics,

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salts, or use such salts for coolant. MSRs potentially have many safety features, including the absence of high pressures or highly flammable components in the core. They were initially designed for aircraft propulsion due to their high efficiency and high power density. One prototype, the

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Reactor safety is maintained through various systems that control the rate of fission. The insertion of control rods, which absorb neutrons, can rapidly decrease the reactor's output, while other systems automatically shut down the reactor in the event of unsafe conditions. The buildup of

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residue, which they reasoned was created by the fissioning of the uranium nuclei. In their second publication on nuclear fission in February 1939, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process, opening up the possibility of a

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produced in the fission process acts as a neutron poison that absorbs neutrons and therefore tends to shut the reactor down. Xenon-135 accumulation can be controlled by keeping power levels high enough to destroy it by neutron absorption as fast as it is produced. Fission also produces

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In other reactors, the coolant acts as a poison by absorbing neutrons in the same way that the control rods do. In these reactors, power output can be increased by heating the coolant, which makes it a less dense poison. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to

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disposal. They offer a case study of how radioactive isotopes migrate through the Earth's crust. This is a significant area of controversy as opponents of geologic waste disposal fear that isotopes from stored waste could end up in water supplies or be carried into the environment.

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to occur with circumstances that are similar to the conditions in a constructed nuclear reactor. Fifteen fossil natural fission reactors have so far been found in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo uranium mine in Gabon. First discovered in 1972 by French physicist

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in London. However, Szilárd's idea did not incorporate the idea of nuclear fission as a neutron source, since that process was not yet discovered. Szilárd's ideas for nuclear reactors using neutron-mediated nuclear chain reactions in light elements proved unworkable.

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in Japan did not anticipate that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems that were supposed to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake, despite multiple warnings by the NRG and the Japanese nuclear safety administration. According to

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are cooled by a circulating gas. In commercial nuclear power plants carbon dioxide has usually been used, for example in current British AGR nuclear power plants and formerly in a number of first generation British, French, Italian, & Japanese plants.

955:. Subsequent studies in early 1939 (one of them by Szilárd and Fermi) revealed that several neutrons were indeed released during the fissioning, making available the opportunity for the nuclear chain reaction that Szilárd had envisioned six years previously. 3427:

reactions took place in these reactors approximately 1.5 billion years ago, and ran for a few hundred thousand years, averaging 100 kW of power output during that time. The concept of a natural nuclear reactor was theorized as early as 1956 by

2939:, where the fissile material is gaseous uranium hexafluoride contained in a fused silica vessel. A working gas (such as hydrogen) would flow around this vessel and absorb the UV light produced by the reaction. This reactor design could also function 2403:

A Soviet design, RBMKs are in some respects similar to CANDU in that they are refuelable during power operation and employ a pressure tube design instead of a PWR-style pressure vessel. However, unlike CANDU they are very unstable and large, making

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to cause fission. If the coolant is a moderator, then temperature changes can affect the density of the coolant/moderator and therefore change power output. A higher temperature coolant would be less dense, and therefore a less effective moderator.

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stations) are either shut down or will be in the near future. However, the AGRs have an anticipated life of a further 10 to 20 years. This is a thermal-neutron reactor design. Decommissioning costs can be high due to large volume of reactor

4895:, Vol. 44, No. 39; p. 7, 25 September 2003 Quote: "Etienne Pochon, CEA director of nuclear industry support, outlined EPR's improved performance and enhanced safety features compared to the advanced Generation II designs on which it was based." 1560:(LWRs). Light-water reactors (the most common type of thermal reactor) use ordinary water to moderate and cool the reactors. Because the light hydrogen isotope is a slight neutron poison these reactors need artificially enriched fuels. When at 2464:

These designs have a high thermal efficiency compared with PWRs due to higher operating temperatures. There are a number of operating reactors of this design, mostly in the United Kingdom, where the concept was developed. Older designs (i.e.

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reactors allow fuel to be shifted through the reactor while it is running. In a CANDU reactor, this also allows individual fuel elements to be situated within the reactor core that are best suited to the amount of U-235 in the fuel element.

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stabilizes the reaction rate. Graphite and heavy-water reactors tend to be more thoroughly thermalized than light water reactors. Due to the extra thermalization, and the absence of the light hydrogen poisoning effects these types can use

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A BWR is like a PWR without the steam generator. The lower pressure of its cooling water allows it to boil inside the pressure vessel, producing the steam that runs the turbines. Unlike a PWR, there is no primary and secondary loop. The

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are able to change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring or instrumentation detects unsafe conditions.

2505:. These reactors can function much like a PWR in terms of efficiency, and do not require much high-pressure containment, as the liquid metal does not need to be kept at high pressure, even at very high temperatures. These reactors are 807:, such as the reactor pressure vessel. At the end of their planned life span, plants may get an extension of the operating license for some 20 years and in the US even a "subsequent license renewal" (SLR) for an additional 20 years. 4665:

Golubev, V. I.; Dolgov, V. V.; Dulin, V. A.; Zvonarev, A. V.; Smetanin, É. Y.; Kochetkov, L. A.; Korobeinikov, V. V.; Liforov, V. G.; Manturov, G. N.; Matveenko, I. P.; Tsibulya, A. M. (1993). "Fast-reactor actinoid transmutation".

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Even when a license is extended, it does not guarantee the reactor will continue to operate, particularly in the face of safety concerns or incident. Many reactors are closed long before their license or design life expired and are

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as a result of an exponential power surge from the normal nuclear chain reaction, would be too short to allow for intervention. This last stage, where delayed neutrons are no longer required to maintain criticality, is known as the

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as a working fuel directly (rather than as a stage to one, as is done now) would mean lower processing costs, and very small reactors. In practice, running a reactor at such high power densities would probably produce unmanageable

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Water cooled reactor. These constitute the great majority of operational nuclear reactors: as of 2014, 93% of the world's nuclear reactors are water cooled, providing about 95% of the world's total nuclear generation capacity.

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An example of an induced nuclear fission event. A neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which in turn splits into fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and free neutrons. Though both reactors and

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and helium have also been used, helium being considered particularly suitable for high temperature designs. Utilization of the heat varies, depending on the reactor. Commercial nuclear power plants run the gas through a

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on 2 December 1942 at 3:25 PM. The reactor support structure was made of wood, which supported a pile (hence the name) of graphite blocks, embedded in which was natural uranium oxide 'pseudospheres' or 'briquettes'.

3210:(U-235) contained in the fuel assemblies at the beginning of the cycle. A higher percentage of U-235 in the core at the beginning of a cycle will permit the reactor to be run for a greater number of full-power days. 2765:(SSTAR) is being primarily researched and developed in the US, intended as a fast breeder reactor that is passively safe and could be remotely shut down in case the suspicion arises that it is being tampered with. 4372: 2542:

mixture. In this case, the bismuth would present some minor radiation problems, as it is not quite as transparent to neutrons, and can be transmuted to a radioactive isotope more readily than lead. The Russian

2996:. A fission fragment reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates electricity by decelerating an ion beam of fission byproducts instead of using nuclear reactions to generate heat. By doing so, it bypasses the 2611:

These use fuel molded into ceramic balls, and then circulate gas through the balls. The result is an efficient, low-maintenance, very safe reactor with inexpensive, standardized fuel. The prototypes were the

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into electricity, by passing the high energy photons through an array of conducting foils to transfer some of their energy to electrons, the energy of the photon is captured electrostatically, similar to a

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concept where the reactor is operated at supercritical pressures and water is heated to a supercritical fluid, which never undergoes a transition to steam yet behaves like saturated steam, to power a

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are also an area of current development. These reactors play a crucial role in generating large amounts of electricity with low carbon emissions, contributing significantly to the global energy mix.

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Most reactor designs in existence are thermal reactors and typically use water as a neutron moderator (moderator means that it slows down the neutron to a thermal speed) and as a coolant. But in a

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After World War II, the U.S. military sought other uses for nuclear reactor technology. Research by the Army led to the power stations for Camp Century, Greenland and McMurdo Station, Antarctica

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have cast doubt on whether even an advanced economy like Japan can master nuclear safety. Catastrophic scenarios involving terrorist attacks are also conceivable. An interdisciplinary team from

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from the physics of radioactive decay and are simply accounted for during the reactor's operation, while others are mechanisms engineered into the reactor design for a distinct purpose.

3257:, which is expressed in terms of the heat energy produced per initial unit of fuel weight. Burnup is commonly expressed as megawatt days thermal per metric ton of initial heavy metal. 2538:

there is less risk of explosion or accident, but such large quantities of lead may be problematic from toxicology and disposal points of view. Often a reactor of this type would use a

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to yield up to 25% more nuclear fuel, and is practiced in Europe, Russia and Japan. Due to initial concerns of proliferation risks, the United States has no reprocessing capability.

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remained skepticism (some of it from Fermi) and also little action from the small number of officials in the government who were initially charged with moving the project forward.

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This totally unmoderated reactor design produces more fuel than it consumes. They are said to "breed" fuel, because they produce fissionable fuel during operation because of

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and can achieve efficiencies of up to 90% instead of 40–45% attainable by efficient turbine-driven thermal reactors. The fission fragment ion beam would be passed through a

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emission by a number of neutron-rich fission isotopes. These delayed neutrons account for about 0.65% of the total neutrons produced in fission, with the remainder (termed "

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in Germany, which produced up to 308MW of electricity between 1985 and 1989 until it was shut down after experiencing a series of incidents and technical difficulties. The

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of these reactors can be higher, and they can be simpler, and even potentially more stable and safe. This is a thermal-neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the

7629: 4367: 5368: 4180: 4201: 2367:. India also operates a number of PHWRs, often termed 'CANDU derivatives', built after the Government of Canada halted nuclear dealings with India following the 1974 7129: 3061:, but significant scientific and technical obstacles remain. Despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The 1656:

In thermal nuclear reactors (LWRs in specific), the coolant acts as a moderator that must slow down the neutrons before they can be efficiently absorbed by the fuel.

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for nuclear weapons. Fermi and Szilard applied for a patent on reactors on 19 December 1944. Its issuance was delayed for 10 years because of wartime secrecy.

485:. A portion of these neutrons may be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so on. This is known as a 4994: 2791: 551:(U-235) converted via nuclear processes releases approximately three million times more energy than a kilogram of coal burned conventionally (7.2 × 10 7622: 5677: 5302:

Quimby, D.C., High Thermal Efficiency X-ray energy conversion scheme for advanced fusion reactors, ASTM Special technical Publication, v.2, 1977, pp. 1161–1165

5347:"Providing all Global Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part I: Technologies, Energy Resources, Quantities and Areas of Infrastructure, and Materials" 4871: 7692: 6537: 4248: 3913: 1276: 7953: 7653: 7645: 3308: 3299:

has estimated that given the expected growth of nuclear power from 2005 to 2055, at least four serious nuclear accidents would be expected in that period.

2339:. Instead of using a single large pressure vessel as in a PWR, the fuel is contained in hundreds of pressure tubes. These reactors are fueled with natural 1564:, if the temperature of the water increases, its density drops, and fewer neutrons passing through it are slowed enough to trigger further reactions. That 5089: 1494:

material (about 20% or more) due to the relatively lower probability of fission versus capture by U-238. Fast reactors have the potential to produce less

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Nuclear reactors have been launched into Earth orbit at least 34 times. A number of incidents connected with the unmanned nuclear-reactor-powered Soviet

2929:, where the fissile material is molten uranium or uranium solution cooled by a working gas pumped in through holes in the base of the containment vessel. 711:. A moderator increases the power of the reactor by causing the fast neutrons that are released from fission to lose energy and become thermal neutrons. 680:

state allows mechanical devices or human operators to control a chain reaction in "real time"; otherwise the time between achievement of criticality and

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for them expensive. A series of critical safety flaws have also been identified with the RBMK design, though some of these were corrected following the

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India is also planning to build fast breeder reactors using the thorium – Uranium-233 fuel cycle. The FBTR (Fast Breeder Test Reactor) in operation at

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produced 0.8 kW in a test on 20 December 1951 and 100 kW (electrical) the following day, having a design output of 200 kW (electrical).

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radar satellite which resulted in nuclear fuel reentering the Earth's atmosphere from orbit and being dispersed in northern Canada (January 1978).

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and as a result most reactor designs require enriched fuel. Enrichment involves increasing the percentage of U-235 and is usually done by means of

2822:(AHWR) — A proposed heavy water moderated nuclear power reactor that will be the next generation design of the PHWR type. Under development in the 2762: 2347:) which makes them very efficient in their use of uranium (it allows for precise flux control in the core). CANDU PHWRs have been built in Canada, 1823:. In a typical MSR, the coolant is also used as a matrix in which the fissile material is dissolved. Other eutectic salt combinations used include 2988:. Since X-rays can go through far greater material thickness than electrons, many hundreds or thousands of layers are needed to absorb the X-rays. 7385: 5753: 2769: 782:

The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be converted into usable energy. A common method of harnessing this

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that range from milliseconds to as long as several minutes, and so considerable time is required to determine exactly when a reactor reaches the

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currently in development. Reactors can also be grouped by the choices of coolant and moderator. Almost 90% of global nuclear energy comes from

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is also possible. Fission reactors can be divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that sustain the fission

1006: 193:, it splits into lighter nuclei, releasing energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons, which can induce further fission in a self-sustaining 7752: 7742: 7722: 6366: 5797: 5467: 4713: 3866: 5533: 5148: 4330: 7814: 7759: 5320: 5272:"International Scientific Journal for Alternative Energy and Ecology, DIRECT CONVERSION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY TO ELECTRICITY, Mark A. Prelas" 3283: 1531:. While an ongoing rich research topic since at least the 1940s, no self-sustaining fusion reactor for any purpose has ever been built. 4516: 8102: 7776: 6132: 5421: 4294: 3817: 1898:

Generation V reactor (designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered or researched at present).

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which use more highly enriched fuel with the fuel elements set closer together to allow a faster neutron spectrum sometimes called an

861:, the first artificial nuclear reactor, built in secrecy at the University of Chicago in 1942 during World War II as part of the US's 7982: 7959: 7879: 6635: 4476: 4351: 2723: 2289: 1903: 7891: 6874: 4606: 3975: 1090:

Besides the military uses of nuclear reactors, there were political reasons to pursue civilian use of atomic energy. U.S. President

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Freeview Video 'Nuclear Power Plants — What's the Problem' A Royal Institution Lecture by John Collier by the Vega Science Trust.

5032: 4824:"Emergency and Back-Up Cooling of Nuclear Fuel and Reactors and Fire-Extinguishing, Explosion Prevention Using Liquid Nitrogen". 2574: 1886: 7005: 4217: 7717: 7707: 6830: 5271: 4905: 1032:, in late 1942. By this time, the program had been pressured for a year by U.S. entry into the war. The Chicago Pile achieved 7614: 6059: 5644: 4772: 4435: 4175: 4135: 4020: 3860: 3566: 3531: 2816:

compared to traditionally used U-235, including better neutron economy and lower production of long lived transuranic waste.

1584:(MSRs) are moderated by light elements such as lithium or beryllium, which are constituents of the coolant/fuel matrix salts 824: 5376: 3402:

Almost two billion years ago a series of self-sustaining nuclear fission "reactors" self-assembled in the area now known as

823:

with only between 3 and 10 years. All seven AGR plants are expected to be shut down in 2022 and in decommissioning by 2028.

8187: 8014: 7809: 6881: 4196: 3597: 3536: 3491:

and so is both colorless and odorless, however the additional neutrons in the hydrogen nuclei cause the tritium to undergo

3114:

powder, which is pressed and fired into pellet form. These pellets are stacked into tubes which are then sealed and called

1813:

to make steam for a steam turbine. Some experimental designs run hot enough that the gas can directly power a gas turbine.

5241: 5054: 4080: 3953: 7602: 6798: 6344: 6309: 4968: 4571: 2808:

are designed to be safer and more stable, but pose a number of engineering and economic difficulties. One example is the

2750: 38: 4931: 260: 8182: 7992: 7987: 7842: 7747: 7682: 7496: 7080: 5732: 5313:"Improving Security at World's Nuclear Research Reactors: Technical and Other Issues Focus of June Symposium in Norway" 4395: 3664: 3358: 3126: 2243: 1921: 1889:(evolutionary development of Gen III reactors, offering improvements in safety over Gen III reactor designs, 2017–2021) 828: 346: 338: 17: 5002: 3121:

Most BWR and PWR commercial reactors use uranium enriched to about 4% U-235, and some commercial reactors with a high

2687:) dissolved in water and mixed with the coolant and the moderator. As of April 2006, only five AHRs were in operation. 1681:

are a subset of pressurized water reactors, sharing the use of a pressurized, isolated heat transport loop, but using

1102:

on 8 December 1953. This diplomacy led to the dissemination of reactor technology to U.S. institutions and worldwide.

8167: 8008: 7977: 7837: 7766: 6160: 6039: 4752: 4555: 2198: 1914: 1864: 1139: 566:, so the energy released by 1 kg of uranium-235 corresponds to that released by burning 2.7 million kg of coal. 323: 226: 118: 5669: 3499:

of 12.3 years. Despite being measurable, the tritium released by nuclear power plants is minimal. The United States

2180: 1769:. Since water is a moderator, it cannot be used as a coolant in a fast reactor. Liquid metal coolants have included 7869: 7390: 7255: 5790: 3504:

flight from Washington, D.C. to Los Angeles, a consequence of less atmospheric protection against highly energetic

2776: 2172: 1721: 2583: 1637: 469:

absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei, (the

7771: 7333: 7167: 6769: 6647: 6304: 6165: 3920: 3637: 3420: 3411: 3397: 2712: 2659: 2313: 1678: 1336: 1165: 5447: 5346: 3787: 3627:

discovered the nuclear chain reaction and patented a design in 1934, preceding the discovery of nuclear fission.

3444:

fission reaction was sustained for hundreds of thousands of years, cycling on the order of hours to a few days.

2703:

More than a dozen advanced reactor designs are in various stages of development. Some are evolutionary from the

2480: 8069: 7323: 7172: 6630: 5085: 2795: 2780: 2716: 2655: 2578:

would not be more violent than (for example) a leak of superheated fluid from a pressurized-water reactor. The

2285: 2176: 1125: 7907: 7702: 7097: 6930: 6354: 6282: 3576: 3500: 3318: 3292: 3272: 3001: 2909: 2833: 2823: 2442: 1084: 986: 5211: 3888: 834:

An increasing number of reactors is reaching or crossing their design lifetimes of 30 or 40 years. In 2014,

689:

point. There is a scale for describing criticality in numerical form, in which bare criticality is known as

7863: 7677: 7440: 7177: 6886: 6640: 6137: 5483: 3561: 2926: 2819: 2772:(CAESAR) is a nuclear reactor concept that uses steam as a moderator – this design is still in development. 2382: 2255: 1508: 3681:

Davis, E. D.; Gould, C. R.; Sharapov, E. I. (2014). "Oklo reactors and implications for nuclear science".

2062:

U-238 to Pu-239, or Th-232 to U-233). Thus, a uranium breeder reactor, once running, can be refueled with

8162: 7797: 7590: 7503: 7475: 7432: 7397: 7235: 7062: 7000: 6825: 6729: 6615: 6083: 5783: 5761: 5612: 4798: 3586: 3242: 2904: 2669: 2454: 2306: 2259: 2123: 1939: 1766: 1702: 1609: 1106: 1076: 942:

in 1938 that bombardment of uranium with neutrons (provided by an alpha-on-beryllium fusion reaction, a "

820: 636:

The fastest method for adjusting levels of fission-inducing neutrons in a reactor is via movement of the

5112: 4633: 4109: 3125:

do not require the fuel to be enriched at all (that is, they can use natural uranium). According to the

1819:(MSRs) are cooled by circulating a molten salt, typically a eutectic mixture of fluoride salts, such as 8157: 8113: 7875: 7803: 7424: 7283: 6962: 6480: 6437: 6289: 5705: 4008: 3416: 3350: 2899: 2731: 2552: 1788: 1543: 1416:

approaches the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles. Thermal neutrons have a far higher

1121: 736:) into the reactor to shut the fission reaction down if unsafe conditions are detected or anticipated. 358: 331: 302:

of ships and submarines is largely restricted to naval use. Reactors have also been tested for nuclear

967: 922:, in 1933. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple reactor the following year while working at the 8177: 8172: 8127: 8093: 8029: 7938: 7672: 7578: 7260: 6869: 6652: 5549: 5245: 5058: 3464:

as part of normal operations, which is eventually released into the environment in trace quantities.

3362: 2704: 2579: 2223: 2215: 2009: 1665: 1486:, and use less-moderating coolants. Maintaining a chain reaction requires the fuel to be more highly 1176: 763: 587: 299: 178: 5504: 2628:

is being developed. The HTR-PM is expected to be the first generation IV reactor to enter operation.

1668:(PWR) Pressurized water reactors constitute the large majority of all Western nuclear power plants. 648:

The physics of radioactive decay also affects neutron populations in a reactor. One such process is

8192: 7508: 7350: 7250: 7162: 6371: 6257: 6217: 6029: 5607: 4240: 4151: 3551: 3526: 2993: 2889: 2532: 2161: 1793: 1713: 1041: 303: 1400:

to keep up the fission of their fuel. Almost all current reactors are of this type. These contain

416:

rely on nuclear chain reactions, the rate of reactions in a reactor is much slower than in a bomb.

8054: 8044: 7380: 7355: 6969: 6746: 6552: 6475: 6432: 6415: 6376: 6299: 3754: 3546: 2940: 2932: 2884: 2165: 1951: 1850: 1824: 1617: 1161: 1149:

The first portable nuclear reactor "Alco PM-2A" was used to generate electrical power (2 MW) for

812: 669: 607: 575: 470: 402: 218: 7338: 4705: 4547: 4012: 4002: 8049: 7850: 7245: 6532: 6076: 5529: 5156: 4325: 3591: 3556: 3516:

Strontium-90 in the environment) and the Chernobyl accident (accounting for the remaining 1%).

3433: 3374: 2127: 1880: 1756: 1129: 952: 656:") released immediately upon fission. The fission products which produce delayed neutrons have 645:

control rod will result in an increase in the rate of fission events and an increase in power.

611: 486: 362: 307: 284: 272: 174: 166: 7644: 5312: 4380: 4276: 1117:

which was the first reactor to go critical in Europe, and was also built by the Soviet Union.

7539: 7275: 7230: 6692: 6620: 6547: 6542: 6507: 6294: 6262: 6049: 5976: 4508: 4392: 3661: 3581: 3370: 3366: 3027: 3007: 2876: 2739: 2708: 2558: 2539: 2492: 2269: 2045: 1996: 1892: 1870: 1778: 1709: 1690: 1561: 1444:(U-238) compared to the faster neutrons that originally result from fission, allowing use of 1417: 1114: 1021: 963: 839:

serious accident happening in Europe continues to increase as the reactor fleet grows older.

804: 739:

Most types of reactors are sensitive to a process variously known as xenon poisoning, or the

595: 421: 390: 354: 350: 322:, which can complicate reactor restarts. There have been two reactor accidents classed as an 276: 147: 5414: 4428:"Chicago Pile reactors create enduring research legacy – Argonne's Historical News Releases" 4289: 8039: 7901: 7450: 7225: 7210: 6527: 6485: 6321: 6227: 6155: 3809: 3700: 3603: 3153: 3088: 2976: 2544: 2405: 1612:, such as those whose coolant is a mixture of lead and bismuth, may use BeO as a moderator. 1475: 1469: 1445: 728:

the reactor in an emergency shut down. These systems insert large amounts of poison (often

374: 318:

can influence reactor behavior, requiring careful management to prevent issues such as the

288: 248: 214: 80: 4840:"Russia completes world's first Gen III+ reactor; China to start up five reactors in 2017" 4483: 4346: 2437: 8: 8024: 7549: 7360: 7145: 6739: 6607: 6410: 6267: 6034: 5996: 5829: 5741: 4602: 3979: 3234: 2894: 2805: 2635: 2033: 1992: 1944: 1874: 1816: 1581: 1557: 1551: 1465: 1405: 1099: 848: 692: 366: 170: 140: 7826: 3704: 2331:. While heavy water is significantly more expensive than ordinary water, it has greater 7932: 7895: 7832: 7529: 7265: 7102: 7029: 6840: 6490: 6460: 6444: 6427: 6071: 5961: 5909: 5859: 5806: 5580: 5532:– at Google Video; a natural nuclear reactor is mentioned at 42:40 mins into the video 5113:"High Efficiency Nuclear Power Plants Using Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor Technology" 4683: 4540: 4264: 3724: 3690: 3571: 3354: 3226: 3160: 3092: 3074: 3031: 2784: 2783:

ABWR) that is presently in use, it is not a complete fast reactor instead using mostly

2754: 2746: 2719:(ABWR), two of which are now operating with others under construction, and the planned 2601: 2590:, the first reactor to have a core meltdown, in 1955, was also a sodium-cooled reactor. 2450: 2409: 2336: 2335:(creates a higher number of thermal neutrons), allowing the reactor to operate without 2281: 2119: 2004: 1840: 1800: 1725: 1600: 1589: 1487: 1382: 1053: 756: 590:. However, in some reactors the water for the steam turbines is boiled directly by the 543:. This decay heat source will remain for some time even after the reactor is shut down. 540: 501: 370: 327: 295: 151: 5024: 4043: 672:

point. Keeping the reactor in the zone of chain reactivity where delayed neutrons are

578:– usually water but sometimes a gas or a liquid metal (like liquid sodium or lead) or 8034: 7997: 6597: 6390: 6277: 6252: 6190: 6147: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5824: 4748: 4551: 4131: 4016: 3856: 3728: 3716: 3541: 3448: 3103: 2980: 2936: 2662:, a thermal spectrum reactor which would breed fissile uranium-233 fuel from thorium. 2343:

and are thermal-neutron reactor designs. PHWRs can be refueled while at full power, (

2111: 2015: 1782: 1732: 1565: 1483: 1401: 1091: 1045: 1010: 923: 862: 771: 767: 708: 661: 536: 342: 210: 202: 5278: 4909: 4687: 3447:

These natural reactors are extensively studied by scientists interested in geologic

2211: 997:

was far lower than had previously been thought. The memorandum was a product of the

555:

per kilogram of uranium-235 versus 2.4 × 10 joules per kilogram of coal).

7920: 7445: 6500: 6465: 6222: 6212: 6100: 6088: 5929: 5924: 5914: 5904: 5899: 5754:

Annotated bibliography of nuclear reactor technology from the Alsos Digital Library

4740: 4675: 3848: 3744:

The First Reactor, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Technical Information

3708: 3326: 3187: 3145: 3130: 3080: 3015: 2809: 2344: 2133: 2067: 2059: 2055: 2037: 1836: 1596: 1585: 1340: 943: 939: 919: 911: 896: 681: 665: 382: 268: 252: 5637: 4776: 4427: 3087:). The process by which uranium ore is mined, processed, enriched, used, possibly 2092:, and cobalt-60, molybdenum-99 and others, used for imaging and medical treatment. 1913:

The first mention of "Gen III" was in 2000, in conjunction with the launch of the

1156: 1063:"World's first nuclear power plant" is the claim made by signs at the site of the 7343: 7303: 6757: 6495: 6470: 6316: 6109: 6011: 6001: 5966: 5844: 5834: 5768: 5748: 5736: 5709: 5556: 5537: 5490: 4880: 4464: 4399: 4376: 4355: 4334: 4298: 4226: 4205: 4184: 3840: 3668: 3476: 3424: 3322: 3219: 3122: 3111: 3083:. Some nuclear reactors can operate with a mixture of plutonium and uranium (see 3011: 2799: 2684: 2680: 2502: 2477: 2332: 2235: 2063: 2051: 1832: 1736: 1672: 1570: 1449: 1437: 1397: 1393: 1366: 1095: 959: 744: 712: 686: 649: 615: 445: 433: 413: 233: 69: 30:

This article is about nuclear fission reactors. For nuclear fusion reactors, see

6835: 5638:

Backgrounder: Tritium, Radiation Protection Limits, and Drinking Water Standards

4402:

British patent number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934; published: 30 March 1936).

3852: 3671:

British patent number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934; published: 30 March 1936).

1071:. Originally called "Chicago Pile-4", it was carried out under the direction of 786:

is to use it to boil water to produce pressurized steam which will then drive a

8059: 7926: 7885: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7038: 6945: 6914: 6896: 6420: 6326: 6272: 6237: 6170: 6117: 5971: 5864: 5849: 5839: 5183: 4072: 3945: 3342: 3313: 3266: 3107: 3050: 2975:

directly to electricity. This approach is similar to the experimentally proved

2720: 2368: 2096: 2089: 1853:

use organic fluids such as biphenyl and terphenyl as coolant rather than water.

1810: 1520: 1461: 1413: 1386: 1146:, England was opened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW). 1048:

starting in 1943. The primary purpose for the largest reactors (located at the

1017: 998: 994: 930:

Inspiration for a new type of reactor using uranium came from the discovery by

907: 888: 858: 783: 653: 641: 522: 518: 497: 474: 454: 425: 349:

classes reactors into generations, with the majority of the global fleet being

194: 134: 112: 7318: 4972: 4477:"Fifty years ago in December: Atomic reactor EBR-I produced first electricity" 4413: 4369:

Lifetime extension of ageing nuclear power plants: Entering a new era of risk.

3712: 2570: 2520: 436:

into thermal energy for further conversion to mechanical or electrical forms.

8151: 8139: 7483: 6774: 6180: 6021: 5505:"Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties" 4938: 3720: 2851: 2115: 2100: 1606:" and other light element containing salts can all cause a moderating effect. 1554:(Used in Canada, India, Argentina, China, Pakistan, Romania and South Korea). 1457: 1433: 1429: 1033: 868: 787: 677: 466: 237: 186: 5729: 5111:

Juhasz, Albert J.; Rarick, Richard A.; Rangarajan, Rajmohan (October 2009).

4744: 8002: 7948: 7943: 7049: 6185: 6127: 6054: 6006: 5876: 5249: 5062: 4219:

What's the Lifespan for a Nuclear Reactor? Much Longer Than You Might Think

3512: 3199: 3175: 3115: 3054: 3044: 2997: 2968: 2953: 2506: 2413: 2025: 1516: 1504: 1479: 1378: 1150: 1110: 1049: 1029: 978: 974: 935: 892: 872: 716: 591: 563: 429: 378: 256: 222: 198: 31: 7646:

Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites

5149:"The Venezuela-China relationship, explained: Belt and Road | Part 2 of 4" 1652: 8074: 7460: 7107: 6697: 6204: 6175: 3624: 3429: 3330: 3207: 3183: 3179: 3163: 3141: 3019: 2855: 2832:– A unique reactor using Uranium-233 isotope for fuel. Built in India by 2613: 2364: 2328: 2251: 1743: 1682: 1495: 1441: 1425: 1173: 1169: 1072: 1068: 1002: 637: 579: 559: 548: 493: 462: 458: 213:. The world's first artificial nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, achieved 182: 4393:"Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements," 3662:"Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements," 3098:

Under 1% of the uranium found in nature is the easily fissionable U-235

2715:

designs above, some are more radical departures. The former include the

2487: 225:, later incorporating grid electricity production in addition. In 1957, 8064: 6813: 4679: 3505: 3492: 3385: 3171: 2430: 2377: 1753:

reactors (later ones use heavy water moderator but light water coolant)

1143: 835: 816: 791: 752: 740: 733: 627: 619: 529: 478: 319: 60: 5725:

Union of Concerned Scientists, Concerns re: US nuclear reactor program

5643:(Report). United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. February 2016. 4482:. American Nuclear Society Nuclear news. November 2001. Archived from 853: 7856: 7455: 6818: 6808: 5936: 5889: 5854: 5775: 5412: 4313:

Cleanup of Large Areas Contaminated as a Result of a Nuclear Accident

4103:"Chernobyl: what happened and why? by CM Meyer, technical journalist" 3496: 3058: 2985: 2844: 2348: 2239: 2103: 2085: 2078: 1895:(technologies still under development; unknown start date, see below) 1685:

as coolant and moderator for the greater neutron economies it offers.

1625: 1524: 1499: 1374: 1057: 931: 876: 827:

was extended from 40 to 46 years, and closed. The same happened with

747: 657: 315: 7313: 2150: 1113:. It produced around 5 MW (electrical). It was built after the 1105:

The first nuclear power plant built for civil purposes was the AM-1

7727: 7544: 7187: 7182: 7122: 6791: 6719: 6702: 6687: 6662: 6405: 5894: 3472: 2972: 2650: 2646: 2617: 2515: 2356: 2298: 2234:

represent the majority (around 80%) of current reactors. This is a

2058:

than they consume during the fission chain reaction (by converting

1805: 1646: 1621: 1528: 1348: 1025: 583: 264: 5742:

Nuclear Energy Institute — How it Works: Electric Power Generation

5392:"Fukushima Crisis Worse for Atomic Power Than Chernobyl, UBS Says" 5344: 4542:

Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century

4128:

Nuclear Energy Encyclopedia: Science, Technology, and Applications

3847:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 66–91, 3695: 3225:

Not all reactors need to be shut down for refueling; for example,

2392:

Reaktor Bolshoy Moschnosti Kanalniy (High Power Channel Reactor) (

883: 407: 8134: 7513: 7465: 7328: 7308: 6707: 6682: 6122: 5953: 5941: 5919: 5884: 3468: 3461: 3204: 3167: 3137: 3099: 3065:

project is currently leading the effort to harness fusion power.

3023: 2865: 2753:(HTGCR), is designed so high temperatures reduce power output by 2360: 2340: 2081: 2071: 1671:

A primary characteristic of PWRs is a pressurizer, a specialized

1491: 1453: 1421: 1370: 990: 915: 903: 704: 482: 451: 365:, which use it as a coolant and moderator. Other designs include 280: 244: 190: 5602: 4969:"World Nuclear Association Information Brief -Research Reactors" 2864:

Rolls-Royce aims to sell nuclear reactors for the production of

2847:(India) uses Plutonium as a fuel and liquid sodium as a coolant. 2547:

uses a lead-bismuth-cooled fast reactor as its main power plant.

2509:, not thermal neutron designs. These reactors come in two types: 2396:) (also known as a Light-Water Graphite-moderated Reactor—LWGR) 279:

risk as they can be configured to produce plutonium, as well as

7117: 7112: 7092: 7072: 7057: 6940: 6677: 6657: 6625: 4932:"A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems" 3914:"DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory" 3410:, West Africa. The conditions at that place and time allowed a 3381: 3254: 3253:

The amount of energy extracted from nuclear fuel is called its

3238: 2829: 2727: 2625: 2621: 2566: 2562: 2466: 2427: 2247: 1770: 947: 914:

mediated by neutrons was first realized shortly thereafter, by

552: 386: 209:

Nuclear reactors have their origins in the World War II Allied

128: 124: 3779: 539:

of fission products and materials that have been activated by

341:

reported there are 422 nuclear power reactors and 223 nuclear

7534: 7491: 7154: 7010: 6803: 6667: 5179:"Rolls-Royce Touts Nuclear Reactors as Key to Clean Jet Fuel" 4327:

Extending the operating lives of Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors

3484: 3407: 3246: 3057:

plants to produce power without the complexities of handling

2961: 2957: 2943:, as featured in Harry Harrison's 1976 science-fiction novel 2837: 2587: 2422: 2352: 2324: 2303: 1867:, research reactors, non-commercial power producing reactors) 1820: 1750: 1080: 1064: 729: 725: 623: 432:, nuclear reactors convert the energy released by controlled 5702: 4799:"Pool Reactors 1: An Introduction -- ANS / Nuclear Newswire" 4126:

Tsetkov, Pavel; Usman, Shoaib (2011). Krivit, Steven (ed.).

4073:"Reactor Protection & Engineered Safety Feature Systems" 3946:"Reactor Protection & Engineered Safety Feature Systems" 3118:. Many of these fuel rods are used in each nuclear reactor. 2074:; however, an initial stock of fissile material is required. 1001:, which was working on the UK atomic bomb project, known as 532:

produced during fission and converts their energy into heat.

217:

on 2 December 1942. Early reactor designs sought to produce

7913: 7015: 6904: 6714: 6672: 5632: 5630: 3403: 3346: 3230: 3062: 2393: 1642: 1332: 910:. The concept of a nuclear chain reaction brought about by 37:"Nuclear pile" redirects here. For nuclear stockpiles, see 5720:

A Debate: Is Nuclear Power The Solution to Global Warming?

4664: 4156:

IAEA Power Reactor Information System – operational by age

2967:

Gas core EM reactor. As in the gas core reactor, but with

2679:

These reactors use as fuel soluble nuclear salts (usually

1883:(evolutionary improvements of existing designs, 1996–2016) 1731:

Pool-type reactor can refer to unpressurized water cooled

6988: 6852: 5507:. Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events. 4241:"Swedish nuclear reactors shut down over safety concerns" 3325:

and led to the hydrogen explosions. This along with fuel

3296: 3288: 3084: 2582:

in Japan suffered a sodium leak in 1995 and could not be

1774: 700:, and other points in the process interpolated in cents. 5627: 5086:"Nuclear Reaction: Why Do Americans Fear Nuclear Power?" 3010:. Would use the neutrons emitted by fusion to fission a 4169: 2792:

hydrogen-moderated self-regulating nuclear power module

2787:, which are between thermal and fast neutrons in speed. 1124:. The Air Force Nuclear Bomber project resulted in the 5110: 4628: 4626: 4624: 1464:, instrumentation to monitor and control the reactor, 8111: 4238: 3170:

in either a fast or thermal reactor. The thorium-233

2693: 2070:, and a thorium breeder reactor can be refueled with 985:

The following year, the U.S. Government received the

513:

The reactor core generates heat in a number of ways:

5715:

Uranium Conference adds discussion of Japan accident

4634:"Nuclear Power Reactors in the World – 2015 Edition" 4546:. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 3841:"Electricity and Heat from Thermal Nuclear Reactors" 3309:

Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents

3034:/nuclear waste into relatively more benign isotopes. 2238:

reactor design, the newest of which are the Russian

1746:

which also served as a moderator. Examples include:

1456:, usually water under high pressure to increase the 1172:(blue), and pumps (green) in the three coolant loop 229:

became the first reactor dedicated to peaceful use.

4621: 4152:"PRIS - Miscellaneous reports - Operational by Age" 3475:, tritium (T) frequently binds to oxygen and forms 3277:Nuclear safety covers the actions taken to prevent 2962:

International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility

1482:to cause fission in their fuel. They do not have a 819:, for example, extended the operating lives of its 165:is a device used to initiate and control a fission 6538:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 5448:"Report Finds Japan Underestimated Tsunami Danger" 5345:Jacobson, Mark Z. & Delucchi, Mark A. (2010). 4867: 4865: 4539: 4198:Status of Subsequent License Renewal Applications. 3680: 1906:(CEA) was the first to refer to "Gen II" types in 1016:Eventually, the first artificial nuclear reactor, 127:, a prototype to the first Generation IV reactor, 4766: 4764: 4000: 3079:Thermal reactors generally depend on refined and 8149: 5502: 2763:small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor 1343:with 4% enriched, pin-type fuel consisting of UO 1128:. The U.S. Navy succeeded when they steamed the 5577:Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management 5445: 5366: 4862: 4699: 4697: 4361: 3440:reaction with only plain water as a moderator. 2770:Clean and Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor 1863:Generation I reactor (early prototypes such as 1270: 1198: 1044:developed a number of nuclear reactors for the 377:, variously optimizing efficiency, safety, and 137:, the first aircraft to test an onboard reactor 7892:Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll 5413:Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2003). 4761: 3193: 2836:and Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research ( 2658:, was built to confirm the feasibility of the 1360: 777: 7693:Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll 7688:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents 7630: 7241:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 5791: 5703:The Database on Nuclear Power Reactors – IAEA 5550:"The Workings of an Ancient Nuclear Reactor." 5484:Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources 4639:. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 4301:. Seacoast Anti-Pollution League (SAPL), 2017 4187:Paul Voosen, Scientific American, 20 Nov 2009 3674: 3279:nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents 3182:, which in turn is used as fuel. Hence, like 3110:. The enriched result is then converted into 2979:that would convert the X-rays generated from 2794:(HPM) is a reactor design emanating from the 989:from the UK, which stated that the amount of 5496: 5389: 4883:. World Nuclear Association, update Dec 2020 4694: 4319: 4125: 4067: 4065: 2854:deposit, has a reactor and hopes to replace 1339:'s PULSTAR Reactor is a 1 MW pool-type 1138:The first commercial nuclear power station, 1135:(SSN-571) on nuclear power 17 January 1955. 906:was discovered in 1932 by British physicist 525:when these nuclei collide with nearby atoms. 197:. The process is carefully controlled using 143:, the first nuclear-powered circumnavigation 7815:1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident 7698:Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country 5463: 5461: 4828:. Document number 20180144836. 24 May 2018. 3887:Region, CountryBy TypeBy (29 August 2024). 3483:. This molecule is chemically identical to 3391: 2179:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1365:All commercial power reactors are based on 1327:Net power capacity (GWe) by type (end 2014) 243:(water or gas), which in turn runs through 7637: 7623: 5798: 5784: 4291:The True Lifespan of a Nuclear Power Plant 4036: 2523:, closed in 1998, was one of the few FBRs. 492:To control such a nuclear chain reaction, 7983:Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack 7960:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 7880:Three Mile Island accident health effects 5340: 5338: 5209: 5083: 4283: 4062: 3919:. US Department of Energy. Archived from 3694: 3683:International Journal of Modern Physics E 3321:overheated, causing the coolant water to 3198:The amount of energy in the reservoir of 2915: 2871: 2724:Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor 2290:Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor 2199:Learn how and when to remove this message 1404:materials that slow neutrons until their 353:constructed from the 1960s to 1990s, and 247:. In commercial reactors, turbines drive 7978:International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) 7821:Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident 7153: 5458: 4775:. University of Michigan. Archived from 4564: 4457:Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 factsheet 3906: 3889:"In Operation & Suspended Operation" 3312: 2514: 2486: 2436: 2421: 2376: 2297: 2210: 2030:Heat for domestic and industrial heating 1651: 1636: 1534: 1436:, and a relatively lower probability of 1331: 1155: 882: 867: 852: 406: 314:neutron-absorbing fission products like 255:, and industrial applications including 8020:International Day against Nuclear Tests 7668:Crimes involving radioactive substances 5203: 4987: 4770: 4379:Greenpeace, March, 2014 (2.6 MB). 4239:Wikinews contributors (5 August 2006). 4229:. Office of Nuclear Energy, 16 Apr 2020 4130:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 48, 85. 3838: 2140: 1958: 1924:(DOE), for developing new plant types. 424:generate electricity by harnessing the 27:Device for controlled nuclear reactions 14: 8150: 7810:Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident 7168:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 5805: 5503:Johnston, Robert (23 September 2007). 5335: 4958:; see "Fuel Cycles and Sustainability" 4417:"Neutronic Reactor" issued 17 May 1955 4004:Nuclear Weapons: What You Need to Know 3886: 3820:from the original on 18 September 2010 3640:was discovered in 1972 in Oklo, Gabon. 1452:fuel. The moderator is often also the 345:in operation around the world. The US 251:shafts. The heat can also be used for 150:, built to contain the effects of the 7618: 7410: 7173:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 6582: 6569: 5779: 5565: 5088:. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). 4734: 4646:from the original on 16 November 2020 4600: 4537: 4531: 4519:from the original on 3 September 2017 4046:. HowStuffWorks.com. 9 October 2000. 3790:from the original on 11 February 2012 3567:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator 3532:List of small modular reactor designs 3419:, they are collectively known as the 3068: 1255:Number of reactors by type (end 2014) 601: 8015:History of the anti-nuclear movement 7597: 7413: 6570: 5595: 5511:from the original on 23 October 2007 5234: 5210:De Clercq, Geert (13 October 2014). 5104: 4924: 4805:from the original on 6 November 2021 4716:from the original on 3 December 2017 4582:from the original on 27 October 2019 4177:How Long Can a Nuclear Reactor Last? 4050:from the original on 22 October 2019 3978:. Bioenergy.ornl.gov. Archived from 3880: 3740: 3738: 3598:World Nuclear Industry Status Report 3537:List of United States Naval reactors 3302: 2698: 2177:adding citations to reliable sources 2144: 1641:Treatment of the interior part of a 521:of fission products is converted to 263:. Some reactors are used to produce 7673:Criticality accidents and incidents 7178:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 5680:from the original on 2 October 2017 5650:from the original on 18 August 2017 5477: 5323:from the original on 14 August 2007 5141: 5077: 5047: 4850:from the original on 13 August 2020 4609:from the original on 29 August 2010 4083:from the original on 22 August 2018 3956:from the original on 22 August 2018 3747: 2925:Liquid-core reactor. A closed loop 2751:high-temperature gas-cooled reactor 1927: 1920:"Gen IV" was named in 2000, by the 326:Level 7 "major accident": the 1986 39:List of states with nuclear weapons 24: 7777:Nuclear power accidents by country 6987: 6138:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 5615:from the original on 30 March 2021 5427:from the original on 12 April 2019 5129:from the original on 28 April 2021 5092:from the original on 17 April 2018 3359:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster 3127:International Atomic Energy Agency 3038: 2694:Future and developing technologies 2557:Most LMFBRs are of this type. The 2327:), very similar to PWRs but using 2244:Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor 1922:United States Department of Energy 1742:Some reactors have been cooled by 1578:Light-element-moderated reactors. 1355: 1266: 1194: 1109:, launched on 27 June 1954 in the 508: 339:International Atomic Energy Agency 25: 8204: 8009:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 6161:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 6060:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 5696: 5603:"Oklo's Natural Fission Reactors" 5373:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 5367:Gusterson, Hugh (16 March 2011). 5222:from the original on 29 July 2021 5155:. 14 January 2019. Archived from 5055:"Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors" 4999:Nuclear Engineering International 4995:"HTR-PM: Making dreams come true" 4908:. Euronuclear.org. Archived from 4509:"The Nuclear Option — NOVA | PBS" 4438:from the original on 13 June 2022 3755:"Spent Fuel Reprocessing Options" 3735: 3373:reactor accident (1968), and the 3341:have occurred. These include the 3260: 2624:is operating in China, where the 1915:Generation IV International Forum 1904:Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique 1865:Shippingport Atomic Power Station 1040:Soon after the Chicago Pile, the 977:invaded Poland in 1939, starting 842: 696:and the prompt critical point is 324:International Nuclear Event Scale 227:Shippingport Atomic Power Station 119:Shippingport Atomic Power Station 8133: 8121: 8098: 8097: 8087: 7870:Kramatorsk radiological accident 7596: 7585: 7584: 7572: 7261:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 5573:"Oklo: Natural Nuclear Reactors" 5548:Meshik, Alex P. (November 2005) 5242:"Generation IV Nuclear Reactors" 5212:"Can Sodium Save Nuclear Power?" 5035:from the original on 12 May 2019 4703: 4310: 4251:from the original on 16 May 2023 3869:from the original on 5 June 2018 3630: 3617: 3091:and disposed of is known as the 2850:China, which has control of the 2777:reduced moderation water reactor 2149: 1857: 1722:Reduced moderation water reactor 1679:Pressurized heavy water reactors 1420:(probability) of fissioning the 1183: 528:The reactor absorbs some of the 99: 88: 79: 68: 59: 48: 7772:List of orphan source incidents 6350:Historical stockpiles and tests 5662: 5542: 5523: 5446:Fackler, Martin (1 June 2011). 5439: 5406: 5383: 5360: 5305: 5296: 5264: 5171: 5017: 4961: 4898: 4886: 4832: 4817: 4791: 4735:Joyce, Malcolm (2018). "10.6". 4728: 4658: 4594: 4501: 4469: 4450: 4420: 4411:Enrico, Fermi and Leo, Szilard 4405: 4385: 4340: 4304: 4232: 4211: 4190: 4144: 4119: 4095: 3994: 3968: 3938: 3638:natural nuclear fission reactor 3398:Natural nuclear fission reactor 3339:nuclear and radiation accidents 2935:. A closed loop version of the 2660:Liquid fluoride thorium reactor 2314:Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor 1160:Primary coolant system showing 558:The fission of one kilogram of 240: 169:. Nuclear reactors are used at 7251:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 6133:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 5670:"Radionuclides in Groundwater" 4873:Generation IV Nuclear Reactors 4706:"Light Water Nuclear Reactors" 4572:"On This Day: 17 October" 3976:"Bioenergy Conversion Factors" 3832: 3802: 3772: 3654: 3218:is transferred to the on-site 3053:could in principle be used in 2796:Los Alamos National Laboratory 2781:Advanced boiling water reactor 2717:advanced boiling water reactor 2656:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment 2286:Advanced Boiling Water Reactor 2054:are capable of producing more 1735:, but not to be confused with 1618:Organically moderated reactors 1558:Light-water-moderated reactors 1503:prototypes is continuing (see 1126:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment 1056:), was the mass production of 970:to alert the U.S. government. 849:Nuclear fission § History 181:. When a fissile nucleus like 13: 1: 8094:Nuclear technology portal 7579:Nuclear technology portal 5415:"The Future of Nuclear Power" 5390:Paton, James (4 April 2011). 3647: 3577:Sayonara Nuclear Power Plants 3369:reactor accident (1961), the 3293:Fukushima I nuclear accidents 3273:Nuclear reactor safety system 3002:magnetohydrodynamic generator 2910:Very-high-temperature reactor 2824:Bhabha Atomic Research Centre 2443:Torness nuclear power station 2114:(for example with the pulsed 1632: 1085:U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 1067:, which is now a museum near 962:signed a letter to President 797: 121:, the first peacetime reactor 7864:Andreev Bay nuclear accident 7851:Chazhma Bay nuclear accident 7441:Field-reversed configuration 7051:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 6585: 4773:"Nuclear Energy and Society" 4712:. Georgia State University. 4459:, Idaho National Laboratory 3592:Traveling-wave reactor (TWR) 3562:One Less Nuclear Power Plant 3455: 2820:Advanced heavy-water reactor 2645:These dissolve the fuels in 2383:Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant 2323:A Canadian design (known as 2260:United States Naval reactors 2256:European Pressurized Reactor 2095:Production of materials for 1610:Liquid metal cooled reactors 1460:. These are surrounded by a 821:Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors 396: 287:. Reactor spent fuel can be 7: 8188:Nuclear power reactor types 7798:Nyonoksa radiation accident 7398:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 6583: 6345:States with nuclear weapons 5468:The Worst Nuclear Disasters 4605:. Camp Century, Greenland. 3853:10.1007/978-3-642-68444-9_5 3587:Thorium-based nuclear power 3519: 3194:Fueling of nuclear reactors 2927:liquid-core nuclear reactor 2905:Supercritical water reactor 2670:Aqueous homogeneous reactor 2455:advanced gas-cooled reactor 2385:– a RBMK type (closed 2009) 2307:Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant 2252:Hualong Pressurized Reactor 2124:neutron activation analysis 1940:Aqueous homogeneous reactor 1767:Liquid metal cooled reactor 1703:Supercritical water reactor 1544:Graphite-moderated reactors 1361:By type of nuclear reaction 1107:Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant 1077:Argonne National Laboratory 794:and generates electricity. 778:Electrical power generation 640:. Control rods are made of 115:, the first nuclear reactor 10: 8209: 8070:Russell–Einstein Manifesto 7993:Films about nuclear issues 7988:Books about nuclear issues 7876:Three Mile Island accident 7804:Fukushima nuclear accident 7683:Military nuclear accidents 7678:Nuclear meltdown accidents 7411: 7236:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 6360:Tests in the United States 5369:"The lessons of Fukushima" 4771:Lipper, Ilan; Stone, Jon. 4009:Cambridge University Press 4001:Bernstein, Jeremy (2008). 3395: 3351:Three Mile Island accident 3329:released large amounts of 3306: 3270: 3264: 3140:U-235 and non-fissile but 3072: 3042: 2900:Sodium-cooled fast reactor 2732:Nuclear Power 2010 Program 2337:fuel enrichment facilities 2224:Pressurized water reactors 2014:Various proposed forms of 1789:Sodium-cooled fast reactor 1539:Used by thermal reactors: 1122:Army Nuclear Power Program 846: 605: 569: 562:releases about 19 billion 443: 439: 400: 359:pressurized water reactors 294:Reactors are also used in 36: 29: 8183:Nuclear research reactors 8083: 8030:Nuclear-Free Future Award 7968: 7939:Totskoye nuclear exercise 7785: 7767:Sunken nuclear submarines 7652: 7566: 7522: 7474: 7431: 7421: 7373: 7361:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 7274: 7256:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 7221: 7204: 7144: 7071: 7063:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 7037: 7028: 6980: 6960: 6913: 6895: 6851: 6756: 6738: 6606: 6593: 6578: 6565: 6520: 6453: 6398: 6389: 6337: 6245: 6236: 6203: 6146: 6108: 6099: 6020: 5952: 5875: 5817: 5813: 5762:ソヴィエト連邦における宇宙用原子炉の開発とその実用 5246:World Nuclear Association 5059:World Nuclear Association 4826:USPTO Patent Applications 4358:. EDF (accessed Feb 2023) 4044:"How nuclear power works" 3713:10.1142/S0218301314300070 3460:Nuclear reactors produce 3377:reactor accident (1985). 3363:Nuclear-powered submarine 3317:Three of the reactors at 3282:designers of reactors at 2921:practicality, or safety. 2010:Nuclear marine propulsion 1983: 1781:, and in early reactors, 1666:Pressurized water reactor 1628:as moderator and coolant. 1548:Water moderated reactors 1177:pressurized water reactor 1020:, was constructed at the 987:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 764:nuclear marine propulsion 588:pressurized water reactor 300:Nuclear marine propulsion 179:nuclear marine propulsion 8168:Power station technology 7266:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 6882:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 6218:Electron-beam processing 5608:American Nuclear Society 5530:Video of physics lecture 4354:19 February 2023 at the 4333:19 February 2023 at the 4297:19 February 2023 at the 3610: 3552:Nuclear power by country 3527:List of nuclear reactors 3392:Natural nuclear reactors 2994:Fission fragment reactor 2937:nuclear lightbulb rocket 2890:Lead-cooled fast reactor 2044:Production reactors for 1851:Organic nuclear reactors 1794:Lead-cooled fast reactor 1523:of elements such as the 1394:Thermal-neutron reactors 1042:Metallurgical Laboratory 535:Heat is produced by the 109:From top, left to right 8045:Nuclear power phase-out 7381:Organic nuclear reactor 6553:Nuclear power phase-out 6476:Nuclear decommissioning 6416:Reactor-grade plutonium 6166:Targeted alpha-particle 6045:Accidents and incidents 5747:30 January 2010 at the 5735:3 November 2011 at the 5489:11 January 2015 at the 4745:10.1016/c2015-0-05557-5 4603:"Science Leads the Way" 4463:29 October 2008 at the 4348:Nuclear decommissioning 4204:21 January 2018 at the 4183:2 February 2017 at the 3547:Nuclear decommissioning 3412:natural nuclear fission 3129:there are at least 100 3004:to produce electricity. 2885:Gas-cooled fast reactor 1887:Generation III+ reactor 1759:class research reactors 1739:which are sodium cooled 1412:, that is, until their 1162:reactor pressure vessel 968:Einstein-Szilárd letter 831:, also after 46 years. 608:Nuclear reactor physics 576:nuclear reactor coolant 403:Nuclear reactor physics 285:boosted fission weapons 219:weapons-grade plutonium 8050:Nuclear weapons debate 5396:Bloomberg Businessweek 4844:Nuclear Energy Insider 3557:Nuclear power in space 3434:University of Arkansas 3357:(April 1986), and the 3337:Serious, though rare, 3334: 3333:material into the air. 2971:arrays converting the 2916:Generation V+ reactors 2877:Generation IV reactors 2872:Generation IV reactors 2524: 2495: 2446: 2434: 2386: 2309: 2270:Boiling water reactors 2254:and the Franco-German 2219: 2128:potassium-argon dating 2110:Providing a source of 1997:small modular reactors 1881:Generation III reactor 1657: 1649: 1509:generation IV reactors 1352: 1279: 1207: 1180: 953:nuclear chain reaction 899: 880: 865: 703:In some reactors, the 612:Passive nuclear safety 487:nuclear chain reaction 428:released from burning 422:thermal power stations 417: 391:Small modular reactors 363:boiling water reactors 355:Generation IV reactors 351:Generation II reactors 175:electricity generation 167:nuclear chain reaction 7908:K-19 nuclear accident 7703:Nuclear weapons tests 6543:Anti-nuclear movement 5555:15 March 2015 at the 5536:4 August 2006 at the 4879:30 March 2023 at the 4538:Kragh, Helge (1999). 4414:U.S. patent 2,708,656 4375:15 March 2023 at the 3582:Small modular reactor 3349:accident (1961), the 3316: 3008:Hybrid nuclear fusion 2947:. In theory, using UF 2740:integral fast reactor 2540:lead-bismuth eutectic 2518: 2493:TOPAZ nuclear reactor 2491:Scaled-down model of 2490: 2440: 2433:nuclear power station 2425: 2406:containment buildings 2380: 2301: 2214: 1893:Generation IV reactor 1871:Generation II reactor 1779:lead-bismuth eutectic 1710:Generation IV reactor 1691:Boiling water reactor 1655: 1640: 1562:operating temperature 1535:By moderator material 1519:could be produced by 1476:Fast-neutron reactors 1369:. They generally use 1335: 1278: 1206: 1159: 1115:F-1 (nuclear reactor) 1022:University of Chicago 964:Franklin D. Roosevelt 886: 871: 856: 805:neutron embrittlement 715:are more likely than 596:boiling water reactor 420:Just as conventional 410: 375:fast breeder reactors 308:spacecraft propulsion 277:nuclear proliferation 275:use. Reactors pose a 148:Chernobyl sarcophagus 8040:Nuclear power debate 7902:Cuban Missile Crisis 7753:in the United States 7451:Reversed field pinch 7246:Traveling-wave (TWR) 6730:Supercritical (SCWR) 6228:Gemstone irradiation 5560:Scientific American. 4601:Leskovitz, Frank J. 4398:21 June 2008 at the 4115:on 11 December 2013. 3982:on 27 September 2011 3839:Oldekop, W. (1982), 3667:21 June 2008 at the 3623:Hungarian physicist 3604:Nuclear microreactor 3421:Oklo Fossil Reactors 3365:mishaps include the 3345:(October 1957), the 3235:molten-salt reactors 3154:fast breeder reactor 2977:photoelectric effect 2858:with nuclear energy. 2806:Subcritical reactors 2636:Molten-salt reactors 2586:until May 2010. The 2545:Alfa class submarine 2481:fast-breeder reactor 2371:nuclear weapon test. 2173:improve this section 2141:Current technologies 1993:Nuclear power plants 1959:By shape of the core 1902:In 2003, the French 1875:nuclear power plants 1817:Molten-salt reactors 1582:Molten-salt reactors 1552:Heavy-water reactors 1470:containment building 1446:low-enriched uranium 1079:. This experimental 367:heavy water reactors 347:Department of Energy 249:electrical generator 171:nuclear power plants 8025:Nuclear close calls 6616:Aqueous homogeneous 6411:Reprocessed uranium 6084:Safety and security 5767:3 June 2019 at the 5708:2 June 2013 at the 5216:Scientific American 5191:on 19 December 2019 4975:on 31 December 2006 4846:. 8 February 2017. 4737:Nuclear Engineering 4578:. 17 October 1956. 4515:. 11 January 2017. 4225:9 June 2020 at the 4077:The Nuclear Tourist 3950:The Nuclear Tourist 3705:2014IJMPE..2330007D 3508:at high altitudes. 3227:pebble bed reactors 3186:, thorium-232 is a 2895:Molten-salt reactor 2785:epithermal neutrons 2602:Pebble-bed reactors 2034:Hydrogen production 2022:Other uses of heat 1945:Molten-salt reactor 1801:Gas cooled reactors 1466:radiation shielding 1406:neutron temperature 1153:from 1960 to 1963. 1100:UN General Assembly 1024:, by a team led by 879:in their laboratory 371:gas-cooled reactors 304:aircraft propulsion 261:hydrogen production 141:Operation Sea Orbit 8163:Nuclear technology 8128:Nuclear technology 7933:Operation Plumbbob 7896:Operation Fishbowl 7833:Chernobyl disaster 7530:Dense plasma focus 6445:Actinide chemistry 5910:Isotope separation 5807:Nuclear technology 5452:The New York Times 5252:on 23 January 2010 5065:on 6 February 2010 4680:10.1007/BF00750983 4275:has generic name ( 3689:(4): 1430007–236. 3572:Safety engineering 3423:. Self-sustaining 3355:Chernobyl disaster 3335: 3161:thorium fuel cycle 3093:nuclear fuel cycle 3075:Nuclear fuel cycle 3069:Nuclear fuel cycle 3032:spent nuclear fuel 2941:as a rocket engine 2755:Doppler broadening 2747:pebble-bed reactor 2525: 2496: 2451:Gas-cooled reactor 2447: 2435: 2410:Chernobyl disaster 2387: 2310: 2282:thermal efficiency 2220: 2120:positron radiation 2005:nuclear propulsion 1733:open pool reactors 1726:Epithermal neutron 1658: 1650: 1498:waste because all 1383:thorium fuel cycle 1353: 1289:PWR: 257.2 (68.3%) 1280: 1208: 1181: 958:On 2 August 1939, 900: 881: 866: 768:nuclear submarines 757:Chernobyl disaster 602:Reactivity control 594:; for example the 541:neutron absorption 502:neutron moderators 418: 332:Fukushima disaster 328:Chernobyl disaster 296:nuclear propulsion 203:neutron moderators 18:Air-cooled reactor 8158:Energy conversion 8109: 8108: 8035:Nuclear-free zone 7998:Anti-war movement 7954:Rocky Flats Plant 7612: 7611: 7562: 7561: 7558: 7557: 7509:Magnetized-target 7406: 7405: 7369: 7368: 7200: 7199: 7196: 7195: 7140: 7139: 7024: 7023: 6956: 6955: 6561: 6560: 6516: 6515: 6385: 6384: 6372:Weapon-free zones 6199: 6198: 6191:Radiopharmacology 4944:on 5 October 2006 4137:978-0-470-89439-2 4022:978-0-521-88408-2 3862:978-3-540-11307-2 3542:Neutron transport 3449:radioactive waste 3303:Nuclear accidents 3178:-233 and then to 3131:research reactors 3104:gaseous diffusion 2981:aneutronic fusion 2958:reactor materials 2956:, weakening most 2699:Advanced reactors 2262:are of this type. 2209: 2208: 2201: 2112:neutron radiation 2077:Creating various 2016:rocket propulsion 1645:reactor frame at 1573:/unenriched fuel. 1566:negative feedback 1484:neutron moderator 1402:neutron moderator 1313:LWGR: 10.2 (2.7%) 1307:PHWR: 24.6 (6.5%) 1295:BWR: 75.5 (20.1%) 1092:Dwight Eisenhower 1046:Manhattan Project 1011:Manhattan Project 912:nuclear reactions 889:Chicago Pile Team 863:Manhattan project 762:Reactors used in 709:neutron moderator 537:radioactive decay 343:research reactors 211:Manhattan Project 16:(Redirected from 8200: 8178:Pressure vessels 8173:Nuclear reactors 8138: 8137: 8126: 8125: 8124: 8117: 8101: 8100: 8092: 8091: 8090: 7921:Kyshtym disaster 7916:nuclear meltdown 7843:Related articles 7827:Goiânia accident 7639: 7632: 7625: 7616: 7615: 7600: 7599: 7588: 7587: 7577: 7576: 7575: 7487: 7446:Levitated dipole 7416: 7408: 7407: 7356:Helium gas (GFR) 7219: 7218: 7214: 7151: 7150: 7035: 7034: 6985: 6984: 6978: 6977: 6973: 6972: 6754: 6753: 6750: 6749: 6588: 6580: 6579: 6572:Nuclear reactors 6567: 6566: 6466:High-level (HLW) 6396: 6395: 6243: 6242: 6223:Food irradiation 6213:Atomic gardening 6106: 6105: 6089:Nuclear meltdown 5915:Nuclear material 5905:Fissile material 5900:Fertile material 5815: 5814: 5800: 5793: 5786: 5777: 5776: 5760: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5685: 5666: 5660: 5659: 5657: 5655: 5649: 5642: 5634: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5599: 5593: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5583:on 16 March 2006 5579:. 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Archived from 4936: 4928: 4922: 4921: 4919: 4917: 4912:on 17 March 2011 4902: 4896: 4890: 4884: 4869: 4860: 4859: 4857: 4855: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4821: 4815: 4814: 4812: 4810: 4795: 4789: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4768: 4759: 4758: 4732: 4726: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4701: 4692: 4691: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4651: 4645: 4638: 4630: 4619: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4598: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4568: 4562: 4561: 4545: 4535: 4529: 4528: 4526: 4524: 4505: 4499: 4498: 4496: 4494: 4488: 4481: 4473: 4467: 4454: 4448: 4447: 4445: 4443: 4424: 4418: 4416: 4409: 4403: 4389: 4383: 4365: 4359: 4344: 4338: 4323: 4317: 4316: 4308: 4302: 4287: 4281: 4280: 4274: 4270: 4268: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4236: 4230: 4215: 4209: 4208:NRC, 24 Feb 2022 4194: 4188: 4173: 4167: 4166: 4164: 4162: 4148: 4142: 4141: 4123: 4117: 4116: 4114: 4108:. Archived from 4107: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4069: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4055: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4031: 4029: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3942: 3936: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3926:on 23 April 2008 3925: 3918: 3910: 3904: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3876: 3874: 3836: 3830: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3814:nucleus.iaea.org 3806: 3800: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3776: 3770: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3759: 3751: 3745: 3742: 3733: 3732: 3698: 3678: 3672: 3658: 3641: 3634: 3628: 3621: 3188:fertile material 3081:enriched uranium 3030:other reactor's 3016:fertile material 2933:Gas-core reactor 2810:energy amplifier 2779:builds upon the 2345:online refueling 2204: 2197: 2193: 2190: 2184: 2153: 2145: 2134:Research reactor 2068:depleted uranium 2056:fissile material 2052:Breeder reactors 2038:hydrogen economy 2003:Propulsion, see 1928:By phase of fuel 1737:pool type LMFBRs 1398:thermal neutrons 1373:and its product 1341:research reactor 1318: 1312: 1306: 1300: 1294: 1288: 1269: 1246: 1240: 1235:PHWR: 49 (11.2%) 1234: 1228: 1222: 1217:PWR: 277 (63.2%) 1216: 1197: 1166:steam generators 1094:made his famous 1083:operated by the 944:neutron howitzer 940:Fritz Strassmann 713:Thermal neutrons 682:nuclear meltdown 666:neutron emission 471:fission products 337:As of 2022, the 253:district heating 103: 92: 83: 72: 63: 52: 21: 8208: 8207: 8203: 8202: 8201: 8199: 8198: 8197: 8193:Neutron sources 8148: 8147: 8144: 8132: 8122: 8120: 8112: 8110: 8105: 8088: 8086: 8079: 8055:Peace activists 7970: 7964: 7789: 7787: 7781: 7659: 7657: 7655: 7648: 7643: 7613: 7608: 7573: 7571: 7554: 7518: 7485: 7470: 7427: 7417: 7412: 7402: 7365: 7270: 7215: 7208: 7207: 7192: 7136: 7067: 7042: 7020: 6992: 6974: 6967: 6966: 6965: 6952: 6918: 6909: 6891: 6856: 6847: 6761: 6744: 6743: 6742: 6734: 6648:Natural fission 6602: 6601: 6589: 6584: 6574: 6557: 6533:Nuclear weapons 6512: 6471:Low-level (LLW) 6449: 6381: 6333: 6232: 6195: 6142: 6095: 6016: 5948: 5871: 5809: 5804: 5769:Wayback Machine 5758: 5749:Wayback Machine 5737:Wayback Machine 5710:Wayback Machine 5699: 5694: 5693: 5683: 5681: 5668: 5667: 5663: 5653: 5651: 5647: 5640: 5636: 5635: 5628: 5618: 5616: 5601: 5600: 5596: 5586: 5584: 5571: 5570: 5566: 5557:Wayback Machine 5547: 5543: 5538:Wayback Machine 5528: 5524: 5514: 5512: 5501: 5497: 5491:Wayback Machine 5482: 5478: 5466: 5459: 5444: 5440: 5430: 5428: 5424: 5417: 5411: 5407: 5402:on 15 May 2011. 5388: 5384: 5379:on 6 June 2013. 5365: 5361: 5349: 5343: 5336: 5326: 5324: 5319:. 7 June 2006. 5311: 5310: 5306: 5301: 5297: 5287: 5285: 5284:on 4 March 2016 5281: 5274: 5270: 5269: 5265: 5255: 5253: 5240: 5239: 5235: 5225: 5223: 5208: 5204: 5194: 5192: 5177: 5176: 5172: 5162: 5160: 5159:on 24 June 2019 5147: 5146: 5142: 5132: 5130: 5126: 5115: 5109: 5105: 5095: 5093: 5084:Till, Charles. 5082: 5078: 5068: 5066: 5053: 5052: 5048: 5038: 5036: 5023: 5022: 5018: 5008: 5006: 4993: 4992: 4988: 4978: 4976: 4967: 4966: 4962: 4955: 4947: 4945: 4941: 4934: 4930: 4929: 4925: 4915: 4913: 4906:"Generation IV" 4904: 4903: 4899: 4893:Nucleonics Week 4891: 4887: 4881:Wayback Machine 4870: 4863: 4853: 4851: 4838: 4837: 4833: 4823: 4822: 4818: 4808: 4806: 4797: 4796: 4792: 4782: 4780: 4779:on 1 April 2009 4769: 4762: 4755: 4733: 4729: 4719: 4717: 4702: 4695: 4663: 4659: 4649: 4647: 4643: 4636: 4632: 4631: 4622: 4612: 4610: 4599: 4595: 4585: 4583: 4570: 4569: 4565: 4558: 4536: 4532: 4522: 4520: 4507: 4506: 4502: 4492: 4490: 4489:on 25 June 2008 4486: 4479: 4475: 4474: 4470: 4465:Wayback Machine 4455: 4451: 4441: 4439: 4426: 4425: 4421: 4412: 4410: 4406: 4400:Wayback Machine 4390: 4386: 4377:Wayback Machine 4366: 4362: 4356:Wayback Machine 4345: 4341: 4335:Wayback Machine 4324: 4320: 4309: 4305: 4299:Wayback Machine 4288: 4284: 4272: 4271: 4262: 4261: 4254: 4252: 4237: 4233: 4227:Wayback Machine 4216: 4212: 4206:Wayback Machine 4195: 4191: 4185:Wayback Machine 4174: 4170: 4160: 4158: 4150: 4149: 4145: 4138: 4124: 4120: 4112: 4105: 4101: 4100: 4096: 4086: 4084: 4071: 4070: 4063: 4053: 4051: 4042: 4041: 4037: 4027: 4025: 4023: 3999: 3995: 3985: 3983: 3974: 3973: 3969: 3959: 3957: 3944: 3943: 3939: 3929: 3927: 3923: 3916: 3912: 3911: 3907: 3897: 3895: 3885: 3881: 3872: 3870: 3863: 3837: 3833: 3823: 3821: 3808: 3807: 3803: 3793: 3791: 3778: 3777: 3773: 3763: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3752: 3748: 3743: 3736: 3679: 3675: 3669:Wayback Machine 3659: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3644: 3635: 3631: 3622: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3522: 3511:The amounts of 3488: 3480: 3458: 3425:nuclear fission 3400: 3394: 3311: 3305: 3275: 3269: 3263: 3220:spent fuel pool 3196: 3123:neutron economy 3112:uranium dioxide 3077: 3071: 3047: 3041: 3039:Fusion reactors 2950: 2918: 2874: 2800:uranium hydride 2701: 2696: 2685:uranium nitrate 2681:uranium sulfate 2573:in France; and 2503:neutron capture 2333:neutron economy 2236:thermal neutron 2205: 2194: 2188: 2185: 2170: 2154: 2143: 2097:nuclear weapons 2090:smoke detectors 1986: 1961: 1930: 1908:Nucleonics Week 1860: 1844: 1828: 1714:steam generator 1673:pressure vessel 1635: 1604: 1593: 1571:natural uranium 1537: 1450:natural uranium 1438:neutron capture 1367:nuclear fission 1363: 1358: 1356:Classifications 1346: 1330: 1329: 1328: 1325: 1324: 1323: 1322: 1319:FBR: 0.6 (0.2%) 1316: 1310: 1304: 1301:GCR: 8.2 (2.2%) 1298: 1292: 1286: 1282: 1281: 1277: 1267: 1258: 1257: 1256: 1253: 1252: 1251: 1250: 1244: 1241:LWGR: 15 (3.4%) 1238: 1232: 1226: 1223:BWR: 80 (18.3%) 1220: 1214: 1210: 1209: 1205: 1195: 1186: 1096:Atoms for Peace 973:Shortly after, 960:Albert Einstein 851: 845: 825:Hinkley Point B 800: 780: 745:fission product 732:in the form of 707:also acts as a 687:prompt critical 654:prompt neutrons 650:delayed neutron 642:neutron poisons 630: 616:Delayed neutron 606:Main articles: 604: 572: 511: 509:Heat generation 498:neutron poisons 479:gamma radiation 448: 446:Nuclear fission 442: 434:nuclear fission 414:nuclear weapons 405: 399: 236:is passed to a 234:nuclear fission 163:nuclear reactor 159: 158: 157: 156: 106: 105: 104: 95: 94: 93: 85: 84: 75: 74: 73: 65: 64: 55: 54: 53: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8206: 8196: 8195: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8143: 8142: 8130: 8107: 8106: 8084: 8081: 8080: 8078: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8062: 8060:Peace movement 8057: 8052: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7974: 7972: 7966: 7965: 7963: 7962: 7956: 7951: 7946: 7941: 7935: 7929: 7927:Windscale fire 7923: 7917: 7910: 7904: 7898: 7888: 7886:Lucens reactor 7882: 7872: 7866: 7860: 7853: 7847: 7846: 7845: 7840: 7829: 7823: 7817: 7812: 7806: 7800: 7793: 7791: 7783: 7782: 7780: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7764: 7763: 7762: 7757: 7756: 7755: 7750: 7743:United Kingdom 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7664: 7662: 7650: 7649: 7642: 7641: 7634: 7627: 7619: 7610: 7609: 7607: 7606: 7594: 7582: 7567: 7564: 7563: 7560: 7559: 7556: 7555: 7553: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7540:Muon-catalyzed 7537: 7532: 7526: 7524: 7520: 7519: 7517: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7500: 7499: 7489: 7480: 7478: 7472: 7471: 7469: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7443: 7437: 7435: 7429: 7428: 7422: 7419: 7418: 7404: 7403: 7401: 7400: 7395: 7394: 7393: 7388: 7377: 7375: 7371: 7370: 7367: 7366: 7364: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7347: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7296: 7291: 7280: 7278: 7272: 7271: 7269: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7231:Integral (IFR) 7228: 7222: 7216: 7205: 7202: 7201: 7198: 7197: 7194: 7193: 7191: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7159: 7157: 7148: 7142: 7141: 7138: 7137: 7135: 7134: 7133: 7132: 7127: 7126: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7095: 7090: 7089: 7088: 7077: 7075: 7069: 7068: 7066: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7046: 7044: 7040: 7032: 7026: 7025: 7022: 7021: 7019: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6997: 6995: 6990: 6982: 6975: 6961: 6958: 6957: 6954: 6953: 6951: 6950: 6949: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6922: 6920: 6916: 6911: 6910: 6908: 6907: 6901: 6899: 6893: 6892: 6890: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6878: 6877: 6872: 6861: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6848: 6846: 6845: 6844: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6822: 6821: 6816: 6811: 6801: 6796: 6795: 6794: 6789: 6786: 6783: 6780: 6766: 6764: 6759: 6751: 6736: 6735: 6733: 6732: 6727: 6726: 6725: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6711: 6710: 6705: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6650: 6645: 6644: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6618: 6612: 6610: 6604: 6603: 6595: 6594: 6591: 6590: 6576: 6575: 6563: 6562: 6559: 6558: 6556: 6555: 6550: 6548:Uranium mining 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6524: 6522: 6518: 6517: 6514: 6513: 6511: 6510: 6505: 6504: 6503: 6498: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6457: 6455: 6451: 6450: 6448: 6447: 6442: 6441: 6440: 6430: 6425: 6424: 6423: 6421:Minor actinide 6418: 6413: 6402: 6400: 6393: 6387: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6363: 6362: 6357: 6347: 6341: 6339: 6335: 6334: 6332: 6331: 6330: 6329: 6319: 6314: 6313: 6312: 6307: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6286: 6285: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6249: 6247: 6240: 6234: 6233: 6231: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6209: 6207: 6201: 6200: 6197: 6196: 6194: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6152: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6118:Autoradiograph 6114: 6112: 6103: 6097: 6096: 6094: 6093: 6092: 6091: 6081: 6080: 6079: 6069: 6068: 6067: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6026: 6024: 6018: 6017: 6015: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5958: 5956: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5946: 5945: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5933: 5932: 5927: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5881: 5879: 5873: 5872: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5867: 5862: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5840:Atomic nucleus 5837: 5832: 5827: 5821: 5819: 5811: 5810: 5803: 5802: 5795: 5788: 5780: 5774: 5773: 5772: 5771: 5751: 5739: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5698: 5697:External links 5695: 5692: 5691: 5661: 5626: 5594: 5564: 5541: 5522: 5495: 5476: 5457: 5438: 5420:. p. 48. 5405: 5382: 5359: 5334: 5304: 5295: 5263: 5233: 5202: 5184:Bloomberg News 5170: 5140: 5103: 5076: 5046: 5016: 4986: 4960: 4956:(4.33 MB) 4923: 4897: 4885: 4861: 4831: 4816: 4790: 4760: 4753: 4727: 4693: 4657: 4620: 4593: 4563: 4556: 4530: 4500: 4468: 4449: 4419: 4404: 4384: 4360: 4339: 4318: 4303: 4282: 4231: 4210: 4189: 4168: 4143: 4136: 4118: 4094: 4061: 4035: 4021: 3993: 3967: 3937: 3905: 3879: 3861: 3845:Primary Energy 3831: 3801: 3771: 3746: 3734: 3673: 3652: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3643: 3642: 3629: 3615: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3606: 3601: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3523: 3521: 3518: 3486: 3478: 3457: 3454: 3417:Francis Perrin 3396:Main article: 3393: 3390: 3361:(March 2011). 3343:Windscale fire 3304: 3301: 3267:Nuclear safety 3265:Main article: 3262: 3261:Nuclear safety 3259: 3203:the amount of 3195: 3192: 3108:gas centrifuge 3073:Main article: 3070: 3067: 3051:nuclear fusion 3043:Main article: 3040: 3037: 3036: 3035: 3005: 2991: 2990: 2989: 2948: 2930: 2917: 2914: 2913: 2912: 2907: 2902: 2897: 2892: 2887: 2873: 2870: 2868:for aircraft. 2862: 2861: 2860: 2859: 2848: 2841: 2827: 2826:(BARC), India. 2813: 2803: 2788: 2773: 2766: 2759: 2743: 2721:passively safe 2700: 2697: 2695: 2692: 2691: 2690: 2689: 2688: 2674: 2673: 2666: 2665: 2664: 2663: 2640: 2639: 2632: 2631: 2630: 2629: 2606: 2605: 2598: 2597: 2596: 2595: 2594: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2550: 2549: 2548: 2513: 2512: 2511: 2510: 2485: 2484: 2474: 2473: 2472: 2471: 2459: 2458: 2420: 2419: 2418: 2417: 2398: 2397: 2389: 2388: 2374: 2373: 2372: 2369:Smiling Buddha 2318: 2317: 2296: 2295: 2294: 2293: 2274: 2273: 2266: 2265: 2264: 2263: 2228: 2227: 2207: 2206: 2157: 2155: 2148: 2142: 2139: 2138: 2137: 2131: 2108: 2107: 2106: 2093: 2075: 2042: 2041: 2040: 2031: 2028: 2020: 2019: 2018: 2012: 2001: 2000: 1999: 1985: 1982: 1981: 1980: 1977: 1974: 1971: 1968: 1965: 1960: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1949: 1948: 1947: 1942: 1934: 1929: 1926: 1900: 1899: 1896: 1890: 1884: 1878: 1873:(most current 1868: 1859: 1856: 1855: 1854: 1848: 1842: 1826: 1814: 1811:heat exchanger 1798: 1797: 1796: 1791: 1764: 1763: 1762: 1761: 1760: 1754: 1740: 1729: 1719: 1718: 1717: 1700: 1699: 1698: 1688: 1687: 1686: 1676: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1629: 1615: 1614: 1613: 1607: 1602: 1591: 1576: 1575: 1574: 1555: 1546: 1536: 1533: 1521:nuclear fusion 1515:In principle, 1513: 1512: 1473: 1462:reactor vessel 1414:kinetic energy 1396:use slowed or 1387:chain reaction 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1344: 1326: 1321: 1320: 1314: 1308: 1302: 1296: 1290: 1283: 1265: 1264: 1263: 1262: 1261: 1260: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1248: 1242: 1236: 1230: 1229:GCR: 15 (3.4%) 1224: 1218: 1211: 1193: 1192: 1191: 1190: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1185: 1182: 1098:speech to the 1018:Chicago Pile-1 1007:to be subsumed 999:MAUD Committee 995:chain reaction 946:") produced a 908:James Chadwick 844: 843:Early reactors 841: 813:decommissioned 799: 796: 790:that turns an 784:thermal energy 779: 776: 603: 600: 571: 568: 547:A kilogram of 545: 544: 533: 526: 523:thermal energy 519:kinetic energy 510: 507: 475:kinetic energy 455:atomic nucleus 444:Main article: 441: 438: 426:thermal energy 401:Main article: 398: 395: 195:chain reaction 155: 154: 144: 138: 135:Convair NB-36H 131: 122: 116: 113:Chicago Pile-1 108: 107: 98: 97: 96: 87: 86: 78: 77: 76: 67: 66: 58: 57: 56: 47: 46: 45: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8205: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8155: 8153: 8146: 8141: 8136: 8131: 8129: 8119: 8118: 8115: 8104: 8096: 8095: 8082: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8066: 8063: 8061: 8058: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8010: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7975: 7973: 7967: 7961: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7936: 7934: 7930: 7928: 7924: 7922: 7918: 7915: 7911: 7909: 7905: 7903: 7899: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7887: 7883: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7871: 7867: 7865: 7861: 7858: 7854: 7852: 7848: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7835: 7834: 7830: 7828: 7824: 7822: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7807: 7805: 7801: 7799: 7795: 7794: 7792: 7784: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7761: 7760:United States 7758: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7745: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7705: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7665: 7663: 7661: 7651: 7647: 7640: 7635: 7633: 7628: 7626: 7621: 7620: 7617: 7605: 7604: 7595: 7593: 7592: 7583: 7581: 7580: 7569: 7568: 7565: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7527: 7525: 7521: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7498: 7497:electrostatic 7495: 7494: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7482: 7481: 7479: 7477: 7473: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7436: 7434: 7430: 7426: 7420: 7415: 7409: 7399: 7396: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7383: 7382: 7379: 7378: 7376: 7372: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7286: 7285: 7282: 7281: 7279: 7277: 7276:Generation IV 7273: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7226:Breeder (FBR) 7224: 7223: 7220: 7217: 7212: 7203: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7160: 7158: 7156: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7143: 7131: 7128: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7105: 7104: 7101: 7100: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7087: 7084: 7083: 7082: 7079: 7078: 7076: 7074: 7070: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7052: 7048: 7047: 7045: 7043: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7027: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6998: 6996: 6994: 6986: 6983: 6979: 6976: 6971: 6964: 6959: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6928: 6927: 6924: 6923: 6921: 6919: 6912: 6906: 6903: 6902: 6900: 6898: 6894: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6867: 6866: 6863: 6862: 6860: 6858: 6850: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6807: 6806: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6793: 6790: 6787: 6784: 6781: 6778: 6777: 6776: 6773: 6772: 6771: 6768: 6767: 6765: 6763: 6755: 6752: 6748: 6741: 6737: 6731: 6728: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6700: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6655: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6623: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6613: 6611: 6609: 6605: 6600: 6599: 6592: 6587: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6568: 6564: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6528:Nuclear power 6526: 6525: 6523: 6519: 6509: 6508:Transmutation 6506: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6493: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6456: 6452: 6446: 6443: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6408: 6407: 6404: 6403: 6401: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6388: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6352: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6342: 6340: 6336: 6328: 6325: 6324: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6305:high-altitude 6303: 6302: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6295:Proliferation 6293: 6291: 6288: 6284: 6281: 6280: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6235: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6210: 6208: 6206: 6202: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6181:Brachytherapy 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6153: 6151: 6149: 6145: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6115: 6113: 6111: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6098: 6090: 6087: 6086: 6085: 6082: 6078: 6075: 6074: 6073: 6070: 6066: 6063: 6062: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6027: 6025: 6023: 6019: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5977:Cross section 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5959: 5957: 5955: 5951: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5922: 5921: 5918: 5917: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5882: 5880: 5878: 5874: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5857: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5822: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5801: 5796: 5794: 5789: 5787: 5782: 5781: 5778: 5770: 5766: 5763: 5759:(in Japanese) 5757: 5756: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5746: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5734: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5707: 5704: 5701: 5700: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5665: 5646: 5639: 5633: 5631: 5614: 5610: 5609: 5604: 5598: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5568: 5561: 5558: 5554: 5551: 5545: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5526: 5510: 5506: 5499: 5492: 5488: 5485: 5480: 5473: 5469: 5464: 5462: 5453: 5449: 5442: 5423: 5416: 5409: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5386: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5363: 5355: 5354:Energy Policy 5348: 5341: 5339: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5308: 5299: 5280: 5273: 5267: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5237: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5206: 5190: 5186: 5185: 5180: 5174: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5144: 5125: 5121: 5114: 5107: 5091: 5087: 5080: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5050: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5025:"RRDB Search" 5020: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4990: 4974: 4970: 4964: 4940: 4933: 4927: 4911: 4907: 4901: 4894: 4889: 4882: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4868: 4866: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4835: 4827: 4820: 4804: 4800: 4794: 4778: 4774: 4767: 4765: 4756: 4754:9780081009628 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4731: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4700: 4698: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4668:Atomic Energy 4661: 4642: 4635: 4629: 4627: 4625: 4608: 4604: 4597: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4567: 4559: 4557:0-691-09552-3 4553: 4549: 4544: 4543: 4534: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4504: 4485: 4478: 4472: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4453: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4423: 4415: 4408: 4401: 4397: 4394: 4388: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4371: 4370: 4364: 4357: 4353: 4350: 4349: 4343: 4336: 4332: 4329: 4328: 4322: 4314: 4307: 4300: 4296: 4293: 4292: 4286: 4278: 4266: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4235: 4228: 4224: 4221: 4220: 4214: 4207: 4203: 4200: 4199: 4193: 4186: 4182: 4179: 4178: 4172: 4157: 4153: 4147: 4139: 4133: 4129: 4122: 4111: 4104: 4098: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4068: 4066: 4049: 4045: 4039: 4024: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4005: 3997: 3981: 3977: 3971: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3941: 3922: 3915: 3909: 3894: 3890: 3883: 3868: 3864: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3810:"RRDB Search" 3805: 3789: 3785: 3784:pris.iaea.org 3781: 3780:"PRIS – Home" 3775: 3756: 3750: 3741: 3739: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3677: 3670: 3666: 3663: 3657: 3653: 3639: 3633: 3626: 3620: 3616: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3599: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3524: 3517: 3514: 3509: 3507: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3465: 3463: 3453: 3450: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3435: 3431: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3399: 3389: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3300: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3285: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3258: 3256: 3251: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3231:RBMK reactors 3228: 3223: 3221: 3215: 3211: 3209: 3206: 3201: 3191: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3162: 3157: 3155: 3150: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3119: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3096: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3076: 3066: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3046: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3006: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2965: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2931: 2928: 2924: 2923: 2922: 2911: 2908: 2906: 2903: 2901: 2898: 2896: 2893: 2891: 2888: 2886: 2883: 2882: 2881: 2878: 2869: 2867: 2857: 2853: 2852:Cerro Impacto 2849: 2846: 2842: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2828: 2825: 2821: 2818: 2817: 2814: 2811: 2807: 2804: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2771: 2767: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2741: 2737: 2736: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2677: 2676: 2675: 2671: 2668: 2667: 2661: 2657: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2643: 2642: 2641: 2637: 2634: 2633: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2610: 2609: 2608: 2607: 2603: 2600: 2599: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2580:Monju reactor 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2555: 2554: 2553:Sodium-cooled 2551: 2546: 2541: 2536: 2535: 2534: 2531: 2530: 2529: 2528: 2527: 2526: 2522: 2517: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2499: 2498: 2497: 2494: 2489: 2482: 2479: 2476: 2475: 2468: 2463: 2462: 2461: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2449: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2432: 2429: 2424: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2402: 2401: 2400: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2390: 2384: 2379: 2375: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2321: 2320: 2319: 2315: 2312: 2311: 2308: 2305: 2300: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2277: 2276: 2275: 2271: 2268: 2267: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2232: 2231: 2230: 2229: 2225: 2222: 2221: 2217: 2216:Diablo Canyon 2213: 2203: 2200: 2192: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2168: 2167: 2163: 2158:This section 2156: 2152: 2147: 2146: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2116:Godiva device 2113: 2109: 2105: 2102: 2101:weapons-grade 2098: 2094: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2080: 2076: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2050: 2049: 2047: 2046:transmutation 2043: 2039: 2036:for use in a 2035: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2024: 2023: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2011: 2008: 2007: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1991: 1990: 1988: 1987: 1978: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1966: 1963: 1962: 1954:(theoretical) 1953: 1950: 1946: 1943: 1941: 1938: 1937: 1936:Fluid fueled 1935: 1932: 1931: 1925: 1923: 1918: 1917:(GIF) plans. 1916: 1911: 1909: 1905: 1897: 1894: 1891: 1888: 1885: 1882: 1879: 1876: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1862: 1861: 1858:By generation 1852: 1849: 1846: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1822: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1799: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1786: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1765: 1758: 1755: 1752: 1748: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1727: 1723: 1720: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1695: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1684: 1680: 1677: 1674: 1670: 1669: 1667: 1664: 1663: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1648: 1644: 1639: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1616: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1598: 1594: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1579: 1577: 1572: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1556: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1547: 1545: 1542: 1541: 1540: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1510: 1506: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1480:fast neutrons 1477: 1474: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1458:boiling point 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1434:plutonium-241 1431: 1430:plutonium-239 1427: 1423: 1419: 1418:cross section 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1392: 1391: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1350: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1315: 1309: 1303: 1297: 1291: 1285: 1284: 1247:FBR: 2 (0.5%) 1243: 1237: 1231: 1225: 1219: 1213: 1212: 1184:Reactor types 1178: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1158: 1154: 1152: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1136: 1134: 1133: 1127: 1123: 1118: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1103: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1061: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1038: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 993:needed for a 992: 988: 983: 980: 976: 971: 969: 965: 961: 956: 954: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 928: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 898: 894: 890: 885: 878: 874: 870: 864: 860: 855: 850: 840: 837: 832: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 808: 806: 795: 793: 789: 788:steam turbine 785: 775: 773: 769: 765: 760: 758: 754: 749: 746: 743:. The common 742: 737: 735: 731: 727: 721: 718: 717:fast neutrons 714: 710: 706: 701: 699: 695: 694: 688: 683: 679: 678:critical mass 676:to achieve a 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 646: 643: 639: 634: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 599: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 567: 565: 561: 556: 554: 550: 542: 538: 534: 531: 527: 524: 520: 516: 515: 514: 506: 503: 499: 495: 490: 488: 484: 483:free neutrons 480: 476: 473:), releasing 472: 468: 467:plutonium-239 464: 460: 456: 453: 450:When a large 447: 437: 435: 431: 427: 423: 415: 409: 404: 394: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 335: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 311: 309: 305: 301: 298:of vehicles. 297: 292: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 239: 238:working fluid 235: 230: 228: 224: 223:fission bombs 220: 216: 212: 207: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 187:plutonium-239 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 153: 152:1986 disaster 149: 145: 142: 139: 136: 132: 130: 126: 123: 120: 117: 114: 111: 110: 102: 91: 82: 71: 62: 51: 40: 33: 19: 8145: 8085: 8007: 8003:Bikini Atoll 7949:Hanford Site 7944:Bikini Atoll 7748:in Australia 7738:Soviet Union 7733:South Africa 7601: 7589: 7570: 7550:Pyroelectric 7504:Laser-driven 7284:Sodium (SFR) 7211:fast-neutron 7050: 6596: 6571: 6486:Reprocessing 6367:WMD treaties 6186:Radiosurgery 6156:Fast-neutron 6128:Scintigraphy 5682:. Retrieved 5673: 5664: 5652:. Retrieved 5617:. Retrieved 5606: 5597: 5585:. Retrieved 5581:the original 5576: 5567: 5559: 5544: 5525: 5513:. Retrieved 5498: 5479: 5471: 5451: 5441: 5429:. Retrieved 5408: 5400:the original 5395: 5385: 5377:the original 5372: 5362: 5356:. p. 6. 5353: 5325:. Retrieved 5316: 5307: 5298: 5286:. Retrieved 5279:the original 5266: 5254:. Retrieved 5250:the original 5236: 5224:. Retrieved 5215: 5205: 5193:. Retrieved 5189:the original 5182: 5173: 5161:. Retrieved 5157:the original 5152: 5143: 5131:. Retrieved 5119: 5106: 5094:. Retrieved 5079: 5067:. Retrieved 5063:the original 5049: 5037:. Retrieved 5028: 5019: 5007:. Retrieved 5003:the original 4998: 4989: 4977:. Retrieved 4973:the original 4963: 4946:. Retrieved 4939:the original 4926: 4914:. Retrieved 4910:the original 4900: 4892: 4888: 4872: 4852:. Retrieved 4843: 4834: 4825: 4819: 4807:. Retrieved 4793: 4781:. Retrieved 4777:the original 4739:. Elsevier. 4736: 4730: 4718:. Retrieved 4710:Hyperphysics 4709: 4671: 4667: 4660: 4648:. Retrieved 4611:. Retrieved 4596: 4584:. Retrieved 4575: 4566: 4541: 4533: 4521:. Retrieved 4512: 4503: 4491:. Retrieved 4484:the original 4471: 4452: 4440:. Retrieved 4431: 4422: 4407: 4391:L. Szilárd, 4387: 4368: 4363: 4347: 4342: 4337:. EDF Energy 4326: 4321: 4312: 4306: 4290: 4285: 4253:. Retrieved 4244: 4234: 4218: 4213: 4197: 4192: 4176: 4171: 4159:. Retrieved 4155: 4146: 4127: 4121: 4110:the original 4097: 4087:25 September 4085:. Retrieved 4076: 4054:25 September 4052:. Retrieved 4038: 4026:. Retrieved 4003: 3996: 3984:. Retrieved 3980:the original 3970: 3960:25 September 3958:. Retrieved 3949: 3940: 3930:24 September 3928:. Retrieved 3921:the original 3908: 3896:. Retrieved 3892: 3882: 3871:, retrieved 3844: 3834: 3822:. Retrieved 3813: 3804: 3792:. Retrieved 3783: 3774: 3762:. Retrieved 3749: 3686: 3682: 3676: 3660:L. Szilárd, 3656: 3632: 3619: 3596: 3513:strontium-90 3510: 3466: 3459: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3401: 3379: 3336: 3276: 3252: 3224: 3216: 3212: 3200:nuclear fuel 3197: 3176:protactinium 3158: 3151: 3136: 3120: 3097: 3078: 3055:fusion power 3048: 3045:Fusion power 2998:Carnot cycle 2969:photovoltaic 2954:neutron flux 2944: 2919: 2875: 2863: 2726:(ESBWR) and 2702: 2507:fast neutron 2478:Liquid metal 2414:Soviet Union 2195: 2186: 2171:Please help 2159: 2048:of elements 2026:Desalination 1989:Electricity 1933:Solid fueled 1919: 1912: 1907: 1901: 1877:, 1965–1996) 1708:SCWRs are a 1538: 1517:fusion power 1514: 1505:fast breeder 1409: 1379:nuclear fuel 1364: 1151:Camp Century 1148: 1137: 1131: 1119: 1111:Soviet Union 1104: 1089: 1062: 1050:Hanford Site 1039: 1030:Enrico Fermi 1015: 984: 979:World War II 975:Nazi Germany 972: 957: 936:Lise Meitner 929: 901: 893:Enrico Fermi 891:, including 887:Some of the 873:Lise Meitner 859:Chicago Pile 833: 829:Hunterston B 809: 801: 781: 766:(especially 761: 738: 722: 702: 697: 690: 673: 647: 638:control rods 635: 631: 592:reactor core 573: 564:kilocalories 557: 546: 512: 494:control rods 491: 449: 430:fossil fuels 419: 336: 312: 293: 283:gas used in 257:desalination 231: 208: 199:control rods 162: 160: 32:Fusion power 8075:Smiling Sun 7786:Individual 7723:North Korea 7461:Stellarator 7425:confinement 7319:Superphénix 7146:Molten-salt 7098:VHTR (HTGR) 6875:HW BLWR 250 6841:R4 Marviken 6770:Pressurized 6740:Heavy water 6724:many others 6653:Pressurized 6608:Light water 6310:underground 6268:Disarmament 6176:Tomotherapy 6171:Proton-beam 6035:Power plant 5997:Temperature 5830:Engineering 5676:. nrc.gov. 5195:19 December 5009:12 December 4613:9 September 4513:www.pbs.org 4273:|last= 3636:An extinct 3625:Leo Szilard 3506:cosmic rays 3430:Paul Kuroda 3384:especially 3331:radioactive 3319:Fukushima I 3208:uranium-235 3184:uranium-238 3180:uranium-233 3172:beta decays 3164:thorium-232 3142:fissionable 3089:reprocessed 3049:Controlled 2856:coal energy 2730:units (see 2571:Superphénix 2533:Lead-cooled 2521:Superphénix 2365:South Korea 2329:heavy water 2246:, American 2242:, Japanese 2088:for use in 2079:radioactive 1967:Cylindrical 1744:heavy water 1683:heavy water 1527:isotope of 1496:transuranic 1442:uranium-238 1426:uranium-235 1410:thermalized 1381:, though a 1347:pellets in 1174:Hualong One 1170:pressurizer 1140:Calder Hall 1073:Walter Zinn 1069:Arco, Idaho 1034:criticality 1009:within the 1003:Tube Alloys 920:Leó Szilárd 897:Leó Szilárd 586:, like the 580:molten salt 560:uranium-235 549:uranium-235 496:containing 463:uranium-233 459:uranium-235 289:reprocessed 215:criticality 183:uranium-235 8152:Categories 8065:Peace camp 7855:1985–1987 7788:accidents 7656:disasters 7486:(acoustic) 7103:PBR (PBMR) 6491:Spent fuel 6481:Repository 6461:Fuel cycle 6428:Activation 6205:Processing 6072:Propulsion 6030:by country 5962:Activation 5288:7 December 5256:29 January 5133:27 October 5096:9 November 5069:29 January 4809:6 November 4650:26 October 4586:9 November 4523:12 January 4011:. p. 3873:2 February 3648:References 3493:beta decay 3386:Kosmos 954 3323:dissociate 3307:See also: 3271:See also: 3166:absorbs a 2798:that uses 2453:(GCR) and 2431:Sizewell A 2258:. 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