Thorium - Knowledge

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dilution. The concentration of the sulfuric acid is selected based on reaction rate and viscosity, which both increase with concentration, albeit with viscosity retarding the reaction. Increasing the temperature also speeds up the reaction, but temperatures of 300 °C and above must be avoided, because they cause insoluble thorium pyrophosphate to form. Since dissolution is very exothermic, the monazite sand cannot be added to the acid too quickly. Conversely, at temperatures below 200 °C the reaction does not go fast enough for the process to be practical. To ensure that no precipitates form to block the reactive monazite surface, the mass of acid used must be twice that of the sand, instead of the 60% that would be expected from stoichiometry. The mixture is then cooled to 70 °C and diluted with ten times its volume of cold water, so that any remaining monazite sinks to the bottom while the rare earths and thorium remain in solution. Thorium may then be separated by precipitating it as the phosphate at pH 1.3, since the rare earths do not precipitate until pH 2.

5687: 3770: 3591: 3971: 3616:; the other major contributors are the shorter-lived primordial radionuclides, which are U, K, and U in descending order of their contribution. (At the time of the Earth's formation, K and U contributed much more by virtue of their short half-lives, but they have decayed more quickly, leaving the contribution from Th and U predominant.) Its decay accounts for a gradual decrease of thorium content of the Earth: the planet currently has around 85% of the amount present at the formation of the Earth. The other natural thorium isotopes are much shorter-lived; of them, only Th is usually detectable, occurring in 2779: 9007:

Watanabe, H.; Xu, B. D.; Yabumoto, H.; Yoshida, H.; Yoshida, S.; Enomoto, S.; Kozlov, A.; Murayama, H.; Grant, C.; Keefer, G.; Piepke, A.; Banks, T. I.; Bloxham, T.; Detwiler, J. A.; Freedman, S. J.; Fujikawa, B. K.; Han, K.; Kadel, R.; O’Donnell, T.; Steiner, H. M.; Dwyer, D. A.; McKeown, R. D.; Zhang, C.; Berger, B. E.; Lane, C. E.; Maricic, J.; Miletic, T.; Batygov, M.; Learned, J. G.; Matsuno, S.; Sakai, M.; Horton-Smith, G. A.; Downum, K. E.; Gratta, G.; Tolich, K.; Efremenko, Y.; Perevozchikov, O.; Karwowski, H. J.; Markoff, D. M.; Tornow, W.; Heeger, K. M.; Decowski, M. P. (September 2011).

2615:, where their ratios are measured. The scheme has a range of several hundred thousand years. Ionium–thorium dating is a related process, which exploits the insolubility of thorium (both Th and Th) and thus its presence in ocean sediments to date these sediments by measuring the ratio of Th to Th. Both of these dating methods assume that the proportion of Th to Th is a constant during the period when the sediment layer was formed, that the sediment did not already contain thorium before contributions from the decay of uranium, and that the thorium cannot migrate within the sediment layer. 2599:, which measures the ratio of Th to Th. These rely on the fact that Th is a primordial radioisotope, but Th only occurs as an intermediate decay product in the decay chain of U. Uranium–thorium dating is a relatively short-range process because of the short half-lives of U and Th relative to the age of the Earth: it is also accompanied by a sister process involving the alpha decay of U into Th, which very quickly becomes the longer-lived Pa, and this process is often used to check the results of uranium–thorium dating. Uranium–thorium dating is commonly used to determine the age of 4138: 4759: 3167: 4057: 2464: 1419: 35: 1475: 12164: 3039: 3151:, and their hydrated forms. They are important in thorium purification and the disposal of nuclear waste, but most of them have not yet been fully characterized, especially regarding their structural properties. For example, thorium nitrate is produced by reacting thorium hydroxide with nitric acid: it is soluble in water and alcohols and is an important intermediate in the purification of thorium and its compounds. Thorium complexes with organic ligands, such as 6116:, the discoverer of scandium, had previously made an attempt to isolate thorium metal in 1882, but was unsuccessful at achieving a high degree of purity. Lely and Hamburger obtained 99% pure thorium metal by reducing thorium chloride with sodium metal. A simpler method leading to even higher purity was discovered in 1927 by American engineers John Marden and Harvey Rentschler, involving the reduction of thorium oxide with calcium in presence of calcium chloride. 1967: 2659: 3564:, tantalum, and rhenium, the odd-numbered elements just before the third peak of r-process abundances around the heavy platinum group metals, as well as uranium. In the distant past the abundances of thorium and uranium were enriched by the decay of plutonium and curium isotopes, and thorium was enriched relative to uranium by the decay of U to Th and the natural depletion of U, but these sources have long since decayed and no longer contribute. 3919: 5986:

commonly-encountered actinide, uranium, retains some echoes of main-group behaviour. The chemistry of uranium is more complicated than that of thorium, but the two most common oxidation states of uranium are uranium(VI) and uranium(IV); these are two oxidation units apart, with the higher oxidation state corresponding to formal loss of all valence electrons, which is similar to the behaviour of the heavy main-group elements in the

12178: 2650:. The closeness in energy levels of the 5f, 6d, and 7s energy levels of thorium results in thorium almost always losing all four valence electrons and occurring in its highest possible oxidation state of +4. This is different from its lanthanide congener cerium, in which +4 is also the highest possible state, but +3 plays an important role and is more stable. Thorium is much more similar to the 4053:. In 1932, most of these uses were banned in the United States after a federal investigation into the health effects of radioactivity. 10,000 individuals in the United States had been injected with thorium during X-ray diagnosis; they were later found to suffer health issues such as leukaemia and abnormal chromosomes. Public interest in radioactivity had declined by the end of the 1930s. 2285:, where the number of f electrons increases from about 0.4 to about 6: this trend is due to the increasing hybridisation of the 5f and 6d orbitals and the formation of directional bonds resulting in more complex crystal structures and weakened metallic bonding. (The f-electron count for thorium metal is a non-integer due to a 5f–6d overlap.) Among the actinides up to 4527:

by-product; other sources such as thorite contain more thorium and could easily be used for production if demand rose. Present knowledge of the distribution of thorium resources is poor, as low demand has led to exploration efforts being relatively minor. In 2014, world production of the monazite concentrate, from which thorium would be extracted, was 2,700 tonnes.

3989:, a portable source of light which produces light from the incandescence of thorium oxide when heated by burning gaseous fuels. Many applications were subsequently found for thorium and its compounds, including ceramics, carbon arc lamps, heat-resistant crucibles, and as catalysts for industrial chemical reactions such as the oxidation of ammonia to nitric acid. 4239:, 2 MWt liquid fuel thorium-based molten salt experimental reactor which was completed in August 2021. China is believed to have one of the largest thorium reserves in the world. The exact size of those reserves has not been publicly disclosed, but it is estimated to be enough to meet the country's total energy needs for more than 20,000 years. 5769:, especially in the presence of strong complex-forming ions such as citrate that carry the thorium into the body in soluble form. If a thorium-containing object has been chewed or sucked, it loses 0.4% of thorium and 90% of its dangerous daughters to the body. Three-quarters of the thorium that has penetrated the body accumulates in the 4093:, which from plutonium onward have dominant +3 and +4 oxidation states like the lanthanides, that it was realised that the actinides were indeed filling f-orbitals rather than d-orbitals, with the transition-metal-like chemistry of the early actinides being the exception and not the rule. In 1945, when American physicist 5376:

produces this waste after five captures, forming Np. This number of captures does not happen for 98–99% of the Th nuclei because the intermediate products U or U undergo fission, and fewer long-lived transuranics are produced. Because of this, thorium is a potentially attractive alternative to uranium in

4555:, filtration, and calcination. The result is a concentrate with rare-earth content of up to 90%. Secondary materials (such as coastal sands) undergo gravity separation. Magnetic separation follows, with a series of magnets of increasing strength. Monazite obtained by this method can be as pure as 98%. 3958:(group 14) and titanium group (group 4), because their maximum oxidation state was +4. Cerium was soon removed from the main body of the table and placed in a separate lanthanide series; thorium was left with group 4 as it had similar properties to its supposed lighter congeners in that group, such as 9006:

Gando, A.; Gando, Y.; Ichimura, K.; Ikeda, H.; Inoue, K.; Kibe, Y.; Kishimoto, Y.; Koga, M.; Minekawa, Y.; Mitsui, T.; Morikawa, T.; Nagai, N.; Nakajima, K.; Nakamura, K.; Narita, K.; Shimizu, I.; Shimizu, Y.; Shirai, J.; Suekane, F.; Suzuki, A.; Takahashi, H.; Takahashi, N.; Takemoto, Y.; Tamae, K.;

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predicts that the thorium cycle will never be commercially viable while uranium is available in abundance—a situation which may persist "in the coming decades". The isotopes produced in the thorium fuel cycle are mostly not transuranic, but some of them are still very dangerous, such as Pa, which has

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The low demand makes working mines for extraction of thorium alone not profitable, and it is almost always extracted with the rare earths, which themselves may be by-products of production of other minerals. The current reliance on monazite for production is due to thorium being largely produced as a

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in the United States estimated that using a thorium gas mantle every weekend would be safe for a person, but this was not the case for the dose received by people manufacturing the mantles or for the soils around some factory sites. Some manufacturers have changed to other materials, such as yttrium.

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In the 1990s, most applications that do not depend on thorium's radioactivity declined quickly due to safety and environmental concerns as suitable safer replacements were found. Despite its radioactivity, the element has remained in use for applications where no suitable alternatives could be found.

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The irradiation of Th with neutrons, followed by its processing, need to be mastered before these advantages can be realised, and this requires more advanced technology than the uranium and plutonium fuel cycle; research continues in this area. Others cite the low commercial viability of the thorium

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of electrons; as a result, electrons are emitted at considerably lower temperatures. Thorium forms a one-atom-thick layer on the surface of tungsten. The work function from a thorium surface is lowered possibly because of the electric field on the interface between thorium and tungsten formed due to

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Most thorium applications use its dioxide (sometimes called "thoria" in the industry), rather than the metal. This compound has a melting point of 3300 °C (6000 °F), the highest of all known oxides; only a few substances have higher melting points. This helps the compound remain solid in a

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ignite and burn with a brilliant white light to produce the dioxide. In bulk, the reaction of pure thorium with air is slow, although corrosion may occur after several months; most thorium samples are contaminated with varying degrees of the dioxide, which greatly accelerates corrosion. Such samples

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of natural thorium. This is because its parent U is soluble in water, but Th is insoluble and precipitates into the sediment. Uranium ores with low thorium concentrations can be purified to produce gram-sized thorium samples of which over a quarter is the Th isotope, since Th is one of the daughters

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emitters, and which are built up quickly following the initial decay of Th due to the absence of long-lived nuclides along the decay chain. As the dangerous daughters of thorium have much lower melting points than thorium dioxide, they are volatilised every time the mantle is heated for use. In the

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The decay products of Th include more dangerous radionuclides such as radium and radon. Although relatively little of those products are created as the result of the slow decay of thorium, a proper assessment of the radiological toxicity of Th must include the contribution of its daughters, some of

2302:); even the purest thorium specimens usually contain about a tenth of a percent of the dioxide. Experimental measurements of its density give values between 11.5 and 11.66 g/cm: these are slightly lower than the theoretically expected value of 11.7 g/cm calculated from thorium's 2280:

to thorium, the melting points of the elements increase (as in other periods), because the number of delocalised electrons each atom contributes increases from one in francium to four in thorium, leading to greater attraction between these electrons and the metal ions as their charge increases from

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Industrial production in the 20th century relied on treatment with hot, concentrated sulfuric acid in cast iron vessels, followed by selective precipitation by dilution with water, as on the subsequent steps. This method relied on the specifics of the technique and the concentrate grain size; many

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proposed to use the Pu-contaminated plutonium to drive the conversion of thorium into U in a special converter reactor. It was hypothesized that the U would then be usable in a gun-type weapon, though concerns about contamination from U were voiced. Progress on the implosion weapon was sufficient,

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In the universe, thorium is among the rarest of the primordial elements at rank 77th in cosmic abundance because it is one of the two elements that can be produced only in the r-process (the other being uranium), and also because it has slowly been decaying away from the moment it formed. The only

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for cameras and scientific instruments. The radiation from these lenses can darken them and turn them yellow over a period of years and it degrades film, but the health risks are minimal. Yellowed lenses may be restored to their original colourless state by lengthy exposure to intense ultraviolet

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at 210–230 °C. First, sulfuric acid in excess of 60% of the sand mass is added, thickening the reaction mixture as products are formed. Then, fuming sulfuric acid is added and the mixture is kept at the same temperature for another five hours to reduce the volume of solution remaining after

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There are two categories of thorium minerals for thorium extraction: primary and secondary. Primary deposits occur in acidic granitic magmas and pegmatites. They are concentrated, but of small size. Secondary deposits occur at the mouths of rivers in granitic mountain regions. In these deposits,

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in the reaction mixture, necessitating recrystallisation before commercial use. The hydroxides are dissolved at 80 °C in 37% hydrochloric acid. Filtration of the remaining precipitates followed by addition of 47% sodium hydroxide results in the precipitation of thorium and uranium at about

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solution at about 140 °C for about three hours. Too high a temperature leads to the formation of poorly soluble thorium oxide and an excess of uranium in the filtrate, and too low a concentration of alkali leads to a very slow reaction. These reaction conditions are rather mild and require

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that appear in high concentration in a flame, whose deexcitation releases large amounts of energy. The addition of 1% cerium dioxide, as in gas mantles, heightens the effect by increasing emissivity in the visible region of the spectrum; but because cerium, unlike thorium, can occur in multiple

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of the periodic table, it has an anomalous 6d7s electron configuration in the ground state, as the 5f and 6d subshells in the early actinides are very close in energy, even more so than the 4f and 5d subshells of the lanthanides: thorium's 6d subshells are lower in energy than its 5f subshells,

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of the atom and its electron orbitals, which soon gathered wide acceptance. The model indicated that the seventh row of the periodic table should also have f-shells filling before the d-shells that were filled in the transition elements, like the sixth row with the lanthanides preceding the 5d

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Th absorbs neutrons more readily than U, and U has a higher probability of fission upon neutron capture (92.0%) than U (85.5%) or Pu (73.5%). It also releases more neutrons upon fission on average. A single neutron capture by U produces transuranic waste along with the fissile Pu, but Th only

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respectively; the existence of the lanthanides in the sixth row was considered to be a one-off fluke. In 1892, British chemist Henry Bassett postulated a second extra-long periodic table row to accommodate known and undiscovered elements, considering thorium and uranium to be analogous to the

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Berzelius made some initial characterizations of the new metal and its chemical compounds: he correctly determined that the thorium–oxygen mass ratio of thorium oxide was 7.5 (its actual value is close to that, ~7.3), but he assumed the new element was divalent rather than tetravalent, and so

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have been characterised, which range in mass number from 207 to 238. After Th, the most stable of them (with respective half-lives) are Th (75,380 years), Th (7,917 years), Th (1.92 years), Th (24.10 days), and Th (18.68 days). All of these isotopes occur in nature as

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Thorium only occurs as a minor constituent of most minerals, and was for this reason previously thought to be rare. In fact, it is the 37th most abundant element in the Earth's crust with an abundance of 12 parts per million. In nature, thorium occurs in the +4 oxidation state, together with

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as the last and heaviest element, as it was initially thought that uranium was a trivalent element with an atomic weight of around 120: this is half of its actual value, since uranium is predominantly hexavalent. It also appears as the heaviest element in the 1864 table by British chemist

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transition metals. The existence of a second inner transition series, in the form of the actinides, was not accepted until similarities with the electron structures of the lanthanides had been established; Bohr suggested that the filling of the 5f orbitals may be delayed to after uranium.

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listed thorium as "severe" on a table entitled "Ignition and explosibility of metal powders". Its ignition temperature was given as 270 °C (520 °F) for dust clouds and 280 °C (535 °F) for layers. Its minimum explosive concentration was listed as 0.075 oz/cu ft

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Unlike the previous similarity between the actinides and the transition metals, the main-group similarity largely ends at thorium before being resumed in the second half of the actinide series, because of the growing contribution of the 5f orbitals to covalent bonding. The only other

3547:. Because of the abrupt loss of stability past Bi, the r-process is the only process of stellar nucleosynthesis that can create thorium and uranium; all other processes are too slow and the intermediate nuclei alpha decay before they capture enough neutrons to reach these elements. 5764:

Thorium is odourless and tasteless. The chemical toxicity of thorium is low because thorium and its most common compounds (mostly the dioxide) are poorly soluble in water, precipitating out before entering the body as the hydroxide. Some thorium compounds are chemically moderately

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alternatives have been proposed, but only one has proven effective economically: alkaline digestion with hot sodium hydroxide solution. This is more expensive than the original method but yields a higher purity of thorium; in particular, it removes phosphates from the concentrate.

3954:. This reflected the belief at that time that thorium and the rare-earth metals were divalent. With the later recognition that the rare earths were mostly trivalent and thorium was tetravalent, Mendeleev moved cerium and thorium to group IV in 1871, which also contained the modern 2129:

of thunder. Its first applications were developed in the late 19th century. Thorium's radioactivity was widely acknowledged during the first decades of the 20th century. In the second half of the century, thorium was replaced in many uses due to concerns about its radioactivity.

3163:, are much more stable. In natural thorium-containing waters, organic thorium complexes usually occur in concentrations orders of magnitude higher than the inorganic complexes, even when the concentrations of inorganic ligands are much greater than those of organic ligands. 4711:

thorium's greater electropositivity. Since the 1920s, thoriated tungsten wires have been used in electronic tubes and in the cathodes and anticathodes of X-ray tubes and rectifiers.The reactivity of thorium with atmospheric oxygen required the introduction of an evaporated

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and this converter was not developed further, but the design had enormous influence on the development of nuclear energy. It was the first detailed description of a highly enriched water-cooled, water-moderated reactor similar to future naval and commercial power reactors.

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All four thorium tetrahalides are known, as are some low-valent bromides and iodides: the tetrahalides are all 8-coordinated hygroscopic compounds that dissolve easily in polar solvents such as water. Many related polyhalide ions are also known. Thorium tetrafluoride has a

2289:, which can be studied in at least milligram quantities, thorium has the highest melting and boiling points and second-lowest density; only actinium is lighter. Thorium's boiling point of 4788 °C is the fifth-highest among all the elements with known boiling points. 5707:

cannot penetrate human skin. As a result, handling small amounts of thorium, such as those in gas mantles, is considered safe, although the use of such items may pose some risks. Exposure to an aerosol of thorium, such as contaminated dust, can lead to increased risk of

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Tests on the thorium uptake of workers involved in monazite processing showed thorium levels above recommended limits in their bodies, but no adverse effects on health were found at those moderately low concentrations. No chemical toxicity has yet been observed in the

5645:. (Th follows the same decay chain, but its much longer half-life means that the quantities of Tl produced are negligible.) These impurities of U make U easy to detect and dangerous to work on, and the impracticality of their separation limits the possibilities of 5833:

Exposure is raised for people who live near thorium deposits or radioactive waste disposal sites, those who live near or work in uranium, phosphate, or tin processing factories, and for those who work in gas mantle production. Thorium is especially common in the

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Different isotopes of thorium are chemically identical, but have slightly differing physical properties: for example, the densities of pure Th, Th, Th, and Th are respectively expected to be 11.5, 11.6, 11.6, and 11.7 g/cm. The isotope Th is expected to be

3575:, it is one of the most abundant of the heavy elements, almost as abundant as lead (13 g/tonne) and more abundant than tin (2.1 g/tonne). This is because thorium is likely to form oxide minerals that do not sink into the core; it is classified as a 6111:

The main difficulty in isolating thorium lies not in its chemical electropositivity, but in the close association of thorium in nature with the rare-earth elements and uranium, which collectively are difficult to separate from each other. Swedish chemist

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from the hydrochloric acid. The rare earths again precipitate out at higher pH. The precipitates are neutralised by the original sodium hydroxide solution, although most of the phosphate must first be removed to avoid precipitating rare-earth phosphates.

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High coordination numbers are the rule for thorium due to its large size. Thorium nitrate pentahydrate was the first known example of coordination number 11, the oxalate tetrahydrate has coordination number 10, and the borohydride (first prepared in the

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studied the radiation from thorium; initial observations showed that it varied significantly. It was determined that these variations came from a short-lived gaseous daughter of thorium, which they found to be a new element. This element is now named

5041: 3481:). Although one methyl group is only attached to the thorium atom (Th–C distance 257.1 pm) and the other six connect the lithium and thorium atoms (Th–C distances 265.5–276.5 pm), they behave equivalently in solution. Tetramethylthorium, 6002:

generally increases nuclear stability of isotopes, compared to isotopes with odd numbers. Elements with odd atomic numbers have no more than two stable isotopes; even-numbered elements have multiple stable isotopes, with tin (element 50) having

3903:). The elder Esmark determined that it was not a known mineral and sent a sample to Berzelius for examination. Berzelius determined that it contained a new element. He published his findings in 1829, having isolated an impure sample by reducing 4790:

Thorium tetrafluoride is used as an anti-reflection material in multilayered optical coatings. It is transparent to electromagnetic waves having wavelengths in the range of 0.350–12 μm, a range that includes near ultraviolet, visible and

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in 1955. They concluded that a U-fired bomb would be a very potent weapon, but it bore few sustainable "technical advantages" over the contemporary uranium–plutonium bombs, especially since U is difficult to produce in isotopically pure form.

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nuclide is capable of undergoing fission (even with a low probability) after capturing a high-energy neutron. Some of these nuclides can be induced to fission with low-energy thermal neutrons with a high probability; they are referred to as

3673:. It contains around 2.5% thorium on average, although some deposits may contain up to 20%. Monazite is a chemically unreactive mineral that is found as yellow or brown sand; its low reactivity makes it difficult to extract thorium from it. 2499:

in uranium ores. All of the remaining thorium isotopes have half-lives that are less than thirty days and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than ten minutes. Th (half-life 22 minutes) occurs naturally as the result of

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zirconium and hafnium than to cerium in its ionization energies and redox potentials, and hence also in its chemistry: this transition-metal-like behaviour is the norm in the first half of the actinide series, from actinium to americium.

11601: 4173:. In most countries, uranium was relatively abundant and the progress of thorium-based reactors was slow; in the 20th century, three reactors were built in India and twelve elsewhere. Large-scale research was begun in 1996 by the 3035:, the latter of which is superconducting below 7.5–8 K; at standard temperature and pressure, it conducts electricity like a metal. The hydrides are thermally unstable and readily decompose upon exposure to air or moisture. 3347:: many derivatives are known. The former (which has two forms, one purple and one green) is a rare example of thorium in the formal +3 oxidation state; a formal +2 oxidation state occurs in a derivative. The chloride derivative 3611:

Natural thorium is usually almost pure Th, which is the longest-lived and most stable isotope of thorium, having a half-life comparable to the age of the universe. Its radioactive decay is the largest single contributor to the

2686:

Despite the anomalous electron configuration for gaseous thorium atoms, metallic thorium shows significant 5f involvement. A hypothetical metallic state of thorium that had the 6d7s configuration with the 5f orbitals above the

2306:, perhaps due to microscopic voids forming in the metal when it is cast. These values lie between those of its neighbours actinium (10.1 g/cm) and protactinium (15.4 g/cm), part of a trend across the early actinides. 4041:. The biological effect of radiation was discovered in 1903. The newly discovered phenomenon of radioactivity excited scientists and the general public alike. In the 1920s, thorium's radioactivity was promoted as a cure for 5853:

Another possible source of exposure is thorium dust produced at weapons testing ranges, as thorium is used in the guidance systems of some missiles. This has been blamed for a high incidence of birth defects and cancer at

4530:

The common production route of thorium constitutes concentration of thorium minerals; extraction of thorium from the concentrate; purification of thorium; and (optionally) conversion to compounds, such as thorium dioxide.

4719:

for impurities in the evacuated tubes, giving them their characteristic metallic inner coating. The introduction of transistors in the 1950s significantly diminished this use, but not entirely. Thorium dioxide is used in

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Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (4 May 2022).

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ion is the largest of the tetrapositive actinide ions, and depending on the coordination number can have a radius between 0.95 and 1.14 Å. It is quite acidic due to its high charge, slightly stronger than

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titanium, zirconium, and hafnium, and not face-centred cubic as it actually is. The actual crystal structure can only be explained when the 5f states are invoked, proving that thorium is metallurgically a true actinide.

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light. Its radiation is primarily due to alpha particles, which can be easily stopped by a thin cover layer of another material. Replacements for thorium tetrafluoride are being developed as of the 2010s, which include

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concentrations must be lower than one part per million by weight). Previously, repeated dissolution and recrystallisation was used to achieve high purity. Today, liquid solvent extraction procedures involving selective

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of thorium and typically consumes three micrograms per day. Most thorium exposure occurs through dust inhalation; some thorium comes with food and water, but because of its low solubility, this exposure is negligible.

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electrodes but is slowly being replaced in the field with different compositions. It was also material in high-end optics and scientific instrumentation, used in some broadcast vacuum tubes, and as the light source in

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first hour of use large fractions of the thorium daughters Ra, Ra, Pb, and Bi are released. Most of the radiation dose by a normal user arises from inhaling the radium, resulting in a radiation dose of up to 0.2

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oxidation states, its charge and hence visible emissivity will depend on the region on the flame it is found in (as such regions vary in their chemical composition and hence how oxidising or reducing they are).

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Deblonde, Gauthier J.-P.; Lohrey, Trevor D.; Booth, Corwin H.; Carter, Korey P.; Parker, Bernard F.; Larsen, Åsmund; Smeets, Roger; Ryan, Olav B.; Cuthbertson, Alan S.; Abergel, Rebecca J. (19 November 2018).

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As recently as 2007, some companies continued to manufacture and sell thorium mantles without giving adequate information about their radioactivity, with some even falsely claiming them to be non-radioactive.

3669:(chiefly phosphates of various rare-earth elements) is the most important commercial source of thorium because it occurs in large deposits worldwide, principally in India, South Africa, Brazil, Australia, and 3539:, as neutrons are captured much faster than the resulting nuclides can beta decay back toward stability. Neutron capture is the only way for stars to synthesise elements beyond iron because of the increased 4828:

from neutron capture by the naturally occurring quantity nuclides Th and U. U occurs naturally in significant amounts and is also fissile. In the thorium fuel cycle, the fertile isotope Th is bombarded by

9510:

Berzelius, J. J. (1829). "Undersökning af ett nytt mineral (Thorit), som innehåller en förut obekant jord" [Investigation of a new mineral (thorite), as contained in a previously unknown earth].

4724:(GTAW) to increase the high-temperature strength of tungsten electrodes and improve arc stability. Thorium oxide is being replaced in this use with other oxides, such as those of zirconium, cerium, and 11979:

Pfeiffer, W. C.; Penna-Franca, E.; Ribeiro, C. C.; Nogueira, A. R.; Londres, H.; Oliveira, A. E. (1981). "Measurements of environmental radiation exposure dose rates at selected sites in Brazil".

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Ramdahl, Thomas; Bonge-Hansen, Hanne T.; Ryan, Olav B.; Larsen, Åsmund; Herstad, Gunnar; Sandberg, Marcel; Bjerke, Roger M.; Grant, Derek; Brevik, Ellen M.; Cuthbertson, Alan S. (September 2016).

2383:. Four-fifths of the thorium present at Earth's formation has survived to the present. Th is the only isotope of thorium occurring in quantity in nature. Its stability is attributed to its closed 5773:. Absorption through the skin is possible, but is not a likely means of exposure. Thorium's low solubility in water also means that excretion of thorium by the kidneys and faeces is rather slow. 11608: 4636:

are used. For example, following alkaline digestion and the removal of phosphate, the resulting nitrato complexes of thorium, uranium, and the rare earths can be separated by extraction with

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On 16 June 2023 China's National Nuclear Safety Administration issued a license to the Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics (SINAP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences to begin operating the

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The filling of the 5f subshell from the beginning of the actinide series was confirmed when the 6d elements were reached in the 1960s, proving that the 4f and 5f series are of equal length.

7112:

Captain, Ilya; Deblonde, Gauthier J.-P.; Rupert, Peter B.; An, Dahlia D.; Illy, Marie-Claire; Rostan, Emeline; Ralston, Corie Y.; Strong, Roland K.; Abergel, Rebecca J. (21 November 2016).

2398:. It is one of only four radioactive elements (along with bismuth, protactinium and uranium) that occur in large enough quantities on Earth for a standard atomic weight to be determined. 4232:(AHWR). In 2009, the chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission said that India has a "long-term objective goal of becoming energy-independent based on its vast thorium resources." 9878:: "The radiation from thorium oxide was not constant, but varied in a most capricious manner", whereas "All the compounds of Uranium give out a radiation which is remarkably constant." 4652:

Non-radioactivity-related uses of thorium have been in decline since the 1950s due to environmental concerns largely stemming from the radioactivity of thorium and its decay products.

3938:

metal, ahead of cerium and behind zirconium in electropositivity. Metallic thorium was isolated for the first time in 1914 by Dutch entrepreneurs Dirk Lely Jr. and Lodewijk Hamburger.

5322:

produces 2.48 neutrons on average. One neutron is needed to keep the fission reaction going. For a self-contained continuous breeding cycle, one more neutron is needed to breed a new

2719:

of the s-block. Thorium and uranium are the most investigated of the radioactive elements because their radioactivity is low enough not to require special handling in the laboratory.

10604: 4671:. This effect is shared by cerium dioxide, which converts ultraviolet light into visible light more efficiently, but thorium dioxide gives a higher flame temperature, emitting less 11893: 3531:. These violent events scattered it across the galaxy. The letter "r" stands for "rapid neutron capture", and occurs in core-collapse supernovae, where heavy seed nuclei such as 11688: 6171:, was found to behave like hafnium and show only a +4 state. Today, thorium's similarities to hafnium are still sometimes acknowledged by calling it a "pseudo group 4 element". 6012:

Other isotopes may occur alongside Th, but only in trace quantities. If the source contains no uranium, the only other thorium isotope present would be Th, which occurs in the

4843: 4598:

pH 5.8. Complete drying of the precipitate must be avoided, as air may oxidise cerium from the +3 to the +4 oxidation state, and the cerium(IV) formed can liberate free

13817: 5422:

The used fuel is difficult and dangerous to reprocess because many of the daughters of Th and U are strong gamma emitters. All U production methods result in impurities of

4029:, showed how thorium decayed at a fixed rate over time into a series of other elements in work dating from 1900 to 1903. This observation led to the identification of the 5838:

coastal areas of India, where residents may be exposed to a naturally occurring radiation dose ten times higher than the worldwide average. It is also common in northern

5426:, either from parasitic knock-out (n,2n) reactions on Th, Pa, or U that result in the loss of a neutron, or from double neutron capture of Th, an impurity in natural Th: 6020:): the ratio of Th to Th would be under 10. If uranium is present, tiny traces of several other isotopes will also be present: Th and Th from the decay chain of U (the 7592: 7304: 11575: 5921:; higher boiling points are speculated to be found in the 6d transition metals, but they have not been produced in large enough quantities to test this prediction. 4675:. Thorium in mantles, though still common, has been progressively replaced with yttrium since the late 1990s. According to the 2005 review by the United Kingdom's 2865:) remained at "full glow" when exposed to a cold unignited mixture of flammable gas and air. The light emitted by thorium dioxide is higher in wavelength than the 3587:

have the same relative abundances in the Earth as in the Solar System as a whole, there is more accessible thorium than heavy platinum group metals in the crust.

5930:

Gamma rays are distinguished by their origin in the nucleus, not their wavelength; hence there is no lower limit to gamma energy derived from radioactive decay.

4585:

monazite sand with a particle size under 45 μm. Following filtration, the filter cake includes thorium and the rare earths as their hydroxides, uranium as

10283: 4197:

in Pennsylvania, the first American civilian reactor to breed thorium. He founded a consortium to develop thorium reactors, which included other laboratories:

2997:

Thorium borides, carbides, silicides, and nitrides are refractory materials, like those of uranium and plutonium, and have thus received attention as possible

4216:

characteristics led to renewed interest in the thorium fuel cycle. India has projected meeting as much as 30% of its electrical demands through thorium-based

3757:) ions respectively. Because of the great insolubility of thorium dioxide, thorium does not usually spread quickly through the environment when released. The 13759: 13751: 5073: 4806:

alloys (also called thoriated magnesium) found use in some aerospace applications, though such uses have been phased out due to concerns over radioactivity.

4165:

in 1962. China may be the first to have a shot at commercializing the technology. The country with the largest estimated reserves of thorium in the world is

3426:, are known, but their structures have not been determined. They decompose slowly at room temperature. Thorium forms the monocapped trigonal prismatic anion 11864: 11836: 8043:

Moore, Robert Lee; Goodall, C. A.; Hepworth, J. L.; Watts, R. A. (May 1957). "Nitric Acid Dissolution of Thorium. Kinetics of Fluoride-Catalyzed Reaction".

9179: 7826:

Martin, W. C.; Hagan, Lucy; Reader, Joseph; Sugar, Jack (July 1974). "Ground Levels and Ionization Potentials for Lanthanide and Actinide Atoms and Ions".

6239: 3104:

forms and precipitates out (though equilibrium may take weeks to be reached, because the polymerisation usually slows down before the precipitation). As a

5368:

Thorium is more abundant than uranium, and can satisfy world energy demands for longer. It is particularly suitable for being used as fertile material in

2222:

crystal structure; it has two other forms, one at high temperature (over 1360 °C; body-centred cubic) and one at high pressure (around 100 GPa;

2420:

begins with the decay of Th to Ra and terminates at Pb. Any sample of thorium or its compounds contains traces of these daughters, which are isotopes of

6387: 3715: 1694: 5756:

and disposal; the radiation dose from one mantle is not a serious problem, but that from many mantles gathered together in factories or landfills is.

5296:. When U undergoes nuclear fission, the neutrons emitted can strike further Th nuclei, continuing the cycle. This parallels the uranium fuel cycle in 12210: 5825:

Thorium exists in very small quantities everywhere on Earth although larger amounts exist in certain parts: the average human contains about 40

2521: 2162:, high-temperature crucibles, and glasses including camera and scientific instrument lenses. Other uses for thorium include heat-resistant ceramics, 9431:(1932). "The discovery of the elements. XI. Some elements isolated with the aid of potassium and sodium: Zirconium, titanium, cerium, and thorium". 7993: 4101:, realising that thorium was the second member of an f-block actinide series analogous to the lanthanides, instead of being the heavier congener of 11932: 9122: 8866:

Trenn, T. J. (1978). "Thoruranium (U-236) as the extinct natural parent of thorium: The premature falsification of an essentially correct theory".

6216:. Of these, only U have significant amounts in nature, and only U and Pu can be bred from naturally occurring nuclei with a single neutron capture. 10441: 7585: 4762:

Yellowed thorium dioxide lens (left), a similar lens partially de-yellowed with ultraviolet radiation (centre), and lens without yellowing (right)

4667:

Energy, some of it in the form of visible light, is emitted when thorium is exposed to a source of energy itself, such as a cathode ray, heat, or

11571: 8657:

Roederer, I. U.; Kratz, K.-L.; Frebel, A.; et al. (2009). "The End of Nucleosynthesis: Production of Lead and Thorium in the Early Galaxy".

8432: 8407: 4593:. This crystallises trisodium phosphate decahydrate when cooled below 60 °C; uranium impurities in this product increase with the amount of 3067: 2950:(gold-coloured) can also be prepared by reducing the tetraiodide with thorium metal: they do not contain Th(III) and Th(II), but instead contain 5785:. It can take as much as thirty years after the ingestion of thorium for symptoms to manifest themselves. Thorium has no known biological role. 3017:, and bismuth) also form binary thorium compounds. Thorium germanides are also known. Thorium reacts with hydrogen to form the thorium hydrides 4170: 11060: 9152: 7186:

Bonetti, R.; Chiesa, C.; Guglielmetti, A.; et al. (1995). "First observation of spontaneous fission and search for cluster decay of Th".

7059:"Solution Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Metal Complexation with a Hydroxypyridinone Chelator Designed for Thorium-227 Targeted Alpha Therapy" 6911: 7114:"Engineered Recognition of Tetravalent Zirconium and Thorium by Chelator–Protein Systems: Toward Flexible Radiotherapy and Imaging Platforms" 6163:

has only +3 as an oxidation state, breaking from the trend of the late actinides towards the +2 state; it thus fits as a heavier congener of

2001: 9202: 3583:, meaning that it is generally found combined with oxygen. Common thorium compounds are also poorly soluble in water. Thus, even though the 6961: 6139: 6098:, among which thorium was found and with which it is closely associated in nature, were thought to be divalent; the rare earths were given 2405:

because the strong nuclear force cannot overcome the electromagnetic repulsion between their protons. The alpha decay of Th initiates the 4

11239: 10774: 3950:

in 1869, thorium and the rare-earth elements were placed outside the main body of the table, at the end of each vertical period after the

3112:

favours hard ligands with oxygen atoms as donors: complexes with sulfur atoms as donors are less stable and are more prone to hydrolysis.

13513: 2317:, and thorium-aluminium alloys have been considered as a way to store thorium in proposed future thorium nuclear reactors. Thorium forms 10893:

The Book of Non-electric Lighting: The classic guide to the safe use of candles, fuel lamps, lanterns, gaslights, & fire-view stoves

11903: 7663: 4005:. It was the second element that was found to be radioactive, after the 1896 discovery of radioactivity in uranium by French physicist 11760: 10534: 7700: 5850:, a city with radioactive monazite sand beaches, with radiation levels up to 50 times higher than world average background radiation. 3602:. Of the four major nuclides providing this heat, Th has grown to provide the most heat as the other ones decayed faster than thorium. 11278: 5066: 4824:

The main nuclear power source in a reactor is the neutron-induced fission of a nuclide; the synthetic fissile nuclei U and Pu can be

4543:

For the primary deposits, the source pegmatites, which are usually obtained by mining, are divided into small parts and then undergo

3568: 2436:, and actinium. Natural thorium samples can be chemically purified to extract useful daughter nuclides, such as Pb, which is used in 1992: 11542: 11217: 10161: 5976:

for Th is a remnant from a period when different isotopes were not recognised to be the same element and were given different names.

5686: 11807: 10775:

An Overview of World Thorium Resources, Incentives for Further Exploration and Forecast for Thorium Requirements in the Near Future

10592: 10034:

Türler, A.; Buklanov, G. V.; Eichler, B.; et al. (1998). "Evidence for relativistic effects in the chemistry of element 104".

5794: 5724:, as lungs and other internal organs can be penetrated by alpha radiation. Internal exposure to thorium leads to increased risk of 4228:, India, presented their latest design for a "next-generation nuclear reactor" that burns thorium as its fuel core, calling it the 1665: 12120: 12007: 9352:(1824). "Undersökning af några Mineralier. 1. Phosphorsyrad Ytterjord" [Examining some minerals. 1st phosphoric yttria.]. 4607:

may also be used to separate out the thorium and uranium, by dissolving the resultant filter cake in nitric acid. The presence of

11811: 10237:

Poljanc, K.; Steinhauser, G.; Sterba, J. H.; et al. (2007). "Beyond low-level activity: on a "non-radioactive" gas mantle".

4619:

High thorium concentrations are needed in nuclear applications. In particular, concentrations of atoms with high neutron capture

2504:

of natural Th. Th (half-life 31 minutes) has not yet been observed in nature, but would be produced by the still-unobserved

1514: 2807:

Most binary compounds of thorium with nonmetals may be prepared by heating the elements together. In air, thorium burns to form

2416:

divisible by 4 (hence the name; it is also called the thorium series after its progenitor). This chain of consecutive alpha and

10942: 9629: 4676: 4320: 3769: 3725:), also has a high thorium content and is the mineral in which thorium was first discovered. In thorium silicate minerals, the 10655: 9764:(1898). "Rayons émis par les composés de l'uranium et du thorium" [Rays emitted by compounds of uranium and thorium]. 2611:, because uranium is more soluble in water than thorium and protactinium, which are selectively precipitated into ocean-floor 12203: 12102: 12075: 12048: 11521: 11464: 11407: 11367: 11120: 11095: 11044: 11019: 10994: 10969: 10904: 10634: 10393: 10078: 10018: 9988: 9963: 9905: 9733: 9314: 9285: 9162: 8850: 8771: 8155: 7973: 7910: 7773: 7746: 7557: 6930: 6894: 6865: 6780:; Böhlke, John Karl; De Bièvre, Paul; Hidaka, Hiroshi; Peiser, H. Steffen; Rosman, Kevin J. R.; Taylor, Philip D. P. (2003). 6701: 6608: 6574: 6425: 6400: 6308: 10509:"IAEA-TECDOC-1349 Potential of thorium-based fuel cycles to constrain plutonium and to reduce the long-lived waste toxicity" 2375:) that have half-lives measured in billions of years; its half-life is 14.05 billion years, about three times the 9467: 9248: 7476:

von der Wense, L.; Seiferle, B.; Laatiaoui, M.; et al. (2016). "Direct detection of the Th nuclear clock transition".

7281: 5806: 5059: 4072:

Up to the late 19th century, chemists unanimously agreed that thorium and uranium were the heaviest members of group 4 and

3644:(amorphous), their crystal structure having been damaged by the alpha radiation produced by thorium. An extreme example is 3120:) has coordination number 14. These thorium salts are known for their high solubility in water and polar organic solvents. 2826:

and reacts readily with water and many gases; it dissolves easily in concentrated nitric acid in the presence of fluoride.

2355:(element 83) have an isotope that is practically stable for all purposes ("classically stable"), with the exceptions being 10109:

Furuta, E.; Yoshizawa, Y.; Aburai, T. (2000). "Comparisons between radioactive and non-radioactive gas lantern mantles".

8893:

Diamond, H.; Friedman, A. M.; Gindler, J. E.; et al. (1956). "Possible Existence of Cm or Its Daughters in Nature".

5657:: instead of rapidly decaying to the useful U, a significant amount of Pa converts to U and consumes neutrons, degrading 4679:, "although were widely available a few years ago, they are not any more." Thorium is also used to make cheap permanent 3703:, these two common actinide dioxides can form solid-state solutions and the name of the mineral changes according to the 2292:

The properties of thorium vary widely depending on the degree of impurities in the sample. The major impurity is usually

9008: 3543:

that make interactions between charged particles difficult at high atomic numbers and the fact that fusion beyond Fe is

2711:

ion has no 5f or 6d electrons. Thorium chemistry is therefore largely that of an electropositive metal forming a single

11953: 10372: 6325:

Chaoxian, Chi; Sudip, Pan; Jiaye, Jin; Luyan, Meng; Mingbiao, Luo; Lili, Zhao; Mingfei, Zhou; Gernot, Frenking (2019).

4178: 4174: 3097:

in solutions with pH 3 or below, but in more alkaline solution polymerisation continues until the gelatinous hydroxide

2637:

are theoretically available for the valence electrons to occupy: 5f, 6d, 7s, and 7p. Despite thorium's position in the

2495:

in nature due to its short half-life (2.14 million years), but is continually produced in minute traces from

9818: 6881:

Griffin, H. C. (2010). "Natural Radioactive Decay Chains". In Vértes, A.; Nagy, S.; Klencsár, Z.; et al. (eds.).

2739:/Th couple, it is somewhat more electropositive than zirconium or aluminium. Finely divided thorium metal can exhibit 2642:

because its 5f subshells are not well-shielded by the filled 6s and 6p subshells and are destabilized. This is due to

147: 11869: 7878: 4194: 3314:, which has a piano-stool structure and is made by reacting thorocene with thorium tetrachloride in tetrahydrofuran. 3200:

stabilised by a center thorium cation. This compound was shown to be surprisingly stable, unlike many previous known

2752: 2245:'s is 75.2 GPa; copper's 137.8 GPa; and mild steel's is 160–169 GPa. Thorium is about as hard as soft 1687: 1170: 83: 12008:"Italian military officials' trial ignites suspicions of links between weapon testing and birth defects in Sardinia" 10682: 10291: 3519:

Th is a primordial nuclide, having existed in its current form for over ten billion years; it was formed during the

12196: 10239: 6886: 5396: 4272: 1487: 4797: 4153:

Thorium has been used as a power source on a prototype scale. The earliest thorium-based reactor was built at the

4022:, the only one of the rare radioelements to be discovered in nature as a daughter of thorium rather than uranium. 3915:

metal. Berzelius reused the name of the previous supposed element discovery and named the source mineral thorite.

2962:, thallium, and ammonium are known for thorium fluorides, chlorides, and bromides. For example, when treated with 13506: 10806: 6994: 3774: 3599: 2755:, thorium is slowly attacked by water, but does not readily dissolve in most common acids, with the exception of 2445: 2094:

are the only elements with no stable or nearly-stable isotopes that still occur naturally in large quantities as

10442:"Historic Achievement Recognized: Shippingport Atomic Power Station, A National Engineering Historical Landmark" 9622: 6987: 4660:. All substances emit energy (glow) at high temperatures, but the light emitted by thorium is nearly all in the 2535:(or metastable states), Th, Th, and Th. Th has the lowest known excitation energy of any isomer, measured to be 2272:

of 1750 °C is above both those of actinium (1227 °C) and protactinium (1568 °C). At the start of

11282: 10749: 5752:

agencies make recommendations about the use of thorium mantles and have raised safety concerns regarding their

4202: 2147: 1608: 12168: 11424: 4169:, which has sparse reserves of uranium. In the 1950s, India targeted achieving energy independence with their 3819:, central Sweden. He noted impregnated traces of a white mineral, which he cautiously assumed to be an earth ( 8085:

Yamashita, Toshiyuki; Nitani, Noriko; Tsuji, Toshihide; Inagaki, Hironitsu (1997). "Thermal expansions of NpO

7229:

Yang, H. B.; et al. (2022). "New isotope Th and odd-even staggering in α-decay energies for nuclei with

5690:

Experiment on the effect of radiation (from an unburned thorium gas mantle) on the germination and growth of

4695: 4656:

flame, and it considerably increases the brightness of the flame; this is the main reason thorium is used in

4221: 4115: 3256: 2851:. A flame is not necessary for this effect: in 1901, it was discovered that a hot Welsbach gas mantle (using 2142:, but these uses have become marginal. It has been suggested as a replacement for uranium as nuclear fuel in 1985: 10365: 4540:

thorium is enriched along with other heavy minerals. Initial concentration varies with the type of deposit.

3761:

ion is soluble, especially in acidic soils, and in such conditions the thorium concentration can be higher.

10802: 8002: 5036:{\displaystyle {\ce {{^{232}_{90}Th}->{^{233}_{90}Th}->{^{233}_{91}Pa}->{^{233}_{92}U}\ (->)}}} 4229: 2732: 8788: 3839:. Berzelius privately named the putative element "thorium" in 1817 and its supposed oxide "thorina" after 11487: 11308: 10781: 10689: 8006: 6102:

values two-thirds of their actual ones, and thorium and uranium are given values half of the actual ones.

5665:

during their operation, so that it does not have a chance to capture a neutron and will only decay to U.

4815: 4128: 3385:

derivatives are prepared from the chloride derivative and have been used to study the nature of the Th–C

11652:

Luetzelschwab, J. W.; Googins, S. W. (1984). "Radioactivity released from burning gas lantern mantles".

9566: 6036:, but it is still produced as a result of nuclear reactions in uranium ores. Th is mostly produced as a 5399:. It is more stable chemically than the now-common fuel uranium dioxide, because the latter oxidises to 4784: 13827: 13812: 13499: 10448: 8842: 8506: 7596: 7323: 6786: 5999: 4833:, undergoing neutron capture to become Th, which undergoes two consecutive beta decays to become first 4154: 4142: 3981:

While thorium was discovered in 1828 its first application dates only from 1885, when Austrian chemist

3935: 3896: 3823:

in modern chemical nomenclature) of an unknown element. Berzelius had already discovered two elements,

3580: 3576: 2647: 2588: 1130: 11579: 10964:. The Commonwealth and International Library: Electrical Engineering Division. Elsevier. p. 105. 13656: 10659: 4783:

radiation. Thorium dioxide has since been replaced in this application by rare-earth oxides, such as

3217: 2913: 2596: 2313:

with many other metals. Addition of small proportions of thorium improves the mechanical strength of

2223: 11766:(Report) (in German). Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Umwelt und Landesentwicklung. Archived from 6260: 2759:, where it dissolves leaving a black insoluble residue of ThO(OH,Cl)H. It dissolves in concentrated 1747: 12182: 12127: 9252: 8480:

Langeslay, Ryan R.; Fieser, Megan E.; Ziller, Joseph W.; Furche, Philip; Evans, William J. (2015).

7670: 6936: 4721: 4276: 4025:

After accounting for the contribution of radon, Rutherford, now working with the British physicist

3213: 2126: 1978: 1235: 9201:

Szymanski, J. T.; Owens, D. R.; Roberts, A. C.; Ansell, H. G.; Chao, George Y. (1 February 1982).

3590: 11841: 10921: 10719: 8147: 7865: 7430: 6736: 6126: 5871: 5703:

Natural thorium decays very slowly compared to many other radioactive materials, and the emitted

5650: 4620: 4264: 2917: 2772: 2215: 1537: 1110: 12150: 11330: 10987:

70 years of radio tubes and valves: a guide for electronic engineers, historians, and collectors

10508: 10415: 10313:

Mallapaty, Smriti (9 September 2021). "China prepares to test thorium-fuelled nuclear reactor".

9922: 9349: 5781:

and the lungs from exposure to thorium. People who work with thorium compounds are at a risk of

5641:

U by itself is not particularly harmful, but quickly decays to produce the strong gamma emitter

4698:

of tungsten is significantly lowered by adding small amounts of thorium dioxide to the tungsten

3970: 3922: 3808: 2524:(IUPAC) reclassified thorium as a binuclidic element in 2013; it had formerly been considered a 2444:. Th (alpha emitter with an 18.68 days half-life) can also be used in cancer treatments such as 2118: 1670: 13822: 13771: 11954:"Compendium of Policy And Statutory Provisions Relating To Exploitation of Beach Sand Minerals" 11748:. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry U.S. Public Health Service. 1990. p. 4. 10785: 10364:

Majumdar, S.; Purushotham, D. S. C. (1999). "Experience of thorium fuel development in India".

9658: 9303:

The Analytical Chemistry of Thorium: International Series of Monographs on Analytical Chemistry

5960: 5778: 5649:

using U as the fissile material. Pa has a relatively long half-life of 27 days and a high

4680: 3982: 3292: 2728: 2692: 2388: 1137: 1122: 1097: 109: 9470:[Investigation of a new mineral and of a previously unknown earth contained therein]. 8763: 5300:

where U undergoes neutron capture to become U, beta decaying to first Np and then fissile Pu.

1169: 13640: 13619: 9897: 9399: 7704: 6922: 6777: 6566: 5798:(0.075 kg/m); the minimum igniting energy for (non-submicron) dust was listed as 5 5670: 5646: 3872: 3509: 2921: 2646:, which become stronger near the bottom of the periodic table, specifically the relativistic 1628: 1618: 11978: 6506:

Negre, César et al. “Reversed flow of Atlantic deep water during the Last Glacial Maximum.”

6386:

Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds".

3779: 2281:

one to four. After thorium, there is a new downward trend in melting points from thorium to

13807: 13711: 13632: 12239: 11767: 11700: 11191: 11145: 10542: 10538: 10482: 10322: 10248: 10206: 10118: 9830: 9791: 9691: 9539: 9479: 9440: 9059: 9020: 8980: 8937: 8902: 8723: 8676: 8620: 8567: 8212: 8098: 7835: 7812: 7708: 7674: 7497: 7439: 7388: 7332: 7246: 7195: 6751: 6642: 6033: 5642: 5392: 5297: 4097:

and his team had discovered the transuranic elements americium and curium, he proposed the

3998: 3951: 3868: 3070:: at pH < 3, the solutions of thorium salts are dominated by this cation. The 2829:

When heated in air, thorium dioxide emits intense blue light; the light becomes white when

2715:

ion with a stable noble-gas configuration, indicating a similarity between thorium and the

2643: 2525: 2492: 2334: 2219: 2114: 1504: 1455: 11546: 11286: 8601:

Frebel, Anna; Beers, Timothy C. (January 2018). "The formation of the heaviest elements".

8: 13723: 13695: 13664: 13627: 13584: 13576: 10176: 10010: 9795: 6147: 6113: 6041: 6024:), and slightly larger but still tiny traces of Th and Th from the decay chain of U (the 5662: 5400: 5369: 4775: 4590: 4260: 4206: 4186: 4090: 3617: 3544: 3528: 3079:: thus it tends to undergo hydrolysis and polymerisation (though to a lesser extent than 2819: 2544: 2449: 2380: 2346: 2071: 1680: 1638: 1245: 11704: 11195: 11149: 10486: 10326: 10252: 10210: 10122: 9834: 9695: 9543: 9483: 9444: 9024: 8984: 8941: 8906: 8727: 8710:

Burbidge, E. Margaret; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, William A.; Hoyle, F. (1 October 1957).

8680: 8624: 8571: 8216: 8102: 7839: 7501: 7443: 7392: 7336: 7250: 7199: 6755: 6646: 4291:

the United States explored the possibility of using Th as a source of U to be used in a

2207: 13802: 13703: 13648: 13544: 12131: 11800: 11724: 11323: 11161: 10922:"A review of consumer products containing radioactive substances in the European Union" 10565: 10346: 10287: 10142: 10084: 9865: 9819:"Über die von den Thorverbindungen und einigen anderen Substanzen ausgehende Strahlung" 9203:"A mineralogical study and crystal-structure determination of nonmetamict ekanite, ThCa 8953: 8692: 8688: 8666: 8636: 8610: 8583: 8528: 8482:"Synthesis, structure, and reactivity of crystalline molecular complexes of the {[C 8481: 7521: 7487: 7321:

Tretyak, V.I.; Zdesenko, Yu.G. (2002). "Tables of Double Beta Decay Data — An Update".

7262: 7094: 6838: 6445: 6363: 6326: 6095: 5814: 5753: 5053: 4819: 4637: 4608: 4604: 4296: 4158: 4146: 4132: 4014: 3682: 2963: 2716: 2501: 2484: 2452:

rather than alpha decay, and has left evidence of doing so in its minerals (as trapped

2387:

with 142 neutrons. Thorium has a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, with

2095: 1762: 1598: 1554: 1442: 1227: 1221: 10043: 8110: 13592: 13536: 13522: 13090: 12098: 12071: 12044: 11988: 11716: 11712: 11669: 11665: 11517: 11514:

Nuclear Energy and Global Governance: Ensuring Safety, Security and Non-proliferation

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Geochronology, Dating, and Precambrian Time: The Beginning of the World As We Know It

7586:"Evaluation of nuclear criticality safety data and limits for actinides in transport" 7553: 7525: 7513: 7455: 7266: 7211: 7141: 7133: 7086: 7078: 7038: 6926: 6890: 6861: 6697: 6677: 6658: 6604: 6570: 6480: 6421: 6396: 6368: 6350: 6304: 6276: 4740: 4668: 4548: 4252: 4010: 3856: 3584: 3536: 3201: 3123:

Many other inorganic thorium compounds with polyatomic anions are known, such as the

3117: 2967: 2874: 2756: 2624: 2600: 2568: 2505: 2457: 2368: 2303: 2099: 1727: 1718: 1449: 1368: 1358: 758: 11728: 10260: 9180:"The metamictization of zircon: Radiation dose-dependent structural characteristics" 8696: 8558:

Cameron, A.G.W. (September 1973). "Abundances of the elements in the solar system".

7098: 6842: 6763: 5793:

Powdered thorium metal is pyrophoric: it ignites spontaneously in air. In 1964, the

4212:

In the 21st century, thorium's potential for reducing nuclear proliferation and its

3891:. He commonly sent the most interesting specimens, such as this one, to his father, 2778: 13797: 13560: 13552: 13154: 12859: 12688: 12517: 12436: 12355: 12328: 12291: 12286: 12281: 12090: 12063: 12036: 11898: 11708: 11661: 11360:

Introduction to Weapons of Mass Destruction: Radiological, Chemical, and Biological

11199: 11153: 10896: 10693: 10570: 10494: 10490: 10330: 10256: 10214: 10146: 10126: 10066: 10039: 9838: 9821:[On the radiation emitted by thorium compounds and some other substances]. 9725: 9699: 9600: 9547: 9487: 9468:"Untersuchung eines neues Minerals und einer darin erhalten zuvor unbekannten Erde" 9448: 9075: 9028: 8988: 8957: 8945: 8910: 8875: 8731: 8684: 8640: 8628: 8575: 8523: 8515: 8354: 8220: 8106: 8052: 7843: 7738: 7505: 7478: 7447: 7404: 7396: 7340: 7296: 7254: 7203: 7125: 7070: 7028: 6828: 6795: 6759: 6689: 6650: 6489: 6460: 6358: 6342: 6268: 6029: 5955:

nuclide is one that could be bombarded with neutrons to produce a fissile nuclide.

4834: 4771: 4684: 4661: 4586: 4581: 4137: 4098: 4094: 4060: 4050: 3947: 3931: 3364: 2933: 2822:, with the highest melting point (3390 °C) of any known oxide. It is somewhat 2651: 2630: 2572: 2437: 2376: 2318: 2273: 2163: 2107: 2013: 1971: 1950: 1927: 1875: 1869: 1467: 1350: 1115: 52: 11925: 11742: 11480: 11203: 9892:

The Scientific 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Scientists, Past and Present

7451: 7129: 7074: 4751:

to nitrogen oxides, but this has been replaced by an alloy of 95% platinum and 5%

3851:, Norway, were discovered, he retracted his findings, as the mineral (later named 2460:

of this process is very large at over 10 years and alpha decay predominates.

13679: 13611: 12276: 12271: 12266: 12261: 12256: 12251: 12246: 9773: 7539: 7258: 6323:

Th(-I) and U(-I) have been detected in the gas phase as octacarbonyl anions; see

6213: 6209: 6205: 6180:

The thirteen fissile actinide isotopes with half-lives over a year are Th, U, U,

6143: 6021: 5896:

10 years) is so long that its decay is negligible even over geological timespans.

5855: 5733: 5704: 5658: 5360:. This leaves a margin of 0.45 neutrons (or 18% of the neutron flux) for losses. 4825: 4594: 4544: 4182: 4073: 4026: 4006: 3700: 3641: 3595: 3540: 3273: 2696: 2496: 2330: 2293: 2143: 2052: 2036: 2017: 1407: 1338: 9682:(August 2003). "The Place of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury in the Periodic Table". 9121: 7543: 3663:, which almost never occurs in nonmetamict form due to the thorium it contains. 12219: 12085:

Wickleder, Mathias S.; Fourest, Blandine; Dorhout, Peter K. (2006). "Thorium".

11509: 10622: 10593:(16 June 2023) Experimental Molten Salt Nuclear Reactor Gets Go-Ahead In China 10334: 9930: 7549: 7400: 7113: 7033: 7016: 6654: 6493: 6478:

Varga, Z.; Nicholl, A.; Mayer, K. (2014). "Determination of the Th half-life".

6464: 6189: 6131: 6025: 6017: 5813:, United States. Nine people were injured; one died of complications caused by 5749: 5654: 4672: 4056: 4034: 3076: 2837: 2768: 2634: 2532: 2441: 2261: 2187: 2186:, bright silvery radioactive actinide metal that can be bent or shaped. In the 2159: 2083: 1584: 1459: 1255: 1164: 1102: 163: 10070: 9604: 9567:"The Internet Database of Periodic Tables: Berzelius' Electronegativity Table" 9009:"Partial radiogenic heat model for Earth revealed by geoneutrino measurements" 8879: 8736: 8711: 4758: 2703:

Tetravalent thorium compounds are usually colourless or yellow, like those of

13791: 13313: 12067: 9842: 9551: 9491: 9036: 8448: 8446: 8444: 8442: 8389: 8387: 8385: 8359: 8342: 8324: 8322: 8320: 8318: 7764:

Vértes, A. (2010), Nagy, S.; Klencsár, Z.; Lovas, R. G.; et al. (eds.),

7207: 6678:"Superheavy elements: a prediction of their chemical and physical properties" 6354: 6280: 6185: 6181: 6168: 6099: 6037: 5956: 5810: 5691: 5674:

a half-life of 32,760 years and is a major contributor to the long-term

5293: 4779: 4707: 4702:

powder before drawing the filaments. A small addition of thorium to tungsten

4568: 4376: 4280: 4256: 4217: 4213: 4162: 4038: 3677:(chiefly silicates-hydroxides of various metals) can have 0.1–2% thorium and 3193: 2870: 2740: 2564: 2552: 2384: 2269: 2183: 2044: 2024: 1752: 1564: 1425: 1393: 1198: 1184: 1079: 928: 12094: 11957: 9777: 8992: 8914: 8343:"Hydrated metal ions in aqueous solution: How regular are their structures?" 7768:, vol. 5 (2nd ed.), Springer Science+Business Media, p. 800, 7643: 7641: 7639: 7637: 7058: 6833: 6816: 6800: 6781: 6544: 6542: 6540: 6538: 6536: 3997:

Thorium was first observed to be radioactive in 1898, by the German chemist

13367: 13196: 12901: 12301: 12234: 11761:

Untersuchungen zur radiologischen Emission des Uran-Tailings Schneckenstein

11453:

The National Politics of Nuclear Power: Economics, Security, and Governance

11429: 10342: 10268: 10138: 9178:

Woodhead, James A.; Rossman, George R.; Silver, Leon T. (1 February 1991).

9105: 9103: 9101: 9099: 9097: 9095: 9093: 9091: 9089: 8537: 8254: 8252: 8250: 8248: 8246: 8169: 8167: 7635: 7633: 7631: 7629: 7627: 7625: 7623: 7621: 7619: 7617: 7517: 7459: 7344: 7169: 7167: 7165: 7163: 7161: 7159: 7157: 7155: 7145: 7090: 7042: 6662: 6534: 6532: 6530: 6528: 6526: 6524: 6522: 6520: 6518: 6516: 6372: 6346: 6138:. It does not appear in the periodic systems published by French geologist 5388: 5380:

to minimise the generation of transuranics and maximise the destruction of

4830: 4691: 4629: 4436: 4292: 3974: 3955: 3934:); it is actually 15 times as large. He determined that thorium was a very 3884: 3637: 2998: 2936:. The other tetrahalides instead have dodecahedral geometry. Lower iodides 2885: 2479: 2230: 2195: 2171: 1574: 1529: 1418: 1063: 970: 837: 611: 11992: 11720: 11673: 9126: 8439: 8382: 8315: 7215: 6272: 4611:

is deleterious as it binds thorium and prevents it from dissolving fully.

13421: 13385: 13376: 13286: 13268: 13259: 12296: 11331:"IAEA-TECDOC-1450 Thorium Fuel Cycle – Potential Benefits and Challenges" 11157: 10416:"IAEA-TECDOC-1450 Thorium Fuel Cycle – Potential Benefits and Challenges" 9761: 9394: 8463: 8461: 8372: 8370: 8279: 8203:

Ivey, H.F. (1974). "Candoluminescence and radical-excited luminescence".

8139: 6013: 5423: 4703: 4307:

of at least one nuclear weapon design deployed by the United States (the

4002: 3892: 3124: 3105: 2823: 2760: 2712: 2688: 2592: 2576: 2560: 2548: 2471: 2413: 2409: 2402: 2372: 2326: 2286: 2167: 2134: 2079: 2075: 2063: 2028: 1882: 1773: 1012: 984: 977: 907: 893: 886: 12163: 9086: 9079: 8928:

Rao, M. N.; Gopalan, K. (1973). "Curium-248 in the Early Solar System".

8291: 8243: 8231: 8164: 8056: 7781: 7614: 7509: 7300: 7152: 6513: 3392:

Other organothorium compounds are not well-studied. Tetrabenzylthorium,

3166: 2551:

range. The nuclear transition from Th to Th is being investigated for a

2158:

wire in electrical equipment, controlling the grain size of tungsten in

1203:

5061 K (4788 °C, 8650 °F)

13430: 13358: 13331: 13304: 12964: 12946: 12919: 12750: 12741: 12480: 11087: 9796:"Über die vom Thorium und den Thoriumverbindungen ausgehende Strahlung" 9452: 8579: 8519: 7409: 6693: 6261:"Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)" 6201: 6197: 6193: 6160: 5835: 5782: 5675: 5292:

U is fissile and can be used as a nuclear fuel in the same way as U or

4732: 4657: 4624: 4552: 4496: 4082: 4078: 4042: 3986: 3848: 3836: 3812: 3696: 3640:. Because of thorium's radioactivity, minerals containing it are often 3386: 3006: 2848: 2604: 2571:

this value could drop to 994 kg. Th is not fissionable, but it is

2417: 2360: 2356: 2234: 2139: 1904: 1850: 1823: 1802: 1779: 1019: 963: 942: 921: 660: 646: 625: 497: 490: 291: 11136:

Ronen, Yigal (March 2006). "A Rule for Determining Fissile Isotopes".

10605:"China gives green light to its first thorium-powered nuclear reactor" 9742: 9703: 9371: 8632: 8458: 8367: 7847: 7137: 7082: 6782:"Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)" 6335:

Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany). 25 (50): 11772–11784

4567:

Acid digestion is a two-stage process, involving the use of up to 93%

3895:, a noted mineralogist and professor of mineralogy and geology at the 3791: 2463: 1474: 34: 13735: 13439: 13412: 13403: 13250: 13232: 13223: 13214: 13000: 12910: 12883: 12831: 12777: 12759: 12723: 12703: 12642: 12579: 12523: 12462: 12451: 12370: 12321: 12311: 12306: 11456: 11261: 11259: 11257: 10650: 10648: 10646: 9798:[On the radiation emitted by thorium and thorium compounds]. 9032: 8949: 7965: 7902: 7475: 6735:

Audi, G.; Bersillon, O.; Blachot, J.; Wapstra, A.H. (December 2003).

6075: 5847: 5826: 5742: 5381: 4998: 4949: 4907: 4725: 4712: 4699: 4547:. Alkaline earth metal carbonates may be removed after reaction with 4466: 4406: 4366: 4268: 4248: 4030: 3912: 3844: 3787: 3625: 3524: 3520: 3497: 3377:

used (other univalent metal cyclopentadienyls can also be used). The

3252: 3244: 3221: 3148: 3144: 3136: 3038: 3002: 2955: 2905: 2893: 2866: 2847:, ceria): this is the basis for its previously common application in 2488: 2314: 2282: 2257: 2242: 2203: 2151: 2113:

Thorium was discovered in 1828 by the Norwegian amateur mineralogist

2067: 2040: 1732: 1524: 1399: 1026: 1005: 998: 879: 865: 858: 851: 688: 618: 597: 560: 518: 504: 476: 458: 414: 365: 321: 277: 268: 208: 13491: 10705: 10219: 10194: 10058: 9588: 9527: 8269: 8267: 8068: 8066: 7425: 7376: 7358: 6630: 6331:] (An=Th, U) and the Role of f Orbitals in Metal–Ligand Bonding" 6235: 5959:

is the mass of a ball of a material which could undergo a sustained

5021: 4956: 4914: 4869: 4755:

because of its better mechanical properties and greater durability.

3795: 2249:, so when heated it can be rolled into sheets and pulled into wire. 13394: 13295: 13178: 13160: 13135: 13126: 13099: 13072: 13036: 13027: 13009: 12937: 12928: 12822: 12694: 12660: 12570: 12561: 12552: 12543: 12498: 12417: 12399: 12334: 9306: 8615: 7492: 6444:

Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).

6164: 6135: 5914: 5910: 5859: 5770: 5717: 5377: 4803: 4792: 4744: 4736: 4641: 4599: 4304: 4288: 4236: 4198: 4046: 4001:

and later that year, independently, by the Polish-French physicist

3959: 3876: 3852: 3831:, but he had made a public mistake once, announcing a new element, 3828: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3629: 3620:

with its parent U, and making up at most 0.04% of natural thorium.

3561: 3291:. It is unstable in air and decomposes in water or at 190 °C. 3248: 3140: 3052: 3051:

In an acidic aqueous solution, thorium occurs as the tetrapositive

3014: 2901: 2815: 2764: 2663: 2612: 2512: 2421: 2364: 2322: 2277: 2191: 2155: 2103: 2048: 1055: 991: 914: 823: 809: 793: 786: 765: 744: 716: 709: 695: 639: 632: 553: 451: 428: 358: 351: 344: 337: 305: 245: 231: 183: 11425:"Don't believe the spin on thorium being a greener nuclear option" 11254: 10697: 10643: 10627:

The First Nuclear Era: The life and times of a technological fixer

9229: 8971:

Rosenblatt, D. B. (1953). "Effects of a Primeval Endowment of U".

8671: 7424:

Beck, B. R.; Becker, J. A.; Beiersdorfer, P.; et al. (2007).

7375:

Ruchowska, E.; Płóciennik, W. A.; Żylicz, J.; et al. (2006).

4263:, which brought into question the viability of a plutonium-fueled 3930:

calculated that the atomic mass was 7.5 times that of oxygen (120

3613: 2982:(hexafluorothorate(IV)), which precipitates as an insoluble salt, 2233:(a measure of resistance to compression of a material) of 54 2055:; it is quite reactive and can ignite in air when finely divided. 13476: 13471: 13466: 13461: 13349: 13340: 13322: 13277: 13205: 13117: 13063: 13045: 13018: 12991: 12973: 12955: 12865: 12795: 12768: 12732: 12714: 12678: 12669: 12651: 12633: 12532: 12471: 12361: 12316: 12188: 9956:

Low-Level Radioactive Waste Regulation-Science, Politics and Fear

9923:"Marie and Pierre Curie and the Discovery of Polonium and Radium" 8818: 8264: 8179: 8063: 8024: 7919: 7185: 5987: 5918: 5889: 5738: 5661:. To avoid this, Pa is extracted from the active zone of thorium 5282: 4752: 4748: 4476: 4102: 3711: 3645: 3633: 3557: 3532: 3277: 3197: 3156: 3152: 3132: 3128: 3010: 2658: 2638: 2352: 2253: 2211: 2091: 2059: 2032: 1208: 956: 949: 935: 900: 844: 779: 737: 723: 702: 681: 667: 653: 583: 532: 511: 483: 469: 442: 435: 421: 407: 328: 284: 201: 12121:"Thorium: Does Crustal Abundance Lead to Economic Availability?" 10566:"Uranium is So Last Century – Enter Thorium, the New Green Nuke" 10386: 10236: 8303: 7426:"Energy splitting in the ground state doublet in the nucleus Th" 3918: 3847:

of thunder. In 1824, after more deposits of the same mineral in

2748:

slowly tarnish, becoming grey and finally black at the surface.

2371:. Th is one of the two nuclides beyond bismuth (the other being 13241: 13169: 13054: 12982: 12892: 12874: 12840: 12804: 12786: 12615: 12606: 12597: 12489: 12442: 12408: 12390: 12345: 12177: 11545:. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from 10747: 10159: 9530:[The actual thoritic minerals (thorite and orangite)]. 9058:

Peppard, D. F.; Mason, G. W.; Gray, P. R.; et al. (1952).

7280:

Peppard, D. F.; Mason, G. W.; Gray, P. R.; Mech, J. F. (1952).

6257: 5906: 5839: 5709: 4716: 4486: 4456: 4426: 4416: 4396: 4356: 4225: 4190: 3880: 3824: 3678: 3493: 3225: 3212:

Most of the work on organothorium compounds has focused on the

2959: 2897: 2704: 2433: 2265: 2199: 1190: 1038: 872: 816: 730: 674: 604: 590: 567: 539: 525: 393: 386: 379: 298: 261: 238: 224: 192: 10473:

Friedman, John S. (September 1997). "More power to thorium?".

8502:

Th} anion containing thorium in the formal +2 oxidation state"

6817:"Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)" 6776: 6301:

Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements

5809:

occurred during reprocessing and burning of thorium sludge in

3192:

In January 2021, the aromaticity has been observed in a large

13455: 13144: 12849: 12507: 12381: 11689:"Dose estimates for exposure to radioactivity in gas mantles" 10439: 10033: 8656: 7374: 7362: 7014: 6965: 5843: 5799: 5766: 5725: 5721: 4767: 4446: 4386: 4346: 4329: 4166: 4019: 3888: 3820: 3816: 3572: 3567:

In the Earth's crust, thorium is much more abundant: with an

3378: 2744: 2743:, spontaneously igniting in air. When heated in air, thorium 2608: 2453: 2429: 2310: 2246: 2102:

as uranium in the Earth's crust, and is chiefly refined from

1193: (1750 °C, 3182 °F) 1177: 1143: 800: 574: 312: 217: 8892: 8408:"Heavy-metal cluster sets size record for metal aromaticity" 6629:

Johansson, B.; Abuja, R.; Eriksson, O.; et al. (1995).

3598:

from the decay of Th (violet) is a major contributor to the

61: 58: 13108: 13081: 12624: 12588: 12426: 10169:

A Practitioner's Guide to Patients' Environmental Exposures

9200: 8709: 8479: 8405: 8084: 7423: 6962:"AREVA Med launches production of lead-212 at new facility" 6734: 6628: 5713: 5391:

because thorium dioxide has a higher melting point, higher

4787:, as they provide similar effects and are not radioactive. 4149:, United States), home of the world's first thorium reactor 3900: 3840: 3783: 3382: 3228:), thorium forms a cyclooctatetraenide complex: the yellow 3160: 3081: 2487:

due to their presence in the decay chains of Th, U, U, and

2425: 2122: 2087: 1657: 772: 751: 400: 372: 252: 67: 64: 12119:

Jordan, B. W.; Eggert, R.; Dixon, B.; et al. (2014).

11182:

Ronen, Y. (2010). "Some remarks on the fissile isotopes".

9860: 6603:. Chemistry of transition elements. Vol. 3. Academy. 6150:

in 1870, all of which exclude the rare earths and thorium.

6125:

Thorium also appears in the 1864 table by British chemist

6028:). Th is also been produced in the decay chain of Np (the 12813: 12228: 11576:

Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency

9528:"Die eigentlichen Thorit-Mineralien (Thorit und Orangit)" 8042: 7055: 6053:

Thorianite refers to minerals with 75–100 mol%

4308: 3887:

who studied the minerals in Telemark, where he served as

2958:

compounds. Many polynary halides with the alkali metals,

2775:

by the nitrate can occur, as with uranium and plutonium.

2587:

Two radiometric dating methods involve thorium isotopes:

2238: 546: 12118: 12087:

The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements

11687:

Huyskens, C. J.; Hemelaar, J. T.; Kicken, P. J. (1985).

9300: 4739:, either as the primary ingredient or as an addition to 4177:

to study the use of thorium reactors; a year later, the

12084: 11782: 11780: 11635: 11633: 11631: 11629: 10920:

Shaw, J.; Dunderdale, J.; Paynter, R.A. (9 June 2005).

10874: 10872: 10859: 10857: 10855: 10853: 10851: 9800:

Verhandlungen der Physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin

9748: 9109: 9005: 8452: 8393: 8328: 8297: 8285: 8258: 8237: 8173: 7787: 7647: 7173: 7111: 7017:"An efficient chelator for complexation of thorium-227" 6737:"The Nubase evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" 6548: 6324: 4747:

and 10% thorium is an effective catalyst for oxidising

2884: : Ce acts as a catalyst for the recombination of 2150:

have been built. Thorium is also used in strengthening

12151:

Thorium fuel cycle – Potential benefits and challenges

11686: 11444: 11393: 11391: 10838: 10836: 10834: 10832: 10830: 10828: 10826: 10824: 9154:

Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements

8144:

Nature's building blocks: an A–Z guide to the elements

7825: 5741:

per use, about a third of the dose sustained during a

5387:

Thorium fuels result in a safer and better-performing

4328:

Lower-bound estimates of thorium reserves in thousand

2133:

Thorium is still being used as an alloying element in

10919: 10108: 9720:

Masterton, W. L.; Hurley, C. N.; Neth, E. J. (2011).

9177: 7936: 7934: 6510:, vol. 468,7320 (2010): 84-8. doi:10.1038/nature09508 4846: 4037:

experiments that led to the disintegration theory of

3220:. Like many of the early and middle actinides (up to 84: 13818:

Chemical elements with face-centered cubic structure

11777: 11651: 11626: 11602:"Natural Decay Series: Uranium, Radium, and Thorium" 11376: 10869: 10848: 9057: 7669:. Institute for Structure and Nuclear Astrophysics, 7538: 7279: 6443: 6420:. Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. p. E110. 6327:"Octacarbonyl Ion Complexes of Actinides [An(CO) 5892:

is very slightly radioactive, but its half-life (1.9

2174:/Th isotope ratios to understand the ancient ocean. 12058:Stoll, W. (2005). "Thorium and Thorium Compounds". 11607:. Argonne National Laboratory. 2005. Archived from 11502: 11388: 10821: 10729: 10363: 9719: 9278:

The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side

8758:

Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis

6594: 6592: 6590: 6588: 6586: 4809: 3636:, and the trivalent lanthanides which have similar 2629:A thorium atom has 90 electrons, of which four are 70: 55: 11798: 10615: 9889: 8806: 8755: 8652: 8650: 7960:The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 7957: 7931: 7593:Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire 6631:"Anomalous fcc crystal structure of thorium metal" 5035: 3941: 3363:is prepared by heating thorium tetrachloride with 12035: 11450: 11265: 11012:Weld Like a Pro: Beginning to advanced techniques 9513:Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar 9235: 8824: 8789:"Composition of the Universe - Element Abundance" 8467: 8376: 8309: 8273: 8185: 8072: 8030: 7925: 6477: 6446:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" 3628:(IV), hafnium(IV), and cerium(IV), and also with 3535:rapidly capture neutrons, running up against the 3251:with the better-known analogous uranium compound 2522:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 2098:. Thorium is estimated to be over three times as 13789: 11933:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 11865:"No Radiation Threat Seen in A-laboratory Blast" 10943:""Negative Ion" Technology—What You Should Know" 9354:Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar 9123:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 7471: 7469: 6860:. Vol. 2. EOLSS Publications. p. 374. 6583: 6294: 6292: 6290: 4009:. Starting from 1899, the New Zealand physicist 1482: = 508.45 pm (at 20 °C) 11752: 10059:"Liquid-Phase Chemistry of Superheavy Elements" 8647: 7828:Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 7802: 7800: 7798: 7796: 7728: 7726: 7320: 6682:Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry 4778:. Such glass finds application in high-quality 4063:, who settled thorium's location in the f-block 3925:, who first identified thorium as a new element 3438:, heptamethylthorate(IV), which forms the salt 3068:tricapped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry 12060:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 11799:Jacobson, M.; Cooper, A. R.; Nagy, J. (1964). 11397: 10433: 10065:(2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. p. 335. 9593:Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 5938: 5936: 4735:ceramics, such as high-temperature laboratory 2579:by neutron capture and subsequent beta decay. 2035:olive gray when it is exposed to air, forming 13507: 12204: 11956:. Department of Atomic Energy. Archived from 11353: 11351: 11301: 9949: 9947: 9715: 9713: 9301:Ryabchikov, D. I.; Gol'braikh, E. K. (2013). 8134: 8132: 8130: 8128: 8126: 8124: 8122: 8120: 7759: 7757: 7466: 7282:"Occurrence of the (4n + 1) series in nature" 6560: 6287: 5681: 5067: 1986: 1593:2490 m/s (at 20 °C) 1127: 11110: 10366:Thorium fuel utilization: Options and trends 10195:"Thorium and yttrium in gas lantern mantles" 9978: 7793: 7723: 7021:Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters 6624: 6622: 6620: 6439: 6437: 6395:(86th ed.). CRC Press. pp. 4–135. 6317: 6000:An even number of either protons or neutrons 4580:Alkaline digestion is carried out in 30–45% 4325: 4089:It was only with the discovery of the first 3280:, or by reacting thorium tetrafluoride with 1519:157 nΩ⋅m (at 0 °C) 1417: 12149:International Atomic Energy Agency (2005). 11759:Merkel, B.; Dudel, G.; et al. (1988). 11758: 11566: 11564: 11400:Fluorinated Materials for Energy Conversion 11177: 11175: 10884: 10725:. U.S. Department of Energy. 12 March 2008. 10232: 10230: 10056: 9616: 9614: 8859: 8786: 8600: 8431:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 7991: 7580: 7578: 7576: 7314: 6303:. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. 6253: 6251: 6249: 6167:. Even more importantly, the next element, 5933: 4664:, hence the brightness of thorium mantles. 3695:Thorium dioxide occurs as the rare mineral 3556:primordial elements rarer than thorium are 2474:of Th, commonly called the "thorium series" 2218:. At room temperature, thorium metal has a 18:Chemical element with atomic number 90 (Th) 13514: 13500: 12211: 12197: 11891: 11451:Sovacool, B. K.; Valentine, S. V. (2012). 11348: 11336:. International Atomic Energy Agency. 2005 10585: 10514:. International Atomic Energy Agency. 2002 10421:. International Atomic Energy Agency. 2005 10104: 10102: 10100: 10098: 10061:. In Schädel, M.; Shaughnessy, D. (eds.). 9944: 9710: 9659:"The Internet Database of Periodic Tables" 8970: 8927: 8553: 8551: 8549: 8547: 8406:Krämer2021-01-04T14:40:00+00:00, Katrina. 8117: 7899:Inorganic Chemistry of Main Group Elements 7859: 7857: 7754: 6669: 6067:; thorian uraninite, 15–25 mol% 5074: 5060: 4255:, it was discovered that a minor isotope ( 3317:The simplest of the cyclopentadienyls are 3207: 2873:at the same temperature, an effect called 2782:Crystal structure of thorium tetrafluoride 2456:gas formed as a fission product), but the 2070:of 14.05 billion years, or about the 1993: 1979: 1695: 1688: 1473: 33: 11063:. Oak Ridge Associated Universities. 2021 10466: 10312: 10218: 10050: 9868:(1899). "Thorium and uranium radiation". 9652: 9650: 9648: 9646: 9525: 9509: 9465: 9423: 9421: 9348: 9334:. Vol. 1. Baldwin & Cradock and 9332:A System of Chemistry of Inorganic Bodies 9276:Fontani, M.; Costa, M.; Orna, V. (2014). 8735: 8670: 8614: 8527: 8358: 8078: 7987: 7985: 7491: 7408: 7368: 7032: 6832: 6799: 6730: 6728: 6726: 6724: 6722: 6720: 6617: 6598: 6434: 6362: 6298: 5274:have half-lives over 1,000,000 years 4067: 3046: 2896:and oxychalcogenides are also known with 2763:containing a small quantity of catalytic 12005: 11894:"Sad Memories of '56 Sylvania Explosion" 11885: 11808:United States Department of the Interior 11561: 11357: 11172: 11081: 11009: 10748:United States Geological Survey (2012). 10621: 10472: 10227: 10160:New Jersey Department of Health (1996). 9981:The periodic system of chemical elements 9611: 9271: 9269: 9194: 9171: 9068:Journal of the American Chemical Society 8999: 8836: 8830: 7732: 7573: 7289:Journal of the American Chemical Society 6246: 6060:; uranothorianite, 25–75 mol% 5795:United States Department of the Interior 5685: 4757: 4136: 4055: 3969: 3917: 3911:(potassium pentafluorothorate(IV)) with 3768: 3745:(where M = Sc, Y, or Ln) and phosphate ( 3589: 3165: 3042:Sandwich molecule structure of thorocene 3037: 2954:and could be more clearly formulated as 2777: 2657: 2547:, the emitted gamma radiation is in the 2543:. This is so low that when it undergoes 2462: 2363:(elements 43 and 61). All elements from 13311: 12043:(2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. 12029: 11537: 11535: 11533: 11508: 10959: 10772: 10629:. New York: AIP Press. pp. 36–38. 10192: 10095: 9887: 9816: 9790: 9672: 9620: 9558: 9392: 9364: 9329: 9280:. Oxford University Press. p. 73. 8750: 8557: 8544: 8340: 8198: 8196: 8194: 7955: 7892: 7890: 7863: 7854: 7222: 6880: 6140:Alexandre-Émile Béguyer de Chancourtois 6044:of Th, and is extremely rare in nature. 4077:lanthanides. In 1913, Danish physicist 2062:are unstable. The most stable isotope, 2051:whose chemistry is dominated by the +4 13790: 13365: 13194: 12899: 11918: 11034: 10984: 10890: 10563: 10281: 10004: 9920: 9678: 9643: 9630:United States Atomic Energy Commission 9586: 9418: 9150: 8138: 8045:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry 7982: 7951: 7949: 7806: 7763: 7658: 7656: 6909: 6903: 6814: 6717: 6675: 6601:Non-organic chemistry in three volumes 6561:Gale, W. F.; Totemeier, T. C. (2003). 6471: 6418:CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 5414:), becoming substantially less dense. 4677:National Radiological Protection Board 4647: 4321:List of countries by thorium resources 2802: 2448:. Th also very occasionally undergoes 2117:and identified by the Swedish chemist 13521: 13495: 13419: 13383: 13374: 13284: 13266: 13257: 12192: 12057: 12014:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation 11786: 11639: 11382: 11362:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 85. 11181: 11135: 10929:NRPB Occupational Services Department 10878: 10863: 10842: 10795: 10735: 10680: 10532: 9953: 9760: 9749:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 9427: 9266: 9110:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 8865: 8812: 8453:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 8394:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 8329:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 8298:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 8286:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 8259:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 8238:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 8174:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 7940: 7788:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 7648:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 7174:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 6549:Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006 6415: 6389:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 6379: 4770:, thorium dioxide helps increase its 4575: 4340: 4013:and the American electrical engineer 2582: 2567:of 2839 kg, although with steel 1939: 1936: 1916: 1913: 1889: 1886: 1862: 1859: 1835: 1832: 1814: 1811: 1791: 1788: 1766: 1761: 13428: 13356: 13329: 13302: 12962: 12944: 12917: 12748: 12739: 11530: 11422: 11037:Welding: Principles and Applications 10063:The Chemistry of Superheavy Elements 9386: 8712:"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars" 8703: 8202: 8191: 7896: 7887: 7819: 7417: 7228: 6858:Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry 6855: 6385: 5877: 5807:Sylvania Electric Products explosion 4279:discussed reactor design solutions. 2836:is mixed with its lighter homologue 2260:and is harder than both. It becomes 2106:sands as a by-product of extracting 13437: 13410: 13401: 13248: 13230: 13221: 13212: 12998: 12908: 12881: 12829: 12775: 12757: 12721: 12701: 12640: 12577: 12478: 12460: 12449: 12368: 11873:. Associated Press. 1956. p. 2 11845:. Associated Press. 1956. p. 2 11837:"Nine Injured in Atomic Lab Blasts" 11829: 11743:"Toxicological Profile for Thorium" 11061:"Thoriated Camera Lens (ca. 1970s)" 10803:Thorium. Statistics and Information 10535:"Scientist urges switch to thorium" 10440:Shippingport Atomic Power Station. 9722:Chemistry: Principles and reactions 8089:and some other actinide dioxides". 7946: 7653: 7310:from the original on 29 April 2019. 7273: 4171:three-stage nuclear power programme 3946:In the periodic table published by 3879:county, Norway. He was a Norwegian 3802: 3170:Piano-stool molecule structure of ( 2994:(potassium hexafluorothorate(IV)). 2367:(element 84) onward are measurably 2252:Thorium is nearly half as dense as 1297: 13: 13392: 13293: 13176: 13158: 13133: 13124: 13097: 13070: 13025: 13007: 12935: 12926: 12820: 12692: 12658: 12568: 12550: 12541: 12521: 12496: 12218: 12112: 12006:Alberici, Emma (29 January 2019). 11817:from the original on 3 August 2016 11572:"Radioactivity in Lantern Mantles" 11398:Nakajima, Ts.; Groult, H. (2005). 11111:Kaiser, N.; Pulker, H. K. (2013). 10947:U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission 10373:International Atomic Energy Agency 9591:[About metallic thorium]. 8787:Helmenstine, Anne (28 June 2022). 8762:. McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 7873:. The Royal Society of Chemistry. 7542:; Leighton, R.; Sands, M. (1963). 6236:"Standard Atomic Weights: Thorium" 6142:in 1862, German-American musician 5820: 5653:for neutron capture. Thus it is a 5267:have half-lives under 30 days 4242: 4179:United States Department of Energy 4175:International Atomic Energy Agency 2731:and electropositive metal. With a 2575:as it can be converted to fissile 2401:Thorium nuclei are susceptible to 2325:and uranium, and it is completely 2206:and, as normal for metals, can be 2177: 14: 13839: 13347: 13338: 13320: 13275: 13185: 13115: 13088: 13061: 13043: 13034: 13016: 12989: 12971: 12953: 12863: 12793: 12766: 12730: 12676: 12667: 12649: 12631: 12559: 12530: 12469: 12415: 12397: 12359: 12332: 12156: 11220:. World Nuclear Association. 2017 11039:. Cengage Learning. p. 393. 10720:"Classification Bulletin WNP-118" 10475:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 10396:. World Nuclear Association. 2017 10284:"Thorium Fuel for Nuclear Energy" 10057:Kratz, J. V.; Nagame, Y. (2014). 9656: 9564: 9532:Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie 7809:Lanthanide and Actinide Chemistry 7737:, The Geologic History of Earth, 7698: 4562: 4195:Shippingport Atomic Power Station 3699:. Due to its being isotypic with 3255:. It can be prepared by reacting 2753:standard temperature and pressure 13239: 13203: 13167: 13052: 12980: 12890: 12872: 12802: 12784: 12712: 12613: 12604: 12595: 12440: 12343: 12176: 12162: 11999: 11972: 11946: 11857: 11792: 11735: 11680: 11666:10.1097/00004032-198404000-00013 11645: 11594: 11473: 11416: 11271: 11232: 11210: 11129: 11104: 11075: 11053: 11028: 11003: 10978: 10953: 10935: 10913: 10766: 10741: 10712: 10674: 10597: 10557: 10526: 10501: 10408: 10357: 10306: 10275: 10240:Science of the Total Environment 10186: 10153: 10027: 9998: 9972: 9914: 9881: 9854: 9851:, vol. 301, pp. 141–151 (1898)). 9810: 9784: 9754: 9580: 9519: 9503: 9459: 9342: 9323: 9294: 9241: 7359:Standard Atomic Weights: Thorium 6815:Wieser, M. E. (1 January 2006). 6174: 6153: 6119: 6105: 6088: 6047: 5417: 5397:coefficient of thermal expansion 4810:Potential use for nuclear energy 4534: 4122: 3992: 2916:crystal structure like those of 2818:structure. Thorium dioxide is a 2771:ions; if these are not present, 2047:. Thorium is an electropositive 1966: 1965: 1382:3rd: 1930 kJ/mol 1379:2nd: 1110 kJ/mol 1265: 51: 13142: 12847: 12838: 12505: 12487: 12406: 12388: 11543:"Thorium: Radiation Protection" 11279:"Interactive Chart of Nuclides" 11138:Nuclear Science and Engineering 10962:Electronic Devices and Circuits 10807:United States Geological Survey 10261:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.11.024 10036:Journal of Alloys and Compounds 9500:, vol. 92, no. 7, pp. 385–415). 9151:Emsley, John (25 August 2011). 9144: 9115: 9051: 8964: 8921: 8886: 8780: 8744: 8594: 8473: 8399: 8334: 8036: 7692: 7545:The Feynman Lectures on Physics 7532: 7351: 7179: 7105: 7049: 7008: 6995:United States Geological Survey 6980: 6954: 6887:Springer Science+Business Media 6874: 6849: 6808: 6770: 6764:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 6599:Tretyakov, Yu. D., ed. (2007). 6563:Smithells Metals Reference Book 6554: 6500: 6134:under titanium, zirconium, and 6006: 5993: 5979: 5966: 5924: 5899: 5698: 4623:must be very low (for example, 4614: 3942:Initial chemical classification 3790:of thunder, raising his hammer 2412:which includes isotopes with a 2379:, and slightly longer than the 1376:1st: 587 kJ/mol 13106: 13079: 12622: 12586: 12424: 12379: 11801:Explosibility of metal powders 11402:. Elsevier. pp. 562–565. 11283:Brookhaven National Laboratory 10495:10.1080/00963402.1997.11456765 9983:. Elsevier. pp. 315–316. 6409: 6228: 5883: 5669:fuel cycle: the international 5028: 4990: 4303:Thorium metal was used in the 4275:to circumvent this issue, the 4205:in the United States, and the 4203:Brookhaven National Laboratory 4108: 4033:as one of the outcomes of the 3811:analysed an unusual sample of 3272:with thorium tetrachloride in 2182:Thorium is a moderately soft, 1549: cm/mol (293 K) 1: 12811: 12167:The dictionary definition of 11266:Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997 11204:10.1016/j.anucene.2010.07.006 11113:Optical Interference Coatings 10989:. Vestal, N.Y: Vestal Press. 10193:Toepker, Terrence P. (1996). 10044:10.1016/S0925-8388(98)00072-3 10009:(25th Anniversary ed.). 10007:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 9958:. CRC Press. pp. 24–25. 9823:Annalen der Physik und Chemie 9684:Journal of Chemical Education 9472:Annalen der Physik und Chemie 9433:Journal of Chemical Education 9249:"Tor's Fight with the Giants" 9236:Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997 8839:Geochemistry: an introduction 8825:Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997 8468:Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997 8377:Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997 8310:Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997 8274:Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997 8186:Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997 8111:10.1016/S0022-3115(96)00750-7 8073:Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997 8031:Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997 7995:The radiochemistry of thorium 7926:Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997 7766:Handbook of Nuclear Chemistry 7703:. Department of Geosciences, 7664:"3–6: Uranium Thorium Dating" 7452:10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.142501 7130:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.6b02041 7075:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b02430 6883:Handbook of Nuclear Chemistry 5759: 5363: 5264:a yellow background in italic 4314: 4222:Bhabha Atomic Research Centre 4116:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 3965: 3899:in Christiania (today called 3807:In 1815, the Swedish chemist 3741:ions are often replaced with 3503: 2722: 2170:. Ocean science has utilised 1538:Molar magnetic susceptibility 1363:Pauling scale: 1.3 11713:10.1016/0048-9697(85)90216-5 10162:"Health and hazardous waste" 9979:van Spronsen, J. W. (1969). 9275: 8689:10.1088/0004-637X/698/2/1963 8225:10.1016/0022-2313(74)90001-5 8003:National Academy of Sciences 7595:. p. 15. Archived from 7259:10.1103/PhysRevC.105.L051302 6222: 4731:Thorium dioxide is found in 4513: 4230:Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 3862: 3775:Thor's Fight with the Giants 3600:earth's internal heat budget 3550: 3514: 3276:(THF) at the temperature of 2733:standard reduction potential 2618: 2491:: the last of these is long 2074:; it decays very slowly via 2039:; it is moderately soft and 7: 11488:Argonne National Laboratory 11014:. CarTech Inc. p. 42. 10782:Department of Atomic Energy 10690:Battelle Memorial Institute 10447:. p. 4. Archived from 10199:American Journal of Physics 9589:"Über metallisches Thorium" 9157:. Oxford University Press. 6299:Arblaster, John W. (2018). 6146:in 1867, or German chemist 5865: 5788: 4816:Thorium-based nuclear power 4518: 4508: 4500: 4490: 4480: 4470: 4460: 4450: 4440: 4430: 4420: 4410: 4400: 4390: 4380: 4370: 4360: 4350: 4251:were first produced in the 4220:by 2050. In February 2014, 4129:Thorium-based nuclear power 3606: 3523:, which probably occurs in 2932:ions in somewhat distorted 2515:the isotope Th makes up to 2351:All but two elements up to 2340: 1398:empirical: 179.8 1250:26.230 J/(mol·K) 10: 13844: 12710: 12539: 12458: 12377: 12341: 12243: 11311:. World Nuclear News. 2013 10773:Jayaram, K. M. V. (1987). 10335:10.1038/d41586-021-02459-w 10131:10.1088/0952-4746/20/4/305 9623:Production of Rarer Metals 8843:Cambridge University Press 8793:Science Notes and Projects 8347:Pure and Applied Chemistry 7401:10.1103/PhysRevC.73.044326 7324:At. Data Nucl. Data Tables 7034:10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.07.034 6919:Concepts of Modern Physics 6821:Pure and Applied Chemistry 6787:Pure and Applied Chemistry 6655:10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.280 6494:10.1103/PhysRevC.89.064310 6265:Pure and Applied Chemistry 5842:coastal areas, from south 5682:Hazards and health effects 5258: 5094: 5085: 5050: 4813: 4318: 4155:Indian Point Energy Center 4143:Indian Point Energy Center 4126: 3977:thorium dioxide gas mantle 3897:Royal Frederick University 3764: 3581:Goldschmidt classification 3507: 3214:cyclopentadienyl complexes 2928:ions are coordinated with 2622: 2344: 2190:, it lies to the right of 1660:, the Norse god of thunder 466: 334: 274: 214: 189: 13604: 13569: 13529: 13453: 13153: 12858: 12687: 12516: 12435: 12354: 12327: 12320: 12315: 12310: 12305: 12300: 12295: 12290: 12285: 12280: 12275: 12270: 12265: 12260: 12255: 12250: 12245: 12238: 12233: 12226: 12041:Chemistry of the Elements 11115:. Springer. p. 111. 10660:World Nuclear Association 10071:10.1007/978-3-642-37466-1 10013:. pp. 221–222, 349. 9605:10.1002/cber.188201502213 9466:Berzelius, J. J. (1829). 9253:Google Arts & Culture 9219:The Canadian Mineralogist 8880:10.1080/00033797800200441 8737:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547 8716:Reviews of Modern Physics 8659:The Astrophysical Journal 7377:"Nuclear structure of Th" 6912:"Nuclear Transformations" 6684:. Structure and Bonding. 6676:Fricke, Burkhard (1975). 5858:on the Italian island of 4984: 4942: 4900: 4862: 4706:considerably reduces the 4690:During the production of 4193:was the head designer of 4105:in a fourth d-block row. 3871:found a black mineral on 3411:, and tetraallylthorium, 2791: / 2675: / 2329:in both solid and liquid 2031:light silver metal which 1964: 1960: 1933: 1910: 1881: 1856: 1829: 1808: 1785: 1758: 1717: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1679: 1664: 1652: 1647: 1637: 1627: 1617: 1607: 1597: 1583: 1573: 1563: 1553: 1536: 1523: 1513: 1503: 1486: 1466: 1448: 1438: 1433: 1416: 1406: 1392: 1367: 1357: 1337: 1332: 1254: 1244: 1234: 1220: 1207: 1197: 1183: 1163: 1158: 1150: 1136: 1121: 1109: 1096: 1077: 1054: 169: 161: 157: 124: 108: 104: 96: 46: 41: 32: 12128:Colorado School of Mines 12068:10.1002/14356007.a27_001 11870:The St. Petersburg Times 11516:. Routledge. p. 9. 11358:Langford, R. E. (2004). 11184:Annals of Nuclear Energy 10985:Stokes, John W. (1982). 10609:South China Morning Post 10394:"Nuclear Power in India" 10175:(3): 1–8. Archived from 9843:10.1002/andp.18983010512 9552:10.1002/ange.19020153703 9492:10.1002/andp.18290920702 8360:10.1351/PAC-CON-09-10-22 7733:Rafferty, J. P. (2010), 7701:"Uranium-Thorium Dating" 7671:University of Notre Dame 7208:10.1103/PhysRevC.51.2530 6465:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae 6040:of artificial U made by 6032:): all primordial Np is 4977: 4971: 4935: 4929: 4893: 4887: 4855: 4849: 4837:and then the fissile U: 4722:gas tungsten arc welding 4259:) underwent significant 4247:When gram quantities of 4181:started their research. 3835:, that turned out to be 3794:in a battle against the 3492:, is not known, but its 3295:are also known, such as 3224:, and also expected for 3135:, nitrates, carbonates, 2974:forms the complex anion 2735:of −1.90 V for the 2662:Thorium dioxide has the 2591:, based on the decay of 2531:Thorium has three known 2446:targeted alpha therapies 2090:. On Earth, thorium and 2027:90. Thorium is a weakly 12095:10.1007/1-4020-3598-5_3 12039:; Earnshaw, A. (1997). 11892:Harrington, M. (2003). 11842:Pittsburgh Post-Gazette 11082:Rancourt, J.D. (1996). 10591:Dr. Alfredo Carpineti 9888:Simmons, J. G. (1996). 9817:Schmidt, G. C. (1898). 9393:Selbekk, R. S. (2007). 8993:10.1103/PhysRev.91.1474 8915:10.1103/PhysRev.105.679 8205:Journal of Luminescence 8148:Oxford University Press 7956:Hammond, C. R. (2004). 7897:King, R. Bruce (1995). 7864:Johnson, David (1984). 7431:Physical Review Letters 7233: > 82 and 6988:"Mineral Yearbook 2012" 6834:10.1351/pac200678112051 6801:10.1351/pac200375060683 6635:Physical Review Letters 5872:Thorium Energy Alliance 5678:of spent nuclear fuel. 5341:atom from the fertile 4681:negative ion generators 4271:team began work on the 4265:gun-type nuclear weapon 3293:Half sandwich compounds 3208:Organothorium compounds 3202:aromatic metal clusters 3196:anion consisting of 12 2918:zirconium tetrafluoride 2892:Several binary thorium 2869:emission expected from 2224:body-centred tetragonal 2202:. Pure thorium is very 1633:390–1500 MPa 1509:54.0 W/(m⋅K) 1499:/K (at 20 °C) 1216:11.725 g/cm 1154:2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 10, 2 10960:Pridham, G.J. (2016). 9587:Nilson, L. F. (1882). 9526:Schilling, J. (1902). 9395:"Morten Thrane Esmark" 9064:+ 1) Series in Nature" 7345:10.1006/adnd.2001.0873 7237: < 126". 6778:de Laeter, John Robert 6569:. pp. 15-2–15-3. 6347:10.1002/chem.201902625 6078:, 0–15 mol% 5961:nuclear chain reaction 5779:tracheobronchial tract 5695: 5659:the reactor efficiency 5052:Transmutations in the 5037: 5026: 4968: 4926: 4763: 4150: 4068:Further classification 4064: 3983:Carl Auer von Welsbach 3978: 3926: 3857:yttrium orthophosphate 3855:) proved to be mostly 3815:from a copper mine in 3799: 3692:) up to 0.4% thorium. 3603: 3189: 3047:Coordination compounds 3043: 2799: 2693:hexagonal close packed 2683: 2648:spin–orbit interaction 2589:uranium–thorium dating 2475: 1623:295–685 MPa 1515:Electrical resistivity 1422: 1138:Electron configuration 110:Standard atomic weight 11981:An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc 11481:"Nuclear Energy FAQs" 11309:"Thorium test begins" 11242:. Nuclear Power. 2023 11240:"Uranium 233 Fission" 11010:Uttrachi, J. (2015). 10683:LRL Interest in U-233 9400:Store norske leksikon 9184:American Mineralogist 9060:"Occurrence of the (4 8837:Albarède, F. (2003). 8560:Space Science Reviews 8470:, pp. 1278–1280. 8379:, pp. 1275–1277. 7813:John Wiley & Sons 7705:University of Arizona 6923:McGraw-Hill Education 6567:Butterworth-Heinemann 6273:10.1515/pac-2019-0603 5689: 5671:Nuclear Energy Agency 5647:nuclear proliferation 5298:fast breeder reactors 5038: 4994: 4945: 4903: 4798:Lanthanum trifluoride 4761: 4273:implosion-type weapon 4140: 4059: 3973: 3952:alkaline earth metals 3921: 3772: 3614:Earth's internal heat 3593: 3510:Occurrence of thorium 3169: 3041: 2922:hafnium tetrafluoride 2781: 2661: 2597:ionium–thorium dating 2466: 2428:, bismuth, polonium, 2121:, who named it after 1421: 1240:514 kJ/mol 12185:at Wikimedia Commons 12030:General bibliography 11158:10.13182/nse06-a2588 10891:Matson, Tim (2011). 10681:Woods, W.K. (1966). 10011:Simon & Schuster 9621:Meister, G. (1948). 9330:Thomson, T. (1831). 8341:Persson, I. (2010). 8150:. pp. 544–548. 7992:Hyde, E. K. (1960). 6925:. pp. 432–434. 5732:which are dangerous 5663:molten salt reactors 5393:thermal conductivity 5370:molten salt reactors 4844: 4114:A 1981 study by the 4091:transuranic elements 3999:Gerhard Carl Schmidt 3923:Jöns Jacob Berzelius 3869:Morten Thrane Esmark 3809:Jöns Jacob Berzelius 3529:neutron star mergers 3085:), predominantly to 2877:. It occurs because 2727:Thorium is a highly 2644:relativistic effects 2526:mononuclidic element 2241:'s (58.2 GPa). 2237:, about the same as 2229:Thorium metal has a 2119:Jöns Jacob Berzelius 2115:Morten Thrane Esmark 2086:that ends at stable 1671:Jöns Jakob Berzelius 1505:Thermal conductivity 1257:Vapour pressure 1236:Heat of vaporisation 1212:(at 20° C) 12089:. pp. 52–160. 11705:1985ScTEn..45..157H 11196:2010AnNuE..37.1783R 11150:2006NSE...152..334R 11035:Jeffus, L. (2016). 10564:Martin, R. (2009). 10487:1997BuAtS..53e..19F 10327:2021Natur.597..311M 10282:Kazimi, M. (2003). 10253:2007ScTEn.374...36P 10211:1996AmJPh..64..109T 10123:2000JRP....20..423F 10005:Rhodes, R. (2012). 9921:Fröman, N. (1996). 9835:1898AnP...301..141S 9696:2003JChEd..80..952J 9544:1902AngCh..15..921S 9515:(in Swedish): 1–30. 9484:1829AnP....92..385B 9445:1932JChEd...9.1231W 9080:10.1021/ja01143a074 9025:2011NatGe...4..647K 8985:1953PhRv...91.1474R 8942:1973Natur.245..304R 8907:1957PhRv..105..679D 8728:1957RvMP...29..547B 8681:2009ApJ...698.1963R 8625:2018PhT....71a..30F 8572:1973SSRv...15..121C 8455:, pp. 116–117. 8396:, pp. 101–115. 8331:, pp. 117–134. 8217:1974JLum....8..271I 8103:1997JNuM..245...72Y 8057:10.1021/ie50569a035 7840:1974JPCRD...3..771M 7807:Cotton, S. (2006). 7510:10.1038/nature17669 7502:2016Natur.533...47V 7444:2007PhRvL..98n2501B 7393:2006PhRvC..73d4326R 7337:2002ADNDT..80...83T 7301:10.1021/ja01143a074 7251:2022PhRvC.105e1302Y 7200:1995PhRvC..51.2530B 7124:(22): 11930–11936. 7118:Inorganic Chemistry 7069:(22): 14337–14346. 7063:Inorganic Chemistry 6910:Beiser, A. (2003). 6756:2003NuPhA.729....3A 6647:1995PhRvL..75..280J 6341:(50): 11772–11784. 6148:Julius Lothar Meyer 6114:Lars Fredrik Nilson 6096:rare-earth elements 6042:neutron irradiation 5401:triuranium octoxide 5047: 5025: 5020: 4967: 4955: 4925: 4913: 4883: 4648:Modern applications 4591:trisodium phosphate 4589:, and phosphate as 4334: 4261:spontaneous fission 4207:Kurchatov Institute 4187:Tel Aviv University 3618:secular equilibrium 3585:refractory elements 3218:cyclooctatetraenyls 3001:. All four heavier 2820:refractory material 2803:Inorganic compounds 2717:main group elements 2666:crystal structure. 2545:isomeric transition 2485:trace radioisotopes 2450:spontaneous fission 2381:age of the universe 2347:Isotopes of thorium 2096:primordial elements 2072:age of the universe 1681:Isotopes of thorium 1412:206±6 pm 1369:Ionisation energies 1246:Molar heat capacity 1159:Physical properties 1151:Electrons per shell 29: 11960:on 4 December 2008 11906:on 4 February 2012 11773:on 8 January 2013. 11693:Sci. Total Environ 11582:on 14 October 2007 11289:on 24 January 2017 11084:Optical Thin Films 10533:Evans, B. (2006). 10288:American Scientist 9954:Burns, M. (1987). 9870:Trans. R. Soc. Can 9849:Annalen der Physik 9847:(modern citation: 9680:Jensen, William B. 9498:Annalen der Physik 9496:(modern citation: 9453:10.1021/ed009p1231 8580:10.1007/BF00172440 8520:10.1039/C4SC03033H 8288:, pp. 97–101. 6694:10.1007/BFb0116498 6416:Weast, R. (1984). 5815:third-degree burns 5696: 5054:thorium fuel cycle 5046: 5033: 4820:Thorium fuel cycle 4764: 4743:. An alloy of 90% 4687:health bracelets. 4638:tributyl phosphate 4609:titanium hydroxide 4605:Solvent extraction 4576:Alkaline digestion 4326: 4151: 4147:Buchanan, New York 4133:Thorium fuel cycle 4065: 4015:Robert Bowie Owens 3979: 3927: 3800: 3780:Mårten Eskil Winge 3683:zirconium silicate 3604: 3496:are stabilised by 3190: 3044: 2964:potassium fluoride 2800: 2684: 2603:materials such as 2583:Radiometric dating 2502:neutron activation 2476: 2304:lattice parameters 2220:face-centred cubic 2058:All known thorium 1456:face-centred cubic 1439:Natural occurrence 1429: 1423: 1061: 1046: 21: 13828:Nuclear materials 13813:Chemical elements 13785: 13784: 13523:Thorium compounds 13489: 13488: 13482: 13481: 13448: 13447: 12181:Media related to 12104:978-1-4020-3555-5 12077:978-3-527-31097-5 12050:978-0-08-037941-8 11926:"Thorium ToxFAQs" 11614:on 17 August 2016 11549:on 1 October 2006 11523:978-1-136-84993-0 11466:978-1-136-29437-2 11423:Rees, E. (2011). 11409:978-0-08-044472-7 11369:978-0-471-46560-7 11190:(12): 1783–1784. 11122:978-3-540-36386-6 11097:978-0-8194-2285-9 11086:. User Handbook. 11046:978-1-305-49469-5 11021:978-1-61325-221-5 10996:978-0-911572-27-8 10971:978-1-4831-3979-1 10906:978-1-58157-829-4 10636:978-1-56396-358-2 10321:(7876): 311–312. 10294:on 1 January 2017 10182:on 15 April 2016. 10080:978-3-642-37465-4 10020:978-1-4516-7761-4 9990:978-0-444-40776-4 9965:978-0-87371-026-8 9907:978-0-8065-2139-8 9896:. Carol. p. 9735:978-1-111-42710-8 9704:10.1021/ed080p952 9405:Kunnskapsforlaget 9374:. Mindat database 9336:William Blackwood 9316:978-1-4831-5659-0 9287:978-0-19-938334-4 9164:978-0-19-257046-8 9112:, pp. 55–56. 9074:(23): 6081–6084. 9013:Nature Geoscience 8936:(5424): 304–307. 8868:Annals of Science 8852:978-0-521-89148-6 8773:978-0-226-10953-4 8633:10.1063/pt.3.3815 8353:(10): 1901–1917. 8300:, pp. 64–66. 8261:, pp. 78–94. 8240:, pp. 95–97. 8176:, pp. 70–77. 8157:978-0-19-960563-7 7975:978-0-8493-0485-9 7964:(81st ed.). 7912:978-0-471-18602-1 7848:10.1063/1.3253147 7790:, pp. 59–60. 7775:978-1-4419-0719-6 7748:978-1-61530-125-6 7650:, pp. 52–53. 7559:978-0-201-02116-5 7381:Physical Review C 7295:(23): 6081–6084. 7239:Physical Review C 7188:Physical Review C 7176:, pp. 53–55. 7027:(17): 4318–4321. 6964:(Press release). 6942:on 4 October 2016 6932:978-0-07-244848-1 6896:978-1-4419-0719-6 6867:978-1-84826-127-3 6856:Nagy, S. (2009). 6827:(11): 2051–2066. 6744:Nuclear Physics A 6703:978-3-540-07109-9 6610:978-5-7695-2533-9 6576:978-0-08-048096-1 6551:, pp. 61–63. 6481:Physical Review C 6453:Chinese Physics C 6427:978-0-8493-0464-4 6402:978-0-8493-0486-6 6310:978-1-62708-155-9 6094:At the time, the 5878:Explanatory notes 5378:mixed oxide fuels 5290: 5289: 5018: 4988: 4976: 4975: 4974: 4953: 4934: 4933: 4932: 4911: 4892: 4891: 4890: 4884: 4881: 4873: 4854: 4853: 4852: 4741:zirconium dioxide 4696:recrystallisation 4669:ultraviolet light 4549:hydrogen chloride 4523: 4522: 4253:Manhattan Project 4201:Nuclear Inc. and 4083:theoretical model 4011:Ernest Rutherford 3537:neutron drip line 3118:Manhattan Project 2968:hydrofluoric acid 2934:square antiprisms 2875:candoluminescence 2757:hydrochloric acid 2652:transition metals 2631:valence electrons 2625:Thorium compounds 2601:calcium carbonate 2506:double beta decay 2458:partial half-life 2333:with its lighter 2319:eutectic mixtures 2309:Thorium can form 2194:, to the left of 2108:rare-earth metals 2007: 2006: 1972:Category: Thorium 1956: 1955: 1579:54 GPa 1569:31 GPa 1559:79 GPa 1525:Magnetic ordering 1488:Thermal expansion 1450:Crystal structure 1424: 1359:Electronegativity 1333:Atomic properties 1327: 1326: 1073: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1059: 1044: 1034: 1033: 760:Mercury (element) 13835: 13777: 13675: 13674: 13673: 13516: 13509: 13502: 13493: 13492: 13458: 13457: 13444: 13442: 13435: 13433: 13426: 13424: 13417: 13415: 13408: 13406: 13399: 13397: 13390: 13388: 13381: 13379: 13372: 13370: 13363: 13361: 13354: 13352: 13345: 13343: 13336: 13334: 13327: 13325: 13318: 13316: 13309: 13307: 13300: 13298: 13291: 13289: 13282: 13280: 13273: 13271: 13264: 13262: 13255: 13253: 13246: 13244: 13237: 13235: 13228: 13226: 13219: 13217: 13210: 13208: 13201: 13199: 13192: 13190: 13183: 13181: 13174: 13172: 13165: 13163: 13149: 13147: 13140: 13138: 13131: 13129: 13122: 13120: 13113: 13111: 13104: 13102: 13095: 13093: 13086: 13084: 13077: 13075: 13068: 13066: 13059: 13057: 13050: 13048: 13041: 13039: 13032: 13030: 13023: 13021: 13014: 13012: 13005: 13003: 12996: 12994: 12987: 12985: 12978: 12976: 12969: 12967: 12960: 12958: 12951: 12949: 12942: 12940: 12933: 12931: 12924: 12922: 12915: 12913: 12906: 12904: 12897: 12895: 12888: 12886: 12879: 12877: 12870: 12868: 12854: 12852: 12845: 12843: 12836: 12834: 12827: 12825: 12818: 12816: 12809: 12807: 12800: 12798: 12791: 12789: 12782: 12780: 12773: 12771: 12764: 12762: 12755: 12753: 12746: 12744: 12737: 12735: 12728: 12726: 12719: 12717: 12708: 12706: 12699: 12697: 12683: 12681: 12674: 12672: 12665: 12663: 12656: 12654: 12647: 12645: 12638: 12636: 12629: 12627: 12620: 12618: 12611: 12609: 12602: 12600: 12593: 12591: 12584: 12582: 12575: 12573: 12566: 12564: 12557: 12555: 12548: 12546: 12537: 12535: 12528: 12526: 12512: 12510: 12503: 12501: 12494: 12492: 12485: 12483: 12476: 12474: 12467: 12465: 12456: 12454: 12447: 12445: 12431: 12429: 12422: 12420: 12413: 12411: 12404: 12402: 12395: 12393: 12386: 12384: 12375: 12373: 12366: 12364: 12350: 12348: 12339: 12337: 12229: 12213: 12206: 12199: 12190: 12189: 12180: 12166: 12146: 12144: 12142: 12136: 12130:. Archived from 12125: 12108: 12081: 12054: 12037:Greenwood, N. N. 12024: 12023: 12021: 12019: 12003: 11997: 11996: 11976: 11970: 11969: 11967: 11965: 11950: 11944: 11943: 11941: 11939: 11930: 11922: 11916: 11915: 11913: 11911: 11902:. Archived from 11899:New York Newsday 11889: 11883: 11882: 11880: 11878: 11861: 11855: 11854: 11852: 11850: 11833: 11827: 11826: 11824: 11822: 11816: 11805: 11796: 11790: 11784: 11775: 11774: 11772: 11765: 11756: 11750: 11749: 11747: 11739: 11733: 11732: 11684: 11678: 11677: 11649: 11643: 11637: 11624: 11623: 11621: 11619: 11613: 11606: 11598: 11592: 11591: 11589: 11587: 11578:. Archived from 11568: 11559: 11558: 11556: 11554: 11539: 11528: 11527: 11506: 11500: 11499: 11497: 11495: 11485: 11477: 11471: 11470: 11448: 11442: 11441: 11439: 11437: 11420: 11414: 11413: 11395: 11386: 11380: 11374: 11373: 11355: 11346: 11345: 11343: 11341: 11335: 11327: 11321: 11320: 11318: 11316: 11305: 11299: 11298: 11296: 11294: 11285:. Archived from 11275: 11269: 11263: 11252: 11251: 11249: 11247: 11236: 11230: 11229: 11227: 11225: 11214: 11208: 11207: 11179: 11170: 11169: 11133: 11127: 11126: 11108: 11102: 11101: 11079: 11073: 11072: 11070: 11068: 11057: 11051: 11050: 11032: 11026: 11025: 11007: 11001: 11000: 10982: 10976: 10975: 10957: 10951: 10950: 10939: 10933: 10932: 10926: 10917: 10911: 10910: 10897:Countryman Press 10888: 10882: 10876: 10867: 10861: 10846: 10840: 10819: 10818: 10816: 10814: 10799: 10793: 10792: 10791:on 28 June 2011. 10790: 10784:. Archived from 10779: 10770: 10764: 10763: 10761: 10759: 10754: 10745: 10739: 10733: 10727: 10726: 10724: 10716: 10710: 10709: 10687: 10678: 10672: 10671: 10669: 10667: 10652: 10641: 10640: 10619: 10613: 10612: 10601: 10595: 10589: 10583: 10582: 10580: 10578: 10561: 10555: 10554: 10552: 10550: 10545:on 28 March 2010 10541:. Archived from 10530: 10524: 10523: 10521: 10519: 10513: 10505: 10499: 10498: 10470: 10464: 10463: 10461: 10459: 10453: 10446: 10437: 10431: 10430: 10428: 10426: 10420: 10412: 10406: 10405: 10403: 10401: 10390: 10384: 10383: 10381: 10379: 10370: 10361: 10355: 10354: 10310: 10304: 10303: 10301: 10299: 10290:. Archived from 10279: 10273: 10272: 10234: 10225: 10224: 10222: 10190: 10184: 10183: 10181: 10166: 10157: 10151: 10150: 10106: 10093: 10092: 10054: 10048: 10047: 10038:. 271–273: 287. 10031: 10025: 10024: 10002: 9996: 9994: 9976: 9970: 9969: 9951: 9942: 9941: 9939: 9937: 9918: 9912: 9911: 9895: 9885: 9879: 9877: 9858: 9852: 9846: 9814: 9808: 9807: 9788: 9782: 9781: 9758: 9752: 9746: 9740: 9739: 9726:Cengage Learning 9724:(7th ed.). 9717: 9708: 9707: 9676: 9670: 9669: 9667: 9665: 9654: 9641: 9640: 9638: 9636: 9627: 9618: 9609: 9608: 9599:(2): 2537–2547. 9584: 9578: 9577: 9575: 9573: 9562: 9556: 9555: 9523: 9517: 9516: 9507: 9501: 9495: 9463: 9457: 9456: 9425: 9416: 9415: 9413: 9411: 9403:(in Norwegian). 9390: 9384: 9383: 9381: 9379: 9368: 9362: 9361: 9350:Berzelius, J. J. 9346: 9340: 9339: 9327: 9321: 9320: 9298: 9292: 9291: 9273: 9264: 9263: 9261: 9259: 9245: 9239: 9233: 9227: 9226: 9198: 9192: 9191: 9175: 9169: 9168: 9148: 9142: 9141: 9139: 9137: 9131: 9119: 9113: 9107: 9084: 9083: 9055: 9049: 9048: 9046: 9044: 9039:on 17 April 2023 9035:. Archived from 9033:10.1038/ngeo1205 9003: 8997: 8996: 8979:(6): 1474–1475. 8968: 8962: 8961: 8950:10.1038/245304a0 8925: 8919: 8918: 8890: 8884: 8883: 8863: 8857: 8856: 8834: 8828: 8822: 8816: 8810: 8804: 8803: 8801: 8799: 8784: 8778: 8777: 8761: 8748: 8742: 8741: 8739: 8707: 8701: 8700: 8674: 8665:(2): 1963–1980. 8654: 8645: 8644: 8618: 8598: 8592: 8591: 8555: 8542: 8541: 8531: 8507:Chemical Science 8477: 8471: 8465: 8456: 8450: 8437: 8436: 8430: 8422: 8420: 8418: 8403: 8397: 8391: 8380: 8374: 8365: 8364: 8362: 8338: 8332: 8326: 8313: 8307: 8301: 8295: 8289: 8283: 8277: 8271: 8262: 8256: 8241: 8235: 8229: 8228: 8200: 8189: 8183: 8177: 8171: 8162: 8161: 8136: 8115: 8114: 8082: 8076: 8070: 8061: 8060: 8040: 8034: 8028: 8022: 8021: 8019: 8017: 8011: 8005:. Archived from 8000: 7989: 7980: 7979: 7963: 7953: 7944: 7938: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7916: 7894: 7885: 7884: 7872: 7867:The Periodic Law 7861: 7852: 7851: 7823: 7817: 7816: 7804: 7791: 7785: 7779: 7778: 7761: 7752: 7751: 7739:Rosen Publishing 7730: 7721: 7720: 7718: 7716: 7711:on 28 March 2017 7707:. Archived from 7696: 7690: 7689: 7687: 7685: 7680:on 21 April 2021 7679: 7673:. Archived from 7668: 7660: 7651: 7645: 7612: 7611: 7609: 7607: 7601: 7590: 7582: 7571: 7570: 7568: 7566: 7552:. pp. 2–5. 7536: 7530: 7529: 7495: 7473: 7464: 7463: 7421: 7415: 7414: 7412: 7372: 7366: 7355: 7349: 7348: 7318: 7312: 7311: 7309: 7286: 7277: 7271: 7270: 7226: 7220: 7219: 7194:(5): 2530–2533. 7183: 7177: 7171: 7150: 7149: 7109: 7103: 7102: 7053: 7047: 7046: 7036: 7012: 7006: 7005: 7003: 7001: 6992: 6984: 6978: 6977: 6975: 6973: 6958: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6947: 6941: 6935:. Archived from 6916: 6907: 6901: 6900: 6878: 6872: 6871: 6853: 6847: 6846: 6836: 6812: 6806: 6805: 6803: 6774: 6768: 6767: 6741: 6732: 6715: 6714: 6712: 6710: 6673: 6667: 6666: 6626: 6615: 6614: 6596: 6581: 6580: 6558: 6552: 6546: 6511: 6504: 6498: 6497: 6475: 6469: 6468: 6450: 6441: 6432: 6431: 6413: 6407: 6406: 6394: 6383: 6377: 6376: 6366: 6321: 6315: 6314: 6296: 6285: 6284: 6255: 6244: 6243: 6232: 6217: 6178: 6172: 6157: 6151: 6123: 6117: 6109: 6103: 6092: 6086: 6084: 6073: 6066: 6059: 6051: 6045: 6030:neptunium series 6010: 6004: 5997: 5991: 5983: 5977: 5970: 5964: 5940: 5931: 5928: 5922: 5903: 5897: 5895: 5887: 5637: 5636: 5635: 5632: 5629: 5622: 5621: 5620: 5613: 5612: 5604: 5603: 5602: 5599: 5596: 5589: 5585: 5584: 5583: 5576: 5575: 5566: 5565: 5564: 5557: 5556: 5545: 5544: 5543: 5536: 5535: 5527: 5526: 5525: 5523: 5522: 5514: 5511: 5503: 5502: 5501: 5494: 5493: 5485: 5484: 5483: 5480: 5477: 5470: 5466: 5465: 5464: 5457: 5456: 5447: 5446: 5445: 5438: 5437: 5413: 5359: 5358: 5357: 5350: 5349: 5340: 5339: 5338: 5331: 5330: 5321: 5320: 5319: 5312: 5311: 5280: 5266: 5076: 5069: 5062: 5048: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5039: 5034: 5032: 5031: 5027: 5019: 5016: 5014: 5013: 4986: 4985: 4972: 4969: 4966: 4965: 4954: 4951: 4943: 4930: 4927: 4924: 4923: 4912: 4909: 4901: 4888: 4885: 4882: 4879: 4874: 4871: 4865: 4863: 4850: 4772:refractive index 4685:pseudoscientific 4662:visible spectrum 4658:gas lamp mantles 4635: 4587:sodium diuranate 4582:sodium hydroxide 4335: 4099:actinide concept 4095:Glenn T. Seaborg 4061:Glenn T. Seaborg 4051:sexual impotence 3948:Dmitri Mendeleev 3910: 3803:Erroneous report 3760: 3756: 3755: 3754: 3751: 3744: 3740: 3739: 3738: 3735: 3728: 3724: 3716:thorium silicate 3709: 3691: 3662: 3541:Coulomb barriers 3491: 3480: 3453: 3437: 3425: 3410: 3376: 3362: 3346: 3331: 3313: 3290: 3270: 3242: 3188: 3111: 3103: 3096: 3084: 3073: 3065: 3034: 3023: 2993: 2981: 2973: 2953: 2949: 2942: 2931: 2927: 2883: 2864: 2857: 2846: 2835: 2814:, which has the 2813: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2738: 2710: 2707:or lead, as the 2697:group 4 elements 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2542: 2540: 2518: 2438:nuclear medicine 2397: 2395: 2385:nuclear subshell 2377:age of the Earth 2301: 2164:aircraft engines 2148:thorium reactors 2144:nuclear reactors 2014:chemical element 1995: 1988: 1981: 1969: 1968: 1947: 1942: 1924: 1919: 1901: 1896: 1894: 1872: 1865: 1847: 1842: 1840: 1820: 1799: 1794: 1776: 1769: 1744: 1712: 1711: 1702: 1697: 1690: 1675: 1629:Brinell hardness 1619:Vickers hardness 1590: 1548: 1546: 1498: 1496: 1477: 1468:Lattice constant 1434:Other properties 1348: 1343:−1, +1, +2, +3, 1339:Oxidation states 1305: 1301: 1273: 1269: 1262: 1261: 1213: 1174: 1173: 1129: 1105:(no number) 1089: 1088: 1029: 1022: 1015: 1008: 1001: 994: 987: 980: 973: 966: 959: 952: 945: 938: 931: 924: 917: 910: 903: 896: 889: 882: 875: 868: 861: 854: 847: 840: 833: 826: 819: 812: 803: 796: 789: 782: 775: 768: 761: 754: 747: 740: 733: 726: 719: 712: 705: 698: 691: 684: 677: 670: 663: 656: 649: 642: 635: 628: 621: 614: 607: 600: 593: 586: 577: 570: 563: 556: 549: 542: 535: 528: 521: 514: 507: 500: 493: 486: 479: 472: 461: 454: 445: 438: 431: 424: 417: 410: 403: 396: 389: 382: 375: 368: 361: 354: 347: 340: 331: 324: 315: 308: 301: 294: 287: 280: 271: 264: 255: 248: 241: 234: 227: 220: 211: 204: 195: 186: 180: 179: 175: 174: 171: 170: 145: 143: 136: 134: 120: 92: 87: 79: 77: 76: 73: 72: 69: 66: 63: 60: 57: 37: 30: 28: 20: 13843: 13842: 13838: 13837: 13836: 13834: 13833: 13832: 13788: 13787: 13786: 13781: 13776: 13772: 13767: 13763: 13755: 13747: 13743: 13739: 13731: 13727: 13719: 13715: 13707: 13699: 13691: 13687: 13683: 13672: 13669: 13668: 13667: 13665: 13660: 13652: 13644: 13636: 13623: 13615: 13600: 13596: 13588: 13580: 13565: 13556: 13548: 13540: 13525: 13520: 13490: 13485: 13484: 13483: 13449: 13440: 13438: 13431: 13429: 13422: 13420: 13413: 13411: 13404: 13402: 13395: 13393: 13386: 13384: 13377: 13375: 13368: 13366: 13359: 13357: 13350: 13348: 13341: 13339: 13332: 13330: 13323: 13321: 13314: 13312: 13305: 13303: 13296: 13294: 13287: 13285: 13278: 13276: 13269: 13267: 13260: 13258: 13251: 13249: 13242: 13240: 13233: 13231: 13224: 13222: 13215: 13213: 13206: 13204: 13197: 13195: 13188: 13186: 13179: 13177: 13170: 13168: 13161: 13159: 13145: 13143: 13136: 13134: 13127: 13125: 13118: 13116: 13109: 13107: 13100: 13098: 13091: 13089: 13082: 13080: 13073: 13071: 13064: 13062: 13055: 13053: 13046: 13044: 13037: 13035: 13028: 13026: 13019: 13017: 13010: 13008: 13001: 12999: 12992: 12990: 12983: 12981: 12974: 12972: 12965: 12963: 12956: 12954: 12947: 12945: 12938: 12936: 12929: 12927: 12920: 12918: 12911: 12909: 12902: 12900: 12893: 12891: 12884: 12882: 12875: 12873: 12866: 12864: 12850: 12848: 12841: 12839: 12832: 12830: 12823: 12821: 12814: 12812: 12805: 12803: 12796: 12794: 12787: 12785: 12778: 12776: 12769: 12767: 12760: 12758: 12751: 12749: 12742: 12740: 12733: 12731: 12724: 12722: 12715: 12713: 12704: 12702: 12695: 12693: 12679: 12677: 12670: 12668: 12661: 12659: 12652: 12650: 12643: 12641: 12634: 12632: 12625: 12623: 12616: 12614: 12607: 12605: 12598: 12596: 12589: 12587: 12580: 12578: 12571: 12569: 12562: 12560: 12553: 12551: 12544: 12542: 12533: 12531: 12524: 12522: 12508: 12506: 12499: 12497: 12490: 12488: 12481: 12479: 12472: 12470: 12463: 12461: 12452: 12450: 12443: 12441: 12427: 12425: 12418: 12416: 12409: 12407: 12400: 12398: 12391: 12389: 12382: 12380: 12371: 12369: 12362: 12360: 12346: 12344: 12335: 12333: 12222: 12217: 12159: 12140: 12138: 12137:on 30 June 2017 12134: 12123: 12115: 12113:Further reading 12105: 12078: 12051: 12032: 12027: 12017: 12015: 12004: 12000: 11977: 11973: 11963: 11961: 11952: 11951: 11947: 11937: 11935: 11928: 11924: 11923: 11919: 11909: 11907: 11890: 11886: 11876: 11874: 11863: 11862: 11858: 11848: 11846: 11835: 11834: 11830: 11820: 11818: 11814: 11803: 11797: 11793: 11785: 11778: 11770: 11763: 11757: 11753: 11745: 11741: 11740: 11736: 11685: 11681: 11650: 11646: 11638: 11627: 11617: 11615: 11611: 11604: 11600: 11599: 11595: 11585: 11583: 11570: 11569: 11562: 11552: 11550: 11541: 11540: 11531: 11524: 11507: 11503: 11493: 11491: 11483: 11479: 11478: 11474: 11467: 11459:. p. 226. 11449: 11445: 11435: 11433: 11421: 11417: 11410: 11396: 11389: 11381: 11377: 11370: 11356: 11349: 11339: 11337: 11333: 11329: 11328: 11324: 11314: 11312: 11307: 11306: 11302: 11292: 11290: 11277: 11276: 11272: 11268:, p. 1259. 11264: 11255: 11245: 11243: 11238: 11237: 11233: 11223: 11221: 11216: 11215: 11211: 11180: 11173: 11134: 11130: 11123: 11109: 11105: 11098: 11090:. p. 196. 11080: 11076: 11066: 11064: 11059: 11058: 11054: 11047: 11033: 11029: 11022: 11008: 11004: 10997: 10983: 10979: 10972: 10958: 10954: 10949:. 28 July 2014. 10941: 10940: 10936: 10924: 10918: 10914: 10907: 10889: 10885: 10877: 10870: 10862: 10849: 10841: 10822: 10812: 10810: 10801: 10800: 10796: 10788: 10777: 10771: 10767: 10757: 10755: 10752: 10746: 10742: 10734: 10730: 10722: 10718: 10717: 10713: 10685: 10679: 10675: 10665: 10663: 10654: 10653: 10644: 10637: 10623:Weinberg, Alvin 10620: 10616: 10611:. 15 June 2023. 10603: 10602: 10598: 10590: 10586: 10576: 10574: 10562: 10558: 10548: 10546: 10531: 10527: 10517: 10515: 10511: 10507: 10506: 10502: 10471: 10467: 10457: 10455: 10454:on 17 July 2015 10451: 10444: 10438: 10434: 10424: 10422: 10418: 10414: 10413: 10409: 10399: 10397: 10392: 10391: 10387: 10377: 10375: 10368: 10362: 10358: 10311: 10307: 10297: 10295: 10280: 10276: 10235: 10228: 10220:10.1119/1.18463 10191: 10187: 10179: 10164: 10158: 10154: 10111:J. Radiol. Prot 10107: 10096: 10081: 10055: 10051: 10032: 10028: 10021: 10003: 9999: 9991: 9977: 9973: 9966: 9952: 9945: 9935: 9933: 9919: 9915: 9908: 9886: 9882: 9859: 9855: 9815: 9811: 9789: 9785: 9759: 9755: 9747: 9743: 9736: 9728:. p. 173. 9718: 9711: 9677: 9673: 9663: 9661: 9655: 9644: 9634: 9632: 9625: 9619: 9612: 9585: 9581: 9571: 9569: 9563: 9559: 9538:(37): 921–929. 9524: 9520: 9508: 9504: 9464: 9460: 9426: 9419: 9409: 9407: 9391: 9387: 9377: 9375: 9370: 9369: 9365: 9347: 9343: 9328: 9324: 9317: 9299: 9295: 9288: 9274: 9267: 9257: 9255: 9247: 9246: 9242: 9238:, p. 1255. 9234: 9230: 9214: 9210: 9206: 9199: 9195: 9176: 9172: 9165: 9149: 9145: 9135: 9133: 9129: 9120: 9116: 9108: 9087: 9056: 9052: 9042: 9040: 9004: 9000: 8973:Physical Review 8969: 8965: 8926: 8922: 8895:Physical Review 8891: 8887: 8864: 8860: 8853: 8835: 8831: 8827:, p. 1294. 8823: 8819: 8811: 8807: 8797: 8795: 8785: 8781: 8774: 8749: 8745: 8708: 8704: 8655: 8648: 8599: 8595: 8556: 8545: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8478: 8474: 8466: 8459: 8451: 8440: 8424: 8423: 8416: 8414: 8412:Chemistry World 8404: 8400: 8392: 8383: 8375: 8368: 8339: 8335: 8327: 8316: 8308: 8304: 8296: 8292: 8284: 8280: 8276:, p. 1271. 8272: 8265: 8257: 8244: 8236: 8232: 8201: 8192: 8188:, p. 1269. 8184: 8180: 8172: 8165: 8158: 8137: 8118: 8088: 8083: 8079: 8075:, p. 1267. 8071: 8064: 8041: 8037: 8033:, p. 1264. 8029: 8025: 8015: 8013: 8012:on 5 March 2021 8009: 7998: 7990: 7983: 7976: 7954: 7947: 7939: 7932: 7928:, p. 1262. 7924: 7920: 7913: 7895: 7888: 7881: 7870: 7862: 7855: 7824: 7820: 7805: 7794: 7786: 7782: 7776: 7762: 7755: 7749: 7741:, p. 150, 7731: 7724: 7714: 7712: 7697: 7693: 7683: 7681: 7677: 7666: 7662: 7661: 7654: 7646: 7615: 7605: 7603: 7602:on 10 July 2007 7599: 7588: 7584: 7583: 7574: 7564: 7562: 7560: 7548:. Vol. 1. 7537: 7533: 7486:(7601): 47–51. 7474: 7467: 7422: 7418: 7373: 7369: 7356: 7352: 7319: 7315: 7307: 7284: 7278: 7274: 7227: 7223: 7184: 7180: 7172: 7153: 7110: 7106: 7054: 7050: 7013: 7009: 6999: 6997: 6990: 6986: 6985: 6981: 6971: 6969: 6960: 6959: 6955: 6945: 6943: 6939: 6933: 6914: 6908: 6904: 6897: 6889:. p. 668. 6879: 6875: 6868: 6854: 6850: 6813: 6809: 6775: 6771: 6739: 6733: 6718: 6708: 6706: 6704: 6674: 6670: 6627: 6618: 6611: 6597: 6584: 6577: 6559: 6555: 6547: 6514: 6505: 6501: 6476: 6472: 6448: 6442: 6435: 6428: 6414: 6410: 6403: 6392: 6384: 6380: 6330: 6322: 6318: 6311: 6297: 6288: 6256: 6247: 6234: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6220: 6179: 6175: 6158: 6154: 6144:Gustav Hinrichs 6124: 6120: 6110: 6106: 6093: 6089: 6083: 6079: 6072: 6068: 6065: 6061: 6058: 6054: 6052: 6048: 6022:actinium series 6011: 6007: 5998: 5994: 5984: 5980: 5971: 5967: 5941: 5934: 5929: 5925: 5904: 5900: 5893: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5868: 5856:Salto di Quirra 5823: 5821:Exposure routes 5791: 5762: 5705:alpha radiation 5701: 5684: 5633: 5630: 5625: 5624: 5623: 5619: 5617: 5616: 5615: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5606: 5605: 5600: 5597: 5592: 5591: 5590: 5587: 5582: 5580: 5579: 5578: 5574: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5568: 5563: 5561: 5560: 5559: 5555: 5552: 5551: 5550: 5549: 5542: 5540: 5539: 5538: 5534: 5531: 5530: 5529: 5528: 5521: 5519: 5518: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5507: 5506: 5505: 5500: 5498: 5497: 5496: 5492: 5489: 5488: 5487: 5486: 5481: 5478: 5473: 5472: 5471: 5468: 5463: 5461: 5460: 5459: 5455: 5452: 5451: 5450: 5449: 5444: 5442: 5441: 5440: 5436: 5433: 5432: 5431: 5430: 5420: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5366: 5356: 5354: 5353: 5352: 5348: 5345: 5344: 5343: 5342: 5337: 5335: 5334: 5333: 5329: 5326: 5325: 5324: 5323: 5318: 5316: 5315: 5314: 5310: 5307: 5306: 5305: 5304: 5303:The fission of 5278: 5262: 5081: 5080: 5015: 5009: 5005: 4993: 4989: 4970: 4961: 4957: 4950: 4944: 4928: 4919: 4915: 4908: 4902: 4886: 4878: 4870: 4864: 4848: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4841: 4822: 4814:Main articles: 4812: 4650: 4633: 4617: 4595:silicon dioxide 4578: 4565: 4537: 4524: 4506:Other countries 4323: 4317: 4245: 4243:Nuclear weapons 4183:Alvin Radkowsky 4135: 4127:Main articles: 4125: 4111: 4070: 4027:Frederick Soddy 4007:Henri Becquerel 3995: 3968: 3962:and zirconium. 3944: 3936:electropositive 3908: 3904: 3865: 3805: 3767: 3758: 3752: 3749: 3748: 3746: 3742: 3736: 3733: 3732: 3730: 3726: 3723: 3719: 3708: 3704: 3701:uranium dioxide 3690: 3686: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3609: 3596:radiogenic heat 3553: 3517: 3512: 3506: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3440:[Li(tmeda)] 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3274:tetrahydrofuran 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3210: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3109: 3106:hard Lewis acid 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3080: 3071: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3049: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3022: 3018: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2951: 2948: 2944: 2941: 2937: 2929: 2925: 2882: 2878: 2863: 2859: 2856: 2852: 2845: 2841: 2834: 2830: 2812: 2808: 2805: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2783: 2736: 2725: 2708: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2667: 2635:atomic orbitals 2627: 2621: 2585: 2538: 2536: 2533:nuclear isomers 2516: 2508:of natural Ra. 2497:neutron capture 2393: 2391: 2349: 2343: 2300: 2296: 2294:thorium dioxide 2264:below 1.4 2262:superconductive 2180: 2178:Bulk properties 2053:oxidation state 2043:and has a high 2037:thorium dioxide 1999: 1974: 1945: 1940: 1922: 1917: 1899: 1892: 1890: 1868: 1863: 1845: 1838: 1836: 1818: 1797: 1792: 1772: 1767: 1742: 1735: 1728:abundance 1701: 1683: 1673: 1643:7440-29-1 1588: 1555:Young's modulus 1544: 1542: 1494: 1492: 1478: 1408:Covalent radius 1388: 1349:(a weakly 1344: 1328: 1303: 1271: 1211: 1167: 1082: 1078: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1041: 1035: 1027: 1020: 1013: 1006: 999: 992: 985: 978: 971: 964: 957: 950: 943: 936: 929: 922: 915: 908: 901: 894: 887: 880: 873: 866: 859: 852: 845: 838: 831: 824: 817: 810: 801: 794: 787: 780: 773: 766: 759: 752: 745: 738: 731: 724: 717: 710: 703: 696: 689: 682: 675: 668: 661: 654: 647: 640: 633: 626: 619: 612: 605: 598: 591: 584: 575: 568: 561: 554: 547: 540: 533: 526: 519: 512: 505: 498: 491: 484: 477: 470: 459: 452: 443: 436: 429: 422: 415: 408: 401: 394: 387: 380: 373: 366: 359: 352: 345: 338: 329: 322: 313: 306: 299: 292: 285: 278: 269: 262: 253: 246: 239: 232: 225: 218: 209: 202: 193: 184: 162:Thorium in the 153: 141: 139: 132: 130: 118: 112: 85: 81: 54: 50: 26: 22: 19: 12: 11: 5: 13841: 13831: 13830: 13825: 13820: 13815: 13810: 13805: 13800: 13783: 13782: 13780: 13779: 13774: 13769: 13765: 13761: 13757: 13753: 13749: 13745: 13741: 13737: 13733: 13729: 13725: 13721: 13717: 13713: 13709: 13705: 13701: 13697: 13693: 13689: 13685: 13681: 13677: 13670: 13662: 13658: 13654: 13650: 13646: 13642: 13638: 13634: 13630: 13625: 13621: 13617: 13613: 13608: 13606: 13602: 13601: 13599: 13598: 13594: 13590: 13586: 13582: 13578: 13573: 13571: 13567: 13566: 13564: 13563: 13558: 13554: 13550: 13546: 13542: 13538: 13533: 13531: 13527: 13526: 13519: 13518: 13511: 13504: 13496: 13487: 13486: 13480: 13479: 13474: 13469: 13464: 13456: 13454: 13451: 13450: 13446: 13445: 13436: 13427: 13418: 13409: 13400: 13391: 13382: 13373: 13364: 13355: 13346: 13337: 13328: 13319: 13310: 13301: 13292: 13283: 13274: 13265: 13256: 13247: 13238: 13229: 13220: 13211: 13202: 13193: 13184: 13175: 13166: 13157: 13151: 13150: 13141: 13132: 13123: 13114: 13105: 13096: 13087: 13078: 13069: 13060: 13051: 13042: 13033: 13024: 13015: 13006: 12997: 12988: 12979: 12970: 12961: 12952: 12943: 12934: 12925: 12916: 12907: 12898: 12889: 12880: 12871: 12862: 12856: 12855: 12846: 12837: 12828: 12819: 12810: 12801: 12792: 12783: 12774: 12765: 12756: 12747: 12738: 12729: 12720: 12711: 12709: 12700: 12691: 12685: 12684: 12675: 12666: 12657: 12648: 12639: 12630: 12621: 12612: 12603: 12594: 12585: 12576: 12567: 12558: 12549: 12540: 12538: 12529: 12520: 12514: 12513: 12504: 12495: 12486: 12477: 12468: 12459: 12457: 12448: 12439: 12433: 12432: 12423: 12414: 12405: 12396: 12387: 12378: 12376: 12367: 12358: 12352: 12351: 12342: 12340: 12331: 12325: 12324: 12319: 12314: 12309: 12304: 12299: 12294: 12289: 12284: 12279: 12274: 12269: 12264: 12259: 12254: 12249: 12244: 12242: 12237: 12232: 12227: 12224: 12223: 12220:Periodic table 12216: 12215: 12208: 12201: 12193: 12187: 12186: 12174: 12158: 12157:External links 12155: 12154: 12153: 12147: 12114: 12111: 12110: 12109: 12103: 12082: 12076: 12055: 12049: 12031: 12028: 12026: 12025: 11998: 11987:(4): 683–691. 11971: 11945: 11917: 11884: 11856: 11828: 11791: 11776: 11751: 11734: 11679: 11660:(4): 873–881. 11644: 11625: 11593: 11560: 11529: 11522: 11501: 11472: 11465: 11443: 11415: 11408: 11387: 11375: 11368: 11347: 11322: 11300: 11270: 11253: 11231: 11209: 11171: 11144:(3): 334–335. 11128: 11121: 11103: 11096: 11074: 11052: 11045: 11027: 11020: 11002: 10995: 10977: 10970: 10952: 10934: 10912: 10905: 10899:. p. 60. 10883: 10868: 10847: 10820: 10794: 10765: 10740: 10728: 10711: 10673: 10642: 10635: 10614: 10596: 10584: 10556: 10525: 10500: 10465: 10432: 10407: 10385: 10356: 10305: 10274: 10226: 10185: 10152: 10117:(4): 423–431. 10094: 10079: 10049: 10026: 10019: 9997: 9989: 9971: 9964: 9943: 9931:Nobel Media AB 9927:nobelprize.org 9913: 9906: 9880: 9862:Rutherford, E. 9853: 9829:(5): 141–151. 9809: 9792:Schmidt, G. C. 9783: 9766:Comptes Rendus 9753: 9741: 9734: 9709: 9671: 9642: 9610: 9579: 9557: 9518: 9502: 9478:(7): 385–415. 9458: 9417: 9385: 9372:"Xenotime-(Y)" 9363: 9356:(in Swedish). 9341: 9338:. p. 475. 9322: 9315: 9293: 9286: 9265: 9240: 9228: 9212: 9208: 9204: 9193: 9170: 9163: 9143: 9114: 9085: 9050: 9019:(9): 647–651. 8998: 8963: 8920: 8901:(2): 679–680. 8885: 8874:(6): 581–597. 8858: 8851: 8845:. p. 17. 8829: 8817: 8805: 8779: 8772: 8752:Clayton, D. D. 8743: 8722:(4): 547–650. 8702: 8646: 8593: 8543: 8514:(6): 517–521. 8499: 8495: 8491: 8487: 8483: 8472: 8457: 8438: 8398: 8381: 8366: 8333: 8314: 8312:, p. 127. 8302: 8290: 8278: 8263: 8242: 8230: 8211:(4): 271–307. 8190: 8178: 8163: 8156: 8116: 8091:J. Nucl. Mater 8086: 8077: 8062: 8051:(5): 885–887. 8035: 8023: 7981: 7974: 7945: 7930: 7918: 7911: 7886: 7879: 7853: 7834:(3): 771–780. 7818: 7792: 7780: 7774: 7753: 7747: 7722: 7691: 7652: 7613: 7572: 7558: 7550:Addison-Wesley 7531: 7465: 7438:(14): 142501. 7416: 7367: 7350: 7313: 7272: 7221: 7178: 7151: 7104: 7048: 7007: 6979: 6953: 6931: 6921:(6 ed.). 6902: 6895: 6873: 6866: 6848: 6807: 6794:(6): 683–800. 6769: 6716: 6702: 6668: 6641:(2): 280–283. 6616: 6609: 6582: 6575: 6553: 6512: 6499: 6470: 6433: 6426: 6408: 6401: 6378: 6328: 6316: 6309: 6286: 6245: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6218: 6173: 6152: 6132:William Odling 6118: 6104: 6087: 6081: 6070: 6063: 6056: 6046: 6026:uranium series 6018:thorium series 6005: 5992: 5978: 5965: 5932: 5923: 5898: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5875: 5874: 5867: 5864: 5822: 5819: 5790: 5787: 5761: 5758: 5750:nuclear safety 5700: 5697: 5683: 5680: 5655:neutron poison 5639: 5638: 5618: 5609: 5581: 5572: 5562: 5553: 5547: 5541: 5532: 5520: 5499: 5490: 5462: 5453: 5443: 5434: 5419: 5416: 5410: 5406: 5395:, and a lower 5365: 5362: 5355: 5346: 5336: 5327: 5317: 5308: 5288: 5287: 5286: 5285: 5275: 5268: 5261:Nuclides with 5256: 5255: 5250: 5247: 5242: 5239: 5234: 5231: 5227: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5206: 5201: 5198: 5193: 5190: 5185: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5149: 5144: 5141: 5138: 5135: 5130: 5127: 5124: 5121: 5118: 5115: 5112: 5109: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5098: 5095: 5092: 5091: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5079: 5078: 5071: 5064: 5056: 5051: 5044: 5043: 5030: 5024: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5001: 4997: 4992: 4983: 4980: 4964: 4960: 4948: 4941: 4938: 4922: 4918: 4906: 4899: 4896: 4877: 4868: 4861: 4858: 4811: 4808: 4766:When added to 4704:thermocathodes 4673:infrared light 4649: 4646: 4621:cross-sections 4616: 4613: 4577: 4574: 4564: 4563:Acid digestion 4561: 4551:; then follow 4536: 4533: 4521: 4520: 4517: 4511: 4510: 4507: 4503: 4502: 4499: 4493: 4492: 4489: 4483: 4482: 4479: 4473: 4472: 4469: 4463: 4462: 4459: 4453: 4452: 4449: 4443: 4442: 4439: 4433: 4432: 4429: 4423: 4422: 4419: 4413: 4412: 4409: 4403: 4402: 4399: 4393: 4392: 4389: 4383: 4382: 4379: 4373: 4372: 4369: 4363: 4362: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4349: 4343: 4342: 4339: 4324: 4316: 4313: 4305:radiation case 4244: 4241: 4124: 4121: 4110: 4107: 4069: 4066: 4035:alpha particle 3994: 3991: 3967: 3964: 3943: 3940: 3906: 3864: 3861: 3804: 3801: 3766: 3763: 3721: 3706: 3688: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3608: 3605: 3571:of 8.1 g/ 3552: 3549: 3516: 3513: 3508:Main article: 3505: 3502: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3373: 3369: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3287: 3283: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3209: 3206: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3100: 3092: 3088: 3077:sulfurous acid 3061: 3057: 3048: 3045: 3031: 3027: 3020: 2989: 2985: 2977: 2946: 2939: 2880: 2861: 2854: 2843: 2838:cerium dioxide 2832: 2810: 2804: 2801: 2769:fluorosilicate 2724: 2721: 2623:Main article: 2620: 2617: 2584: 2581: 2442:cancer therapy 2345:Main article: 2342: 2339: 2298: 2188:periodic table 2179: 2176: 2160:electric lamps 2146:, and several 2084:thorium series 2005: 2004: 1998: 1997: 1990: 1983: 1975: 1962: 1961: 1958: 1957: 1954: 1953: 1948: 1943: 1938: 1935: 1931: 1930: 1925: 1920: 1918:21.83 min 1915: 1912: 1908: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1888: 1885: 1879: 1878: 1873: 1866: 1861: 1858: 1854: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1834: 1831: 1827: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1813: 1810: 1806: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1787: 1783: 1782: 1777: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1756: 1755: 1750: 1745: 1740: 1730: 1725: 1722: 1721: 1716: 1715:Main isotopes 1708: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1692: 1684: 1677: 1676: 1668: 1662: 1661: 1654: 1650: 1649: 1645: 1644: 1641: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1625: 1624: 1621: 1615: 1614: 1611: 1605: 1604: 1601: 1595: 1594: 1591: 1585:Speed of sound 1581: 1580: 1577: 1571: 1570: 1567: 1561: 1560: 1557: 1551: 1550: 1540: 1534: 1533: 1527: 1521: 1520: 1517: 1511: 1510: 1507: 1501: 1500: 1490: 1484: 1483: 1472: 1470: 1464: 1463: 1454: 1452: 1446: 1445: 1440: 1436: 1435: 1431: 1430: 1426:Spectral lines 1414: 1413: 1410: 1404: 1403: 1396: 1390: 1389: 1387: 1386: 1383: 1380: 1377: 1373: 1371: 1365: 1364: 1361: 1355: 1354: 1341: 1335: 1334: 1330: 1329: 1325: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1293: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1274: 1260: 1252: 1251: 1248: 1242: 1241: 1238: 1232: 1231: 1224: 1222:Heat of fusion 1218: 1217: 1214: 1205: 1204: 1201: 1195: 1194: 1187: 1181: 1180: 1175: 1161: 1160: 1156: 1155: 1152: 1148: 1147: 1140: 1134: 1133: 1125: 1119: 1118: 1113: 1107: 1106: 1103:f-block groups 1100: 1094: 1093: 1090: 1075: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1052: 1051: 1036: 1032: 1031: 1024: 1017: 1010: 1003: 996: 989: 982: 975: 968: 961: 954: 947: 940: 933: 926: 919: 912: 905: 898: 891: 884: 877: 870: 863: 856: 849: 842: 835: 828: 821: 814: 806: 805: 798: 791: 784: 777: 770: 763: 756: 749: 742: 735: 728: 721: 714: 707: 700: 693: 686: 679: 672: 665: 658: 651: 644: 637: 630: 623: 616: 609: 602: 595: 588: 580: 579: 572: 565: 558: 551: 544: 537: 530: 523: 516: 509: 502: 495: 488: 481: 474: 467: 465: 463: 456: 448: 447: 440: 433: 426: 419: 412: 405: 398: 391: 384: 377: 370: 363: 356: 349: 342: 335: 333: 326: 318: 317: 310: 303: 296: 289: 282: 275: 273: 266: 258: 257: 250: 243: 236: 229: 222: 215: 213: 206: 198: 197: 190: 188: 178: 167: 166: 164:periodic table 159: 158: 155: 154: 152: 151: 137: 127: 125: 122: 121: 116: 106: 105: 102: 101: 98: 94: 93: 48: 44: 43: 39: 38: 24: 23:Thorium, 17: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13840: 13829: 13826: 13824: 13823:Nuclear fuels 13821: 13819: 13816: 13814: 13811: 13809: 13806: 13804: 13801: 13799: 13796: 13795: 13793: 13778: 13770: 13768: 13758: 13756: 13750: 13748: 13734: 13732: 13722: 13720: 13710: 13708: 13702: 13700: 13694: 13692: 13678: 13676: 13663: 13661: 13655: 13653: 13647: 13645: 13639: 13637: 13631: 13629: 13626: 13624: 13618: 13616: 13610: 13609: 13607: 13603: 13597: 13591: 13589: 13583: 13581: 13575: 13574: 13572: 13568: 13562: 13559: 13557: 13551: 13549: 13543: 13541: 13535: 13534: 13532: 13528: 13524: 13517: 13512: 13510: 13505: 13503: 13498: 13497: 13494: 13478: 13475: 13473: 13470: 13468: 13465: 13463: 13460: 13459: 13452: 13443: 13434: 13425: 13416: 13407: 13398: 13389: 13380: 13371: 13362: 13353: 13344: 13335: 13326: 13317: 13308: 13299: 13290: 13281: 13272: 13263: 13254: 13245: 13236: 13227: 13218: 13209: 13200: 13191: 13182: 13173: 13164: 13156: 13152: 13148: 13139: 13130: 13121: 13112: 13103: 13094: 13085: 13076: 13067: 13058: 13049: 13040: 13031: 13022: 13013: 13004: 12995: 12986: 12977: 12968: 12959: 12950: 12941: 12932: 12923: 12914: 12905: 12896: 12887: 12878: 12869: 12861: 12857: 12853: 12844: 12835: 12826: 12817: 12808: 12799: 12790: 12781: 12772: 12763: 12754: 12745: 12736: 12727: 12718: 12707: 12698: 12690: 12686: 12682: 12673: 12664: 12655: 12646: 12637: 12628: 12619: 12610: 12601: 12592: 12583: 12574: 12565: 12556: 12547: 12536: 12527: 12519: 12515: 12511: 12502: 12493: 12484: 12475: 12466: 12455: 12446: 12438: 12434: 12430: 12421: 12412: 12403: 12394: 12385: 12374: 12365: 12357: 12353: 12349: 12338: 12330: 12326: 12323: 12318: 12313: 12308: 12303: 12298: 12293: 12288: 12283: 12278: 12273: 12268: 12263: 12258: 12253: 12248: 12241: 12236: 12231: 12230: 12225: 12221: 12214: 12209: 12207: 12202: 12200: 12195: 12194: 12191: 12184: 12179: 12175: 12173:at Wiktionary 12172: 12171: 12165: 12161: 12160: 12152: 12148: 12133: 12129: 12122: 12117: 12116: 12106: 12100: 12096: 12092: 12088: 12083: 12079: 12073: 12069: 12065: 12062:. Wiley-VCH. 12061: 12056: 12052: 12046: 12042: 12038: 12034: 12033: 12013: 12009: 12002: 11994: 11990: 11986: 11982: 11975: 11959: 11955: 11949: 11934: 11927: 11921: 11905: 11901: 11900: 11895: 11888: 11872: 11871: 11866: 11860: 11844: 11843: 11838: 11832: 11813: 11809: 11802: 11795: 11789:, p. 34. 11788: 11783: 11781: 11769: 11762: 11755: 11744: 11738: 11730: 11726: 11722: 11718: 11714: 11710: 11706: 11702: 11698: 11694: 11690: 11683: 11675: 11671: 11667: 11663: 11659: 11655: 11648: 11642:, p. 35. 11641: 11636: 11634: 11632: 11630: 11610: 11603: 11597: 11581: 11577: 11573: 11567: 11565: 11548: 11544: 11538: 11536: 11534: 11525: 11519: 11515: 11511: 11505: 11489: 11482: 11476: 11468: 11462: 11458: 11454: 11447: 11432: 11431: 11426: 11419: 11411: 11405: 11401: 11394: 11392: 11385:, p. 30. 11384: 11379: 11371: 11365: 11361: 11354: 11352: 11332: 11326: 11310: 11304: 11288: 11284: 11280: 11274: 11267: 11262: 11260: 11258: 11241: 11235: 11219: 11213: 11205: 11201: 11197: 11193: 11189: 11185: 11178: 11176: 11167: 11163: 11159: 11155: 11151: 11147: 11143: 11139: 11132: 11124: 11118: 11114: 11107: 11099: 11093: 11089: 11085: 11078: 11062: 11056: 11048: 11042: 11038: 11031: 11023: 11017: 11013: 11006: 10998: 10992: 10988: 10981: 10973: 10967: 10963: 10956: 10948: 10944: 10938: 10930: 10923: 10916: 10908: 10902: 10898: 10894: 10887: 10881:, p. 31. 10880: 10875: 10873: 10866:, p. 32. 10865: 10860: 10858: 10856: 10854: 10852: 10844: 10839: 10837: 10835: 10833: 10831: 10829: 10827: 10825: 10808: 10804: 10798: 10787: 10783: 10776: 10769: 10751: 10744: 10737: 10732: 10721: 10715: 10707: 10703: 10699: 10698:10.2172/79078 10695: 10691: 10684: 10677: 10661: 10657: 10651: 10649: 10647: 10638: 10632: 10628: 10624: 10618: 10610: 10606: 10600: 10594: 10588: 10573: 10572: 10567: 10560: 10544: 10540: 10536: 10529: 10510: 10504: 10496: 10492: 10488: 10484: 10480: 10476: 10469: 10450: 10443: 10436: 10417: 10411: 10395: 10389: 10374: 10367: 10360: 10352: 10348: 10344: 10340: 10336: 10332: 10328: 10324: 10320: 10316: 10309: 10293: 10289: 10285: 10278: 10270: 10266: 10262: 10258: 10254: 10250: 10246: 10242: 10241: 10233: 10231: 10221: 10216: 10212: 10208: 10204: 10200: 10196: 10189: 10178: 10174: 10170: 10163: 10156: 10148: 10144: 10140: 10136: 10132: 10128: 10124: 10120: 10116: 10112: 10105: 10103: 10101: 10099: 10090: 10086: 10082: 10076: 10072: 10068: 10064: 10060: 10053: 10045: 10041: 10037: 10030: 10022: 10016: 10012: 10008: 10001: 9992: 9986: 9982: 9975: 9967: 9961: 9957: 9950: 9948: 9932: 9928: 9924: 9917: 9909: 9903: 9899: 9894: 9893: 9884: 9875: 9871: 9867: 9863: 9857: 9850: 9844: 9840: 9836: 9832: 9828: 9825:(in German). 9824: 9820: 9813: 9805: 9802:(in German). 9801: 9797: 9793: 9787: 9779: 9775: 9772:: 1101–1103. 9771: 9768:(in French). 9767: 9763: 9757: 9751:, p. 52. 9750: 9745: 9737: 9731: 9727: 9723: 9716: 9714: 9705: 9701: 9697: 9693: 9689: 9685: 9681: 9675: 9660: 9657:Leach, M. R. 9653: 9651: 9649: 9647: 9631: 9624: 9617: 9615: 9606: 9602: 9598: 9595:(in German). 9594: 9590: 9583: 9568: 9565:Leach, M. R. 9561: 9553: 9549: 9545: 9541: 9537: 9534:(in German). 9533: 9529: 9522: 9514: 9506: 9499: 9493: 9489: 9485: 9481: 9477: 9474:(in German). 9473: 9469: 9462: 9454: 9450: 9446: 9442: 9438: 9434: 9430: 9424: 9422: 9406: 9402: 9401: 9396: 9389: 9373: 9367: 9359: 9355: 9351: 9345: 9337: 9333: 9326: 9318: 9312: 9309:. p. 1. 9308: 9304: 9297: 9289: 9283: 9279: 9272: 9270: 9254: 9250: 9244: 9237: 9232: 9224: 9220: 9216: 9197: 9190:(1–2): 74–82. 9189: 9185: 9181: 9174: 9166: 9160: 9156: 9155: 9147: 9128: 9124: 9118: 9111: 9106: 9104: 9102: 9100: 9098: 9096: 9094: 9092: 9090: 9081: 9077: 9073: 9069: 9065: 9063: 9054: 9038: 9034: 9030: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9014: 9010: 9002: 8994: 8990: 8986: 8982: 8978: 8974: 8967: 8959: 8955: 8951: 8947: 8943: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8924: 8916: 8912: 8908: 8904: 8900: 8896: 8889: 8881: 8877: 8873: 8869: 8862: 8854: 8848: 8844: 8840: 8833: 8826: 8821: 8814: 8809: 8794: 8790: 8783: 8775: 8769: 8765: 8760: 8759: 8753: 8747: 8738: 8733: 8729: 8725: 8721: 8717: 8713: 8706: 8698: 8694: 8690: 8686: 8682: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8664: 8660: 8653: 8651: 8642: 8638: 8634: 8630: 8626: 8622: 8617: 8612: 8608: 8604: 8603:Physics Today 8597: 8589: 8585: 8581: 8577: 8573: 8569: 8565: 8561: 8554: 8552: 8550: 8548: 8539: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8521: 8517: 8513: 8509: 8508: 8503: 8476: 8469: 8464: 8462: 8454: 8449: 8447: 8445: 8443: 8434: 8428: 8413: 8409: 8402: 8395: 8390: 8388: 8386: 8378: 8373: 8371: 8361: 8356: 8352: 8348: 8344: 8337: 8330: 8325: 8323: 8321: 8319: 8311: 8306: 8299: 8294: 8287: 8282: 8275: 8270: 8268: 8260: 8255: 8253: 8251: 8249: 8247: 8239: 8234: 8226: 8222: 8218: 8214: 8210: 8206: 8199: 8197: 8195: 8187: 8182: 8175: 8170: 8168: 8159: 8153: 8149: 8145: 8141: 8135: 8133: 8131: 8129: 8127: 8125: 8123: 8121: 8112: 8108: 8104: 8100: 8096: 8092: 8081: 8074: 8069: 8067: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8039: 8032: 8027: 8008: 8004: 7997: 7996: 7988: 7986: 7977: 7971: 7967: 7962: 7961: 7952: 7950: 7942: 7937: 7935: 7927: 7922: 7914: 7908: 7904: 7900: 7893: 7891: 7882: 7880:0-85186-428-7 7876: 7869: 7868: 7860: 7858: 7849: 7845: 7841: 7837: 7833: 7829: 7822: 7814: 7810: 7803: 7801: 7799: 7797: 7789: 7784: 7777: 7771: 7767: 7760: 7758: 7750: 7744: 7740: 7736: 7729: 7727: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7695: 7676: 7672: 7665: 7659: 7657: 7649: 7644: 7642: 7640: 7638: 7636: 7634: 7632: 7630: 7628: 7626: 7624: 7622: 7620: 7618: 7598: 7594: 7587: 7581: 7579: 7577: 7561: 7555: 7551: 7547: 7546: 7541: 7535: 7527: 7523: 7519: 7515: 7511: 7507: 7503: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7480: 7472: 7470: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7437: 7433: 7432: 7427: 7420: 7411: 7406: 7402: 7398: 7394: 7390: 7387:(4): 044326. 7386: 7382: 7378: 7371: 7364: 7360: 7354: 7346: 7342: 7338: 7334: 7331:(1): 83–116. 7330: 7326: 7325: 7317: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7294: 7290: 7283: 7276: 7268: 7264: 7260: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7244: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7225: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7193: 7189: 7182: 7175: 7170: 7168: 7166: 7164: 7162: 7160: 7158: 7156: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7115: 7108: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7052: 7044: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7018: 7011: 6996: 6989: 6983: 6967: 6963: 6957: 6938: 6934: 6928: 6924: 6920: 6913: 6906: 6898: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6877: 6869: 6863: 6859: 6852: 6844: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6811: 6802: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6788: 6783: 6779: 6773: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6738: 6731: 6729: 6727: 6725: 6723: 6721: 6705: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6687: 6683: 6679: 6672: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6625: 6623: 6621: 6612: 6606: 6602: 6595: 6593: 6591: 6589: 6587: 6578: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6557: 6550: 6545: 6543: 6541: 6539: 6537: 6535: 6533: 6531: 6529: 6527: 6525: 6523: 6521: 6519: 6517: 6509: 6503: 6495: 6491: 6488:(6): 064310. 6487: 6483: 6482: 6474: 6466: 6462: 6459:(3): 030001. 6458: 6454: 6447: 6440: 6438: 6429: 6423: 6419: 6412: 6404: 6398: 6391: 6390: 6382: 6374: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6320: 6312: 6306: 6302: 6295: 6293: 6291: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6254: 6252: 6250: 6241: 6237: 6231: 6227: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6177: 6170: 6169:rutherfordium 6166: 6162: 6156: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6128: 6127:John Newlands 6122: 6115: 6108: 6101: 6100:atomic weight 6097: 6091: 6077: 6050: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6009: 6001: 5996: 5989: 5982: 5975: 5969: 5962: 5958: 5957:Critical mass 5954: 5950: 5945: 5939: 5937: 5927: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5902: 5891: 5886: 5882: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5863: 5861: 5857: 5851: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5831: 5828: 5818: 5816: 5812: 5811:New York City 5808: 5805:In 1956, the 5803: 5801: 5796: 5786: 5784: 5780: 5774: 5772: 5768: 5757: 5755: 5751: 5746: 5744: 5740: 5739:millisieverts 5735: 5729: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5706: 5693: 5692:timothy-grass 5688: 5679: 5677: 5676:radiotoxicity 5672: 5666: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5651:cross section 5648: 5644: 5628: 5595: 5548: 5510: 5476: 5429: 5428: 5427: 5425: 5418:Disadvantages 5415: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5385: 5383: 5379: 5373: 5371: 5361: 5301: 5299: 5295: 5284: 5276: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5232: 5229: 5228: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5209: 5208: 5205: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5176: 5175: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5152: 5151: 5148: 5145: 5142: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5128: 5125: 5122: 5119: 5116: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5101: 5100: 5096: 5093: 5090: 5087: 5084: 5077: 5072: 5070: 5065: 5063: 5058: 5057: 5055: 5049: 5022: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4999: 4995: 4981: 4978: 4962: 4958: 4946: 4939: 4936: 4920: 4916: 4904: 4897: 4894: 4875: 4866: 4859: 4856: 4840: 4839: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4831:slow neutrons 4827: 4821: 4817: 4807: 4805: 4801: 4799: 4794: 4788: 4786: 4781: 4777: 4774:and decrease 4773: 4769: 4760: 4756: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4729: 4727: 4723: 4718: 4714: 4709: 4708:work function 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4688: 4686: 4683:, such as in 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4663: 4659: 4653: 4645: 4643: 4639: 4631: 4626: 4622: 4612: 4610: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4583: 4573: 4570: 4569:sulfuric acid 4560: 4556: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4541: 4535:Concentration 4532: 4528: 4516: 4512: 4505: 4504: 4498: 4495: 4494: 4488: 4485: 4484: 4478: 4475: 4474: 4468: 4465: 4464: 4458: 4455: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4444: 4438: 4435: 4434: 4428: 4425: 4424: 4418: 4415: 4414: 4408: 4405: 4404: 4398: 4395: 4394: 4388: 4385: 4384: 4378: 4377:United States 4375: 4374: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4358: 4355: 4354: 4348: 4345: 4344: 4337: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4322: 4312: 4310: 4306: 4301: 4298: 4295:; they fired 4294: 4290: 4285: 4282: 4281:Eugene Wigner 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4240: 4238: 4233: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4218:nuclear power 4215: 4210: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4163:United States 4160: 4156: 4148: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4130: 4123:Nuclear power 4120: 4117: 4106: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4087: 4084: 4080: 4075: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4039:radioactivity 4036: 4032: 4028: 4023: 4021: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3993:Radioactivity 3990: 3988: 3985:invented the 3984: 3976: 3972: 3963: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3939: 3937: 3933: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3914: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3860: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3776: 3771: 3762: 3717: 3713: 3702: 3698: 3693: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3624:uranium(IV), 3621: 3619: 3615: 3601: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3565: 3563: 3559: 3548: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3511: 3501: 3499: 3495: 3390: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3366: 3315: 3294: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3205: 3203: 3199: 3198:bismuth atoms 3195: 3194:metal cluster 3168: 3164: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3121: 3119: 3113: 3107: 3083: 3078: 3069: 3054: 3040: 3036: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2999:nuclear fuels 2995: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2935: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2909: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2894:chalcogenides 2890: 2887: 2886:free radicals 2876: 2872: 2871:incandescence 2868: 2850: 2839: 2827: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2780: 2776: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2746: 2742: 2741:pyrophoricity 2734: 2730: 2720: 2718: 2714: 2706: 2701: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2626: 2616: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2580: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2565:critical mass 2562: 2556: 2554: 2553:nuclear clock 2550: 2546: 2534: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2514: 2509: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2481: 2480:radioisotopes 2478:In total, 32 2473: 2470: 2465: 2461: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2390: 2389:atomic weight 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2348: 2338: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2307: 2305: 2295: 2290: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2270:melting point 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2250: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2227: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2175: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2136: 2131: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2111: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2078:, starting a 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2056: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2045:melting point 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2025:atomic number 2022: 2019: 2016:. It has the 2015: 2011: 2003: 2000: | 1996: 1991: 1989: 1984: 1982: 1977: 1976: 1973: 1963: 1959: 1952: 1949: 1944: 1932: 1929: 1926: 1921: 1909: 1906: 1903: 1898: 1884: 1880: 1877: 1874: 1871: 1867: 1855: 1852: 1849: 1844: 1828: 1825: 1822: 1817: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1796: 1793:1.9116 y 1784: 1781: 1778: 1775: 1771: 1764: 1757: 1754: 1753:product 1751: 1749: 1746: 1739: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1723: 1720: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1698: 1693: 1691: 1686: 1685: 1682: 1678: 1672: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1646: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1610: 1609:Mohs hardness 1606: 1602: 1600: 1599:Poisson ratio 1596: 1592: 1589:thin rod 1586: 1582: 1578: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1566: 1565:Shear modulus 1562: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1541: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1506: 1502: 1491: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1451: 1447: 1444: 1441: 1437: 1432: 1427: 1420: 1415: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1395: 1394:Atomic radius 1391: 1384: 1381: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1372: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1331: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1313: 1310: 1307: 1300: 1295: 1294: 1290: 1287: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1268: 1264: 1263: 1259: 1258: 1253: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1200: 1199:Boiling point 1196: 1192: 1188: 1186: 1185:Melting point 1182: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1166: 1162: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1139: 1135: 1132: 1126: 1124: 1120: 1117: 1116:period 7 1114: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1101: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1080:Atomic number 1076: 1065: 1057: 1053: 1040: 1037: 1030: 1025: 1023: 1018: 1016: 1011: 1009: 1004: 1002: 997: 995: 990: 988: 983: 981: 976: 974: 969: 967: 962: 960: 955: 953: 948: 946: 941: 939: 934: 932: 930:Rutherfordium 927: 925: 920: 918: 913: 911: 906: 904: 899: 897: 892: 890: 885: 883: 878: 876: 871: 869: 864: 862: 857: 855: 850: 848: 843: 841: 836: 834: 829: 827: 822: 820: 815: 813: 808: 807: 804: 799: 797: 792: 790: 785: 783: 778: 776: 771: 769: 764: 762: 757: 755: 750: 748: 743: 741: 736: 734: 729: 727: 722: 720: 715: 713: 708: 706: 701: 699: 694: 692: 687: 685: 680: 678: 673: 671: 666: 664: 659: 657: 652: 650: 645: 643: 638: 636: 631: 629: 624: 622: 617: 615: 610: 608: 603: 601: 596: 594: 589: 587: 582: 581: 578: 573: 571: 566: 564: 559: 557: 552: 550: 545: 543: 538: 536: 531: 529: 524: 522: 517: 515: 510: 508: 503: 501: 496: 494: 489: 487: 482: 480: 475: 473: 468: 464: 462: 457: 455: 450: 449: 446: 441: 439: 434: 432: 427: 425: 420: 418: 413: 411: 406: 404: 399: 397: 392: 390: 385: 383: 378: 376: 371: 369: 364: 362: 357: 355: 350: 348: 343: 341: 336: 332: 327: 325: 320: 319: 316: 311: 309: 304: 302: 297: 295: 290: 288: 283: 281: 276: 272: 267: 265: 260: 259: 256: 251: 249: 244: 242: 237: 235: 230: 228: 223: 221: 216: 212: 207: 205: 200: 199: 196: 191: 187: 182: 181: 177: 176: 173: 172: 168: 165: 160: 156: 149: 138: 129: 128: 126: 123: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 90: 89: 75: 49: 47:Pronunciation 45: 40: 36: 31: 16: 13187: 12169: 12141:29 September 12139:. Retrieved 12132:the original 12086: 12059: 12040: 12016:. Retrieved 12011: 12001: 11984: 11980: 11974: 11962:. Retrieved 11958:the original 11948: 11938:29 September 11936:. Retrieved 11920: 11910:29 September 11908:. Retrieved 11904:the original 11897: 11887: 11877:29 September 11875:. Retrieved 11868: 11859: 11849:29 September 11847:. Retrieved 11840: 11831: 11821:29 September 11819:. Retrieved 11794: 11768:the original 11754: 11737: 11696: 11692: 11682: 11657: 11653: 11647: 11618:30 September 11616:. Retrieved 11609:the original 11596: 11586:29 September 11584:. Retrieved 11580:the original 11551:. Retrieved 11547:the original 11513: 11504: 11492:. Retrieved 11475: 11452: 11446: 11436:29 September 11434:. Retrieved 11430:The Guardian 11428: 11418: 11399: 11378: 11359: 11338:. Retrieved 11325: 11313:. Retrieved 11303: 11291:. Retrieved 11287:the original 11273: 11244:. Retrieved 11234: 11224:29 September 11222:. Retrieved 11212: 11187: 11183: 11141: 11137: 11131: 11112: 11106: 11083: 11077: 11065:. Retrieved 11055: 11036: 11030: 11011: 11005: 10986: 10980: 10961: 10955: 10946: 10937: 10928: 10915: 10892: 10886: 10845:, p. 8. 10811:. Retrieved 10797: 10786:the original 10768: 10756:. Retrieved 10743: 10738:, p. 7. 10731: 10714: 10676: 10664:. Retrieved 10626: 10617: 10608: 10599: 10587: 10575:. Retrieved 10569: 10559: 10549:17 September 10547:. Retrieved 10543:the original 10528: 10516:. Retrieved 10503: 10481:(5): 19–20. 10478: 10474: 10468: 10456:. Retrieved 10449:the original 10435: 10423:. Retrieved 10410: 10400:29 September 10398:. Retrieved 10388: 10376:. Retrieved 10359: 10318: 10314: 10308: 10298:29 September 10296:. Retrieved 10292:the original 10277: 10247:(1): 36–42. 10244: 10238: 10202: 10198: 10188: 10177:the original 10172: 10168: 10155: 10114: 10110: 10062: 10052: 10035: 10029: 10006: 10000: 9980: 9974: 9955: 9934:. Retrieved 9926: 9916: 9891: 9883: 9873: 9869: 9866:Owens, R. B. 9856: 9848: 9826: 9822: 9812: 9803: 9799: 9786: 9769: 9765: 9756: 9744: 9721: 9687: 9683: 9674: 9662:. Retrieved 9635:22 September 9633:. Retrieved 9596: 9592: 9582: 9570:. Retrieved 9560: 9535: 9531: 9521: 9512: 9505: 9497: 9475: 9471: 9461: 9436: 9432: 9429:Weeks, M. E. 9408:. Retrieved 9398: 9388: 9376:. Retrieved 9366: 9357: 9353: 9344: 9331: 9325: 9302: 9296: 9277: 9256:. Retrieved 9243: 9231: 9222: 9218: 9196: 9187: 9183: 9173: 9153: 9146: 9136:30 September 9134:. Retrieved 9117: 9071: 9067: 9061: 9053: 9041:. Retrieved 9037:the original 9016: 9012: 9001: 8976: 8972: 8966: 8933: 8929: 8923: 8898: 8894: 8888: 8871: 8867: 8861: 8838: 8832: 8820: 8815:, p. 2. 8808: 8796:. Retrieved 8792: 8782: 8757: 8746: 8719: 8715: 8705: 8662: 8658: 8609:(1): 30–37. 8606: 8602: 8596: 8563: 8559: 8511: 8505: 8475: 8415:. Retrieved 8411: 8401: 8350: 8346: 8336: 8305: 8293: 8281: 8233: 8208: 8204: 8181: 8143: 8097:(1): 72–78. 8094: 8090: 8080: 8048: 8044: 8038: 8026: 8016:29 September 8014:. Retrieved 8007:the original 7994: 7959: 7943:, p. 6. 7921: 7898: 7866: 7831: 7827: 7821: 7808: 7783: 7765: 7734: 7713:. Retrieved 7709:the original 7694: 7682:. Retrieved 7675:the original 7604:. Retrieved 7597:the original 7563:. Retrieved 7544: 7534: 7483: 7477: 7435: 7429: 7419: 7384: 7380: 7370: 7353: 7328: 7322: 7316: 7292: 7288: 7275: 7242: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7224: 7191: 7187: 7181: 7121: 7117: 7107: 7066: 7062: 7051: 7024: 7020: 7010: 7000:30 September 6998:. Retrieved 6982: 6970:. Retrieved 6956: 6944:. Retrieved 6937:the original 6918: 6905: 6882: 6876: 6857: 6851: 6824: 6820: 6810: 6791: 6785: 6772: 6750:(1): 3–128. 6747: 6743: 6707:. Retrieved 6685: 6681: 6671: 6638: 6634: 6600: 6562: 6556: 6507: 6502: 6485: 6479: 6473: 6456: 6452: 6417: 6411: 6388: 6381: 6338: 6334: 6319: 6300: 6264: 6230: 6176: 6155: 6121: 6107: 6090: 6049: 6008: 5995: 5981: 5973: 5968: 5952: 5948: 5943: 5926: 5901: 5885: 5852: 5832: 5824: 5804: 5792: 5775: 5763: 5747: 5730: 5702: 5699:Radiological 5667: 5640: 5626: 5593: 5508: 5474: 5421: 5389:reactor core 5386: 5374: 5367: 5302: 5291: 5277:Nuclides in 5271: 5270:Nuclides in 5263: 5252: 5244: 5236: 5203: 5195: 5187: 5146: 5132: 5106: 5088: 4823: 4802: 4793:mid infrared 4789: 4765: 4730: 4692:incandescent 4689: 4666: 4654: 4651: 4630:complexation 4618: 4615:Purification 4579: 4566: 4557: 4542: 4538: 4529: 4525: 4514: 4437:South Africa 4327: 4302: 4293:nuclear bomb 4286: 4277:Chicago team 4267:. While the 4246: 4234: 4211: 4161:, New York, 4152: 4112: 4088: 4081:published a 4071: 4024: 3996: 3980: 3975:World War II 3956:carbon group 3945: 3928: 3885:mineralogist 3883:and amateur 3866: 3832: 3806: 3773: 3694: 3665: 3622: 3610: 3566: 3554: 3518: 3391: 3316: 3211: 3191: 3125:perchlorates 3122: 3114: 3066:, which has 3050: 2996: 2943:(black) and 2924:, where the 2910: 2891: 2828: 2806: 2750: 2726: 2702: 2685: 2628: 2586: 2563:with a bare 2557: 2530: 2510: 2477: 2468: 2406: 2400: 2350: 2308: 2291: 2268:. Thorium's 2251: 2231:bulk modulus 2228: 2198:, and below 2196:protactinium 2184:paramagnetic 2181: 2132: 2112: 2057: 2020: 2009: 2008: 1815:7917 y 1768:18.68 d 1737: 1674: (1829) 1575:Bulk modulus 1530:paramagnetic 1479: 1458:(fcc) ( 1345: 1298: 1266: 1256: 1084: 1064:protactinium 972:Darmstadtium 839:Protactinium 830: 613:Praseodymium 113: 15: 13808:Carcinogens 11964:19 December 11699:: 157–164. 11654:Health Phys 11553:27 February 11510:Findlay, T. 11218:"Plutonium" 9439:(7): 1231. 9225:(1): 65–75. 7606:20 December 7540:Feynman, R. 7410:10261/12130 7245:(L051302). 6016:of Th (the 6014:decay chain 5944:fissionable 5754:manufacture 4715:layer as a 4694:filaments, 4515:World total 4297:a test bomb 4287:During the 4224:(BARC), in 4209:in Russia. 4157:located in 4109:Phasing out 4003:Marie Curie 3893:Jens Esmark 3638:ionic radii 3545:endothermic 2849:gas mantles 2824:hygroscopic 2773:passivation 2761:nitric acid 2713:diamagnetic 2689:Fermi level 2595:to Th, and 2561:fissionable 2549:ultraviolet 2541:0.5 eV 2472:decay chain 2418:beta decays 2414:mass number 2410:decay chain 2403:alpha decay 2369:radioactive 2287:californium 2208:cold-rolled 2168:light bulbs 2140:gas mantles 2135:TIG welding 2080:decay chain 2076:alpha decay 2029:radioactive 1941:24.1 d 1864:25.5 h 1291:100 k 1226:13.81 1146:] 6d 7s 1014:Livermorium 986:Copernicium 979:Roentgenium 909:Mendelevium 895:Einsteinium 888:Californium 13792:Categories 12018:29 January 11806:(Report). 11787:Stoll 2005 11640:Stoll 2005 11494:13 January 11383:Stoll 2005 11088:SPIE Press 11067:11 October 10879:Stoll 2005 10864:Stoll 2005 10843:Stoll 2005 10805:(Report). 10780:(Report). 10736:Stoll 2005 10688:(Report). 10371:(Report). 10205:(2): 109. 9690:(8): 952. 9628:(Report). 9360:: 334–338. 9043:3 February 8813:Stoll 2005 8616:1801.01190 8566:(1): 121. 8140:Emsley, J. 7941:Stoll 2005 7699:Davis, O. 7565:13 January 7493:1710.11398 6688:: 89–144. 6161:Lawrencium 5836:Tamil Nadu 5827:micrograms 5783:dermatitis 5760:Biological 5728:diseases. 5364:Advantages 5279:red frames 4776:dispersion 4733:refractory 4625:gadolinium 4553:thickening 4497:Kazakhstan 4319:See also: 4315:Production 4269:Los Alamos 4079:Niels Bohr 4043:rheumatism 3987:gas mantle 3966:First uses 3849:Vest-Agder 3837:zinc oxide 3813:gadolinite 3778:(1872) by 3697:thorianite 3650:(Ca,Fe,Pb) 3579:under the 3577:lithophile 3525:supernovae 3504:Occurrence 3444:[Th(CH 3428:[Th(CH 3387:sigma bond 3145:molybdates 3137:phosphates 3007:phosphorus 3003:pnictogens 2914:monoclinic 2723:Reactivity 2691:should be 2605:speleothem 2569:reflectors 2520:of U. 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It is 3133:sulfites 3129:sulfates 3053:aqua ion 3015:antimony 2988:[ThF 2976:[ThF 2902:selenium 2858:with 1% 2816:fluorite 2765:fluoride 2745:turnings 2729:reactive 2664:fluorite 2511:In deep 2422:thallium 2392:232.0377 2365:polonium 2341:Isotopes 2337:cerium. 2335:congener 2327:miscible 2323:chromium 2278:francium 2274:period 7 2192:actinium 2156:tungsten 2104:monazite 2100:abundant 2066:, has a 2060:isotopes 2049:actinide 1296:at 1168:at 1056:actinium 993:Nihonium 916:Nobelium 825:Actinium 811:Francium 795:Astatine 788:Polonium 767:Thallium 746:Platinum 718:Tungsten 711:Tantalum 697:Lutetium 641:Europium 634:Samarium 555:Antimony 453:Rubidium 430:Selenium 360:Chromium 353:Vanadium 346:Titanium 339:Scandium 307:Chlorine 247:Fluorine 233:Nitrogen 185:Hydrogen 148:abridged 131:232.0377 13798:Thorium 13570:Th(III) 13477:p-block 13472:d-block 13467:f-block 13462:s-block 12183:Thorium 12170:thorium 11993:7345962 11721:4081711 11701:Bibcode 11674:6706595 11315:21 July 11192:Bibcode 11146:Bibcode 10666:21 June 10577:19 June 10483:Bibcode 10458:24 June 10323:Bibcode 10249:Bibcode 10207:Bibcode 10147:7368077 10119:Bibcode 9876:: 9–12. 9831:Bibcode 9692:Bibcode 9572:16 July 9540:Bibcode 9480:Bibcode 9441:Bibcode 9258:26 June 9127:Thorium 9021:Bibcode 8981:Bibcode 8958:4226393 8938:Bibcode 8903:Bibcode 8798:13 June 8764:577–591 8724:Bibcode 8677:Bibcode 8641:4295865 8621:Bibcode 8568:Bibcode 8529:5811171 8213:Bibcode 8099:Bibcode 7836:Bibcode 7498:Bibcode 7440:Bibcode 7389:Bibcode 7365:. 2013. 7333:Bibcode 7247:Bibcode 7216:9970335 7196:Bibcode 7138:1458481 7083:1510758 6752:Bibcode 6643:Bibcode 6364:6772027 6242:. 2013. 6034:extinct 5988:p-block 5953:fertile 5949:fissile 5919:rhenium 5905:Behind 5890:Bismuth 5712:of the 5710:cancers 5283:fissile 4952:27 days 4753:rhodium 4749:ammonia 4477:Finland 4338:Country 4103:hafnium 4074:group 6 3833:gahnium 3792:Mjölnir 3765:History 3712:Thorite 3646:ekanite 3634:yttrium 3558:thulium 3494:adducts 3278:dry ice 3157:citrate 3153:oxalate 3087:[Th 3011:arsenic 2639:f-block 2633:. Four 2573:fertile 2493:extinct 2353:bismuth 2276:, from 2254:uranium 2204:ductile 2092:uranium 2010:Thorium 1887:100.0% 1841: y 1648:History 1587: 1209:Density 1131:f-block 1060:thorium 958:Hassium 951:Bohrium 937:Dubnium 902:Fermium 846:Uranium 832:Thorium 781:Bismuth 739:Iridium 725:Rhenium 704:Hafnium 683:Thulium 669:Holmium 655:Terbium 585:Caesium 534:Cadmium 513:Rhodium 485:Niobium 471:Yttrium 444:Krypton 437:Bromine 423:Arsenic 409:Gallium 330:Calcium 286:Silicon 203:Lithium 146: ( 100:silvery 80: 42:Thorium 13712:Th(SeO 13620:Th(OH) 13605:Th(IV) 13530:Th(II) 12101: 12074: 12047: 11991: 11727: 11719: 11672: 11520: 11490:. 2014 11463: 11406: 11366: 11164: 11119: 11094: 11043: 11018: 10993: 10968: 10903: 10809:. 2017 10758:12 May 10704: 10662:. 2017 10633: 10349: 10341: 10315:Nature 10267: 10145: 10137: 10087: 10077: 10017: 9987: 9962: 9936:11 May 9904: 9776: 9732: 9664:14 May 9410:16 May 9313: 9284: 9161: 8956: 8930:Nature 8849: 8770: 8695: 8639: 8586: 8536: 8526: 8417:2 July 8154: 7972: 7909: 7877: 7772: 7745: 7556: 7524: 7516: 7479:Nature 7458: 7265: 7214: 7144: 7136: 7097: 7089: 7081: 7041: 6968:. 2013 6946:4 July 6929: 6893: 6864: 6841: 6700: 6661: 6607: 6573: 6508:Nature 6424: 6399: 6371: 6361: 6353: 6307: 6279: 6212:, and 6184:, Pu, 5974:ionium 5917:, and 5907:osmium 5720:, and 5567:+ n → 5482:25.5 h 5448:+ n → 4987: 4780:lenses 4717:getter 4487:Sweden 4457:Norway 4427:Russia 4417:Canada 4397:Turkey 4357:Brazil 4332:, 2014 4330:tonnes 4226:Mumbai 4191:Israel 4049:, and 3881:priest 3873:Løvøya 3843:, the 3825:cerium 3796:giants 3786:, the 3679:zircon 3226:curium 3159:, and 3147:, and 3099:Th(OH) 2960:barium 2904:, and 2898:sulfur 2705:silver 2434:radium 2396:0.0004 2331:states 2311:alloys 2214:, and 2212:swaged 2200:cerium 2125:, the 2018:symbol 1970: 1937:trace 1914:trace 1860:trace 1833:0.02% 1812:trace 1789:trace 1656:after 1653:Naming 1532: 1402: 1385: 1353:oxide) 1302: 1270: 1230: 1228:kJ/mol 1128: 1111:Period 874:Curium 818:Radium 732:Osmium 676:Erbium 606:Cerium 592:Barium 569:Iodine 541:Indium 527:Silver 395:Copper 388:Nickel 381:Cobalt 300:Sulfur 263:Sodium 240:Oxygen 226:Carbon 194:Helium 140:232.04 135:0.0004 88:-ee-əm 78: 13760:Th(CH 13724:Th(NO 13657:ThSiO 12135:(PDF) 12124:(PDF) 11929:(PDF) 11815:(PDF) 11804:(PDF) 11771:(PDF) 11764:(PDF) 11746:(PDF) 11725:S2CID 11612:(PDF) 11605:(PDF) 11484:(PDF) 11334:(PDF) 11162:S2CID 10925:(PDF) 10789:(PDF) 10778:(PDF) 10753:(PDF) 10723:(PDF) 10706:79078 10686:(PDF) 10571:Wired 10512:(PDF) 10452:(PDF) 10445:(PDF) 10419:(PDF) 10369:(PDF) 10347:S2CID 10180:(PDF) 10165:(PDF) 10143:S2CID 10085:S2CID 9626:(PDF) 9130:(PDF) 8954:S2CID 8693:S2CID 8667:arXiv 8637:S2CID 8611:arXiv 8584:S2CID 8498:] 8490:(SiMe 8010:(PDF) 7999:(PDF) 7871:(PDF) 7678:(PDF) 7667:(PDF) 7600:(PDF) 7589:(PDF) 7522:S2CID 7488:arXiv 7363:CIAAW 7308:(PDF) 7285:(PDF) 7263:S2CID 7095:S2CID 6991:(PDF) 6966:Areva 6940:(PDF) 6915:(PDF) 6839:S2CID 6740:(PDF) 6449:(PDF) 6393:(PDF) 6240:CIAAW 5844:Bahia 5767:toxic 5748:Some 5734:gamma 5726:liver 5722:blood 5601:1.3 d 5017:years 4768:glass 4519:6355 4509:1725 4447:China 4387:Egypt 4347:India 4214:waste 4167:India 4020:radon 3889:vicar 3821:oxide 3817:Falun 3720:ThSiO 3687:ZrSiO 3573:tonne 3483:Th(CH 3417:CH=CH 3413:Th(CH 3394:Th(CH 3379:alkyl 3309:(THF) 3305:)ThCl 3184:(THF) 3180:)ThCl 2609:coral 2517:0.02% 2467:The 4 2454:xenon 2430:radon 2321:with 2247:steel 2216:drawn 2012:is a 1891:1.405 1763:trace 1719:Decay 1543:132.0 1493:11.54 1351:basic 1323:5055 1320:4259 1317:3683 1314:3248 1311:2907 1308:2633 1178:solid 1165:Phase 1142:[ 1123:Block 1098:Group 802:Radon 576:Xenon 314:Argon 219:Boron 13764:COO) 13736:Th(C 13704:ThSe 13680:Th(C 13666:ThOF 13633:ThCl 13577:ThCl 13545:ThCl 12143:2017 12099:ISBN 12072:ISBN 12045:ISBN 12020:2019 11989:PMID 11966:2008 11940:2017 11912:2017 11879:2017 11851:2017 11823:2017 11717:PMID 11670:PMID 11620:2017 11588:2017 11555:2016 11518:ISBN 11496:2018 11461:ISBN 11438:2017 11404:ISBN 11364:ISBN 11342:2009 11317:2013 11295:2013 11248:2023 11226:2017 11117:ISBN 11092:ISBN 11069:2021 11041:ISBN 11016:ISBN 10991:ISBN 10966:ISBN 10901:ISBN 10815:2018 10760:2017 10702:OSTI 10668:2017 10631:ISBN 10579:2010 10551:2011 10520:2009 10460:2006 10427:2009 10402:2017 10380:2017 10339:PMID 10300:2017 10265:PMID 10135:PMID 10075:ISBN 10015:ISBN 9985:ISBN 9960:ISBN 9938:2017 9902:ISBN 9730:ISBN 9666:2012 9637:2017 9574:2016 9412:2009 9380:2017 9311:ISBN 9282:ISBN 9260:2016 9159:ISBN 9138:2017 9045:2019 8847:ISBN 8800:2024 8768:ISBN 8534:PMID 8433:link 8419:2022 8152:ISBN 8018:2017 7970:ISBN 7907:ISBN 7875:ISBN 7770:ISBN 7743:ISBN 7717:2017 7686:2017 7608:2010 7567:2018 7554:ISBN 7514:PMID 7456:PMID 7212:PMID 7142:PMID 7134:OSTI 7087:PMID 7079:OSTI 7039:PMID 7002:2017 6974:2017 6948:2016 6927:ISBN 6891:ISBN 6862:ISBN 6711:2013 6698:ISBN 6659:PMID 6605:ISBN 6571:ISBN 6422:ISBN 6397:ISBN 6369:PMID 6351:ISSN 6305:ISBN 6277:ISSN 6003:ten. 5951:. 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