Ancient Roman technology

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effective in combat, the helepolis was designed to be self-propelled. The self-propelled vehicles were operated using two types of motors: an internal motor powered by humans, or a counterweight motor powered by gravity. The human-powered motor used a system of ropes that connected the axles to a capstan. It has been calculated that at least 30 men would be required to turn the capstan in order to exceed the force required to move the vehicle. Two capstans may have been used instead of just the one, reducing the number of men needed per capstan to 16, for a total of 32 to power the helepolis. The gravity-powered counterweight motor used a system of ropes and pulleys to propel the vehicle. Ropes were wrapped around the axles, strung through a pulley system that connected them to a counterweight hanging at the top of the vehicle. The counterweights would have been made of lead or a bucket filled with water. The lead counterweight was encapsulated in a pipe filled with seeds to control its fall. The water bucket counterweight was emptied when it reached the bottom of the vehicle, raised back to the top, and filled with water using a reciprocating water pump, so that motion could again be achieved. It has been calculated that to move a helepolis with a mass of 40000 kg, a counterweight with a mass of 1000 kg was needed.

178:. A water wheel had two general designs: the undershot and the overshot. The undershot water wheel generated power from the natural flow of a running water source pushing upon the wheel's submerged paddles. The overshot water wheel generated power by having water flow over its buckets from above. This was usually achieved by building an aqueduct above the wheel. Although it is possible to make the overshot water wheel 70 percent more efficient than the undershot, the undershot was generally the preferred water wheel. The reason being the economic cost to building an aqueduct was too high for the mild benefit of having the water wheel turn faster. The primary purpose of water wheels was to generate power for milling operations and to raise water above a system's natural height. Evidence also exists that water wheels were used to power the operation of saws, though only scant descriptions of such devices remain. 212: 628: 1119: 526:

meant designing aqueducts that flowed ground level or below surface level, as these were more cost effective than building bridges considering the cost of construction and maintenance for bridges was higher than that of surface and sub-surface elevations. Aqueduct bridges were often in need of repairs and spent years at a time in disuse. Water theft from the aqueducts was a frequent problem which led to difficulties in estimating the amount of water flowing through the channels. To prevent the channels of the aqueducts from eroding, a plaster known as opus signinum was used. The plaster incorporated crushed terracotta in the typical Roman mortar mixture of pozzolana rock and lime.

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dome. A perfect number is a number where its factors add up to itself. So, the number 28 is considered to be a perfect number, because its factors of 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14 add together to equal 28. Perfect numbers are extremely rare, with there being only one number for each quantity of digits (one for single digits, double digits, triple digits, quadruple digits, etc.). Embodying mathematical concepts of beauty, symmetry, and perfection, into the structure conveys the technical sophistication of Roman engineers.

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the speed at which these bridges were constructed. Leaders surprised enemy units to great effect by speedily crossing otherwise treacherous bodies of water. Lightweight crafts were "organized and tied together with the aid of planks, nails and cables". Rafts were more commonly used instead of building new makeshift bridges, enabling quick construction and deconstruction. The expedient and valuable innovation of the pontoon bridge also accredited its success to the excellent abilities of Roman Engineers.

289: 951: 938:(spear): The Roman heavy spear was a weapon favored by legionaries and weighed approximately five pounds/2.25 kilograms. The innovated javelin was designed to be used only once and was destroyed upon initial use. This ability prevented the enemy from reusing spears. All soldiers carried two versions of this weapon: a primary spear and a backup. A solid block of wood in the middle of the weapon provided legionaries protection for their hands while carrying the device. According to 444:

whereas pozzolana mortar using crushed brick dust has a tensile strength of 500 psi. The advantage of using pozzolana mortar in the construction of the Hagia Sophia is the increase in strength of the joints. The mortar joints used in the structure are wider than one would expect in a typical brick and mortar structure. The fact of the wide mortar joints suggests the designers of the Hagia Sophia knew about the high tensile strength of the mortar and incorporated it accordingly.

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was the battlefield, with horses being used in the cavalry and scouting parties. For carriages carrying passengers or light materials donkeys or mules were generally used, as they were faster than oxen and cheaper on fodder than horses. Other than being used as a means of transportation, animals were also employed in the operation of rotary mills. Beyond the confines of the land, a schematic for a ship propelled by animals has been discovered. The work known as Anonymous

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holes were then filled with water so that the wedges would swell with enough force to cut the stone block out of the Earth. Blocks with the dimensions of 23yds by 14 ft by 15 ft have been found, with weights of about 1000 tons. There is evidence that saws were developed to cut stone in the Imperial age. Initially, Romans used saws powered by hand to cut stone, but later went on to develop stone cutting saws powered by water.

731:. The pit was first filled with rocks, gravel or sand and then a layer of concrete. Finally, they were paved with polygonal rock slabs. Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. Bridges were constructed over waterways. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. After the fall of the Roman Empire the roads were still usable and used for more than 1000 years. 22: 2347: 1081: 1077:

described as the most advanced two-armed torsion engine used by the Roman Army”. The weapon often looks like a mounted crossbow capable of shooting projectiles. Similarly, the onager "named after the wild ass because of its 'kick'," was a larger weapon that was capable of hurling large projectiles at walls or forts. Both were very capable machines of war and were put to use by the Roman military.

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ballista of enormous size belonging to the Fifteenth legion began to do great harm to the Flavians' line with the huge stones that it hurled; and it would have caused wide destruction if it had not been for the splendid bravery of two soldiers, who, taking some shields from the dead and so disguising themselves, cut the ropes and springs of the machine

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Carts also contained brakes, elastic suspensions and bearings. The elastic suspension systems used leather belts attached bronze supports to suspend the carriage above the axles. The system helped to create a smoother ride by reducing the vibration. The Romans adopted bearings developed by the Celts.

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It was ideal to mine stones from quarries that were situated as close to the site of construction as possible, to reduce the cost of transportation. Stone blocks were formed in quarries by punching holes in lines at the desired lengths and widths. Then, wooden wedges were hammered into the holes. The

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Roman technology was largely based on a system of crafts. Technical skills and knowledge were contained within the particular trade, such as stonemasons. In this sense, knowledge was generally passed down from a tradesman master to a tradesman apprentice. Since there are only a few sources from which

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With limited sources of power, the Romans managed to build impressive structures, some of which survive to this day. The durability of Roman structures, such as roads, dams, and buildings, is accounted for in the building techniques and practices they utilized in their construction projects. Rome and

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Grainmill, rotary. According to Moritz (p57) rotary grainmills were not known to the ancient Greeks but date from before 160 BC. Unlike reciprocating mills, rotary mills could be easily adapted to animal or water power. Lewis (1997) argues that the rotary grainmill dates to the 5th century BC in the

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On engaging they drove back the enemy, only to be driven back themselves, for the Vitellians had concentrated their artillery on the raised road that they might have free and open ground from which to fire; their earlier shots had been scattered and had struck the trees without injuring the enemy. A

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extracted without needing to crush the ore. Washing tables were fitted below the tanks to collect the gold-dust and any nuggets present. Vein gold needed crushing, and they probably used crushing or stamp mills worked by waterwheels to comminute the hard ore before washing. Large quantities of water

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Way stations providing refreshments were maintained by the government at regular intervals along the roads. A separate system of changing stations for official and private couriers was also maintained. This allowed a dispatch to travel a maximum of 800 kilometres (500 mi) in 24 hours by using a

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The Romans primarily built roads for their military. Their economic importance was probably also significant, although wagon traffic was often banned from the roads to preserve their military value. In total, more than 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) of roads were constructed, 80,500 kilometres

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The Romans did not invent plumbing or toilets, but instead borrowed their waste disposal system from their neighbors, particularly the Minoans. A waste disposal system was not a new invention, but rather had been around since 3100 BCE, when one was created in the Indus River Valley The Roman public

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The Romans designed the Pantheon thinking about the concepts of beauty, symmetry, and perfection. The Romans incorporated these mathematical concepts into their public works projects. For instance, the concept of perfect numbers was used in the design of the Pantheon by embedding 28 coffers into the

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The ratio of the mixture of Roman lime mortars depended upon where the sand for the mixture was acquired. For sand gathered at a river or sea, the mixture ratio was two parts sand, one part lime, and one part powdered shells. For sand gathered further inland, the mixture was three parts sand and one

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Although various levels of medicine were practiced in the ancient world, the Romans created or pioneered many innovative surgeries and tools that are still in use today such as hemostatic tourniquets and arterial surgical clamps. Rome was also responsible for producing the first battlefield surgery

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Mobility, for a military force, was an essential key to success. Although this was not a Roman invention, as there were instances of "ancient Chinese and Persians making use of the floating mechanism”, Roman generals used the innovation to great effect in campaigns. Furthermore, engineers perfected

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Originally an incendiary weapon adopted from the Greeks in 7th century AD, the Greek fire "is one of the very few contrivances whose gruesome effectiveness was noted by" many sources. Roman innovators made this already lethal weapon even more deadly. Its nature is often described as a "precursor to

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The helepolis was a transportation vehicle used to besiege cities. The vehicle had wooden walls to shield soldiers as they were transported toward the enemy's walls. Upon reaching the walls, the soldiers would disembark at the top of the 15m tall structure and drop on to the enemy's ramparts. To be

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Roman carts had many purposes and came in a variety of forms. Freight carts were used to transport goods. Barrel carts were used to transport liquids. The carts had large cylindrical barrels laid horizontally with their tops facing forward. For transporting building materials, such as sand or soil,

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The containment of heat in the rooms was important in the operation of the baths, as to avoid patrons from catching colds. To prevent doors from being left open, the door posts were installed at an inclined angle so that the doors would automatically swing shut. Another technique of heat efficiency

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The primary usage of animal power was for transportation. Several species of animals were used for differing tasks. Being strong and cheap to maintain, oxen were used to farm and transport large masses of goods. If speed was desired, horses were utilized. The main environment which called for speed

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published schematics of a steam device that rotated a ball on a pivot. The device used heat from a cauldron to push steam through a system of tubes towards the ball. The device produced roughly 1500 rpm but would never be practical on an industrial scale as the labour requirements to operate, fuel

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provided better protection, but the plate bands were expensive and difficult to produce and difficult to repair in the field. Generally, chainmail was cheaper, easier to produce, and simpler to maintain, was one-size-fits-all and was more comfortable to wear; thus, it remained the primary form of

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Roman aqueducts conjure images of water travelling long distances across arched bridges, however; only 5 percent of the water being transported along the aqueduct systems traveled by way of bridges. Roman engineers worked to make the routes of aqueducts as practical as possible. In practice, this

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Water inside the aqueducts depended entirely on gravity. The raised stone channels in which the water traveled were slightly slanted. The water was carried directly from mountain springs. After it had gone through the aqueduct, the water was collected in tanks and fed through pipes to fountains,

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The pozzolana mortar used in the construction of the Hagia Sophia does not contain volcanic ash but instead crushed brick dust. The composition of the materials used in pozzolana mortar leads to increased tensile strength. A mortar composed of mostly lime has a tensile strength of roughly 30 psi

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Recently archaeologically detected in the Val Gabbia in northern Lombardy from the 5th and 6th centuries AD. This technically interesting innovation appears to have had little economic impact. But archaeologists may have failed to recognize the distinctive slag, so the date and location of this

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Warfare was an essential aspect of Roman society and culture. The military was not only used for territorial acquisition and defense, but also as a tool for civilian administrators to use to help staff provincial governments and assist in construction projects. The Romans adopted, improved, and

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This led to a number of innovations in the use of glass. Window glass is attested at Pompeii in AD 79. In the 2nd century AD hanging glass oil lamps were introduced. These used floating wicks and by reducing self-shading gave more lumens in a downwards direction. Cage cups (see photograph) are

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While core artillery inventions were notably founded by the Greeks, Rome saw opportunity in the ability to enhance this long-range artillery. Large artillery pieces such as carroballista and onagers bombarded enemy lines, before full ground assault by infantry. The manuballista would "often be

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is a tactical military maneuver original to Rome. The tactic was implemented by having units raise their shields in order to protect themselves from enemy projectiles raining down on them. The strategy only worked if each member of the testudo protected his comrade. Commonly used during siege

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Most Roman cities were shaped like a square. There were 4 main roads leading to the center of the city, or forum. They formed a cross shape, and each point on the edge of the cross was a gateway into the city. Connecting to these main roads were smaller roads, the streets where people lived.

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describes a ship powered by oxen. Wherein oxen are attached to a rotary, moving in a circle on a deck floor, spinning two paddle wheels, one on either side of the ship. The likelihood that such a ship was ever built is low, due to the impracticality of controlling animals on a watercraft.

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battles, the "sheer discipline and synchronization required to form a Testudo" was a testament to the abilities of legionnaires. Testudo, meaning tortoise in Latin, "was not the norm, but rather adopted in specific situations to deal with particular threats on the battlefield". The Greek

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mortar. Pozzolana is a volcanic clay substance located in and around Naples. The mixture ratio for the cement was two parts pozzolana and one part lime mortar. Due to its composition, pozzolana cement was able to form in water and has been found to be as hard as natural forming rock.

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were used for construction work and possibly to load and unload ships at their ports, although for the latter use there is according to the "present state of knowledge" still no evidence. Most cranes were capable of lifting about 6–7 tons of cargo, and according to a relief shown on

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were not unique, but the Romans were probably the first people to put ballistas on carts for better mobility on campaigns. On the battlefield, it is thought that they were used to pick off enemy leaders. There is one account of the use of artillery in battle from Tacitus, Histories

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was essential to the design of the Pantheon. The mortar used in the construction of the dome is made up of a mixture of lime and the volcanic powder known as pozzolana. The concrete is suited for use in constructing thick walls as it does not require to be completely dry to cure.

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mortar. Evidence for the use of the substance comes from the sagging of the structure's arches during construction, as a distinguishing feature of pozzolana mortar is the large amount of time it needs to cure. The engineers had to remove decorative walls to let the mortar cure.

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The preservation of skins with vegetable tannins was a pre-Roman invention but not of the antiquity once supposed. (Tawing was far more ancient.) The Romans were responsible for spreading this technology into areas where it was previously unknown such as Britain and

1526:, France dated c. 20 BC. The structure has entirely disappeared. Its existence attested from the cuts into the rock on either side to key in the dam wall, which was 14.7 metres high, 3.9m thick at base narrowing to 2.96m at the top. Earliest description of 1115:

napalm". Military strategists often put the weapon to good use during naval battles, and the ingredients to its construction "remained a closely guarded military secret". Despite this, the devastation caused by Greek fire in combat is indisputable.

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or warm room. In the moderate dry heat of the tepidarium, some performed warm-up exercises and stretched while others oiled themselves or had slaves oil them. The tepidarium's main purpose was to promote sweating to prepare for the next room, the

499:. Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface with only small portions above ground supported by arches. The longest Roman aqueduct, 178 kilometres (111 mi) in length, was traditionally assumed to be that which supplied the city of 404:

The construction of the Pantheon was a massive undertaking, requiring large quantities of resources and man-hours. Delaine estimates the amount of total manpower needed in the construction of the Pantheon to be about 400 000 man-days.

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The Romans developed a railed cargo system for transporting heavy loads. The rails consisted of grooves embedded into existing stone roadways. The carts used in such a system had large block axles and wooden wheels with metal casings.

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Grewe, Klaus (2009), "Die Reliefdarstellung einer antiken Steinsägemaschine aus Hierapolis in Phrygien und ihre Bedeutung für die Technikgeschichte. Internationale Konferenz 13.−16. Juni 2007 in Istanbul", in Bachmann, Martin (ed.),

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Shipmill, (though small, the conventional term is "shipmill" not boat mill, probably because there was always a deck, and usually an enclosed superstructure, to keep the flour away from the damp) where water wheels were attached to

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The Romans built dams to store water for irrigation. They understood that spillways were necessary to prevent the erosion of earth-packed banks. In Egypt, the Romans adopted the water technology known as wadi irrigation from the

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The most readily available sources of power to the ancients were human power and animal power. Mechanical devices were developed to assist in the manipulation of objects which exceeded human strength - one such device being the

3980: 619:. Wadis were a technique developed to capture large amounts of water produced during the seasonal floods and store it for the growing season. The Romans successfully developed the technique further for a larger scale. 471:

made of limestone that provided the city with over 1 million cubic metres of water each day, sufficient for 3.5 million people even in modern-day times, and with a combined length of 350 kilometres (220 mi).

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Although the Hagia Sophia was constructed after the fall of the Western empire, its construction incorporated the building materials and techniques signature to ancient Rome. The building was constructed using

595:, judging by the piles of slag found at this site in northern England. Tanks for holding water are also common along aqueduct systems, and numerous examples are known from just one site, the gold mines at 773:, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall and span length. They were most of the time at least 60 feet (18 m) above the body of water. 98:, the Romans used stone, wood, and marble as building materials. They used these materials to construct civil engineering projects for their cities and transportation devices for land and sea travel. 1805: 94:

its surrounding area contained various types of volcanic materials, which Romans experimented with in the creation of building materials, particularly cements and mortars. Along with

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a force to be reckoned with. They also used a rudimentary version of antiseptic surgery years before its use became popular in the 19th century and possessed very capable doctors.

245:

are among the few writers who have published technical information about Roman technology. There was a corpus of manuals on basic mathematics and science such as the many books by

856:, where streams or waves of water are released onto the hillside, first to reveal any gold-bearing ore, and then to work the ore itself. Rock debris could be sluiced away by 2012: 6721: 2942:

Rossi, Cesare, Thomas Chondros, G. Milidonis, Kypros Savino, and F. Russo (2016). "Ancient Road Transport Devices: Developments from the Bronze Age to the Roman Empire".

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was one of the most technologically advanced civilizations of antiquity, with some of the more advanced concepts and inventions forgotten during the turbulent eras of

575:, they appear to have built a dam across the river Sil to expose alluvial gold deposits in the bed of the river. The site is near the spectacular Roman gold mine of 503:. The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a sinuous route of more than 336 km. 4810: 3881: 942:, historians have records of "how the Romans threw their spears and then charged with swords". This tactic seemed to be common practice among Roman infantry. 506:

Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerances, and to a technological standard that was not to be equaled until modern times. Powered entirely by

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heat source for buildings, such as bath houses. Thermae were built with large windows facing southwest, the location of the Sun at the hottest time of day.

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the Romans used carts with high walls. Public transportation carts were also in use with some designed with sleeping accommodations for up to six people.

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Werner, Walter (1997), "The largest ship trackway in ancient times: the Diolkos of the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece, and early attempts to build a canal",

1884:". Recent archaeological evidence from Phrygia, Anatolia, now pushes back the date to the 3rd century AD and confirms the use of a crank in the sawmill. 4359: 3925:

Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications",

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Representations show lateen sails in the Mediterranean as early as the 2nd century AD. Both the quadrilateral and the triangular type were employed.

78:, not improved upon until the 19th century. The Romans achieved high levels of technology in large part because they borrowed technologies from the 2985: 2905: 2678: 2639: 2600: 2548: 631:

Roman baths in the English city of Bath. A temple was initially constructed on the site in 60 CE with the bathing complex being built up over time.

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A. Archontidou 2005 Un atelier de preparation de l'alun a partir de l'alunite dans l'isle de Lesbos in L'alun de Mediterranee ed P.Borgard et al.

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S. Agusta-Boularot et J-l. Paillet 1997 "le Barrage et l'Aqueduc occidental de Glanum: le premier barrage-vout de l'historire des techniques?"

1245:) is archaeologically attested on the island Lesbos. This site was abandoned in the 7th century but dates back at least to the 2nd century AD. 4697: 186:

Wind power was used in the operation of watercraft, through the use of sails. Windmills do not appear to have been created in ancient times.

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Human power was also a factor in the movement of ships, particularly warships. Though wind-powered sails were the dominant form of power in

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Castro, F.; Fonseca, N.; Vacas, T.; Ciciliot, F. (2008), "A Quantitative Look at Mediterranean Lateen- and Square-Rigged Ships (Part 1)",

5281: 5269: 1476:, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece with a 15 cm long handle is of yet unknown purpose and dates to no later than c. 250 AD. 913: 103: 6716: 5328: 4008: 510:, they transported very large amounts of water very efficiently. Sometimes, where depressions deeper than 50 metres had to be crossed, 659:

or hot room. The caldarium, unlike the tepidarium, was extremely humid and hot. Temperatures in the caldarium could reach 40 degrees

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By the late 3rd century AD, all essential elements for constructing a steam engine were known by Roman engineers: steam power (in

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Schnitter, Niklaus (1987a), "Verzeichnis geschichtlicher Talsperren bis Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.),

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M.J.T.Lewis presents good evidence that water powered vertical pounding machines came in by the middle of the 1st century AD for

74:; with some in areas such as civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and certain inventions such as the 1058:

a movable bridge that could attach itself to an enemy ship and allow the Romans to board the enemy vessel. Developed during the

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served hygienic, social and cultural functions. The baths contained three main facilities for bathing. After undressing in the

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An artificial reservoir, highly unusual in that it was meant for recreational rather than utilitarian purposes was created at

1931:), the cylinder and piston (in metal force pumps), non-return valves (in water pumps) and gearing (in water mills and clocks) 6731: 6531: 5356: 4883: 4197: 3894: 876:

were also needed in deep mining to remove waste debris and power primitive machines, as well as for washing the crushed ore.

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Greene, Kevin (2000), "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered",

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The Romans also made great use of aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire, some sites such as

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part lime. The lime for mortars was prepared in limekilns, which were underground pits designed to block out the wind.

2017:. Roman pewter had a wide range of proportions of tin but proportions of 50%, 75% and 95% predominate (Beagrie 1989). 1882:

the Ruwer sends mill-stones swiftly round to grind the corn, And drives shrill saw-blades through smooth marble blocks

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Note, this material attests otherwise unknown chemistry (or other way?) to generate nano-scale gold-silver particles.

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which used ropes and pulleys to manipulate objects. The device was powered by multiple people pushing or pulling on

6556: 5229: 4878: 4805: 3900: 3155: 2377: 2056:-bladed (A much older innovation (e.g. Bible; I Samuel 13, 20–1) that became much more common in the Roman period) 522:, a complex of water mills hailed as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world". 211: 4822: 4755: 4623: 3998:

Basch, Lucien (2001), "La voile latine, son origine, son évolution et ses parentés arabes", in Tzalas, H. (ed.),

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Zhmodikov, Alexander (5 September 2017). "Roman Republican Heavy Infantrymen in Battle (IV-II Centuries B.C.)".

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combined with an arch bridge, a multifunctional hydraulic structure which subsequently spread throughout Iran.

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The Band-i-Kaisar, constructed by Roman prisoners of war in Shustar, Persia, in the 3rd century AD, featured a

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Chandler, Fiona "The Usborne Internet Linked Encyclopedia of the Roman World", p. 80. Usborne Publishing 2001

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Note: there is no evidence of any combination of fore-and-aft rigs with square sails on the same Roman ship.

66:. Gradually, some of the technological feats of the Romans were rediscovered and/or improved upon during the 4508:

Schnitter, Niklaus (1987b), "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pfeilerstaumauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.),

2015: 968:). This segmented armour provided good protection for vital areas, but did not cover as much of the body as 6806: 6726: 5912: 5516: 4968: 4683: 3741: 2372: 2304:

Excavated from both ends simultaneously. The longest known is the 5.6-kilometre (3.5 mi) drain of the

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Schnitter, Niklaus (1987c), "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Bogenstaumauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.),

860:, and the water also used to douse fires created to break down the hard rock and veins, a method known as 6691: 6611: 6536: 6295: 5351: 5234: 4780: 2859: 2880:

Bruce, Alexandra. 2012: Science or Superstition: The Definitive Guide to the Doomsday Phenomenon, p. 26.

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Lewis, P. R., "The Ogofau Roman gold mines at Dolaucothi," The National Trust Year Book 1976–77 (1977).

3745:, vol. 92, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–32, 1381:

More than a dozen Roman bridges are known to feature segmental (=flat) arches. A prominent example was

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and many more are known across the Empire, some of which are still in use. At one site, Montefurado in

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is the collection of techniques, skills, methods, processes, and engineering practices which supported

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to draw upon for technical information, it is theorized that tradesmen kept their knowledge a secret.

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Vogel, Alexius (1987), "Die historische Entwicklung der Gewichtsmauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.),

2226: 1123: 3464:

C-H Wunderlich "Light and economy: an essay about the economy of pre-historic and ancient lamps" in

28:(1st century AD), over the Gardon in southern France, is one of the masterpieces of Roman technology 6786: 6781: 6706: 6192: 6102: 5591: 5586: 5571: 5524: 5464: 5419: 5221: 2360: 2256:(Severan Marble Plan), a carved marble ground plan of every architectural feature in ancient Rome. 1168: 1055: 922:

The Roman military technology ranged from personal equipment and armament to deadly siege engines.

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The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water. The city of Rome itself was supplied by

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Livingston, R (1993). "Materials Analysis Of The Masonry Of The Hagia Sophia Basilica, Istanbul".

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or cold room, which offered a cold bath for cooling off after the caldarium. The Romans also had

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Tropis VI, 6th International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Lamia 1996 proceedings

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in north-west Spain having at least 7 major channels entering the minehead. Other sites such as

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Roman Mining at Dolaucothi: the Implications of the 1991–3 Excavations near the Carreg Pumsaint

2265: 1366: 1034: 4225: 4218: 3803:

Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), "Railways in the Greek and Roman world", in Guy, A.; Rees, J. (eds.),

765:(broken bridge) is the oldest Roman stone bridge in Rome, Italy. The biggest Roman bridge was 727:

The roads were constructed by digging a pit along the length of the intended course, often to

6756: 6663: 6576: 6506: 6330: 6082: 5882: 5877: 5674: 5581: 5506: 5469: 5454: 5429: 5409: 5311: 2979: 2212: 1897: 1855: 1038: 748: 664: 4019: 3806:

Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference

3476:

C. van Driel-Murray Ancient skin processing and the impact of Rome on tanning technology in

2923: 2565:(ed.): Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800–1400, Berlin 2001 (4th ed.), pp. 345–48 (345) 781: 663:(104 degrees Fahrenheit). Many contained steam baths and a cold-water fountain known as the 529: 514:

were used to force water uphill. An aqueduct also supplied water for the overshot wheels at

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34, 160–1). Surviving examples are mainly Romano-British of the 3rd and 4th centuries e.g.

888:. That they used water mills on a large scale elsewhere is attested by the flour mills at 8: 6816: 6736: 6516: 6365: 6167: 6037: 5987: 5306: 4903: 3955:

Jones G. D. B., I. J. Blakey, and E. C. F. MacPherson, "Dolaucothi: the Roman aqueduct,"

2352: 1956: 1866:

western Mediterranean. Animal and water powered rotary mills came in the 3rd century BC.

1317: 1026: 480: 4385: 4251: 4165: 4111: 4079: 3857: 2955: 2812: 962:), the Romans perfected a relatively light, full torso armour made of segmented plates ( 785: 6566: 6290: 6097: 5952: 5892: 5812: 5755: 5619: 4855: 4834: 4569: 4561: 4365: 4263: 4177: 4123: 4091: 4002:, Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition, pp. 55–85 3962:

Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, "The Dolaucothi gold mines, I: the surface evidence,"

3942: 3865: 3762: 3754: 3030: 2967: 2899: 2820: 2672: 2633: 2594: 2542: 2294: 2222: 2099: 2067: 2008: 1928: 1920: 1712: 1697: 1492: 1382: 1264: 881: 766: 370: 355: 274: 262: 261:

and so on. Not all of the manuals which were available to the Romans have survived, as

254: 220: 109:

In addition to military engineering, the Romans also made significant contributions to

36: 6205: 4439:"Historical Development of Arch Dams. From Roman Arch Dams to Modern Concrete Designs" 1412:

The harnessing of camels to ploughs is attested in North Africa by the 3rd century AD

6696: 6200: 6052: 5807: 5767: 5745: 4953: 4663: 4603: 4585: 4573: 4531: 4513: 4495: 4463: 4424: 4402: 4281: 4267: 4259: 4229: 4193: 4181: 4173: 4143: 4127: 4119: 4102:

Friedman, Zaraza; Zoroglu, Levent (2006), "Kelenderis Ship. Square or Lateen Sail?",

4087: 4057: 3946: 3890: 3829: 3766: 3550: 2971: 2860:"Knossos Ancient Village / Settlement / Misc. Earthwork – The Modern Antiquarian.com" 2839: 2658: 2619: 2580: 2506: 2476: 2431: 2406: 2253: 1990: 1819: 1642: 1598: 1466: 1402: 1401:

era, the earliest known bridge featuring a pointed arch is the 5th or 6th century AD

1270: 1164: 991: 964: 462: 278: 153: 75: 63: 4416: 4095: 475: 166: 6751: 6711: 6265: 6225: 6157: 6092: 6017: 6012: 5784: 5707: 5654: 5449: 5444: 5333: 5192: 5141: 5101: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5051: 4973: 4920: 4913: 4898: 4893: 4817: 4745: 4553: 4255: 4169: 4115: 4083: 3934: 3861: 3778: 3746: 2959: 2816: 2116: 1755: 1612: 1556: 1542: 853: 823: 293: 4423:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 331–339, 3094: 1012: 801:

The bearings decreased rotational friction by using mud to lubricate stone rings.

215:

Reconstruction of Hero of Alexandria's steam machine the Aeolipile, 1st century CE

6701: 6360: 6172: 6152: 6112: 6047: 5997: 5992: 5867: 5817: 5725: 5559: 5539: 5459: 4908: 4733: 4438: 4273: 4140:

The Economic History of Byzantium. From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century

3889:, Byzas, vol. 9, Istanbul: Ege Yayınları/Zero Prod. Ltd., pp. 429–454, 2366: 2096: 2064: 2004: 1761: 1740: 1709: 1694: 1606: 1473: 1417: 1059: 877: 788:

constructed in 104 to 106 CE, was built in a similar in style to Trajan's Bridge.

572: 511: 238: 3720: 2319:

Heliogabalus 29. As this is fiction, the evidence dates to its time of writing.

536:

was constructed during the first to second century CE and is still in use today.

6415: 6057: 5792: 5740: 5712: 5659: 5644: 5624: 5439: 5414: 5371: 5361: 5187: 5161: 5091: 5076: 5041: 5001: 4762: 4242:

Whitewright, Julian (2009), "The Mediterranean Lateen Sail in Late Antiquity",

4135: 2241: 2187: 2026: 1984: 1838:

on the Nile. In both places this technology was lost when the Romans withdrew.

1627: 1482: 1427: 1370: 1278: 1141: 533: 458: 397: 375: 219:

The generation of power through steam remained theoretical in the Roman world.

95: 79: 59: 4342: 4316: 3938: 2963: 1769: 1748: 1593: 1548: 6841: 5947: 5917: 5832: 5366: 5343: 5156: 5011: 4996: 4943: 4750: 4657: 4049: 4037: 3813: 2193: 1666: 1586: 1552: 1431: 1386: 1008: 970: 758: 580: 195: 106:

for foot soldiers, cavalry, and siege weapons for land and sea environments.

40: 4386:"Dams from the Roman Era in Spain. Analysis of Design Forms (with Appendix)" 3782: 950: 6425: 6285: 5730: 5679: 5634: 5629: 5481: 5291: 5177: 5121: 5116: 4888: 4772: 4706: 3990:

A.H.V. Smith, "Provenance of Coals from Roman Sites in England and Wales",

2562: 2034: 1941:. Improvements upon earlier models. For the largest mill complex known see 1914: 1815: 1680: 1576: 1360: 1287: 1250: 1202: 999:

and other Roman formations were a source of inspiration for this maneuver.

861: 827: 744: 690:

was the use of wooden benches over stone, as wood conducts away less heat.

672: 604: 556: 492: 423: 414: 388: 55: 48: 25: 3969:

Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain,"

1878: 1054:

In addition to innovations in land warfare, the Romans also developed the

698: 6220: 5842: 5664: 5554: 4948: 2324: 2305: 2234: 2138: 2079: 1967: 1905: 1724: 1527: 1508: 959: 885: 833: 668: 647: 584: 576: 496: 419: 350: 224:

and maintain the heat of the device would have come at too great a cost.

175: 67: 6632: 2836:

The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World

2770:

J. Crow 2007 "Earth, walls and water in Late Antique Constantinople" in

2221:, spiral staircases only become more widespread after their adoption in 1823: 288: 6761: 6445: 6385: 6350: 6142: 6077: 6067: 5962: 5847: 5735: 5318: 5286: 5031: 4958: 4790: 4785: 4565: 3952:

Oliver Davies, "Roman Mines in Europe", Clarendon Press (Oxford), 1935.

3758: 3687: : Moretti, Giuseppe, d. 1945. Roma : La Libreria dello stato 3034: 2152: 2130: 1835: 1776: 1765: 1744: 1655: 1523: 1352: 1180: 1179:

unit, a move that paired with their contributions to medicine made the

1109: 1062:

it allowed them to apply their experience in land warfare on the seas.

837: 714: 702: 651: 616: 596: 560: 519: 359: 246: 71: 4675: 6475: 6470: 6430: 6355: 6325: 6305: 6182: 6122: 6032: 5982: 5977: 5902: 5862: 5750: 5720: 5529: 5404: 5197: 5081: 5056: 4935: 2218: 2126: 1938: 1924: 1795: 1789: 1716: 1531: 1458: 1398: 1282: 1256: 1094: 897: 880:

provides a detailed description of gold mining in book xxxiii of his

753:

Roman bridges were built with stone and/or concrete and utilized the

656: 436: 338: 250: 242: 234: 142:, rowing was often used by military craft during battle engagements. 132: 83: 4557: 3828:, vol. 1, Treviso: Edizioni Canova, pp. 92, 93 (fig. 39), 3790:

A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900.

3750: 6435: 6420: 6410: 6395: 6310: 6300: 6270: 6260: 6255: 6245: 6147: 6062: 5942: 5927: 5857: 5837: 5827: 5822: 5802: 5601: 5182: 5146: 5036: 4963: 4795: 1975: 1942: 1782: 1535: 1517: 1488: 1452: 1186: 1071: 1030: 939: 889: 592: 588: 500: 427: 128: 3709: 6455: 6450: 6440: 6405: 6400: 6390: 6335: 6320: 6137: 6132: 6117: 6087: 6042: 6022: 6002: 5957: 5689: 5544: 5323: 5131: 5126: 5016: 2746:

Forman, Joan "The Romans", p. 34. Macdonald Educational Ltd. 1975

1950: 1847: 1734: 1496: 1332: 1310: 1291: 996: 857: 849: 728: 684: 660: 642: 637: 507: 301: 21: 4669: 3355: 3353: 3228: 3067:"10 Incredible Roman Military Innovations You Should Know About" 2070:

18. 171–3) (More important for the Middle Ages, than this era.)

6465: 6345: 6275: 6215: 6210: 6177: 5937: 5922: 5872: 5852: 5274: 5151: 5046: 2171: 2162:

See image for something very close to being a sternpost rudder

2129:, this last already attested in 2nd century BC in the northern 2122: 2086: 2042: 1998: 1500: 1448: 893: 258: 16:

Technological accomplishments of the ancient Roman civilization

3138:. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 17–35. 2941: 2217:

Though first attested as early as the 5th century BC in Greek

6250: 5972: 5699: 4991: 4205:

Toby, A.Steven "Another look at the Copenhagen Sarcophagus",

4156:

Pomey, Patrice (2006), "The Kelenderis Ship: A Lateen Sail",

3350: 3001:"HOW Hard Does It Hit? A Study of Atlatl and Dart Ballistics" 2204: 2037:(50 m), and in the world until its destruction in 1305. 1348: 1335:

in the 1st century AD. Held many advantages over the scroll.

1325: 1015: 935: 841: 600: 568: 87: 1080: 583:, including a well-preserved example from Roman Lanchester, 6460: 6027: 5967: 5549: 4925: 2053: 2030: 1893: 1620: 1568: 1344: 1299: 1212: 901: 872: 868: 845: 754: 608: 564: 552: 313: 312:

The Romans created fireproof wood by coating the wood with

297: 4069: 3661: 3213:

ed L. Lavan E.Zanini & A. Sarantis Brill, Leiden; p200

3209:

Giannichedda 2007 "Metal production in Late Antiquity" in

5021: 4325:], translated by R. H. Rodgers, University of Vermont 4018:, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1–23, archived from 3797:

A History of Invention From Stone Axes to Silicon Chips.

2774:

in ed. L.Lavan, E.Zanini & A. Sarantis Brill, Leiden

2754: 2752: 2707: 1873:

Sawmill, water powered. Recorded by 370 AD. Attested in

852:

high above the present opencast. The water was used for

3698:

The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World

2430:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 707–710. 2405:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 260–266. 4338: 4190:

The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204

2889: 2749: 2657:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 173. 2618:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 126. 2579:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 102. 2505:. Canada: Oxford University Press. pp. 355–375. 283: 4602:, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 47–56, 4530:, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 75–96, 4512:, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 57–74, 3871:

Neil Beagrie, "The Romano-British Pewter Industry",

3560: 3423:"10 Ancient Roman Inventions That Will Surprise You" 2799:

Smith, Norman (1978). "Roman Hydraulic Technology".

2561:

Michael Matheus: "Mittelalterliche Hafenkräne," in:

2342: 174:

Power from water was generated through the use of a

4544:Smith, Norman (1970), "The Roman Dams of Subiaco", 4494:, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 9–20, 4415:Hodge, A. Trevor (2000), "Reservoirs and Dams", in 4390:1st International Congress on Construction History 4361:

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3739:(2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", 3136:

Technology and Culture in Greek and Roman Antiquity

2574: 1794:A floor and also wall heating system. Described by 4477:Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), "Römische Talsperren", 4278:Mechanical Technology of Greek and Roman Antiquity 4220:Medieval Religion and Technology. Collected Essays 4217: 3924: 3505: 3489: 3234: 3182: 2838:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 261. 2315:Solely attested by a Latin word in 4th century AD 1927:), the crank and connecting rod mechanism (in the 587:, where it may have been used in industrial-scale 4383: 4244:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4158:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4104:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4072:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 3845:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 3410: 3359: 2719: 2428:Engineering and Technology in the Classical World 2403:Engineering and Technology in the Classical World 6839: 3216: 2575:Marder, Tod A., and, Wilson Jones, Mark (2014). 2537:. New York: Macmillan Company. pp. 397–408. 2532: 2033:(54–68 AD). The dam remained the highest in the 1187:Technologies developed or invented by the Romans 958:While heavy, intricate armour was not uncommon ( 4188:Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006), 4142:, vol. 2, Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 89–99, 4101: 3883:Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien 3788:Derry, Thomas Kingston and Trevor I. Williams. 3637: 2894:. New York: Macmillan Company. pp. 366–76. 2892:The Technical Arts and Sciences of the Ancients 2777: 2535:The Technical Arts and Sciences of the Ancients 1854:) and ore crushing (archaeological evidence at 1729:A water organ. Later also the pneumatic organ. 607:for providing a reliable water supply from the 483:in modern-day Spain, constructed 1st century CE 268: 4160:, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 326–335, 4106:, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 108–116, 4074:, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 347–359, 3200:R.W.Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel 1975; 197 2890:Neuburger, Albert and, Brose, Henry L (1930). 2475:. London: Chatto & Windus. pp. 9–32. 2182:An innovation of about the mid-1st century AD 650:or changing room, Romans would proceed to the 6648: 4691: 4384:Arenillas, Miguel; Castillo, Juan C. (2003), 4344:Water and Wastewater Systems in Imperial Rome 4246:, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 97–104, 4207:International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4187: 3649: 3322: 3320: 3123:. Barnes & Noble Publishing. p. 167. 2652: 2613: 2533:Neubuger, Albert, and Brose, Henry L (1930). 201: 4436: 4357: 4216:(1978), "The Diffusion of the Lateen Sail", 4040:(1954), "The Sails of the Ancient Mariner", 3777:, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 29–59, 3406: 3345: 3330: 2984:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2904:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2713: 2677:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2638:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2599:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2547:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 720:(50,000 mi) of which were stone-paved. 491:The main aqueducts in Ancient Rome were the 4453: 4323:On the water management of the city of Rome 4241: 4224:, University of California Press, pp. 4044:, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 214–219 3919:Grainmills and Flour in Classical Antiquity 3673: 3222: 2655:The Pantheon: From Antiquity to the Present 2616:The Pantheon: From Antiquity to the Present 2577:The Pantheon: From Antiquity to the Present 1472:A Roman iron crank handle was excavated in 1385:over the Danube, a lesser known the extant 1154:Surgical instruments used by ancient Romans 1122:Depiction of a Roman pontoon bridge on the 914:Technological history of the Roman military 6655: 6641: 4698: 4684: 4525: 4507: 4489: 4468:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3499: 3402: 3370: 3326: 3317: 3303: 3299: 3262: 3258: 2694: 2653:Marder, Tod A, Wilson Jones, Mark (2014). 2614:Marder, Tod A, Wilson Jones, Mark (2014). 2293:e.g. beside the Danube, see the "road" in 1896:, was first recorded at Rome in 547 AD in 567:. They built 72 dams in just one country, 292:Reconstruction of a 10.4-metre-high Roman 6662: 4476: 4443:Australian Civil Engineering Transactions 4339:"International Water History Association" 4336: 4054:Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World 3823: 3547:Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World 3451:54.3 pp. 299–304 The identity of Pliny's 3398: 3295: 3254: 3188: 3023:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 3020: 2833: 2758: 2697:WIT Transactions on the Built Environment 2400: 2207:(earlier, potassium, soap being Celtic). 2121:Introduction of fore-and-aft rigs 1) the 1814:The best surviving examples are those at 1547:Examples include curved dams at Orükaya, 1014:and is believed to have been copied from 848:, all leading to reservoirs and tanks or 337:Another type of Roman mortar is known as 4584:, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, 4437:James, Patrick; Chanson, Hubert (2002), 4006: 3792:New York : Dover Publications, 1993 3601: 3156:"10 Innovations That Built Ancient Rome" 2998: 1601:, Spain (1st century AD) earliest known 1149: 1117: 1079: 1065: 949: 808: 780: 697: 626: 528: 474: 418: 369: 287: 227: 210: 165: 20: 4705: 3957:Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 3812:, pp. 8–19 (10–15), archived from 3799:New York, New York, Facts on File, 2000 3153: 3149: 3147: 3145: 2500: 2470: 1422:Probably a Hellenistic innovation e.g. 1343:The Romans had enough understanding of 39:and made possible the expansion of the 6840: 4301:, University of California Press, 1978 4133: 4048: 4036: 3841: 3772: 3735: 3710:Stanford University: Forma Urbis Romae 3625: 3578: 3566: 3549:. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 3118: 3065:M, Dattatreya; al (11 November 2016). 3060: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3044: 2783: 2690: 2688: 2451:10 Innovations That Built Ancient Rome 2425: 2151:Archaeologically attested in the Lake 907: 884:, most of which has been confirmed by 769:over the lower Danube, constructed by 579:. Several earthen dams are known from 6636: 4679: 4597: 4579: 4543: 4414: 4396: 4311: 4212: 4155: 3997: 3878: 3802: 3613: 3589: 3533: 3521: 3517: 3493: 3386: 3374: 3341: 3311: 3307: 3270: 3266: 3250: 3238: 3133: 3089: 3087: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2798: 2794: 2792: 2725: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2285:From archaeological evidence in Gaul 1158: 4421:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology 3478:Le Travail du cuir de la prehistoire 3142: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 1646:used in the perfume industry (Pliny 1640:A product of salt evaporation ponds 170:Schematic of an Overshot water wheel 4134:Makris, George (2002), "Ships", in 3211:Technology in Transition AD 300–650 3064: 3041: 2999:Hrdlicka, Daryl (29 October 2004). 2944:Frontiers of Mechanical Engineering 2772:Technology in Transition AD 300–650 2685: 2503:Themes in Roman Society and Culture 1993:(possibly only a paper invention). 1585:in Spain, like the 600 m long 1130: 13: 4399:Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply 4294:, London: The Penguin Press, 1970 4280:, Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd, 1963 4056:, Johns Hopkins University Press, 4009:"The Lateen Sail in World History" 3994:, Vol. 28 (1997), pp. 297–324 3959:19 (1960): 71–84 and plates III-V. 3866:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1997.tb01322.x 3728: 3685:Il Museo delle navi romane di Nemi 3154:Andrews, Evan (20 November 2012). 3084: 2928: 2821:10.1038/scientificamerican0578-154 2789: 2489: 2455: 2167:Sausage, fermented dry (probably) 1426:but taken up by the Emperors e.g. 563:, one of the largest aqueducts of 555:for water collection, such as the 284:Building materials and instruments 14: 6869: 6802:History of electrical engineering 4617: 3875:, Vol. 20 (1989), pp. 169–91 2922:. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 2002. 2519: 1135: 871:deposits could be worked and the 693: 547:List of Roman dams and reservoirs 255:Heron (a.k.a. Hero of Alexandria) 116: 4308:, Cornell University Press, 1984 4299:Engineering in the Ancient World 4260:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2008.00213.x 4174:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00111.x 4120:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00091.x 4088:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2008.00183.x 3506:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007 3490:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007 3235:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007 2473:Engineering in the Ancient World 2378:Maritime hydraulics in antiquity 2345: 1551:, both Turkey (and 2nd century) 1088: 1021: 4292:Technology in the Ancient World 3714: 3703: 3690: 3678: 3667: 3655: 3643: 3631: 3619: 3607: 3595: 3583: 3572: 3539: 3527: 3511: 3483: 3470: 3458: 3441: 3415: 3392: 3380: 3364: 3335: 3289: 3276: 3244: 3203: 3194: 3173: 3127: 3121:Technology in the Ancient World 3112: 3014: 2992: 2912: 2883: 2874: 2852: 2827: 2764: 2740: 2731: 2646: 1487:Found in several water-powered 925: 408: 382: 145: 6675:History of technology cultures 3466:Nouveautes lychnologiques 2003 2607: 2568: 2555: 2444: 2419: 2394: 2383:Science in classical antiquity 1661:See image of pointable nozzle 1217:The production of alum (KAl(SO 678: 603:. Masonry dams were common in 206: 189: 161: 121: 1: 6822:History of nuclear technology 6797:History of computing hardware 6775:History of technology domains 4358:Rihll, T.E. (11 April 2007), 4192:, Brill Academic Publishers, 3411:Arenillas & Castillo 2003 3360:Arenillas & Castillo 2003 3225:, pp. 51–52, 56, fig. 42 2920:The Great Armies of Antiquity 2703:: 20–26 – via ProQuest. 2388: 2317:Scriptores Historiae Augustae 2091:An early harvesting machine: 1103: 1084:Computer model of a helepolis 813:Rosia Montana Roman Gold Mine 804: 622: 447: 194:The Romans used the Sun as a 181: 6807:History of materials science 5270:Frontiers and fortifications 4648:Resources in other libraries 4456:Führer durch Augusta Raurica 4454:Laur-Belart, Rudolf (1988), 3927:Journal of Roman Archaeology 3824:Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995), 3742:The Journal of Roman Studies 3721:BBC: Tooth and nail dentures 3405:, pp. 60, table 1, 62; 2373:List of Byzantine inventions 1522:Currently best attested for 452: 365: 269:Engineering and construction 7: 5329:Decorations and punishments 3966:, 49, no. 2 (1969): 244–72. 3775:The Economic History Review 3638:Friedman & Zoroglu 2006 2338: 1672:hypothesised as oil lamps. 1594:Dam, Multiple Arch Buttress 1559:in Spain (2nd–3rd century) 1443:innovation may be revised. 930: 10: 6874: 6853:Ancient Rome-related lists 6236:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4811:historiography of the fall 4672:– Roman concrete buildings 4306:Greek and Roman Technology 3914:, University of Hull Press 3696:H Schneider Technology in 2862:. Themodernantiquarian.com 1491:dating from the late 3rd ( 1351:denomination coinage; see 1173: 1162: 1139: 1107: 1092: 1069: 1002: 986: 918:Roman military engineering 911: 821: 742: 738: 712: 682: 544: 456: 412: 386: 328: 272: 202:Theoretical types of power 6770: 6670: 6617:External wars and battles 6484: 6378: 6191: 5783: 5776: 5698: 5610: 5515: 5390: 5342: 5220: 5170: 5109: 5100: 4982: 4934: 4854: 4771: 4741: 4732: 4714: 4666:– With pictorial evidence 4643:Resources in your library 4397:Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), 4318:De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae 3939:10.1017/S1047759400005341 3650:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2964:10.1007/s11465-015-0358-6 2501:Nikolic, Milorad (2014). 2471:Landels, John G. (1978). 2227:Column of Marcus Aurelius 1877:poem Mosella. Translated 1781:Mentioned in a letter of 1679:Dichroic glass as in the 1397:Constructed in the early 1309:Bath, monumental public ( 1124:Column of Marcus Aurelius 945: 844:was fed by at least five 817: 611:behind many settlements. 345: 70:and the beginning of the 6858:Ancient Roman technology 6848:Technology-related lists 6787:History of communication 6782:History of biotechnology 4016:Journal of World History 3971:Journal of Roman Studies 3407:James & Chanson 2002 3346:James & Chanson 2002 3331:James & Chanson 2002 3269:, p. 82, table 39; 2834:Lancaster, Lynn (2008). 2401:Lancaster, Lynn (2008). 2361:Ancient Greek technology 1530:in such types of dam by 1495:) to 6th century AD (at 1169:Medicine in ancient Rome 1056:corvus (boarding device) 776: 708: 667:. The last room was the 378:, constructed 113–125 AD 319: 135:attached to a cylinder. 33:Ancient Roman technology 6612:Roman–Iranian relations 5087:Optimates and populares 4660:– Horse, harness, wagon 4313:Sextus Julius Frontinus 4007:Campbell, I.C. (1995), 3964:The Antiquaries Journal 3783:10.1111/1468-0289.00151 3545:Casson, Lionel (1995). 2117:Sails, fore-and-aft rig 1963:Newspaper, rudimentary 1850:, grain hulling (Pliny 1802:Knife, multifunctional 1705:Greenhouse cold frames 1615:in the 1st century AD. 1378:Bridge, segmental arch 771:Apollodorus of Damascus 757:. Built in 142 BC, the 540: 307: 6812:History of measurement 6682:Prehistoric technology 6622:Civil wars and revolts 5888:Sextus Pompeius Festus 5535:Conflict of the Orders 4894:Legislative assemblies 4658:Roman Traction Systems 4600:Historische Talsperren 4580:Smith, Norman (1971), 4546:Technology and Culture 4528:Historische Talsperren 4510:Historische Talsperren 4492:Historische Talsperren 3119:Hodges, Henry (1992). 2312:Vehicles, one wheeled 2266:Theodosius of Bithynia 2159:Rudder, stern-mounted 1583:a number of Roman dams 1367:Roman Bridge of Chaves 1155: 1127: 1085: 1052: 1011:saddle had four horns 955: 814: 789: 705: 632: 537: 484: 431: 379: 304: 216: 171: 29: 6757:Industrial Revolution 6664:History of technology 6331:Simplicius of Cilicia 6083:Quintus Curtius Rufus 5312:Siege in Ancient Rome 4921:Executive magistrates 4664:Roman Horse Harnesses 4458:(5th ed.), Augst 4401:, London: Duckworth, 4209:1974 vol.3.2: 205–211 3910:Lewis, M.J.T., 1997, 3508:, p. 156, fn. 74 2426:Davies, Gwyn (2008). 2282:Tooth implants, iron 2029:, Italy, for emperor 1898:Procopius of Caesarea 1856:Dolaucothi Gold Mines 1394:Bridge, pointed arch 1163:Further information: 1153: 1140:Further information: 1121: 1108:Further information: 1093:Further information: 1083: 1070:Further information: 1066:Ballistas and onagers 1044: 953: 912:Further information: 822:Further information: 812: 784: 749:List of Roman bridges 743:Further information: 701: 683:Further information: 630: 532: 478: 457:Further information: 422: 413:Further information: 387:Further information: 373: 291: 273:Further information: 228:Technology as a craft 214: 169: 104:military technologies 24: 6827:History of transport 6792:History of computing 6341:Stephanus Byzantinus 6246:Eusebius of Caesaria 6108:Sidonius Apollinaris 5798:Ammianus Marcellinus 5137:Tribune of the plebs 3979:Barry C. Burnham, " 3917:Moritz, L.A., 1958, 3912:Millstone and Hammer 3795:Williams, Trevor I. 3427:www.thecollector.com 3314:, p. 332, fn. 2 3273:, p. 332, fn. 2 2918:Gabriel, Richard A. 2331:Nat. Hist. 16. 231–2 2273:Surgical instruments 2200:Soap, hard (sodium) 1908:was besieged there. 1658:used in fire engine 1424:Cup of the Ptolemies 1229:O) from alunite (KAl 1126:, constructed 193 CE 430:, constructed 537 AD 140:water transportation 111:medical technologies 6817:History of medicine 6517:Distinguished women 6168:Velleius Paterculus 6008:Nicolaus Damascenus 5988:Marcellus Empiricus 5377:Republican currency 4252:2009IJNAr..38...97W 4166:2006IJNAr..35..326P 4112:2006IJNAr..35..108F 4080:2008IJNAr..37..347C 3858:1997IJNAr..26...98W 3284:Revue Archeologique 3160:The History Channel 2956:2016FrME...11...12R 2813:1978SciAm.238e.154S 2801:Scientific American 2353:Ancient Rome portal 2203:First mentioned by 1957:Horses of San Marco 1611:First mentioned by 1534:around 560 AD, the 1331:First mentioned by 1318:Baths of Diocletian 1027:Roman siege engines 908:Military technology 559:, two of which fed 51:(753 BC – 476 AD). 6291:Phlegon of Tralles 6098:Seneca the Younger 5572:Naming conventions 5302:Personal equipment 4835:Later Roman Empire 4366:Swansea University 3987:28 (1997), 325–336 3973:60 (1970): 169–85. 3662:Castro et al. 2008 3652:, pp. 153–161 3640:, pp. 113–114 3569:, pp. 243–245 3496:, pp. 429–454 3447:I. Longhurst 2007 3253:, pp. 33–35; 3241:, pp. 429–454 3134:Cuomo, S. (2007). 2823:– via JSTOR. 2261:Sundial, portable 2249:Street map, early 2100:Naturalis Historia 2068:Naturalis Historia 2009:Naturalis Historia 1985:Paddle wheel boats 1929:Hierapolis sawmill 1913:Essentials of the 1713:Naturalis Historia 1698:Naturalis Historia 1493:Hierapolis sawmill 1265:Apartment building 1159:Medical technology 1156: 1128: 1086: 974:or chainmail. The 956: 954:Roman scale armour 882:Naturalis Historia 815: 790: 706: 633: 538: 485: 432: 380: 305: 294:construction crane 275:Roman architecture 221:Hero of Alexandria 217: 172: 37:Roman civilization 30: 6835: 6834: 6630: 6629: 6592:Pontifices maximi 6374: 6373: 6231:Diogenes Laërtius 6053:Pliny the Younger 5808:Asconius Pedianus 5768:Romance languages 5640:Civil engineering 5382:Imperial currency 5255:Political control 5216: 5215: 4850: 4849: 4624:Library resources 4582:A History of Dams 4337:Roger D. Hansen, 4199:978-90-04-15197-0 4136:Laiou, Angeliki E 3896:978-975-8072-23-1 3819:on 7 October 2009 3520:, pp. 60f.; 3455:and Roman Perfume 3344:, pp. 35f.; 3095:"Corvus – Livius" 2336: 2335: 2254:Forma Urbis Romae 2075:Pottery, glossed 1991:de Rebus Bellicis 1904:(1.19.8–29) when 1820:Tower of Hercules 1764:and confirmed at 1743:and confirmed at 1643:Dunaliella salina 1599:Esparragalejo Dam 1543:Dam, Arch-gravity 1524:the dam at Glanum 1509:Crane, treadwheel 1403:Karamagara Bridge 1361:Bridge, true arch 1165:Military medicine 981:lorica segmentata 979:armour even when 976:lorica segmentata 965:lorica segmentata 724:relay of horses. 551:The Romans built 463:Aqueduct (bridge) 279:Roman engineering 154:De rebus bellicis 76:mechanical reaper 64:early Middle Ages 6865: 6752:Great Divergence 6657: 6650: 6643: 6634: 6633: 6582:Magistri equitum 6497:Cities and towns 6490: 6416:Constantinopolis 6226:Diodorus Siculus 6158:Valerius Maximus 6093:Seneca the Elder 6013:Nonius Marcellus 5781: 5780: 5334:Hippika gymnasia 5297:Infantry tactics 5203:Consular tribune 5193:Magister equitum 5142:Military tribune 5107: 5106: 5067:Pontifex maximus 5062:Princeps senatus 5052:Magister militum 4818:Byzantine Empire 4739: 4738: 4700: 4693: 4686: 4677: 4676: 4629:Roman technology 4612: 4594: 4576: 4540: 4522: 4504: 4486: 4473: 4467: 4459: 4450: 4433: 4411: 4393: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4372:on 20 March 2008 4368:, archived from 4354: 4353: 4351: 4333: 4332: 4330: 4290:Hodges, Henry., 4274:Drachmann, A. G. 4270: 4238: 4223: 4202: 4184: 4152: 4130: 4098: 4066: 4045: 4033: 4032: 4030: 4025:on 4 August 2016 4024: 4013: 4003: 3949: 3907: 3905: 3899:, archived from 3888: 3868: 3838: 3820: 3818: 3811: 3785: 3769: 3723: 3718: 3712: 3707: 3701: 3700:2007; p. 157 CUP 3694: 3688: 3682: 3676: 3674:Whitewright 2009 3671: 3665: 3659: 3653: 3647: 3641: 3635: 3629: 3623: 3617: 3616:, pp. 63–64 3611: 3605: 3599: 3593: 3587: 3581: 3576: 3570: 3564: 3558: 3543: 3537: 3531: 3525: 3515: 3509: 3503: 3497: 3487: 3481: 3474: 3468: 3462: 3456: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3436: 3434: 3419: 3413: 3396: 3390: 3384: 3378: 3377:, pp. 337f. 3368: 3362: 3357: 3348: 3339: 3333: 3324: 3315: 3293: 3287: 3280: 3274: 3248: 3242: 3232: 3226: 3223:Laur-Belart 1988 3220: 3214: 3207: 3201: 3198: 3192: 3186: 3180: 3177: 3171: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3151: 3140: 3139: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3116: 3110: 3109: 3107: 3105: 3091: 3082: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3071:Realm of History 3062: 3039: 3038: 3018: 3012: 3011: 3005: 2996: 2990: 2989: 2983: 2975: 2939: 2926: 2916: 2910: 2909: 2903: 2895: 2887: 2881: 2878: 2872: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2856: 2850: 2849: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2796: 2787: 2781: 2775: 2768: 2762: 2756: 2747: 2744: 2738: 2735: 2729: 2723: 2717: 2714:GRST-engineering 2711: 2705: 2704: 2692: 2683: 2682: 2676: 2668: 2650: 2644: 2643: 2637: 2629: 2611: 2605: 2604: 2598: 2590: 2572: 2566: 2559: 2553: 2552: 2546: 2538: 2530: 2517: 2516: 2498: 2487: 2486: 2468: 2453: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2398: 2355: 2350: 2349: 2348: 2213:Spiral staircase 2192:See for example 2148:Roller bearings 1852:Nat. Hist. 18,97 1830:Leather, Tanned 1756:Hydraulic mining 1719:on Ag. 11.3.52) 1648:Nat. Hist. 31,90 1613:Cornelius Celsus 1557:Puy Foradado Dam 1555:in Tunisia, and 1191: 1190: 854:hydraulic mining 824:Roman metallurgy 786:Alcántara Bridge 703:Via Appia antica 512:inverted siphons 481:Segovia Aqueduct 469:eleven aqueducts 374:The dome of the 6873: 6872: 6868: 6867: 6866: 6864: 6863: 6862: 6838: 6837: 6836: 6831: 6766: 6737:Medieval Europe 6666: 6661: 6631: 6626: 6488: 6486: 6480: 6370: 6206:Aëtius of Amida 6187: 6173:Verrius Flaccus 6153:Valerius Antias 6113:Silius Italicus 6048:Pliny the Elder 5993:Marcus Aurelius 5868:Cornelius Nepos 5818:Aurelius Victor 5772: 5694: 5606: 5540:Secessio plebis 5511: 5386: 5338: 5212: 5166: 5096: 4978: 4930: 4846: 4767: 4728: 4710: 4704: 4654: 4653: 4652: 4632: 4631: 4627: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4592: 4558:10.2307/3102810 4538: 4520: 4502: 4461: 4460: 4431: 4417:Wikander, Örjan 4409: 4375: 4373: 4349: 4347: 4328: 4326: 4297:Landels, J.G., 4236: 4200: 4150: 4064: 4028: 4026: 4022: 4011: 3903: 3897: 3886: 3836: 3816: 3809: 3751:10.2307/3184857 3731: 3729:Further reading 3726: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3704: 3695: 3691: 3683: 3679: 3672: 3668: 3660: 3656: 3648: 3644: 3636: 3632: 3624: 3620: 3612: 3608: 3604:, pp. 8–11 3600: 3596: 3588: 3584: 3577: 3573: 3565: 3561: 3544: 3540: 3532: 3528: 3516: 3512: 3504: 3500: 3492:, p. 154; 3488: 3484: 3475: 3471: 3463: 3459: 3446: 3442: 3432: 3430: 3429:. 4 August 2020 3421: 3420: 3416: 3403:Schnitter 1987b 3397: 3393: 3385: 3381: 3371:Schnitter 1987a 3369: 3365: 3358: 3351: 3340: 3336: 3327:Schnitter 1987a 3325: 3318: 3304:Schnitter 1987c 3300:Schnitter 1987a 3294: 3290: 3281: 3277: 3263:Schnitter 1987c 3259:Schnitter 1987a 3249: 3245: 3237:, p. 161; 3233: 3229: 3221: 3217: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3195: 3187: 3183: 3178: 3174: 3164: 3162: 3152: 3143: 3132: 3128: 3117: 3113: 3103: 3101: 3093: 3092: 3085: 3075: 3073: 3063: 3042: 3019: 3015: 3008:Thudscave (PDF) 3003: 2997: 2993: 2977: 2976: 2940: 2929: 2917: 2913: 2897: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2875: 2865: 2863: 2858: 2857: 2853: 2846: 2832: 2828: 2797: 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3498: 3482: 3469: 3457: 3440: 3414: 3401:, p. 29; 3399:Schnitter 1978 3391: 3379: 3373:, p. 13; 3363: 3349: 3334: 3329:, p. 12; 3316: 3310:, p. 92; 3306:, p. 80; 3302:, p. 13; 3298:, p. 32; 3296:Schnitter 1978 3288: 3275: 3265:, p. 80; 3261:, p. 12; 3257:, p. 31; 3255:Schnitter 1978 3243: 3227: 3215: 3202: 3193: 3189:Galliazzo 1995 3181: 3172: 3141: 3126: 3111: 3099:www.livius.org 3083: 3040: 3013: 2991: 2927: 2911: 2882: 2873: 2851: 2844: 2826: 2788: 2776: 2763: 2748: 2739: 2730: 2718: 2706: 2684: 2663: 2645: 2624: 2606: 2585: 2567: 2554: 2518: 2511: 2488: 2481: 2454: 2443: 2436: 2418: 2411: 2392: 2390: 2387: 2386: 2385: 2380: 2375: 2370: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2333: 2327: 2321: 2320: 2313: 2309: 2308: 2302: 2298: 2297: 2291: 2287: 2286: 2283: 2279: 2278: 2276: 2269: 2268: 2262: 2258: 2257: 2250: 2246: 2245: 2242:Tironian notes 2238: 2237:, a system of 2231: 2230: 2215: 2209: 2208: 2201: 2197: 2196: 2190: 2184: 2183: 2180: 2176: 2175: 2168: 2164: 2163: 2160: 2156: 2155: 2149: 2145: 2144: 2141: 2135: 2134: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2089: 2083: 2082: 2076: 2072: 2071: 2061: 2058: 2057: 2051: 2048: 2047: 2045: 2039: 2038: 2023: 2022:Pleasure lake 2019: 2018: 2001: 1995: 1994: 1987: 1981: 1980: 1978: 1972: 1971: 1964: 1960: 1959: 1953: 1946: 1945: 1936: 1933: 1932: 1917: 1910: 1909: 1889: 1886: 1885: 1871: 1868: 1867: 1863: 1860: 1859: 1844: 1840: 1839: 1831: 1827: 1826: 1812: 1808: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1798: 1792: 1786: 1785: 1779: 1773: 1772: 1758: 1752: 1751: 1737: 1731: 1730: 1727: 1721: 1720: 1706: 1702: 1701: 1691: 1688: 1687: 1677: 1674: 1673: 1669: 1663: 1662: 1659: 1652: 1651: 1638: 1632: 1631: 1624: 1617: 1616: 1609: 1603: 1602: 1596: 1590: 1589: 1579: 1573: 1572: 1565: 1561: 1560: 1545: 1539: 1538: 1520: 1514: 1513: 1511: 1505: 1504: 1485: 1483:connecting rod 1478: 1477: 1470: 1463: 1462: 1456: 1445: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1435: 1428:Gemma Augustea 1420: 1414: 1413: 1410: 1409:Camel harness 1406: 1405: 1395: 1391: 1390: 1379: 1375: 1374: 1371:Severan Bridge 1363: 1357: 1356: 1341: 1337: 1336: 1329: 1321: 1320: 1314: 1306: 1305: 1303: 1296: 1295: 1285: 1275: 1274: 1267: 1261: 1260: 1253: 1247: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1209: 1208: 1205: 1199: 1198: 1195: 1188: 1185: 1175: 1172: 1160: 1157: 1142:Pontoon bridge 1137: 1136:Pontoon bridge 1134: 1132: 1131:Transportation 1129: 1105: 1102: 1090: 1087: 1067: 1064: 1023: 1020: 1004: 1001: 988: 985: 947: 944: 932: 929: 927: 924: 909: 906: 819: 816: 806: 803: 778: 775: 761:, later named 740: 737: 713:Main article: 710: 707: 695: 694:Transportation 692: 680: 677: 624: 621: 545:Main article: 542: 539: 534:Proserpina Dam 488:toilets, etc. 459:Roman aqueduct 454: 451: 449: 446: 410: 407: 398:Roman concrete 384: 381: 367: 364: 347: 344: 330: 327: 321: 318: 309: 306: 285: 282: 270: 267: 229: 226: 208: 205: 203: 200: 191: 188: 183: 180: 163: 160: 147: 144: 123: 120: 118: 117:Types of power 115: 90:, and others. 60:Late Antiquity 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6870: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6845: 6843: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6776: 6773: 6772: 6769: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6707:Ancient Greek 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6692:Ancient Egypt 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6679: 6676: 6673: 6672: 6669: 6665: 6658: 6653: 6651: 6646: 6644: 6639: 6638: 6635: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6494: 6492: 6483: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6383: 6381: 6377: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6198: 6196: 6194: 6190: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5948:Julius Paulus 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5883:Fabius Pictor 5881: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5790: 5788: 5786: 5782: 5779: 5775: 5769: 5766: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5718: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5701: 5697: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5620:Amphitheatres 5618: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5609: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5561: 5558: 5557: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5522: 5520: 5518: 5514: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5471: 5468: 5467: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5395: 5393: 5389: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5357:Deforestation 5355: 5353: 5350: 5349: 5347: 5345: 5341: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5307:Siege engines 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5276: 5273: 5272: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5240:Establishment 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5223: 5219: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5175: 5173: 5171:Extraordinary 5169: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5157:Promagistrate 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5099: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4989: 4987: 4985: 4981: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4944:Twelve Tables 4942: 4941: 4939: 4937: 4933: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4896: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4861: 4859: 4857: 4853: 4841: 4838: 4837: 4836: 4833: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4820: 4819: 4816: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4803: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4770: 4764: 4761: 4757: 4754: 4753: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4743: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4731: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4716: 4713: 4708: 4701: 4696: 4694: 4689: 4687: 4682: 4681: 4678: 4671: 4668: 4665: 4662: 4659: 4656: 4655: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4611: 4609:3-87919-145-X 4605: 4601: 4596: 4593: 4591:0-432-15090-0 4587: 4583: 4578: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4542: 4539: 4537:3-87919-145-X 4533: 4529: 4524: 4521: 4519:3-87919-145-X 4515: 4511: 4506: 4503: 4501:3-87919-145-X 4497: 4493: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4465: 4457: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4435: 4432: 4430:90-04-11123-9 4426: 4422: 4418: 4413: 4410: 4408:0-7156-2194-7 4404: 4400: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4382: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4362: 4356: 4346: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4324: 4320: 4319: 4314: 4310: 4307: 4304:White, K.D., 4303: 4300: 4296: 4293: 4289: 4287: 4286:0-934454-61-2 4283: 4279: 4275: 4272: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4240: 4237: 4235:0-520-03566-6 4231: 4227: 4222: 4221: 4215: 4211: 4208: 4204: 4201: 4195: 4191: 4186: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4154: 4151: 4149:0-88402-288-9 4145: 4141: 4137: 4132: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4100: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4068: 4065: 4063:0-8018-5130-0 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4021: 4017: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3996: 3993: 3989: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3975: 3972: 3968: 3965: 3961: 3958: 3954: 3951: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3923: 3920: 3916: 3913: 3909: 3902: 3898: 3892: 3885: 3884: 3877: 3874: 3870: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3852:(2): 98–119, 3851: 3847: 3846: 3840: 3837: 3835:88-85066-66-6 3831: 3827: 3822: 3815: 3808: 3807: 3801: 3798: 3794: 3791: 3787: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3743: 3738: 3734: 3733: 3722: 3717: 3711: 3706: 3699: 3693: 3686: 3681: 3675: 3670: 3663: 3658: 3651: 3646: 3639: 3634: 3627: 3622: 3615: 3610: 3603: 3602:Campbell 1995 3598: 3592:, p. 255 3591: 3586: 3580: 3575: 3568: 3563: 3556: 3555:0-8018-5130-0 3552: 3548: 3542: 3535: 3530: 3523: 3519: 3514: 3507: 3502: 3495: 3491: 3486: 3479: 3473: 3467: 3461: 3454: 3450: 3444: 3428: 3424: 3418: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3395: 3388: 3383: 3376: 3372: 3367: 3361: 3356: 3354: 3347: 3343: 3338: 3332: 3328: 3323: 3321: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3292: 3285: 3279: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3247: 3240: 3236: 3231: 3224: 3219: 3212: 3206: 3197: 3190: 3185: 3176: 3161: 3157: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3137: 3130: 3122: 3115: 3100: 3096: 3090: 3088: 3072: 3068: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3017: 3009: 3002: 2995: 2987: 2981: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2932: 2925: 2921: 2915: 2907: 2901: 2893: 2886: 2877: 2861: 2855: 2847: 2845:9780195187311 2841: 2837: 2830: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2807:(5): 154–61. 2806: 2802: 2795: 2793: 2785: 2780: 2773: 2767: 2760: 2759:Water History 2755: 2753: 2743: 2734: 2727: 2722: 2715: 2710: 2702: 2698: 2691: 2689: 2680: 2674: 2666: 2664:9780521809320 2660: 2656: 2649: 2641: 2635: 2627: 2625:9780521809320 2621: 2617: 2610: 2602: 2596: 2588: 2586:9780521809320 2582: 2578: 2571: 2564: 2558: 2550: 2544: 2536: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2514: 2512:9780195445190 2508: 2504: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2484: 2478: 2474: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2452: 2447: 2439: 2437:9780195187311 2433: 2429: 2422: 2414: 2412:9780195187311 2408: 2404: 2397: 2393: 2384: 2381: 2379: 2376: 2374: 2371: 2369: 2368: 2364: 2362: 2359: 2358: 2354: 2343: 2332: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2311: 2310: 2307: 2303: 2300: 2299: 2296: 2292: 2289: 2288: 2284: 2281: 2280: 2277: 2274: 2271: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2260: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2248: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2199: 2198: 2195: 2194:Cloaca Maxima 2191: 2189: 2186: 2185: 2181: 2178: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2166: 2165: 2161: 2158: 2157: 2154: 2150: 2147: 2146: 2142: 2140: 2139:Sails, Lateen 2137: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2118: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2108: 2105: 2101: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2081: 2077: 2074: 2073: 2069: 2066: 2062: 2060: 2059: 2055: 2052: 2050: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2021: 2020: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2006: 2003:Mentioned by 2002: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1982: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1962: 1961: 1958: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1947: 1944: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1916: 1912: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1888: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1876: 1872: 1870: 1869: 1864: 1862: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1842: 1841: 1837: 1832: 1829: 1828: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1797: 1793: 1791: 1788: 1787: 1784: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1774: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1760:Described by 1759: 1757: 1754: 1753: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1739:Described by 1738: 1736: 1733: 1732: 1728: 1726: 1723: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1711: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1699: 1696: 1692: 1690: 1689: 1685: 1682: 1678: 1676: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1667:Glass blowing 1665: 1664: 1660: 1657: 1654: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1644: 1639: 1637: 1634: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1623:, monumental 1622: 1619: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1591: 1588: 1587:Consuegra Dam 1584: 1580: 1578: 1577:Dam, Buttress 1575: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1563: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1553:Kasserine Dam 1550: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1515: 1512: 1510: 1507: 1506: 1502: 1499:respectively 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1464: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1454: 1450: 1447: 1446: 1441: 1438: 1437: 1433: 1432:Gemma Claudia 1429: 1425: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1388: 1387:Limyra Bridge 1384: 1380: 1377: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1347:to produce a 1346: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1327: 1323: 1322: 1319: 1315: 1312: 1308: 1307: 1304: 1302:, monumental 1301: 1298: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1210: 1206: 1204: 1203:Abacus, Roman 1201: 1200: 1196: 1193: 1192: 1184: 1182: 1170: 1166: 1152: 1148: 1143: 1125: 1120: 1116: 1111: 1101: 1096: 1089:The Helepolis 1082: 1078: 1073: 1063: 1061: 1057: 1051: 1050: 1043: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1022:Siege warfare 1019: 1017: 1013: 1010: 1009:Roman cavalry 1000: 998: 993: 984: 982: 977: 973: 972: 971:lorica hamata 967: 966: 961: 952: 943: 941: 937: 923: 919: 915: 905: 903: 899: 896:, and on the 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 874: 870: 865: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 829: 825: 811: 802: 798: 794: 787: 783: 774: 772: 768: 764: 760: 759:Pons Aemilius 756: 750: 746: 736: 732: 730: 725: 721: 716: 704: 700: 691: 686: 676: 674: 673:flush toilets 670: 666: 662: 658: 653: 649: 645: 644: 639: 629: 620: 618: 612: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 548: 535: 531: 527: 523: 521: 517: 513: 509: 504: 502: 498: 494: 489: 482: 477: 473: 470: 464: 460: 445: 441: 438: 429: 425: 421: 416: 406: 402: 399: 395: 390: 377: 372: 363: 361: 357: 352: 343: 340: 335: 326: 317: 315: 303: 299: 295: 290: 280: 276: 266: 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 225: 222: 213: 199: 197: 196:passive solar 187: 179: 177: 168: 159: 156: 155: 143: 141: 136: 134: 130: 114: 112: 107: 105: 99: 97: 91: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 52: 50: 46: 42: 38: 34: 27: 23: 19: 6774: 6674: 6562:Institutions 6426:Leptis Magna 6379:Major cities 6286:Philostratus 6073:Quadrigarius 5893:Rufus Festus 5756:Contemporary 5611: 5477:Romanization 5400:Architecture 5007:Collegiality 4856:Constitution 4707:Ancient Rome 4638:Online books 4628: 4599: 4581: 4552:(1): 58–68, 4549: 4545: 4527: 4509: 4491: 4482: 4478: 4455: 4446: 4442: 4420: 4398: 4389: 4374:, retrieved 4370:the original 4360: 4348:, retrieved 4343: 4327:, retrieved 4322: 4317: 4305: 4298: 4291: 4277: 4243: 4219: 4206: 4189: 4157: 4139: 4103: 4071: 4053: 4041: 4027:, retrieved 4020:the original 4015: 3999: 3991: 3984: 3970: 3963: 3956: 3930: 3926: 3918: 3911: 3901:the original 3882: 3872: 3849: 3843: 3825: 3814:the original 3805: 3796: 3789: 3774: 3740: 3716: 3705: 3697: 3692: 3684: 3680: 3669: 3657: 3645: 3633: 3628:, p. 96 3621: 3609: 3597: 3585: 3574: 3562: 3546: 3541: 3536:, p. 87 3529: 3524:, p. 26 3513: 3501: 3485: 3480:2002 Antibes 3477: 3472: 3465: 3460: 3452: 3448: 3443: 3431:. Retrieved 3426: 3417: 3394: 3389:, p. 50 3382: 3366: 3337: 3291: 3283: 3278: 3246: 3230: 3218: 3210: 3205: 3196: 3191:, p. 92 3184: 3175: 3163:. Retrieved 3159: 3135: 3129: 3120: 3114: 3102:. Retrieved 3098: 3074:. Retrieved 3070: 3029:(1): 67–78. 3026: 3022: 3016: 3007: 2994: 2980:cite journal 2950:(1): 12–25. 2947: 2943: 2919: 2914: 2891: 2885: 2876: 2864:. 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Ancient Roman technology

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