726:
4878:
842:
6086:
1812:
5181:
1891:
3310:: the eldest son's right to inherit the family domains undivided. Nobles were stratified in the land and people over whom they had authority; the lowest-ranking nobles did not hold land, and had no vassals. The nobility was never a closed group; kings could raise commoners to the aristocracy, wealthy commoners could marry into noble families, and impoverished aristocrats could lose their privileged status. Western aristocrats often moved to the peripheries of Latin Christendom with the support of local rulers who appreciated their military skills or as conquerors. French-speaking noblemen mainly settled in the British Isles, southern Italy or Iberia, and German aristocrats preferred Central and Eastern Europe.
2556:
55:
3058:
3861:
555:
4694:
3374:
1179:
1668:
3704:
5654:
2846:
1601:
2392:
2383:
2374:
3159:
19290:
4191:
5831:
2168:
5024:
19403:
1623:, and others on isolated farms. Since legislation made a clear distinction between free and unfree, there was no sharp difference between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat; it was possible for a free peasant's family to rise to the aristocracy through military service. Demand for slaves was covered with warring and raids. After the Anglo-Saxons' conversion to Christianity, slave hunters mainly targeted the pagan Slav tribes; the English word "slave" derives from
1403:
19266:
19386:
3504:
16811:
16801:
19352:
19369:
19335:
3077:-type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the later Roman military, although the deployment of highly-specialised troops continued. The invading tribes had different emphases on types of soldiers, ranging from the primarily-infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths, who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies. The greatest change in military affairs was the adoption of the Hunnic
1194:, which allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than had been common in the Roman state, developed into legislative and judicial bodies. Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new political entities was based on Roman intellectual traditions. Many no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rent; with less need for large tax revenues, the
16821:
19318:
1878:. In addition, timber, fur and arms were delivered from Europe to the Mediterranean; Europe imported spices, medicine, incense, and silk. Large rivers, connecting distant regions, facilitated the expansion of transcontinental trade. Contemporaneous reports indicate that Anglo-Saxon merchants visited fairs at Paris, pirates preyed on tradesmen on the Danube, and Eastern Frankish merchants reached as far as
19278:
6114:, when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual culture with the past. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the classical world. Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition. One misconception is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the
229:
5108:
abolished in many places, although in other regions (primarily central and eastern Europe) it was imposed on tenants who had been free. The rise of banking continued, fuelled partly by the cross-border movement of papal revenues with the mediation of large merchant houses. They also loaned money to warring royalty at great risk, and some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on loans.
189:
5421:
15321:
3266:. Commoners, about 98 per cent of the total population, were mainly rural peasants and artisans. The number of townspeople was growing, but never exceeded 10 per cent of the total population. Many peasants were no longer settled on isolated farms but had gathered into more-defensible small communities, usually known as manors or villages. In the system of
3357:
field-work at harvest time. Townswomen could engage in trade, but often only by right of their husband; unlike their male competitors, they were not always allowed to train apprentices. Noblewomen could inherit land in the absence of a male heir, but their potential to give birth was considered their principal virtue. Since women were not
4723:(tower castles) were preferred in central Europe and competing urban families built tall towers in Italian cities and towns. The great pilgrimages encouraged the construction of large churches along pilgrimage routes. This led to the development of stone architecture which resembled classical Roman building design and is known as
1549:) were typical of the age. Aristocratic culture focused on great feasts rather than literary pursuits. Family ties among the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour; these ties led to the prevalence of feuds in aristocratic society. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly, with the payment of
2875:, the largest single-roofed structure in the Roman world. As the spacious basilicas became less useful with the decline of urban centres in the west, they gave way to smaller churches until the basilica form of architecture revived in the Carolingian Empire. A new standard feature of Carolingian basilicas is the use of a
5080:. Peasants who survived the pandemic paid lower rents to landlords, but demand for agricultural products declined and lower prices barely covered their costs. Urban workers received higher salaries, but were heavily taxed. Governments occasionally tried to raise rural rents or keep urban salaries low, provoking
2898:, columns, and sculptured discs. After the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire, the spread of aristocratic castles indicates a transition from communal fortifications to private defence. Most castles were wooden structures, but the wealthiest lords built stone fortresses. One or more towers (now known as
3735:. Taxation quickly developed, because revenues from the royal domains could no more cover state expenditures. Extraordinary taxes were initially levied for military purposes, but by the end of the period taxes were collected more regularly. Effective taxation depended on consent which reinforced the role of
725:
3427:
As local commercial centres developed into towns, economic growth caused a new wave of urbanisation. Kings and aristocrats primarily supported the process in the hope of increased tax revenues. Most urban communities received privileges acknowledging their autonomy, but few cities could eliminate all
1556:
Women participated in aristocratic society primarily as wives and mothers, with the mother of an underage ruler especially prominent in
Francia. The lack of many child rulers in Anglo-Saxon society meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was countered by the increased role played by
4028:) established centralised rule of southern Iberia in the 1110s and 1170s respectively, their empires quickly disintegrated and allowed further expansion of the Christian kingdoms. The Catholic Scandinavian states also expanded; the Norwegian kings assumed control of the Norse colonies in Iceland and
2267:
the Avars, facilitating the development of small Slav principalities primarily ruled by ambitious warlords under
Frankish suzerainty. The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 marked the return of the Western Roman Empire, although the Byzantines did not recognise him as a second
1792:
became rulers of Egypt. The
Islamisation of the countryside in Al-Andalus was slow. Christians were regularly employed in state administration, but violent inter-religious conflicts could lead to their mass migration to the north. Except for Byzantium, Muslim Spain was the only place in Europe where
1116:
To deal with the migrations, the
Eastern Roman elites combined the deployment of armed forces with gifts and grants of offices to the tribal leaders; the Western aristocrats failed to support the army and refused to pay tribute to prevent invasions by the tribes. These invasions led to the division
820:
are frequently exhibited in jurisdictions with liberal regulation such as
England and Wales, but in other countries (such as Italy) finds from unofficial excavations are seldom published. Although medieval images and sculptures may provide useful information about everyday life, a critical approach
5107:
Labour services owed by peasants for their land tenure were often changed into cash rent, providing landlords with a stable source of income. Landlords joined to extort privileges from their governments, but royal administrations began to protect the interests of the poor. Serfdom was officially
1476:
Justinian's re-conquests and building program have been criticised by historians for bringing his realm to the brink of bankruptcy, but many of the difficulties faced by his successors were due to other factors (including the massive expansion of the Avars and their Slav allies). Eastern border
1636:
City life and culture were declining. Although the northern
Italian cities remained inhabited, they decreased significantly in size. Cities also shrank in northern Europe, and civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. Jewish communities survived in Spain,
3356:
Women were officially required to be subordinate to some male: their father, husband, or other kinsman. Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestic tasks, such as child care. Peasant women could supplement the household income by spinning or brewing at home, and they did
1618:
patterns were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented holdings but large, contiguous blocks of land were the norm in other areas. These differences permitted a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others with a great deal of autonomy. Land
3478:
Economic growth provided opportunities for Jewish merchants to spread throughout Europe with the support of local rulers. Jews could not engage in prestigious trades outside their communities, and often took low-status jobs such as ragmen or tax collectors. They were especially active in
5148:
existed at the end of the period. Successful dynasties reigned over several states (primarily in close cooperation with local elites), but could not freely redistribute resources throughout their realms. Fiscal and military matters were regularly discussed with representatives of elite
5816:(d. 1524) reached India in 1498. After visiting the African slave markets, the Portuguese became deeply involved in the slave trade with Europe and the Muslim world. Christopher Columbus proposed a westward, alternative route to India. He gained Isabella of Castile's support for
2414:(r. 814–40) – was still alive by 813. Louis's reign was marked by divisions of the empire among his sons and civil wars between various alliances of father and sons. Three years after his death, his three surviving sons divided the empire among themselves in the
1851:
nearly ceased but bronze Roman coins remained in circulation. Although gold coins were struck, they were mainly used for extraordinary expenditures such as the purchase of land or luxury goods. A shift from gold coinage to the mint of silver pennies began in the late
5278:
Succession trouble was not uncommon in the
Iberian kingdoms; intermarriages between royal houses created conflicting claims to thrones, and royal bastards could successfully claim their paternal inheritance. Portugal opened a new theater of anti-Muslim warfare in
3294:(labour services). Peasants left their homelands in return for economic and legal privileges, typically lower taxes, and the right to administer justice in their communities. Cross-border peasant movement had radical demographic consequences, such as the eastward
5104:. Conflict polarised ethnic groups, and local statutes prohibited intermarriage and limited guild membership along ethnic lines. Private feuds were almost permanent in politically-fragmented regions, and local skirmishes often escalated into full-scale warfare.
15239:
1430:. Political life was marked by closer relations between the political state and the Christian Church, with theological matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of
2648:
in Rome in 962 demonstrated his claim to
Charlemagne's legacy. Otto's successors remained keenly interested in Italian affairs, but the absentee German kings were unable to assert permanent authority over the local aristocracy. In the Iberian Peninsula, the
788:
and other narrative sources focusing on the deeds of powerful men. Professional historians treat medieval narratives cautiously, since they are often filled with distorted facts or unrealistic information. Documents of state or church administration such as
1831:
As migrations and conquests disrupted trade networks throughout the old Roman lands, goods from long-range trade were replaced with local products. Non-local goods in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods or metal works. In the 7th and
3389:
in the 11th century. People with surplus cash began investing in commodities such as salt, pepper, silk, wine and honey in faraway markets. Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first
5795:
Several factors, primarily a growing demand for gold and
European merchants' eagerness to avoid customs payments, prompted the search for a direct maritime route to India along the African coasts. Initially, the Portuguese led the explorations;
4130:: a virtually-autonomous Mongol state. The Mongols extracted heavy tribute from the Rus' principalities, and the Rus' princes had to ingratiate themselves with the Mongol khans for economic and political concessions. Under Mongol pressure, the
6550:
These two groups—Germans and
Italians—took different approaches to their trading arrangements. Most German cities co-operated when dealing with the northern rulers; the Italian city-states engaged in internecine strife, culminating in the
4998:. In contrast, the Mongols remained lightly-armoured steppe horsemen even after they adopted Chinese military devices. The extensive use of spies for reconnoitering enemy land was a prominent factor in their successful military campaigns.
442:
in regions where central authority was weak, but state power was on the rise by the end of the period. The settlement of Western European peasants and aristocrats towards the eastern and southern peripheries of Europe, often spurred by
1906:
The idea of Christian unity endured, although differences in ideology and practice between the Eastern and Western Churches were increasing. Native Roman aversion to Arian conquerors reinforced the traditional Christian concept of the
6760:
Those who decided to participate in a crusade took an oath and placed the mark of the cross on their clothes. The crusaders enjoyed privileges (including a moratorium on debts), but those who failed to fulfil the crusader oath faced
6186:. Monographs on the medieval history of certain groups such as women, Jews, slaves, heretics and homosexuals have been regularly published since the 1970s, with the influx of people from diverse social backgrounds into universities.
6122:
said, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed in the Age of Reason, they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities".
5922:
reached much of Europe around 1400, producing masterpieces in sculpture and miniature. Throughout Europe, secular art increase in quantity and quality; the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons during the
1911:
in the west; this concept was alien to eastern clergymen, however, who regarded the Roman state as an instrument of divine providence. After the Muslim conquests, Byzantine emperors could less effectively intervene in the west. When
2449:
in 884, although its units retained separate administrations. By his death, early in 888, the Carolingians were close to extinction; non-dynastic claimants assumed power in most of the successor states, such as the Parisian count
1457:, a popular revolt that destroyed half of Constantinople in 532. After crushing the revolt, he reinforced the autocratic elements of the imperial government and mobilised his troops against the western Arian kingdoms. The general
3032:
freely enriched their Insular heritage with Carolingian motifs such as sprigs of foliage. In post-Carolingian Germany, manuscripts illustrated with lively pictorial cycles indicate the impact of contemporary Byzantine art on
6581:
Most compromises were based on a distinction between a prelate's spiritual and temporal responsibilities, allowing bishops and abbots to swear an oath of fealty to the emperor (or king) in return for their investment in the
2442:(r. 843–77) received the western Frankish lands making up most of modern-day France. Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms among their descendants, eventually destroying all internal cohesion.
14199:
5308:
The idea of elective kingship revived in the central European and Scandinavian monarchies for a variety of reasons, including aristocratic aversion to foreign influence. Royal power was restored in Poland early in the
5111:
The Jewish communities were permanently expelled from France and, provisionally, from most German cities and principalities. In contrast, Hungarian and Polish rulers encouraged the immigration of Jewish moneylenders.
3832:
efforts to dominate Italy eventually led to the fall of his dynasty. In Germany, a period of interregnum civil war began during which Sicily—Frederick's maternal inheritance—was seized by the ambitious French prince
3585:, also involving other powers because kings did not relinquish control of appointments to bishoprics or abbeys voluntarily. All conflicts ended with a compromise—in the case of the Holy Roman Emperors, with the 1122
14005:
6106:, the medieval period has frequently been described as a "time of barbarism, ignorance, and superstition" which placed "religious authority above personal experience and rational activity". This is a legacy of the
5585:(d. 1327), a critic of Aquinas, urged the faithful to focus on perfecting their inner divine core. Although his works were censured for heresy, copies of his sermons survived which were read by Protestant reformer
3116:
The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period with the increasing dominance of elite heavy cavalry, although a large proportion of the armies appear to have been
3000:. The more naturalistic Mediterranean style was an important inspiration for western artists under Charlemagne, who considered the visual arts a powerful instrument of education and propaganda. After a long pause,
4466:
literature, but references to them could no longer override rational arguments. Scholastic academics summarised their (and other authors') views on specific subjects in comprehensive sentence collections known as
2466:(r. 911–18) as king. The dynasty was restored in West Francia in 898 and 936, but the last Carolingians could not control the aristocracy. In 987, the dynasty was replaced with the crowning of powerful aristocrat
6603:, Hildegard endorsed the traditional view of female fragility in her early works but later she emphasised that men and women were dependent on each other. Although a nun, she provided the first description of a
4114:(r. 1206–27), a new expansionist power reached Europe. The Mongols conquered Volga Bulgaria, shattered the Rus' principalities, and laid waste to large regions in Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia and Bulgaria
2473:
Frankish culture and the Carolingian methods of state administration had a significant impact on neighboring peoples. Frankish threat triggered the formation of new states along the empire's eastern frontier:
4491:
1050:. The settlement did not go smoothly and, when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder. Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the
1259:
marked by its co-operation between the natives and the conquerors. Power struggles between Romanised and traditionalist Ostrogothic groups followed his death, providing the opportunity for the Byzantines to
4896:
Technology developed primarily in minor innovations and the adoption of advanced technologies from Asia with Muslim mediation. Major technological advances included the first mechanical clocks and convex
3193:
experienced anomalous cold. The ensuing famines led to riots and military coups in the Byzantine Empire, the Abbasid Caliphate, and Egypt, and forced masses of nomadic Turks to seek new pasture lands in
1284:, the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. Unlike other Germanic peoples, the Franks preferred mainstream Christianity to Arianism; this facilitated their cooperation with the native
3305:
were integrated into the traditional aristocracy, and the others were assimilated into the peasantry. The new elite's position was stabilised through the adoption of strict inheritance customs, such as
1708:
Religious beliefs were in flux along the Eastern Roman and Persian frontiers, as state-sponsored Roman missionaries proselytised among the pagan steppe peoples and the Persians made attempts to enforce
4644:, which led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Around 1140, the monk Gratian (fl. 12th century)—a teacher at Bologna—wrote what became the standard text of
671:
countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: early ("high") and late ("low"). English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the period into thirds:
14392:
5684:
could not prove God's existence. Under his influence, most scholars who researched subjects yielding verifiable conclusions (such as mathematics or physics) no longer analysed theological issues.
2925:
metal works, was introduced into Roman territory by the invading peoples. Artisans working for post-Roman elites developed a distinct, abstract design characterised by ribbons and highly-stylised
6508:—in effect, unfree knights. They descended from serfs who had been warriors or government officials, allowing their descendants to hold fiefs and become knights while technically remaining serfs.
3752:(pope 1198–1216). As rulers of much of central Italy and feudal overlords of some of the Catholic rulers, the popes became deeply involved in secular politics. Sicily and southern Italy had been
2867:
were built in the major Roman cities and post-Roman kingdoms from the 4th to the 6th centuries. Byzantine church architecture adopted an alternative model imitating the rectangular plan and the
5570:, survived as an officially-recognised denomination in Bohemia. In the hope of western support against the Ottomans, Byzantine church leaders submitted themselves to the papacy at the 1438–39
3286:
and their hereditary status was regulated by agreements with their lords. Restrictions on their activities varied, but their freedom of movement was customarily limited and they usually owed
5191:
In Germany, elected emperors were no more than supreme arbiters even if they had a significant power base in their hereditary lands. Imperial authority was even more limited in Italy, where
6997:
Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. Slowness is less of a disadvantage in a siege, since a crossbowman can hide behind fortifications while reloading.
5856:
long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun and the use of buttons to close garments enabled a better fit. Popular tailoring designs were quickly spread by pedlars, and trends in
4493:
1561:
of monasteries. Women's influence on politics was fragile, and early medieval authors tended to depict powerful women in a bad light. Women were more respected in Scandinavian societies; a
4743:, but they have a number of regional variants. Traditional Byzantine religious architecture remained dominant in the Balkans, although some Serbian churches have a Romanesque influence.
2063:
for powerful families and centres of political authority; they were the main (and sometimes only) outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many surviving manuscripts of the Latin
652:
began in different regions at different times. Scholarly consensus characterises the period by the economic predominance of agriculture, exploitation of the peasantry, the importance of
5875:
in growing numbers, wars began to be primarily fought by professional soldiers throughout nearly all of Europe in the mid-14th century. Mercenaries were initially hired for wars, but a
1633:
term for Slavs. Christian ethics brought about significant changes in the position of slaves during the 7th and 8th centuries, since their right to a more humane treatment was enacted.
15695:
4877:
2486:. The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings, who also
16027:
13570:
1149:(r. 474–91). The Eastern Roman Empire (known as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart) had little ability to control the lost western territories, but its
4928:. Large scale construction projects advanced building technology, and increased demand for raw materials like timber, stone, and bricks. Shipbuilding improved with the use of the
2431:
6939:
The widespread dissemination of artistic motifs by copying and recopying sketches is indicated by the similarity between wall-paintings depicting the life of the Virgin Mary in
1856:, with the cessation of Byzantine subsidy payments to the Lombards and Franks. The elites' new emphasis on Christian charity also increased the demand for coins of lower value.
13772:
15557:
13683:
7149:
Initially a tiny principality, Muscovy gained strength against its more-powerful neighbors with support from the Mongol khans. During the 1320s, Moscow became the seat of the
5467:(r. 1451–81). Talented military commanders could repel individual Ottoman attacks but the Ottomans conquered almost all of the Balkans; Bulgaria was occupied in 1396, Serbia
2185:
The Merovingian kings customarily distributed Francia among their sons and destroyed their own power base with extensive land grants. In the northeastern Frankish kingdom of
1577:. The disparity in numbers between marriageable women and men led to the detailed regulation of legal institutions protecting women's interests, including their right to the
3424:
facilitated transactions between local and foreign merchants. Loans could be negotiated with them, which gave rise to the development of credit institutions known as banks.
15349:
1117:
of the western part of the empire into smaller political units, ruled by the invading tribes. The 5th-century emperors were often controlled by military strongmen such as
5784:. Literacy improved as new schools and universities were established throughout Europe, often sponsored by urban authorities or wealthy individuals. The invention of the
1493:(r. 610–41) launched an unexpected counterattack against the heart of the Sassanian Empire two years later, recovering the territories previously lost to the Persians.
2298:. Literacy increased with development of the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, and liturgical and scriptural studies under the auspices of the Anglo-Saxon scholar
15152:
17035:
19188:
5129:
4492:
5065:
that spread throughout Europe and killed about one-third of the population. As plague continued to strike Europe until 1400, its total population fell by about
2129:—the sale of church offices—was a common practice. Simony aroused a general fear, since many believed that irregularly-appointed priests could not confer valid
866:, and the following two centuries saw the slow decline of Roman control of its outlying territories. Runaway inflation, external pressure on the frontiers, and
16264:
4759:
3742:
The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular influence, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the Christian world. The
16630:
1469:
decimated the empire. Justinian developed an extensive system of border forts to compensate for the lack of military personnel, but stopped maintaining the
1450:
for administrative tasks or as guardians or tutors of women and children, since they considered castrated men exceptionally intelligent and loyal servants.
19178:
14093:
5688:(d. 1342), however, was still inspired by Aristotle to argue in favor of a community's right to regulate its life and control the clergy. Scholars such as
269:. Major developments include the economic predominance of agriculture, exploitation of the peasantry, slow inter-regional communication, the importance of
15039:
4253:, but their security depended on external military assistance (which led to further crusades). Muslim resistance was raised by ambitious warlords such as
3534:
clerics on the papal throne. With popular support, they achieved the acknowledgement of their jurisdiction in church affairs in many parts of Europe. The
16766:
6162:(d. 1886). He emphasised primary sources and studied several aspects of history, but his students focused on political history. Historians of the French
5057:. Starving peasants slaughtered their draft animals, and survivors had to make extraordinary efforts to revive farming. This was followed in 1346 by the
16122:
4978:
In military affairs, the use of specialised infantry increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry
1519:, the principal means of religious instruction were music and art rather than books. Most intellectual efforts imitated classical scholarship, but some
19053:
14366:
7297:, estimations of literacy are uncertain because both terms are ambiguous; one estimate, in 1500, was ten per cent of males and one per cent of females.
4067:, but respected the liberties of the native aristocracy. They claimed (but only periodically achieved) suzerainty over other lands and peoples such as
2894:
Halls built of timber or stone were the centres of political and social life. Their design often adopted elements of later Roman architecture such as
2228:(r. 751–68) was crowned king with the consent of the Frankish leaders and the papacy. Pepin attacked the Lombards, enforcing their promise to respect
390:
faraway regions in return for economic and legal concessions. New towns developed from local commercial centers, and urban artisans united into local
15435:
14953:
13921:
13741:
6021:
Printing houses throughout Europe began the mass production of inexpensive playing cards and primitive religious images during the mid-15th century.
5452:
3243:
to the king or a higher-ranking aristocrat, but their landholding was free of feudal obligations. In the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan states, the
3029:
1772:
in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the
1473:. He resumed his expansionism in a decade, completing the conquest of the Ostrogothic kingdom and seizing much of southern Spain from the Visigoths.
538:
architects and artists revived several elements of classical culture in Italy. During the last medieval century, naval expeditions in search for new
14819:(2003). "The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor". In Lindberg, David C.;
14473:
5952:—the city's most influential family—gathered a significant collection of classical sculptures and opened it to local artists. The Tuscan architect
5725:(d. 1400). French became standardised with theoretical discussions about chivalric literature. One of the sharpest critics of chivalric romances,
4209:
Clashes with secular powers led to the militarisation of the papacy. In response to a Byzantine appeal for military aid against the Seljuk Turks,
2913:
Gold pouring into the tribal leaders from the Roman Empire was regularly remoulded into new artifacts, such as massive necklaces and eagle-shaped
16857:
13541:
5439:
Facing financial crises and threats from the west, the restored Byzantine Empire was unable to prevent Turkish expansion in Anatolia. Revolts by
5177:. Legal procedures improved as discretionary justice, previously dispensed by kings and their retainers, was delegated to professional lawyers.
752:) are poorly documented, which limits a comprehensive study of the period. The systematic publication of medieval written sources began with the
6726:(d. 1263) who made four visits to Sarai to gain the Khans' favor. He overcame his rivals with Mongol assistance, crushed an anti-Mongol riot in
1585:("morning gift"). Early medieval laws acknowledged a man's right to have long-term sexual relationships with women other than his wife (such as
19193:
16279:
7040:
In Bohemia, a mid-14th-century Czech treatise accused the local German artisans of plotting to keep prices high. In 1392, the bakers' guild in
5397:
3455:, were the first to profit from the revival of commerce in the Mediterranean. In the north, German merchants established associations known as
13980:
3479:
moneylending, because they could ignore the Christian clerical condemnation of loan interest. Jewish moneylenders and pawn brokers reinforced
1780:. The Abbasids were concerned with the Middle East, losing control of portions of the Muslim lands in the west. Umayyad descendants took over
1465:
and attacked the Ostrogoths, but his campaign was interrupted by an unexpected Sasanian invasion from the east. Between 541 and 543, a deadly
19218:
3301:
With the development of heavy cavalry, the uniform class of free warriors split into two groups. Those who could equip themselves as mounted
3125:
of the free population declined. One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies known as the
2534:
2213:(d. 741), took advantage of the permanent Muslim threat to confiscate church property and raise troops by parcelling it out to the recruits.
1988:
13800:
18563:
16356:
15720:
5365:
4762:. Few wall paintings survive, although references to images abound in written sources. The employment of itinerant artists, and the use of
2592:
in Britain. By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had restored Anglo-Saxon control of the territory. In northern Britain,
1397:
1393:
1205:' culture had little impact on the Anglo-Saxon way of life, but the linguistic assimilation of the natives to the newcomers is evident. By
15663:
14224:
5287:
in 1415. Aragon and Castile were divided by conflicts between magnate factions or about the limits of royal government, but the Castilian
4813:(d. 1151). The new style quickly spread, dominating religious architecture in much of Catholic Europe until the end of the Middle Ages.
17474:
6676:
was known for his erudition and unconventional lifestyle; he had a harem and wore Arab-style garments, including a mantle decorated with
4229:
to march to the east. They lived by looting, and attacked Jewish communities. Few of them reached Anatolia, and those who succeeded were
4177:
3932:
3845:(r. 1273–91), the first German king to be elected after the interregnum, realised that he could not control the whole empire. He granted
14874:
5792:
simplified the mass publication of books, and competition between publishing houses contributed to the quick spread of news and ideas.
5235:(r. 1413–22) to seize much of France. The unconquered French regions put up a strong resistance, boosted by the visions of peasant girl
3432:. These associations typically made rules governing quality, training, and pricing, and only their members had access to local markets.
3270:, a manor was the basic unit of landholding; it consisted of smaller components, such as parcels held by peasant tenants and the lord's
1515:
largely disappeared. Although literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than an indication of status. By the late
375:
17067:
16055:
15988:
15949:
15906:
15838:
15748:
15624:
15585:
15102:
14655:
13516:
6118:. This is untrue; lecturers in medieval universities commonly argued that evidence indicated the Earth was a sphere. Science historian
5527:
in 1312. Although the papal seat was returned to Rome in 1377 due to popular pressure, disputes among the church leadership led to the
5476:
5073:
2796:
2782:
882:. The need for revenue led to increased taxes, more centralised and bureaucratic state administration, and a decline in numbers of the
19375:
5539:
with the resignation of one pope and the deposition of his two rivals, which paved the way for the election of an Italian cardinal as
3978:. After a number of divisions and reunifications of the Christian states, the Christian north had coalesced into the four kingdoms of
2310:, which facilitated reading with the clear separation of words and the extensive use of punctuation. Charlemagne sponsored changes in
19133:
17025:
14360:
5133:
4975:, who required less pasture than oxen. Legumes such as peas, beans, and lentils were grown more widely, in addition to cereal crops.
2220:, as Charles Martel's descendants are known, succeeded the Merovingians as the royal dynasty of Francia in 751. The Merovingian king
1478:
944:
accelerated by the conversion of Constantine, although Christianity emerged as the empire's dominant religion only at the end of the
4349:
by church authorities. The crusades fused monastic life with military service in the framework of a new type of monastic order, the
18407:
13834:
6388:
3334:
1750:
841:
15014:
14448:
5503:
and conflicts with the Roman aristocracy had undermined papal authority in Italy, the seat of the papacy was moved to the city of
2145:
in 909 initiated a more radical change, since Cluny was freed from lay control and placed under the protection of the papacy. The
18047:
17416:
16094:
14575:
5632:
5081:
4410:, from the pope or the Holy Roman Emperor. The new educational institutions encouraged scholarly discussion. Debates between the
973:
495:
13598:
5918:
The wealthiest Italian and French princes regularly hired foreign artists, which led to the convergence of courtly styles. This
1793:
eunuchs played a preeminent role in administration and social life, holding positions such as guardians of religious shrines or
1341:
and Germanic tribes in the lowlands along the lower and middle Danube by the end of the 6th century. Another steppe people (the
18495:
15494:
15296:
4064:
3535:
2538:
14849:
13626:
5451:
in 1354. Within a century, the Ottomans reduced the competing southeastern European kingdoms, principalities and lordships to
3385:
The expansion of population, greater agricultural productivity, and relative political stability laid the foundations for the
2576:
The Viking settlement in the British Isles led to the formation of new political entities, including the small (but militant)
1649:. Muslim rulers employed Jewish courtiers, but Christian legislation forbade the appointment of Jews to government positions.
19073:
16234:
16161:
16136:
16108:
16080:
16041:
16013:
15974:
15931:
15888:
15863:
15824:
15799:
15773:
15734:
15709:
15677:
15649:
15610:
15571:
15537:
15512:
15480:
15452:
15419:
15394:
15367:
15335:
15310:
15285:
15257:
15225:
15194:
15166:
15141:
15115:
15083:
15057:
15028:
14970:
14888:
14863:
14838:
14806:
14780:
14701:
14673:
14641:
14613:
14588:
14560:
14487:
14462:
14434:
14406:
14378:
14349:
14317:
14294:
14266:
14238:
14213:
14185:
14164:
14136:
14105:
14075:
14047:
14019:
13994:
13966:
13938:
13905:
13877:
13846:
13814:
13786:
13758:
13725:
13697:
13672:
13640:
13612:
13584:
13559:
13530:
13502:
6522:
3569:—the appointment of clerics by secular rulers—was condemned at a 1059 assembly of bishops in Rome. Henry's son and successor
2271:
His empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor and about 300 imperial officials (known as
1742:
1738:
1642:
812:
has significantly contributed to studying the history of poorly-documented regions, periods, and groups (such as peasantry);
613:
and 1500, but its start and end years are arbitrary. A common starting point, first used by Bruni, is 476: the year the last
7330:
6254:
5317:, a loose confederation of mainly-pagan Lithuanian chieftains and Orthodox Rus' principalities. The common enemy prompted a
4056:
3227:
regulated fundamental social relations in many parts of Europe. In this system, a lord granted property—typically land—to a
1030:. Although these movements of peoples have been described as "invasions", they were often not just military expeditions but
19503:
17140:
15466:
7203:
7179:
7163:
6694:
6449:
As illuminated books were flowing from the British Isles to Francia, the Insular style had a marked impact on Frankish art.
5648:
5199:, and Venice exploited the power vacuum to expand. The centuries-old rivalry between England and France escalated into the
4868:
4261:
in 1187. New crusades prolonged the crusader states' existence for another century, until the last strongholds fell to the
4249:, allowing the Byzantines to recover western Anatolia. The westerners consolidated their conquests in the Middle East into
2487:
2067:
were copied by monks. Monks were also the authors of new works on history, theology, and other subjects by authors such as
1859:
The flourishing Islamic economies' constant demand for fresh labour force and raw materials opened a new market for Europe
1007:(large halls which had been used for administrative and commercial purposes) were adapted for Christian worship. The first
1000:
941:
6384:
3428:
elements of external control. Townspeople engaged in the same trade or profession were united in confraternities known as
2137:. Monastic communities were the first to react to this fear with rigorous observance of their rules. The establishment of
19306:
17989:
17144:
16850:
16690:
16665:
16605:
5208:
4604:(d. 1287/88) also became popular. Previously present only in liturgy, polyphony appeared in secular songs in the form of
4537:, rather than Latin, and consisted of poems, stories, legends, and popular songs. Often the stories were written down in
2840:
2334:
in the west. Late-9th-century theoretical studies contain the earliest certain references to the arrangement of harmonic
2410:
Charlemagne continued the Frankish tradition of dividing his empire between his sons, but only one son –
17843:
17061:
17057:
16945:
16781:
16068:
16001:
15962:
15919:
15874:
15851:
15761:
15637:
15598:
7150:
6890:
5272:
4350:
3232:
2550:
1955:
looked to the papacy for leadership. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where
960:
survived through proselytising campaigns outside the empire or because of local ethnic-group support; examples include
3711:
The High Middle Ages saw the development of institutions that would dominate political life in Europe beyond the late
2884:
19238:
17338:
17030:
16960:
16941:
16824:
16786:
16316:
14753:
14727:
14627:
5857:
5267:(r. 1485–1509). The wars prevented the English from expanding in the British Isles, but royal power remained weak in
5228:
3753:
3679:(d. 1179/80) was a prolific and highly-respected scholar who proudly said that "no man can be made without a woman".
3597:
2130:
2004:
1229:
1094:
6236:(d. 589) was a vehement but unsuccessful opponent of her people's conversion to Catholicism, and the Frankish queen
3897:
The French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility. The kings faced a powerful rival in the
3491:. Church authorities' growing concerns about Jewish influence on Christian life inspired legal segregation and the
940:, with a widening gulf between rich and poor and a decline in the vitality of smaller towns. Another change was the
261:) lasted from approximately 500 to 1500 AD. It is the second of the three traditional divisions of Western history:
19068:
18429:
17974:
17569:
16979:
16968:
16964:
16937:
16153:
14067:
7132:
One of the most successful queens of the period, Margaret primarily ruled with her young male relatives—first with
6426:
5268:
4033:
3939:(r. 1180–1223). John's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led to the 1215
3916:
3824:
3593:
2716:
2517:
in 955. In the Mediterranean, Arab pirates launched regular raids against Italy and southern France; the Aghlabids
1237:
836:
316:
124:
14175:
7259:(r. 1458–90) an excuse to conquer parts of the Czech lands. Poděbrady was succeeded by the Catholic Polish prince
3715:. The kings' right to rule without a foreign power's intercession became widely accepted, introducing the idea of
875:
19:
This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see
19483:
19478:
19473:
19468:
19463:
19458:
19168:
19103:
18148:
17999:
17602:
17467:
16917:
16913:
16866:
16284:
14912:
14337:
5817:
5322:
4681:
from Greek into Latin. Medicine was studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the
4378:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2011:
in the Balkans condemned sexual reproduction because they considered Satan the creator of the physical universe.
1190:
In the post-Roman world, the fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes is well documented.
730:
15180:
7263:(r. 1471–1516), but the Diet enacted the Czech right to freely choose between Hussitism and Catholicism in 1485.
6328:(fl. c. 840 – 850) is an early example of a western theoretical work on music. In the study, Aurelian discusses
6018:
to create a translucent surface and tiny bushes to achieve a more lifelike representation of the natural world.
3624:. Monastic reforms continued; the Cluniac monasteries' ceremonies were alien to those who preferred the simpler
3592:
The High Middle Ages was a time of great religious movements. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and
695:, however, use of that term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages. Historians who regard the Middle Ages as a
19453:
19448:
19443:
19438:
18359:
17786:
17619:
17557:
16988:
16909:
16843:
16650:
16590:
16562:
16321:
15302:
14989:
14719:
14605:
14280:
14258:
14033:
6080:
5738:
5018:
4029:
4003:
3970:
The Iberian Christian states began to push back against the Islamic powers in the south, a period known as the
3743:
2824:
2653:
1963:
to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Church attendance was low, and meetings with itinerant clergy and
1908:
1746:
1225:
846:
614:
4146:
in eastern Europe, facilitating the development of direct trade contacts between Europe and China through new
3943:, a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England. In France, Philip Augustus's son
3198:, Anatolia, and the Balkans. Their influx caused much destruction, and culminated in the establishment of the
2988:
tradition of realistic portrayal survived in the Mediterranean. Although the iconoclastic movement restricted
1145:(king) and took full control of Italy, although in theory he ruled as a representative of the eastern emperor
19358:
18512:
17994:
17903:
16996:
16992:
16736:
16567:
15500:
14661:
13828:
6158:
and the expansionism of empires. The professionalisation of historical study began with the German historian
6053:). Horror stories were widely read, including German booklets describing the cruel acts of Wallachian prince
5968:
for creating the illusion of depth was another innovation, demonstrated by reliefs on the bronze door of the
5516:
5484:
5472:
5330:
5054:
4872:
4823:
developed as a form of devotion for laypeople. Metalwork continued as the most prestigious form of art, with
4458:(a new method of intellectual discourse and pedagogy) required the study of authoritative texts, notably the
3819:
3799:
succeeded the Salians. Their recurring conflicts with the papacy allowed the northern Italian cities and the
3629:
3527:
2510:
1726:
1502:
1486:
767:
479:
327:. In the post-Roman world, taxation declined, the army was financed through land grants, and the blending of
19392:
3231:
in return for services (primarily military) rendered. In other parts of Europe such as Germany, Poland, and
2902:) were their most characteristic features, but castles often developed into multi-functional compounds with
2687:; the local inhabitants converted to Islam. Swedish traders and slave hunters ranged down the rivers of the
2679:
the Muslim expansion, and their leaders converted to Judaism. A new trade route developed at the end of the
2318:
in liturgical music for the churches. His commitment to liturgical uniformity stimulated the development of
617:
was deposed. There is no universally-agreed-upon end date; the most frequently-used dates include 1453 (the
19123:
19108:
19003:
17424:
17420:
17291:
15440:
14958:
13926:
13746:
5550:(d. 1384) criticised popular acts of devotion such as pilgrimages, and challenged Catholic doctrine on the
5284:
3915:
ascended the throne, since he had seized large areas of France through inheritance and marriage. The first
3609:
3570:
3480:
3061:
2546:
2542:
2255:(r. 768–71). When Carloman died, Charlemagne reunited Francia and embarked on a programme of expansion. He
273:
in power structures, and the weakness of state administration. The period is sometimes subdivided into the
169:
24:
6844:
6085:
5380:
completed Muscovy's dominance in the northeast. In southeastern Europe, the small Vlach principalities of
1760:
The conquerors bypassed the mountainous northwestern region of the Iberian Peninsula and a small kingdom,
18529:
18040:
17953:
17948:
17564:
16956:
16746:
15791:
15665:
Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century
14944:
14830:
14507:
14426:
13622:
7108:
5597:
emphasised lay piety, community experience and personal faith. In the Orthodox world, the Athonite monks
5318:
5180:
4366:
3995:
3519:
2664:
gained autonomy in the Carolingian border province. Asturias expanded slowly south, and continued as the
1426:
The Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival which lasted into the early
918:
871:
816:, however, is still uncertain. Legislation may influence archaeological research. New finds of coins and
755:
367:
quickly fell apart into competing kingdoms which later fragmented into autonomous duchies and lordships.
13488:
6628:(d. 1679), but the concept developed during conflicts between the emperors and the papacy. A 1202 papal
5883:
from the Christian population began supplying the Ottoman army with professional foot soldiers known as
3604:
rose to prominence. Popular movements emerged to support the implementation of church reform, but their
1811:
459:
stimulated a new method of intellectual discussion, with an emphasis on rational argumentation known as
54:
19256:
18400:
18123:
18009:
18004:
17460:
17334:
17072:
17015:
16905:
16741:
16731:
16695:
16537:
16439:
16072:
16005:
15966:
15923:
15855:
15765:
15641:
15602:
15472:
15020:
14880:
14479:
14454:
14286:
14230:
14205:
14097:
14011:
13986:
13778:
13689:
13512:
7171:
6657:
6430:
6072:
5460:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5401:
4242:
4233:
by the Turks. The official crusade departed in 1096 under the command of prominent aristocrats such as
4084:
4037:
3728:
3420:
also appeared, enabling the easy transmission of money. Since many types of coins were in circulation,
2997:
2636:
2072:
1265:
1150:
797:
are indispensable sources of medieval history, although many are forged. Other written sources include
749:
688:
653:
641:
507:
383:
370:
During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as the
286:
270:
6458:
Under the Macedonian emperors, the old churches were redecorated and newly-built churches such as the
6413:
1928:
in 843, issues such as the rivalry for ecclesiastic jurisdiction over newly-converted peoples and the
995:. The solemnity of later Roman artists' abstract style effectively visualised Christian messages, and
19488:
19048:
19008:
18449:
17979:
17733:
17694:
17390:
17220:
17077:
16923:
16464:
16227:
15834:
15816:
15430:
14948:
14824:
14552:
14057:
14039:
13916:
13736:
13717:
7167:
6922:
illustrates the blending of Byzantine and Romanesque traditions in Serbia. Its west portal, with its
6569:
6487:
6354:
6295:
5986:
5575:
4682:
4258:
4151:
4115:
4096:
2930:
2703:. Contacts with Francia paved the way for missionary efforts by Christian clergy in Scandinavia, and
2518:
1890:
1730:
1573:, or even command ships. Women usually died at a considerably younger age than men, primarily due to
1520:
1512:
1212:, new political centres emerged; some local leaders accumulated considerable wealth, and a number of
4398:. Schools reaching the highest level of mastery in the disciplines they taught received the rank of
4006:
from the Genoese. Southern Iberia remained under the control of Islamic states, initially under the
1936:
in the west widened to the extent that differences were greater than similarities. In the west, the
1589:), but women were expected to remain faithful. Clerics censured sexual unions outside marriage, and
19498:
19148:
18876:
18638:
18598:
18588:
18536:
16984:
16974:
16951:
16928:
16900:
16715:
15272:
15245:
14623:
14341:
14156:
13948:
13547:
7260:
7227:
7095:
5937:
5535:, three rival lines of popes were each supported by several states. The schism was resolved at the
5314:
5313:, during a period when the Teutonic Knights' expansion intensified. The Knights primarily targeted
5256:
4431:
4311:
4246:
3912:
3876:
3853:' future dominance in central Europe. After his death, three Alpine peasant communities formed the
2229:
1972:
1840:
and amber were delivered from the Baltic region to western Europe, triggering the establishment of
1754:
1646:
1261:
745:
426:, a new aristocracy stabilised their position through strict inheritance customs. In the system of
14063:
The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest
13860:
13654:
7314:
in 1444. He is often, but not universally, described as the prime mover of Portuguese exploration.
6143:
4341:
became a leading element of medieval life. A crusader oath could be fulfilled with a cash payment
569:
The Middle Ages is the second of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme of analysing
18926:
18834:
18133:
18128:
17984:
17642:
17356:
17322:
16419:
16389:
16128:
15726:
15523:
15444:
15386:
15359:
15249:
15217:
15158:
15125:
15107:
15049:
14962:
14772:
14580:
14516:
14398:
14128:
13930:
13897:
13750:
13707:
13576:
13551:
6923:
6207:
5965:
5860:
were dictated by the Burgundian ducal court in much of 15th-century Europe. In metalworking, the
5480:
4806:
4724:
4712:
4419:
4238:
4088:
3999:
3736:
3582:
3559:
3508:
2926:
2804:
2640:(r. 936–73) crossed the Alps into Italy, married the young widow and had himself crowned king in
2509:. The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual
2295:
2083:, establishing the basis for a flourishing Slavic religious literature; a new script was adopted
1109:(r. 434–53) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451 and Italy in 452, but his
1102:
937:
821:
is necessary; irony, satire, and anachronism were popular stylistic devices of medieval artists.
468:
415:
411:
17269:
15405:
5483:
resistance was broken by 1488. Ottoman rule was highly centralised, and sultans often appointed
4007:
3398:. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, allowing risk to be shared within the framework of
1372:. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but Slav migrations expanded the area of
1022:
Civil wars between rival emperors diverted soldiers from the empire's frontier forces, allowing
593:(d. 1707). The adjective "medieval" or "mediaeval", pertaining to the Middle Ages, derives from
19098:
19088:
18677:
18608:
18593:
18074:
18033:
17808:
17637:
17409:
17405:
17317:
17184:
16776:
16532:
16306:
15462:
15267:
14651:
14416:
13982:
The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East, 950–1072
6826:
6710:
6632:
said that "a king is an emperor in his kingdom", implying the equal status of secular monarchs.
6325:
6237:
6115:
5554:. His teachings influenced two major movements condemned as heretical by Catholic authorities:
5361:
5292:
5252:
5150:
4816:
4331:
4303:
3601:
3342:
2856:
2751:
2724:
2041:
1992:
1841:
1734:
1672:
1662:
1415:
1350:
1241:
1008:
957:
618:
527:
344:
164:
60:
20:
14252:
7252:
7091:
6462:
in Greece were embellished with mosaics and icons. Richly-decorated ivory panels, such as the
6154:
sought the origins of modern nations in the Middle Ages, stimulating oppressed ethnic groups'
5715:
had matured into a literary language on a par with Latin. English reached the same level with
4711:
continued, with stone fortresses built in regions where central authority was weak. Many were
874:. The army doubled in size and military expenses steadily increased, primarily in response to
522:
against their Muslim neighbours. The prominence of personal faith is well documented, but the
19208:
19183:
19113:
18796:
18524:
18297:
18255:
18225:
17888:
17753:
16595:
16487:
16444:
15529:
15355:
15277:
15093:
15075:
15045:
14898:
14309:
14115:
Fößel, Amalie (2016) . "The Political Traditions of Female Rulership in Medieval Europe". In
13958:
13806:
13650:
13494:
7191:
7066:
6985:
6940:
6876:(towers) made some Italian towns look like brick-and-stone forests. The small Tuscan town of
6739:
After the fall of Constantinople to the crusaders, three Byzantine successor states emerged:
6211:
6203:
5834:
5349:
5334:
5288:
5240:
5204:
5200:
4641:
4411:
4295:
3928:
3902:
3869:
3860:
3854:
3659:
might present a challenge to clerical monopolies, but most respected official doctrines. The
3417:
3386:
2720:
2307:
2033:
2015:
1411:
922:
700:
499:
379:
154:
16147:
14359:
Harris, Stephen J. (2008). "Introduction". In Harris, Stephen J.; Grigsby, Bryon L. (eds.).
14061:
3949:(r. 1223–26) distributed large portions of his father's conquests among his younger sons as
3620:. To suppress heresies, the popes appointed special commissioners of investigation known as
3475:, allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with one another and with local merchants.
3135:
as a military weapon. A technological advance with implications beyond the military was the
2555:
2032:. Most European monasteries focused on community experience of the spiritual life, known as
19433:
19428:
19203:
18958:
18871:
18849:
18772:
18768:
18697:
18613:
18558:
18553:
18376:
18220:
18109:
17943:
17938:
17878:
17813:
17718:
17364:
17175:
16814:
16756:
16552:
16459:
16429:
16414:
16220:
16033:
15984:
15945:
15902:
15429:
Vale, Malcolm (2001) . "The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500". In
15186:
14797:. Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Vol. 36.
14546:
7120:
7112:
7087:
6702:
6649:
6151:
6111:
5919:
5767:
5759:
5717:
5697:
5693:
5536:
5377:
5260:
5192:
4574:
4346:
3945:
3924:
3804:
3621:
3551:
3539:
3346:
3218:
3017:
2963:
ornamenting and extensive segmentation. Paintings have mostly survived in richly-decorated
2888:
2836:
2676:
2045:
1964:
1925:
1916:(r. 717–41) prohibited the display of paintings of human figures in places of worship, the
1913:
1524:
1437:
1310:
1051:
902:
813:
773:
622:
531:
464:
371:
332:
320:
139:
79:
64:
14420:
6329:
6029:
containing illustrations and text—rapidly became popular, with best-sellers including the
3341:
had exclusive jurisdiction over marital affairs, and church authorities supported popular
2792:
664:—in power structures, slow inter-regional communication, and a fragile state bureaucracy.
8:
19409:
19228:
19093:
18963:
18753:
18682:
18439:
18412:
18395:
18383:
18205:
18161:
17908:
17838:
17781:
17698:
17524:
17260:
17255:
17244:
17224:
17194:
16700:
16680:
16660:
16625:
16557:
16469:
16336:
16029:
The Formation of a Persecuting Society: Authority and Deviance in Western Europe 950-1250
15620:
15133:
7338:
7307:
7079:
6973:
6944:
6919:
6748:
6740:
6706:
6617:
6530:
6463:
6380:
6059:
5969:
5845:
5622:
5574:; most Orthodox believers rejected papal supremacy, however, and those who supported the
5571:
5512:
5425:
5121:
5093:
4786:
4664:
4566:
4407:
4358:
4323:
4234:
4226:
4218:
4202:
4194:
4185:
4052:
3991:
3936:
3907:
3761:
3720:
3676:
3664:
3203:
3163:
3057:
2974:
2688:
2661:
2463:
2391:
2382:
2373:
2217:
2194:
2080:
2076:
1761:
1619:
settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements with as many as
1466:
1285:
1281:
1256:
1252:
1011:—hand-written books decorated with colourful miniatures—were produced with the spread of
984:
590:
574:
554:
530:
presented a significant challenge to traditional power structures in the Western Church.
472:
456:
352:
296:
262:
211:
17091:
4365:. The Teutonic Knights focused much of their activity in the Baltic, where they founded
2799:, the destruction of old power centres accompanied the formation of the state under the
2044:, which was widely used in western monasteries. In the east, monastic rules compiled by
19493:
19270:
18948:
18864:
18854:
18687:
18650:
18580:
18519:
18502:
18456:
18366:
18280:
18094:
18014:
17918:
17702:
17654:
17649:
17552:
17542:
17499:
17491:
17386:
17285:
17250:
17240:
17234:
17228:
17206:
17202:
17165:
17136:
17083:
16933:
16804:
16640:
16615:
16517:
16394:
16346:
16341:
16331:
16269:
15559:
Contesting the Middle Ages: Debates that are Changing our Narrative of Medieval History
15378:
14932:
14903:
14798:
14764:
13711:
13664:
13522:
7187:
7133:
6961:
6904:
6857:
system in England developed through the adoption of principles and procedures (such as
6698:
6645:
6587:
6552:
6367:
6262:
5996:
5961:
5927:, commissioning small portraits and a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery,
5726:
5685:
5681:
5369:
5342:
5232:
5216:
4882:
4751:
4547:
4422:" were especially heated. Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of
4338:
4279:
4171:
4044:
3987:
3979:
3964:
3954:
3842:
3834:
3811:
3769:
3586:
3492:
3444:
3436:
3274:. As churchmen prohibited the enslavement of coreligionists, a new form of dependency (
3004:
rediscovered the human figure and Western artists often depicted people in illuminated
2808:
2747:
2708:
2657:
2645:
2619:
2585:
2514:
2502:
2459:
2401:
2162:
2150:
2122:
2037:
1725:(d. 632) brought about more radical changes. After his death, Islamic forces conquered
1690:
1637:
southern Gaul and Italy. The Visigothic kings made concentrated efforts to convert the
1570:
1302:
1173:
1134:
1075:
980:
953:
949:
830:
399:
364:
328:
324:
292:
17198:
7219:
6751:
in northeastern Anatolia. Michael VIII had ruled Nicaea before seizing Constantinople.
5852:
In cloth production, the second main employer after agriculture, the increased use of
5388:
emerged; their rulers primarily accepted the suzerainty of Hungarian or Polish kings.
5212:
3016:. Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative
2665:
2279:. The central administration supervised the counts with imperial emissaries, known as
19078:
18980:
18968:
18953:
18933:
18844:
18791:
18763:
18745:
18548:
18424:
18417:
18230:
18178:
18156:
18084:
17893:
17868:
17848:
17828:
17818:
17708:
17690:
17659:
17592:
17509:
17483:
17436:
17401:
17397:
17375:
17352:
17348:
17281:
17277:
17216:
17180:
17170:
17160:
17155:
17132:
16800:
16542:
16512:
16502:
16492:
16409:
16399:
16384:
16251:
16157:
16132:
16118:
16104:
16076:
16037:
16009:
15970:
15927:
15884:
15859:
15820:
15795:
15769:
15730:
15705:
15673:
15645:
15606:
15567:
15533:
15508:
15476:
15448:
15415:
15390:
15363:
15331:
15306:
15281:
15253:
15221:
15205:
15190:
15162:
15137:
15111:
15097:
15079:
15053:
15024:
15001:
14966:
14924:
14884:
14859:
14834:
14816:
14802:
14776:
14697:
14687:
14669:
14637:
14609:
14584:
14556:
14530:
14483:
14458:
14430:
14402:
14374:
14345:
14331:
14313:
14290:
14262:
14234:
14209:
14181:
14160:
14132:
14116:
14101:
14071:
14043:
14015:
13990:
13962:
13952:
13934:
13901:
13873:
13842:
13810:
13782:
13754:
13721:
13693:
13668:
13636:
13608:
13580:
13555:
13526:
13498:
7256:
7231:
7137:
7083:
6977:
6898:
6775:
6661:
6653:
6586:
of bishoprics and abbeys without formally sanctioning the monarch's claim to control
6526:
6307:
6159:
6131:
6103:
5977:
5809:
5670:
5448:
5373:
5326:
5280:
5248:
4933:
4902:
4886:
4755:
4651:
4625:
4621:
4558:
4553:
4383:
4287:
4269:
4230:
4135:
4021:
4017:
3983:
3891:
3883:
3780:
3773:
3748:
3716:
3668:
3512:
3448:
3206:
began in Europe and its estimated population grew from 35 to 80 million between
3195:
2766:
2712:
2631:
2577:
2564:
2311:
2233:
2142:
2028:
1960:
1777:
1773:
1700:
1566:
1369:
1306:
1178:
1162:
1023:
996:
867:
761:
720:
672:
668:
570:
535:
515:
448:
274:
242:
98:
19223:
14573:(2005) . Wehmeier, Sally; McIntosh, Colin; Turnbull, Joanna; Ashby, Michael (eds.).
13915:
Denley, Peter (2001) . "The Mediterranean in the Age of Renaissance, 1200–1500". In
13891:
13735:
Brown, Thomas (2001) . "The Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean, 400–900". In
6641:
5868:, in 1447 in Venice, granted a ten-year monopoly to inventors for their inventions.
4697:
4693:
3632:
life" of poverty and preaching. New monastic orders were established, including the
3373:
2750:. The imperial court was the centre of a rebirth of classical learning known as the
1924:
to declare new dogmas with imperial edicts. Although the Byzantine Church condemned
1195:
19324:
18839:
18829:
18655:
18603:
18507:
18371:
18260:
18210:
18188:
18183:
18114:
17883:
17798:
17743:
17713:
17664:
17624:
17607:
17597:
17532:
17504:
17371:
17360:
17330:
17309:
17190:
17095:
17046:
17040:
17020:
16895:
16761:
16710:
16705:
16645:
16610:
16522:
16479:
16449:
16371:
16289:
16259:
15209:
14993:
14916:
14790:
14749:
14723:
14520:
14248:
14120:
13976:
13869:
7235:
7116:
6801:
6744:
6723:
6500:
In France, Germany, and the Low Countries there was a further type of "noble", the
6459:
6405:
6155:
6076:
6054:
6006:
5973:
5722:
5669:
Prominent late-medieval philosophers departed from Aristotelian logic. Among them,
5644:
5598:
5456:
5164:
5113:
5007:
4763:
4601:
4545:(songs of great deeds), glorifying their male heroes' often-brutal acts, including
4540:
4478:
4401:
4391:
4362:
4262:
4181:
4131:
4072:
4060:
3898:
3846:
3788:
3680:
3641:
3578:
3531:
3458:
3452:
3148:
3118:
3066:
3009:
2765:
Missionary efforts by Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the
2755:
2615:
2593:
2581:
2522:
2483:
2475:
2439:
2435:
2415:
2335:
2319:
2282:
2202:
1508:
1373:
1191:
1183:
1031:
906:
898:
680:
676:
558:
543:
503:
471:
churches, while structural innovations led to the development of the more delicate
452:
308:
304:
282:
278:
221:
134:
108:
103:
16205:
15132:. Vol. 12 (Transcendental meditation - Zwingli, Huldrych) (Second ed.).
14599:
14150:
8624:
7048:, "No one of Irish blood or birth" could hold office or be hired as an apprentice.
6004:(d. 1510). Flemish painters quickly improved their technique. When completing his
5653:
2454:
in Francia (r. 888–98). In the eastern lands, the dynasty ended with the death of
2294:
Charlemagne's court was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes known as the
2064:
1836:, new commercial networks were developing in northern Europe. Goods such as furs,
1600:
434:
owed military service to their lords in return for the lands they had received in
19213:
19153:
19038:
18886:
18881:
18859:
18779:
18733:
18490:
18444:
18342:
18319:
18302:
18275:
18060:
17923:
17898:
17686:
17669:
17514:
17432:
17344:
17212:
16835:
16771:
16685:
16655:
16379:
16296:
16195:
16100:
15691:
15411:
15327:
14711:
14633:
13838:
7311:
6981:
6969:
6965:
6690:
6481:
6174:(d. 1944) broadened their perspective, examining culture, society, and identity.
6095:
6090:
6032:
5944:
Florence emerged as the center of intellectual and artistic life for most of the
5805:
5704:
5602:
5592:
5582:
5532:
5440:
5156:
5125:
4859:
objects such as gaming pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.
4794:
4570:
4519:
4395:
4354:
4250:
4147:
4139:
4107:
4048:
3865:
3800:
3732:
3649:
3605:
3555:
3543:
3523:
3472:
3440:
3240:
3213:
and 1347. The exact causes remain unclear, and improved agricultural techniques,
3190:
3110:
3001:
2985:
2914:
2743:
2739:
2608:
2604:
2455:
2446:
2411:
2315:
2260:
2225:
2173:
2146:
2099:
2095:
1996:
1769:
1658:
1346:
1330:
879:
407:
395:
195:
129:
7276:(d. 1472), aroused Italian scholarly interest in Greek studies during his exile.
4282:
by 1248. The German and Scandinavian rulers' expansion against the neighbouring
1667:
1268:. Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and Celtic Britons established stable polities.
19282:
19243:
19163:
19118:
19058:
19023:
18815:
18728:
18633:
18541:
18332:
18166:
18089:
17873:
17863:
17858:
17853:
17833:
17823:
17738:
17681:
17574:
17537:
17428:
17382:
17050:
16675:
16620:
16574:
16527:
16507:
16351:
16274:
16090:
16051:
15941:
15898:
15687:
15581:
15176:
14820:
14542:
14444:
14146:
14085:
14029:
13594:
7218:(d. 1468) resisted Ottoman conquest for more than two decades at the head of a
6832:
6534:
6179:
6165:
6147:
6139:
5957:
5785:
5743:
5712:
5528:
5524:
5520:
5508:
5500:
5468:
5444:
5353:
5244:
5196:
5144:
Although the growth of central governments continued, more than 500 autonomous
5050:
4972:
4941:
4918:
4844:
4824:
4708:
4671:
allowed more-advanced mathematics. Astronomy benefited from the translation of
4657:
4484:
4463:
4299:
3920:
3838:
3815:
3784:
3322:
3314:
3283:
2959:. Religious art quickly assimilated several elements of secular style, such as
2947:
refer to great royal treasures, but only a few of them survived; they included
2816:
2778:
2684:
2355:
2303:
2210:
2118:
2019:
1956:
1895:
1848:
1816:
1710:
1638:
1630:
1574:
1381:
1377:
1364:, the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by
1338:
1326:
1314:
1202:
1146:
1122:
1098:
1012:
930:
910:
704:
582:
523:
511:
439:
312:
266:
200:
19341:
7023:
Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions; one town,
5984:
and eroticism (including homoerotocism) in artworks such as the bronze statue
5566:(d. 1415), who was burned at the stake at Constance. Hussitism, the target of
4059:
into autonomous duchies, enabling the Czech kings to expand in the prosperous
3957:(r. 1226–70) improved local administration by appointing inspectors, known as
3787:
in 1024. They protected the lesser nobility to reduce ducal power, and seized
3131:. In military technology, one of the main changes was the reappearance of the
2845:
2815:
of Kievan Rus' emerged as the rulers of East Europe's vast forest zones after
2330:. The systematic study of Byzantine liturgy contributed to the development of
2247:
Pepin left his kingdom in the hands of his sons: Charles, more often known as
19422:
19294:
19198:
19083:
18998:
18943:
18803:
18723:
18618:
18468:
18461:
18354:
18307:
18200:
18056:
17969:
17768:
17087:
16434:
15880:
15783:
15744:
15669:
15659:
15504:
15490:
15345:
15182:
Femina: A New History of the Middle Ages, Through the Women Written Out of It
15067:
15005:
14928:
14745:
14693:
14665:
14534:
14498:
14388:
14327:
14276:
13887:
13824:
13796:
13768:
13632:
6877:
6805:
6625:
6604:
6583:
6518:
6503:
6467:
5876:
5861:
5813:
5586:
5547:
5540:
5124:
was established to test their faith. Jews who refused to convert were exiled
5117:
5097:
4991:
4956:
4929:
4856:
4820:
4802:
4617:
4585:
4455:
4447:
4443:
4214:
4210:
4190:
4143:
4103:
3953:—virtually independent provinces—to facilitate their administration. His son
3765:
3757:
3724:
3464:
3421:
3326:
3318:
3307:
3199:
3086:
3078:
3021:
2989:
2969:
2851:
2812:
2800:
2774:
2479:
2451:
2221:
2091:
1921:
1272:
was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king about whom much is known is
965:
952:
intensified, and those who persisted with theological views condemned at the
802:
790:
586:
460:
423:
18025:
6762:
5511:, Frenchmen assumed leadership of the Catholic Church. When the French king
4727:. Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls decorated with sculpture in
4225:—the remission of sins—to all who took part. Tens of thousands of commoners
4221:. He declared the liberation of Jerusalem as its ultimate goal, and offered
3703:
3675:
by church authorities. Many popular mystics were women. Among them, the nun
3337:—the ban on priestly marriage—distinguished Catholic clergy from the laity.
3093:
in Europe, and it was adopted by Byzantine cavalrymen before the end of the
2917:, by local goldsmiths. Their unrealistic style, often influenced by Iranian
2811:
used extensive violence to crush opposition by rival Magyar chieftains. The
2683:, bypassing Khazar territory and connecting Central Asia with Europe across
1481:
with the Sasanian Empire, and the Persians seized Egypt, Syria, and much of
19265:
19233:
19033:
18938:
18784:
18758:
18667:
18349:
18337:
18285:
18245:
18240:
18104:
18099:
17928:
17758:
17629:
17547:
17150:
16600:
16497:
16301:
15810:
14683:
14570:
14525:
14502:
14195:
13856:
13660:
8879:
7223:
7058:
6811:
6786:
6565:
6119:
6044:
6011:
5953:
5945:
5789:
5750:
5567:
5562:
in Bohemia. The Bohemian movement began with teachings of Czech theologian
5420:
5338:
4968:
4732:
4593:
4530:
4319:
4307:
4127:
4123:
4111:
3796:
3672:
3547:
3338:
3255:
3251:
system—landholding with limited rights—benefited the military aristocracy.
3122:
3102:
3046:
3034:
2872:
2560:
2359:
2351:
2331:
2288:
2241:
1933:
1837:
1824:
1462:
1354:
1318:
1091:
859:
777:
696:
649:
645:
387:
340:
315:, continued into the Early Middle Ages. The movement of peoples led to the
15876:
The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages
14997:
14282:
Sacred Foundations: The Religious and Medieval Roots of the European State
13628:
The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950–1350
12660:
7418:
5431:
4150:
in the Black Sea region. The new land and sea routes to the Far East were
3573:(r. 1056–1105) wanted to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as
2922:
19173:
18921:
18916:
18908:
18893:
18718:
18623:
18434:
18270:
18235:
18215:
18195:
18138:
17913:
17791:
17776:
17748:
16751:
16454:
16361:
16023:
14737:
6274:
Rome, for instance, shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to
6183:
6135:
6107:
5610:
5491:, the sultans began murdering their brothers to avoid succession crises.
5455:. International coalitions, such as the crusades of Nicopolis (1396) and
5302:
5236:
5184:
5058:
4986:
and engineers. Crossbow use increased, partly because of the increase in
4979:
4827:
a popular and relatively-affordable option. In Italy, the innovations of
4736:
4439:
3973:
3940:
3727:
assumed power as female succession was recognised in most countries. The
3645:
3637:
3633:
3613:
3566:
3484:
3399:
3295:
3267:
3038:
2993:
2978:
2964:
2948:
2934:
2248:
2138:
2053:
2049:
2023:
2000:
1980:
1899:
1867:
1615:
1586:
1528:
1470:
1443:
1334:
1273:
1140:
1087:
809:
630:
539:
519:
498:
and local conflicts often escalated into full-scale warfare, such as the
483:
336:
216:
159:
149:
14876:
Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, AD 300–900
6265:" was a woman interred with an axe, sword, quiver of arrows, and spears.
6138:
inspired several influential intellectuals, including British historian
4608:; their popularity led to the fading of older liturgical forms, such as
4010:(which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as
3158:
2879:: the "arms" of a T-shaped building which are perpendicular to the long
1110:
18704:
18692:
18662:
18628:
18568:
18250:
17676:
17265:
16326:
16212:
15235:
14936:
8492:
7215:
7175:
6858:
6854:
6621:
6409:
6233:
6171:
6022:
5981:
5888:
5797:
5077:
4898:
4890:
4779:
4771:
4746:
Romanesque art (especially metalwork) was at its most sophisticated in
4718:
4562:
4561:
praised chaste love, and eroticism was primarily expressed in poems by
4534:
4533:
developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the
4513:
4451:
4435:
4415:
4342:
4315:
4222:
4155:
3660:
3656:
3358:
3106:
3074:
3025:
2956:
2918:
2903:
2627:
2467:
2363:
2256:
2252:
2190:
2060:
2008:
1941:
1845:
1844:
stations and conflicts over their control. In the post-Roman kingdoms,
1781:
1580:
1458:
1454:
1365:
1248:
936:
Roman society stabilised in a new form which differed from the earlier
887:
794:
637:
578:
15072:
Medieval Warfare Source Book, Volume I: Warfare In Western Christendom
14394:
The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians
12648:
6880:
is an example, although only a few of the family towers have survived.
5589:(d. 1546). The most characteristic late-medieval reform movement, the
4805:
windows. Gothic architecture emerged during the reconstruction of the
2671:
The Eastern European trade routes towards Asia were controlled by the
1737:. The Eastern Romans halted the Muslim expansion at Constantinople in
19138:
18975:
18710:
18672:
18265:
18079:
17723:
16635:
16404:
15701:
15563:
14855:
14370:
14254:
Prints and Printmaking: An Introduction to the History and Techniques
13604:
8540:
7273:
7248:
7194:(d. 1383) and his opponents. Kantakouzenos was crowned co-emperor as
7007:
6015:
6001:
5991:
5884:
5880:
5872:
5830:
5801:
5708:
5658:
5606:
5551:
5464:
5381:
5087:
5030:
4945:
4770:
facilitated the transmission of artistic motifs over long distances.
4747:
4740:
4701:
4645:
4423:
4327:
4119:
3850:
3377:
Impression of the earliest known seal of the northern German city of
3224:
3214:
3136:
3098:
2960:
2427:
2339:
2291:
were responsible for recording important royal grants and decisions.
2287:, who were roving inspectors and troubleshooters. The clerics of the
2264:
2193:
were the most prominent beneficiaries of royal favour. As hereditary
2186:
2103:
1820:
1785:
1714:
1490:
1431:
1213:
1071:
992:
926:
914:
785:
716:
657:
600:
427:
17452:
15686:
14920:
13802:
Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400–1400
12732:
7024:
5935:
pottery. In France and Flanders, tapestry weaving of series such as
5887:. In Bohemia, religious enthusiasm, stern discipline and the use of
5337:(r. 1387–1412) consolidated Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in the 1397
5187:
in peasant dress, wearing her arms, in a late-15th-century miniature
5023:
3289:
917:) stabilised the imperial government for about two decades. After a
707:", the "Muslim Middle Ages", and similar subjects are not uncommon.
285:, and the early medieval period is alternatively referred to as the
19128:
18824:
18645:
18473:
18388:
18327:
18290:
17933:
17728:
16670:
16547:
16424:
14947:(2001) . "Northern Europe Invades the Mediterranean, 900–1200". In
10417:
10369:
9119:
7324:
7045:
6894:
6727:
6629:
6600:
6337:
5932:
5689:
5662:
5559:
5555:
5463:(r. 1449–53), died during the conquest of Constantinople by Sultan
5443:
and recurring civil wars further weakened the empire, allowing the
5385:
5101:
5062:
5053:. Climate anomalies caused agricultural crises, culminating in the
4967:
allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently. The spread of
4963:, with a consequent increase in production. The improvement of the
4914:
4836:
4775:
4677:
4526:
4283:
4198:
4167:
4068:
3950:
3692:
3463:
and controlled trade routes connecting the British islands and the
3405:
3395:
3349:
their sins to a priest at least once a year beginning in the early
3263:
3259:
3132:
3024:
and, by the end of the period, near-life-sized figures such as the
3013:
2895:
2876:
2864:
2759:
2506:
2237:
2206:
1929:
1879:
1806:
1789:
1722:
1680:
1590:
1550:
1539:
1482:
1322:
1295:
1277:
1118:
1083:
1004:
961:
883:
798:
734:
661:
626:
444:
394:
to protect their common interests. Western church leaders accepted
144:
83:
16199:
14980:
Murray, Alexander (2004). "Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished?".
14007:
An Economic and Social History of Later Medieval Europe, 1000–1500
12480:
12360:
11116:
10756:
9341:
8648:
5891:
were key factors in Hussite victories. The earliest references to
5459:(1444), could not stop their advance. The last Byzantine emperor,
3166:
with the three classes of medieval society: those who prayed (the
2707:
was closely associated with the growth of centralised kingdoms in
2167:
1360:
The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in language.
1240:
was divided into even smaller political units, perhaps as many as
331:
civilisation and the invaders' traditions is well documented. The
19043:
18898:
18810:
17803:
17614:
17127:
16311:
14604:. Memoires of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 259.
12744:
8348:
7062:
6785:), the lyric correspondence between Abelard and his former lover
6392:
6350:
6303:
6175:
6026:
5928:
5900:
5775:
5563:
5504:
5391:
5224:
5172:
4995:
4949:
4828:
4801:
importance. The new solutions allowed the extensive use of large
4798:
4672:
4668:
4661:
4611:
4522:
to her former lover, reminding him her beauty and unselfish love.
4459:
4254:
4025:
3617:
3574:
3378:
3275:
3271:
3246:
3175:
3090:
3082:
2952:
2939:
2907:
2735:
2672:
2650:
2589:
2134:
2071:(d. 735), a native of northern England. The Byzantine missionary
1984:
1609:
1605:
1562:
1419:
1342:
1269:
1130:
1126:
1059:
1047:
969:
780:
in the United Kingdom. These large collections primarily contain
562:
13368:
10732:
10720:
10660:
8528:
6730:, and received a grant of tax exemption for the Orthodox Church.
6677:
4620:
which required the invention of a new notation system, known as
3503:
2438:(r. 843–76) controlled the eastern lands in modern-day Germany.
1940:(originally a voluntarily contribution) began to be levied as a
1133:(d. 493), who were partly (or fully) non-Roman. Odoacer deposed
1090:
ended up in Gaul; the Germanic groups now collectively known as
19063:
16190:
16184:
16179:
14088:(1986) . "From Europe to the World". In Fossier, Robert (ed.).
12972:
12211:
11455:
10573:
8336:
7372:
7370:
5949:
5892:
5865:
5853:
5220:
5145:
4983:
4964:
4937:
4848:
4840:
4832:
4728:
4142:
on the Byzantine border. The Mongol conquest was followed by a
4080:
4076:
3967:
began hearing litigants in regular sessions almost year-round.
3887:
3625:
3596:
received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as
3488:
3391:
3302:
3228:
3171:
3167:
2770:
2569:
2299:
2276:
2126:
1968:
1952:
1875:
1871:
1765:
1558:
1447:
1407:
1221:
1217:
1106:
1079:
1043:
925:(r. 306–37) restored internal peace and re-founded the city of
851:
781:
431:
419:
386:
nearly disappeared, and peasants could improve their status by
356:
299:, the collapse of centralised authority, the mass migration of
16202:– Comparative and interdisciplinary articles about the period.
13344:
12696:
12636:
12624:
12324:
11898:
11896:
11662:
11554:
11301:
11299:
11020:
10936:
10614:
10612:
9944:
9199:
9197:
9184:
9182:
7532:
6202:
Medieval writers had divided history into periods such as the
5243:(r. 1422–61) expelled the English from the country except for
4122:(r. 1241–56)—a grandson of Genghis Khan—set up his capital in
3239:
remained the dominant forms of landholding. Their owners owed
2205:(d. 714), also assumed power in the central Frankish realm of
1402:
19300:
19028:
19018:
19013:
18485:
18480:
17273:
15697:
Why the Middle Ages Matter Medieval Light on Modern Injustice
15496:
The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages, 400–1000
12756:
11520:
11518:
11284:
9833:
9710:
8684:
8672:
8660:
7754:
7496:
6948:
6538:
6333:
6258:
5364:
began annexing the Rus' principalities (often in competition
4987:
4843:(d. 1337) greatly increased the sophistication and status of
4810:
4790:
4767:
4605:
4597:
4505:
4470:
4291:
4241:(d. 1105). The crusaders defeated the Turks in major battles
4012:
3905:(r. 1035–87). The cross-channel empire further expanded when
3739:, allowing them to exert influence on state administration.
3686:
3526:
Roman aristocrats during the early 11th century, but Emperor
3429:
3330:
3236:
3064:
chasing Muslim horsemen in a miniature from the 12th-century
3042:
3005:
2728:
2641:
2491:
2423:
2419:
2323:
2272:
2110:
1937:
1794:
1718:
1361:
1233:
1070:
in 406, and into present-day Spain in 409; a year later, the
1063:
1055:
1035:
817:
403:
391:
300:
15722:
World Medievalism: The Middle Ages in Modern Textual Culture
15377:
Swanson, Robert (2021). "The Church and Religious Life". In
15092:
12900:
12864:
12828:
12552:
12127:
12115:
12040:
10561:
10441:
10016:
9541:
9539:
9478:
9476:
9233:
8588:
8432:
7486:
7484:
7424:
7367:
6379:
Examples include a 4th-century basilica uncovered under the
6057:(r. 1456–62). The first large illustrated printed book, the
5820:
that led to the European discovery of the Americas in 1492.
5372:(r. 1462–1505), the conquest of the great trading cities of
4889:(1352), the first known (albeit anachronistic) depiction of
2224:(r. 743–51) was deposed that year, and Charles Martel's son
1137:(r. 475–76), the last western emperor, assumed the title of
764:(d. 1750), which was followed by similar series such as the
744:
Certain aspects of medieval society (including the lives of
19158:
13272:
13188:
13140:
13116:
13020:
12984:
12936:
12912:
12876:
12816:
12768:
12588:
12528:
12432:
12396:
12175:
12103:
12016:
12004:
11893:
11854:
11626:
11590:
11578:
11479:
11443:
11431:
11395:
11296:
11248:
11104:
11032:
10984:
10972:
10912:
10852:
10816:
10780:
10744:
10648:
10609:
10429:
10321:
10309:
10285:
10184:
10088:
10004:
9980:
9968:
9884:
9722:
9688:
9686:
9671:
9635:
9611:
9599:
9575:
9488:
9377:
9365:
9317:
9305:
9293:
9257:
9221:
9209:
9194:
9179:
9155:
9131:
9107:
9035:
9011:
8975:
8951:
8939:
8915:
8843:
8819:
8747:
8711:
8612:
8600:
8576:
8552:
8324:
8228:
7879:
7877:
7323:
The portal sculptures of the Burgundian ducal mausoleum at
7041:
6299:
5638:
5428:, from the late-16th-century Ottoman illuminated chronicle
4906:
4819:
gradually moved from monasteries to lay workshops, and the
4704:, completed in three phases from the 13th to 15th centuries
4589:
3468:
3361:
priests, the only roles open to them in the church were as
3127:
2944:
2899:
2880:
2868:
2820:
2754:. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors
2695:
from the Khazars, and attempted to seize Constantinople in
2692:
2068:
2003:
and those engaged in non-reproductive sexual acts (such as
1917:
1764:, emerged as the centre of local resistance. The defeat of
1368:
languages (which evolved from Latin) collectively known as
1067:
1039:
691:; with the adoption of the three subdivisions in the early
435:
406:
influence, which accelerated the separation of the western
228:
16:
Period of European history from the 5th to the 15th century
15214:
The Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe
14901:(April 1942). "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'".
14125:
The Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe
13332:
13308:
13248:
13128:
13008:
12852:
12708:
12684:
12672:
12540:
12468:
12444:
12223:
12069:
12067:
12028:
11871:
11869:
11842:
11830:
11818:
11806:
11782:
11542:
11530:
11515:
11491:
11407:
11359:
11323:
11260:
11236:
11212:
11152:
11080:
11068:
11044:
10996:
10960:
10828:
10804:
10549:
10537:
10393:
10273:
10100:
9862:
9860:
9845:
9806:
9794:
9782:
9401:
9389:
9071:
8855:
8831:
8444:
8408:
8396:
8360:
8312:
8300:
8264:
8216:
8144:
8057:
8045:
8033:
7997:
7889:
7272:
One of the main Byzantine supporters of the church union,
5825:
5295:(r. 1479–1516) reinforced royal power. They completed the
5211:
the French throne in 1337. The English won the battles of
4047:
into independent principalities. Among them, the northern
3317:
cared for believers' spiritual needs and mainly served in
3254:
Most medieval Western thinkers divided society into three
2117:. Aristocrats regarded the churches and monasteries under
2113:
influence over church affairs reached its apex during the
2106:(d. 1000) wrote the first non-liturgical medieval dramas.
2059:
Monasteries had a deep effect on local society, acting as
2048:(d. 826) gained popularity after they were adopted in the
1264:. The Burgundians settled in Gaul, where they reorganised
589:
in 1442, and it became standard with the German historian
188:
16180:
De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History
15128:(2005). "Science and Religion". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.).
13428:
13356:
13296:
13284:
12960:
12924:
12804:
12600:
12564:
12456:
12420:
12408:
12384:
12300:
12247:
12091:
11794:
11770:
11746:
11698:
11686:
11674:
11650:
11200:
11176:
11164:
11140:
11128:
11092:
11056:
10864:
10672:
10624:
10357:
10333:
10237:
10172:
10136:
9823:
9821:
9746:
9734:
9563:
9551:
9536:
9512:
9500:
9473:
9461:
9449:
9425:
9413:
9353:
8999:
8987:
8891:
8807:
8795:
8783:
8759:
8516:
8180:
8009:
7814:
7708:
7706:
7693:
7691:
7640:
7481:
6926:, was completed by southern Italian builders in the late
5711:(d. 1375), both from Florence, indicate that the Italian
5605:(d. 1359) promoted a form of meditative prayers known as
5116:
led to the mass conversion of Spanish Jews in 1391. The "
4511:
4503:
4497:
3628:
monasticism of early Christianity, or wanted to live an "
3550:
in 1054. After a series of mutual excommunications, this
3362:
3189:
and 1060, severe droughts struck the Middle East and the
2197:, they were the power behind the throne beginning in the
502:. By the end of the period, the Byzantine Empire and the
15273:
Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians
14425:. Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching. Vol. 29.
14201:
Planets, Stars, and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200–1687
13416:
13392:
13320:
13176:
12948:
12780:
12516:
12336:
12266:
12264:
12262:
12199:
12151:
11920:
11722:
11638:
11371:
11347:
11335:
11224:
10501:
10489:
10477:
10297:
10261:
10227:
10225:
10223:
10196:
10040:
9992:
9683:
9659:
9647:
9623:
9587:
9047:
8867:
8771:
8384:
8276:
8240:
8192:
7973:
7913:
7874:
7862:
7838:
7778:
7766:
7730:
7664:
7580:
7310:(d. 1460) presided over an auction of African slaves at
6353:(d. 930) was one of the first music theorists to define
6223:
Brittany takes its name from this settlement by Britons.
6134:
sparked intense nostalgia for the medieval period. This
6066:
4386:
were expected to operate a school beginning in the late
3731:
emerged as the central office of royal government and a
2314:, imposing the Roman form of worship on his domains and
19143:
15204:
Ringrose, Kathryn M. (2016) . "The Byzantine Body". In
13464:
13224:
13200:
13092:
13080:
13044:
13032:
12840:
12792:
12504:
12372:
12312:
12235:
12079:
12064:
12052:
11992:
11980:
11956:
11932:
11866:
11614:
11467:
11188:
11008:
10876:
10840:
10708:
10597:
10465:
10453:
10381:
10160:
10148:
9956:
9896:
9872:
9857:
9698:
9329:
9281:
9269:
9245:
9167:
9143:
8963:
8735:
8723:
8701:
8699:
8636:
8480:
7850:
7718:
7652:
7592:
7568:
6240:(d. 613) was torn to pieces by horses at the age of 70.
4640:
paved the way for the systematic study of Roman law at
3857:
to defend their judicial autonomy against his kinsmen.
3837:(r. 1266–85). During the civil war, the right of seven
3803:
to extort considerable concessions from them. In 1183,
3772:(r. 1105–54) united the Norman principalities into the
1975:
were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and
1604:
Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in
1232:
were still under the control of the native Britons and
374:
allowed crop yields to increase, and technological and
16096:
Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted
14795:
Secular Goldsmiths' Work in Medieval France: A History
14096:. Vol. III. Translated by Sarah Hanbury Tenison.
13404:
13380:
13260:
13164:
13152:
13104:
13056:
12612:
12492:
12348:
11944:
11881:
11758:
11734:
11566:
11503:
11419:
11383:
11272:
10948:
10924:
10768:
10636:
10585:
10525:
10513:
10405:
10208:
10124:
10112:
9818:
9770:
9437:
9095:
9083:
9059:
9023:
8903:
8468:
8420:
8372:
8288:
8168:
8156:
8122:
8120:
8093:
8081:
8069:
8021:
7949:
7925:
7901:
7703:
7688:
7676:
7628:
7616:
7604:
7520:
7285:
Although medieval documents often described people as
6210:, and considered their time to be the last before the
5960:
in Rome before completing the plan of the dome of the
5879:
was created in France in the late 1440s. Around 1438,
5864:
increased the quantity and quality of iron. The first
4302:
was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople and
2588:
in 879, acknowledging the existence of an independent
640:, "did not live to a single rhythm over this period".
359:
reunited many of the Western Roman lands by the early
19254:
13452:
13212:
12996:
12888:
12576:
12288:
12259:
11968:
11908:
11710:
11602:
10900:
10888:
10792:
10345:
10220:
10076:
10064:
10052:
10028:
9932:
9920:
9908:
9524:
8927:
8504:
8252:
8204:
7985:
7961:
7937:
7826:
7802:
7544:
7459:
7457:
7382:
6232:
Among the powerful women, the Arian Visigothic queen
4797:
to reinforce walls, and rib vaults to minimise their
4750:, in which distinct artistic personalities—including
4268:
The papacy also used the crusading ideology in other
4051:
emerged as the dominant power after Suzdalian troops
3994:
by 1230. Aragon emerged as a naval power, conquering
2727:
that hindered the accumulation of power by ambitious
2528:
1565:
woman could demand compensation from her husband for
1349:
a Byzantine imperial army in 681 and established the
14094:
The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages
14035:
Music in the Medieval West: Western Music in Context
13236:
13068:
12720:
12276:
12187:
12163:
12139:
11311:
10696:
10684:
10249:
9758:
8696:
8564:
8105:
7790:
7508:
7430:
7406:
5871:
As increased tax revenues allowed the employment of
5609:. A general fear of evil practices led to the first
5546:
Theological debates intensified. English theologian
4855:
resulted in greater production of secular art; many
3353:, which reinforced priestly control of their lives.
3221:, and the lack of invasions have been suggested.
3139:, which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain.
2345:
16124:
Europe After Rome: A New Cultural History, 500–1000
15940:
15897:
15301:. A History of East Central Europe. Vol. III.
13774:
The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom, 1000–1500
13440:
8456:
8132:
8117:
7742:
7556:
7442:
7111:, the Habsburgs were expanding in Austria, and the
5696:; many emphasised human dignity, and were known as
4952:allowed navigation at a great distance from shore.
4785:Structural innovations introduced the evolution of
4774:flourished; churches and castles were decorated by
3935:the northern French possessions to the French king
3278:) almost completely supplanted slavery by the late
2153:" could be achieved with submission to the papacy.
862:reached its greatest territorial extent during the
16865:
15812:Medieval Bodies: Life and Death in the Middle Ages
14763:Lee, Alexander (2021). "Culture and the Arts". In
14367:Routledge Studies in Medieval Religion and Culture
7469:
7454:
7394:
6370:, who was also a king of West Francia (r. 922–23).
4330:, provided an opportunity for the French monarchy
4290:, forcing the assimilation of a number of Slavic,
3919:in Ireland were established during his reign. The
3818:to elect their leaders; the princes' autonomy was
2259:the Saxons, conquered the Lombards, and created a
1294:—present-day Great Britain—settled in what is now
1034:into the empire. In 376, hundreds of thousands of
991:, often by reinterpreting popular motifs of pagan
15436:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe
15298:East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500
14954:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe
14330:(2001). "Introduction". In Hankins, James (ed.).
13922:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe
13742:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe
7355:
7255:(r. 1457–71) king, which gave the Hungarian king
6366:Hugh Capet was a grandson of King Odo's brother,
4337:With its unique ceremonies and institutions, the
4298:peoples into the culture of Catholic Europe. The
3581:(pope 1073–85). Their quarrel developed into the
2910:or wells, halls, chapels, stables and workshops.
1979:. They were the first to use handbooks, known as
972:remained tolerated, although legislation limited
19420:
15872:
14601:Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes
14333:Leonardo Bruni: History of the Florentine People
7044:excluded those who married non-German women. In
5581:Mysticism and devotional literature flourished.
5321:sealed by the marriage of Lithuanian grand duke
5153:—at legislative assemblies known as parliament,
4134:disintegrated into small (but often aggressive)
3097:. Another development was the increasing use of
2762:(r. 976–1025) to expand the empire's frontiers.
2490:and settled there. In 911, the Viking chieftain
1046:(r. 364–78) to settle in Roman territory in the
897:) split the empire into separately-administered
549:
7153:the Orthodox Church in the Rus' principalities.
6842:
6332:and their association of specific varieties of
5247:. England fought a long civil war known as the
5042:The average annual temperature began declining
3963:, to oversee the royal officials' conduct. The
3655:Individuals who were thought to receive divine
3028:were common in important churches. In England,
2007:). In contrast with official Christianity, the
1999:and prescribed severe penances for adulterers,
1866:. The continent emerged as a major supplier of
1446:(r. 527–65). The Byzantines regularly employed
1353:, subjugating the local Slavic tribes near the
1224:) were formed. Smaller kingdoms in present-day
534:scholars began to emphasise human dignity, and
14275:
14038:. Western Music in Context: A Norton History.
13862:Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages (500–1300),
11560:
10762:
10738:
10726:
10666:
7190:(r. 1341–90), between the powerful aristocrat
5398:Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty
5392:Collapse of Byzantium and rise of the Ottomans
5035:revolt, from a 14th-century manuscript of the
4862:
905:in 286. This system, which eventually had two
18055:
18041:
17468:
16851:
16228:
14496:
14157:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
13805:. The Yale Intellectual History of the West.
7538:
7006:The Mongols were reportedly the first to use
6902:
6871:
6830:
6537:(d. 1219)—also an Anglo-Norman knight—seized
6404:Later Roman ornaments decorate Charlemagne's
5429:
5296:
5227:by 1360. Aristocratic feuds escalated into a
5170:
5162:
5149:groups—primarily the nobility, prelates, and
4944:, both of which increased sailing speed. The
4273:
4272:. The Iberian crusades became fused with the
3971:
3411:
3403:
3202:in the Middle East. In contrast, a period of
2535:Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty
2521:, and the Umayyads of Al-Andalus annexed the
2501:) received permission from the Frankish king
1329:. Coming from the Asian steppes, the nomadic
494:. Conflicts between ethnic and social groups
335:(or Byzantine Empire) survived, but lost the
16149:Women in Medieval History and Historiography
15718:
14503:"Introduction: Towards a Global Middle Ages"
7328:
6705:(r. 1137–1204) months after her marriage to
6163:
5773:
5765:
5757:
5747:
5494:
5085:
5028:
4990:warfare. This led to the use of closed-face
4716:
4688:
4634:The 11th-century discovery of a copy of the
4584:). Other literary genres included spiritual
4538:
3958:
3849:to his sons, establishing the basis for the
3795:. After an interval from 1125 and 1137, the
3746:reached its zenith under the pontificate of
3684:
3577:in his lands, but his appointments outraged
3456:
3287:
3244:
2626:, driving back the Magyars and fighting the
1578:
1398:Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty
1394:Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty
15983:
14475:An Environmental History of Medieval Europe
7292:
7286:
7140:. The Swedes left the Kalmar Union in 1448.
6809:
6501:
6321:Musica disciplina (The Discipline of Music)
6319:
6261:ship after her son died; the 10th-century "
6042:
6030:
5620:
5590:
5356:undermined the Golden Horde's power in the
5154:
4778:, and clerical vestments were adorned with
4649:
4635:
4609:
4476:
4468:
4399:
4178:Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty
3313:The clergy was divided into two types. The
2445:There was a brief reunion of the empire by
2280:
1624:
1593:also became the norm of secular law in the
1435:
1289:
1138:
765:
753:
729:A letter from Zhiznomir to Mikula, written
594:
18048:
18034:
17475:
17461:
16858:
16844:
16235:
16221:
15788:Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages
15241:The Middle Ages: A Very Short Introduction
15103:The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology
14551:. A Norton Introduction to Music History.
7425:Onions, Friedrichsen & Burchfield 1994
7170:(r. 1282–1328) disinherited his grandson,
6479:Examples include vivid caricatures in the
4079:. The Cumans supported the Bulgarians and
3530:(r. 1039–56) broke their power and placed
3052:
2322:, leading to the compilation of the first
2149:indicated that the reformist idea of the "
1971:were instrumental in religious education.
1641:to Christianity, but the Jewish community
1434:; the most comprehensive compilation, the
687:, the Middle Ages were often known as the
585:(d. 1444) was the first to use tripartite
15873:Kaufmann, J. E.; Kaufmann, H. W. (2004).
15468:The Making of Polities: Europe, 1300–1500
14872:
14789:
14710:
14524:
14415:
14247:
13975:
13868:. Brill's Companion to European History.
13600:The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 1050–1320
13398:
13374:
13326:
9851:
9728:
9716:
9677:
9641:
9617:
9605:
9581:
8690:
8678:
8666:
8654:
8633:, pp. 15, 227–228, 236–237, 268–271.
8522:
8438:
7820:
5291:(r. 1474–1504) and her Aragonese husband
4754:(d. 1205)—became apparent, and an almost-
4624:, mainly developed by the music theorist
2434:, and his imperial title was recognised.
1186:after the end of the Western Roman Empire
16242:
16089:
15808:
15782:
15743:
15580:
15203:
15154:The Central Middle Ages: Europe 950–1320
15012:
14815:
14716:Early Medieval Art in the British Museum
14471:
14303:
14173:
13954:The Pictorial Arts of the West: 800–1200
13835:Macmillan International Higher Education
13685:Women in Early Medieval Europe, 400–1100
13621:
13410:
12906:
12870:
12834:
12133:
12121:
12046:
11365:
10774:
10603:
10579:
10567:
10507:
10447:
10106:
10094:
10022:
8861:
8741:
8630:
8594:
8486:
8234:
7646:
6774:Examples include the spiritual works of
6485:and more naturalistic miniatures in the
6425:An early example of a stone fortress is
6182:, influenced historical research in the
6084:
5829:
5652:
5639:Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration
5487:to the highest offices. During the late
5419:
5179:
5022:
4876:
4692:
4489:
4189:
3859:
3707:Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190
3702:
3644:who earned their living by begging (the
3502:
3372:
3217:(bringing new lands into production), a
3157:
3056:
2844:
2554:
2513:until the invaders were defeated at the
2263:in northern Spain. Frankish troops also
2166:
1889:
1874:for Al-Andalus, northern Africa and the
1810:
1745:; in the west, Islamic troops conquered
1666:
1599:
1401:
1182:Post-Roman kingdoms and tribes, and the
1177:
840:
724:
606:It customarily spans the period between
553:
15619:
15521:
15489:
15403:
15376:
15344:
15319:
15175:
15066:
14897:
14851:The Routledge Companion to the Crusades
14387:
14326:
14084:
14028:
14003:
13947:
13823:
13713:The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150–750
13568:
13278:
13230:
13206:
13194:
13170:
13158:
13146:
13122:
13098:
13050:
13038:
13026:
12990:
12942:
12918:
12882:
12846:
12822:
12810:
12798:
12774:
12594:
12558:
12534:
12510:
12438:
12402:
12378:
12318:
12241:
12181:
12109:
12085:
12073:
12058:
12022:
12010:
11998:
11986:
11962:
11950:
11938:
11902:
11875:
11860:
11728:
11716:
11632:
11620:
11596:
11584:
11485:
11473:
11449:
11437:
11401:
11305:
11254:
11194:
11038:
11014:
10990:
10978:
10954:
10918:
10882:
10858:
10846:
10822:
10786:
10750:
10654:
10618:
10471:
10459:
10435:
10387:
10363:
10339:
10327:
10315:
10291:
10279:
10243:
10214:
10190:
10178:
10166:
10154:
10142:
10130:
10118:
10070:
10058:
10034:
10010:
9986:
9974:
9962:
9950:
9914:
9902:
9890:
9878:
9839:
9827:
9812:
9800:
9788:
9776:
9752:
9740:
9569:
9557:
9545:
9518:
9506:
9494:
9482:
9383:
9371:
9335:
9323:
9311:
9299:
9287:
9275:
9263:
9251:
9239:
9227:
9215:
9203:
9188:
9173:
9161:
9149:
9137:
9125:
9113:
9077:
9065:
9041:
9017:
8981:
8957:
8945:
8921:
8849:
8825:
8813:
8753:
8717:
8642:
8618:
8606:
8582:
8558:
8546:
8534:
8450:
8426:
8414:
8402:
8378:
8366:
8354:
8342:
8330:
8318:
8306:
8270:
8222:
8210:
8198:
8150:
8063:
8051:
8039:
8015:
8003:
7991:
7979:
7967:
7943:
7931:
7919:
7907:
7895:
7868:
7844:
7784:
7772:
7736:
7724:
7712:
7682:
7670:
7634:
7526:
7448:
7388:
7376:
7078:The most successful dynasties were the
6680:during his imperial coronation in Rome.
5913:
5826:Technological and military developments
4936:. Other improvements to ships included
4932:method rather than the Roman system of
4656:. Greek and Islamic influence replaced
4588:, chronicles, philosophical poems, and
4565:. Chivalric literature was inspired by
3345:in the west. Laypeople were obliged to
3325:lived under a religious rule as monks,
2830:
2630:. After an appeal by the widowed Queen
2234:donation of central Italian territories
422:and secular powers. With the spread of
19421:
16145:
16050:
15658:
15555:
15294:
15266:
15157:. The Short Oxford History of Europe.
15124:
14979:
14943:
14689:The Pelican History of Medieval Europe
14650:
14597:
14569:
14541:
14453:. Elements in the Global Middle Ages.
14358:
13914:
13886:
13833:. History of Europe (Third ed.).
13795:
13767:
13649:
13593:
13539:
13521:. What is History? (Second ed.).
13511:
13470:
13422:
13386:
13338:
13314:
13266:
13254:
13182:
13134:
13110:
13062:
13014:
12978:
12858:
12762:
12738:
12714:
12690:
12678:
12642:
12618:
12498:
12450:
12354:
12229:
12217:
12034:
11974:
11926:
11914:
11887:
11848:
11836:
11824:
11812:
11788:
11764:
11740:
11668:
11644:
11608:
11572:
11548:
11536:
11524:
11509:
11497:
11461:
11425:
11413:
11389:
11329:
11278:
11266:
11242:
11218:
11158:
11110:
11086:
11074:
11050:
11002:
10966:
10942:
10930:
10834:
10810:
10642:
10591:
10555:
10543:
10531:
10519:
10495:
10483:
10423:
10411:
10399:
10375:
10351:
10303:
10267:
10231:
10202:
10082:
10046:
9998:
9938:
9866:
9692:
9665:
9653:
9629:
9443:
9407:
9395:
9101:
9089:
9053:
9029:
8933:
8909:
8873:
8777:
8510:
8498:
8186:
7796:
7658:
7598:
7586:
7574:
7562:
7502:
7490:
7412:
7400:
6960:Prominent examples include cathedrals
5012:
3901:, who conquered England in 1066 under
3791:before clashing with the papacy under
3698:
3037:. In Christian Spain, artists adopted
2795:consolidated authority in Bohemia. In
2777:, Magyars, and the inhabitants of the
2584:(r. 871–99) reached an agreement with
2567:, with Christ receiving a church from
2505:(r. 898–922) to settle in present-day
2458:(r. 899–911) and the selection of the
2014:The Early Middle Ages saw the rise of
1507:In Western Europe, values attached to
1251:moved to Italy from the Balkans under
1167:
18029:
17482:
17456:
16839:
16216:
16117:
16022:
15833:
15461:
15407:The Western Church in the Middle Ages
15234:
15150:
15016:Making Money in the Early Middle Ages
14736:
14622:
14222:
14194:
14145:
14114:
13855:
13734:
13706:
13681:
13486:
13458:
13446:
13434:
13362:
13350:
13302:
13290:
13218:
13002:
12966:
12930:
12894:
12669:, pp. 230–235, 250–252, 325–326.
12630:
12606:
12582:
12570:
12546:
12522:
12486:
12474:
12462:
12426:
12414:
12390:
12366:
12330:
12306:
12294:
12282:
12270:
12253:
12097:
11800:
11776:
11752:
11704:
11692:
11680:
11656:
11206:
11182:
11170:
11146:
11134:
11122:
11098:
11062:
11026:
10906:
10894:
10870:
10798:
10714:
10702:
10690:
10678:
10630:
10255:
9926:
9764:
9704:
9530:
9467:
9455:
9431:
9419:
9359:
9347:
9005:
8993:
8969:
8897:
8888:, pp. 183–189, 209–213, 219–220.
8885:
8837:
8801:
8789:
8765:
8729:
8705:
8570:
8474:
8462:
8390:
8294:
8282:
8258:
8246:
8174:
8162:
8138:
8126:
8111:
8099:
8087:
8075:
8027:
7955:
7883:
7760:
7748:
7697:
7622:
7610:
7514:
7475:
7463:
7436:
7361:
7031:of its population to the Black Death.
6945:Cathedral of Christ's Transfiguration
6616:The idea is mainly attributed to the
6389:Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe
6067:Modern perceptions and historiography
5519:against the wealthy Knights Templar,
4959:for crops increased land use by over
4616:. Composers seceded from traditional
4394:quickly marginalised the traditional
3783:, the Ottonians were replaced by the
3683:culminated in the compilation of the
3467:with Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.
3121:rather than true cavalry. The use of
2827:the Byzantines between 971 and 1018.
2156:
1894:An 11th-century illustration of Pope
1414:, bodyguards, clerics and courtiers (
1387:
824:
526:and dissident movements condemned as
467:prompted the construction of massive
19307:
15694:; Remensnyder, Amy G., eds. (2012).
15428:
15037:
14847:
14682:
14576:Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
14443:
14362:Misconceptions About the Middle Ages
14174:Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph (1973).
14056:
13242:
13074:
12954:
12786:
12750:
12726:
12702:
12666:
12654:
12342:
12205:
12193:
12169:
12157:
12145:
11377:
11353:
11341:
11317:
11290:
11230:
9593:
7856:
7832:
7808:
7550:
7342:) are International Gothic examples.
7198:(r. 1347–54), but his conflict with
5649:Spanish colonization of the Americas
5447:to establish a strategic bridgehead
5325:(r. 1377–1434) and the Polish queen
5132:in 1497. Most Spanish Jews left for
5120:" were suspected of heresy, and the
4869:List of medieval European scientists
4499:A chantar m'er de so qu'eu no volria
4372:
3927:(r. 1189–99), but Richard's brother
3515:, built mainly between 1130 and 1156
2430:(r. 817–55) to go with his lands in
1800:
1489:, but could not conquer it. Emperor
1463:seized North Africa from the Vandals
1156:
942:Christianisation of the Roman Empire
490:, began the Late Middle Ages in the
17990:History of the Mediterranean region
16820:
16265:Decline of the Western Roman Empire
16187:News and articles about the period.
14854:. Routledge Companions to History.
14762:
13086:
7090:in central and eastern Europe, the
5139:
5037:Chroniques de France ou de St Denis
5001:
4851:. Increasing prosperity during the
4314:(r. 1259–82), ruler of a Byzantine
3368:
3142:
3101:and the progressive replacement of
2955:and the rich Anglo-Saxon burial at
2887:became an extraordinary example of
2841:pre-Romanesque art and architecture
2819:raiders sacked the Khazar capital,
1983:, to determine appropriate acts of
1523:were also created. The writings of
13:
16357:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire
16146:Stuard, Susan Mosher, ed. (1987).
16069:The New Cambridge Medieval History
16002:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15963:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15920:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15852:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15762:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15638:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15599:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15548:
15385:. Short Oxford History of Europe.
14826:When Science and Christianity Meet
14771:. Short Oxford History of Europe.
13543:Fashion: A Very Short Introduction
7331:Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry
7065:firms during the 1340s, when King
6825:Among the earliest law codes, the
5507:in 1309. During the period of the
5275:was ruled by feuding local lords.
5223:, and took control of an expanded
4318:, recaptured the city in 1261 but
3841:to elect the king was reaffirmed.
3822:during the reign of his grandson,
3760:war bands from the local Lombard,
3608:sometimes led to the rejection of
3493:expulsion of the Jews from England
2529:New kingdoms and Byzantine revival
2326:prayer books by the middle of the
1496:
1301:Other monarchies were established
1288:aristocracy. Britons fleeing from
629:), and 1517 (the beginning of the
486:, which reduced the population by
14:
19515:
19239:Western European and Others Group
16787:Historiography in the Middle Ages
16172:
14226:God and Reason in the Middle Ages
13716:. Library of World Civilization.
13487:Adams, Laurie Schneider (2011) .
12657:, pp. 250, 290–293, 325–327.
8501:, pp. 77–78, 90–93, 116–117.
6644:(r. 1109–26) reigned in León and
5523:(pope 1305–14) could not prevent
4955:The development of a three-field
4917:were first built after 1100, and
4345:, which gave rise to the sale of
4322:remained under western rule. The
3723:was strengthening, and the first
3498:
3073:The creation of heavily-armoured
2580:in Ireland. The Anglo-Saxon king
2346:Breakup of the Carolingian Empire
2275:), who administered the empire's
1788:controlled North Africa, and the
1721:in Arabia during the lifetime of
1453:Justinian nearly died during the
1042:received permission from Emperor
1026:to encroach beginning in the mid-
699:concept tend to avoid its use in
19401:
19384:
19367:
19350:
19333:
19316:
19288:
19276:
19264:
17975:Bibliography of European history
17570:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
16819:
16810:
16809:
16799:
16191:Medieval History Database (MHDB)
16154:University of Pennsylvania Press
15790:. Translated by Howlett, Janet.
15471:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks.
14478:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks.
14068:The University of Michigan Press
13777:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks.
13688:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks.
7317:
7300:
7279:
7266:
7241:
7226:(d. 1456) defeated the Ottomans
7209:
7182:was fought over the regency for
7156:
7143:
7126:
7101:
7072:
7051:
7034:
7017:
7000:
6991:
6954:
6933:
6918:The Church of the Virgin in the
6912:
6883:
6864:
6819:
6768:
6754:
6743:in northern Greece and Albania,
6733:
6716:
6683:
6667:
6635:
6610:
6593:
6575:
6558:
6544:
6511:
6494:
6473:
6452:
6443:
6419:
6398:
6373:
6360:
6343:
6313:
6288:
5941:became a major luxury industry.
5333:to Catholicism. In Scandinavia,
5072:The trauma of the plague led to
5027:Execution of ringleaders of the
4905:. In Europe, horizontal treadle
4278:, and reduced Al-Andalus to the
3471:were established and flourished
3008:. These were often protected by
2734:Byzantium revived under Emperor
2390:
2381:
2372:
1944:on agrarian products during the
1652:
1485:. The Avars, Slavs and Persians
1280:(r. 509–11), the founder of the
1097:, and the Vandals conquered the
837:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
227:
187:
125:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
53:
18000:History of Western civilization
17603:Christianity in the Middle Ages
16285:Christianity in the Middle Ages
16280:Decline of Hellenistic religion
16208:Resources for Medieval Studies.
15725:. Oxford Textual Perspectives.
14913:The University of Chicago Press
14629:Europe's Barbarians: AD 200–600
14338:The I Tatti Renaissance Library
13830:Early Medieval Europe, 300–1000
6268:
6243:
6226:
6217:
6170:school such as the medievalist
6146:(d. 1879), and German composer
5808:(d. 1500) sailed as far as the
4789:from Romanesque. They included
4379:Renaissance of the 12th century
4126:on the Volga, establishing the
4087:that led to the restoration of
3652:) were approved by the papacy.
3483:which manifested itself in the
2738:(r. 867–86) and his successors
2551:Christianisation of Kievan Rus'
964:among the Germanic peoples and
892:
636:Europe, according to historian
518:, Christian kingdoms won their
17844:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
17787:Christianity in the modern era
17558:Christianity in late antiquity
16867:European Middle Ages by region
16563:Crisis of the late Middle Ages
15326:. Daily Life through History.
15303:University of Washington Press
14990:West Virginia University Press
14744:. The Pelican History of Art.
14720:Trustees of the British Museum
14657:Europe in the High Middle Ages
14606:American Philosophical Society
14259:University of California Press
13569:Backman, Clifford R. (2022) .
7247:The Bohemian Diet elected the
7094:in the Mediterranean, and the
7069:repudiated their loans to him.
6853:) in Norway. In contrast, the
6298:(d. 823) held lands along the
6196:
6081:Middle Ages in popular culture
5739:The Book of the City of Ladies
5736:), wrote the feminist utopian
5692:(d. 1374) intensively studied
5255:(r. 1483–85) died fighting at
5076:and the self-mortification of
5019:Crisis of the late Middle Ages
4569:and the Celtic legends of the
4227:formed loosely-organised bands
4213:(pope 1088–99) proclaimed the
4063:. The kings of Hungary seized
3923:remained intact under his son
3612:by radical groups such as the
2539:Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180)
2090:, now known for Constantine's
1909:separation of church and state
1885:
1487:attacked Constantinople in 626
999:became a principal element of
847:Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs
644:, the conversion of Europe to
1:
17995:History of the European Union
16737:Disability in the Middle Ages
16410:Rise of the Republic of Genoa
16342:Rise of the Venetian Republic
15501:The Penguin History of Europe
15323:Daily Life in Medieval Europe
14662:The Penguin History of Europe
14472:Hoffmann, Richard C. (2014).
14306:Religion in the Medieval West
14155:. Translated by Peter Lewis.
13572:The Worlds of Medieval Europe
13479:
12741:, pp. 248–249, 251, 254.
8549:, pp. 143–150, 160, 226.
6790:
6779:
6568:on their clothes and live in
6564:Jews were required to wear a
6434:
6275:
6089:Medieval illustration of the
5904:
5838:
5730:
5674:
5613:
5348:After Polish, Hungarian, and
5043:
4922:
4873:military of the Mongol Empire
4731:and are typically covered by
4628:
4578:
4518:(female troubadour) known as
4138:such as the one ruled by the
3554:led to the separation of the
3207:
3183:
3174:), and those who worked (the
2996:triumph paved the way for an
2785:
2597:
2495:
2400:Territorial divisions of the
2084:
1860:
1543:
1532:
1503:Early medieval European dress
1410:of Justinian with Archbishop
1206:
768:Monumenta Germaniae Historica
607:
603:term first recorded in 1604.
550:Terminology and periodisation
183:
68:
42:
17292:Hereditary Kingdom of Norway
15441:Oxford Illustrated Histories
15404:Thomson, John A. F. (1998).
15320:Singman, Jeffrey L. (1999).
14959:Oxford Illustrated Histories
14873:McCormick, Michael (2010) .
13927:Oxford Illustrated Histories
13747:Oxford Illustrated Histories
12753:, pp. 424–425, 561–604.
12489:, pp. 328–332, 346–349.
12369:, pp. 180–181, 317–322.
11125:, pp. 336–337, 367–388.
10426:, pp. 166–167, 213–214.
10378:, pp. 209–212, 219–222.
9350:, pp. 131–134, 141–142.
7349:
6829:was compiled in Sicily, the
6816:, a hymn to the Virgin Mary.
6142:(d. 1881), French architect
5665:(French, early 15th century)
5619:and a popular handbook, the
5049:, gradually introducing the
4118:. Their commander-in-chief,
3691:, a 13th-century summary of
3546:and was excommunicated by a
3536:head of the Byzantine Church
3296:spread of German settlements
2981:of Ireland and Northumbria.
2781:. After Moravia fell due to
2746:(r. 913–59), members of the
2675:. Their multi-ethnic empire
2656:led to the formation of the
2547:Christianisation of Bulgaria
2240:marked the beginning of the
1477:defences collapsed during a
1153:maintained a claim on them.
1113:fell apart after his death.
886:(landowning) class. Emperor
478:Calamities which included a
170:Exploration of North America
25:Middle Ages (disambiguation)
7:
19504:History of Europe by period
17954:Russian invasion of Ukraine
17565:Crisis of the Third Century
15792:University of Chicago Press
15351:Early Medieval Architecture
14831:University of Chicago Press
14427:University of Toronto Press
14304:Hamilton, Bernard (2003) .
14004:Epstein, Steven A. (2009).
9128:, pp. xxvi–xxvii, 396.
7230:, and the Moldavian prince
7109:lands of the Bohemian Crown
5895:were recorded in the early
5837:, an agricultural calendar
5707:(d. 1321) and the prose of
5631:), laid the groundwork for
4863:Technology and the military
4758:is seen in works such as a
4197:in Syria, built during the
4161:
4036:, and the Swedes conquered
3768:between 1016 and 1091, and
3282:. Unlike slaves, serfs had
2603:) united the Picts and the
1776:and its replacement by the
1699: Expansion during the
1689: Expansion during the
1575:complications at childbirth
872:Crisis of the Third Century
756:Rerum italicarum scriptores
648:, took place in waves, and
10:
19520:
18010:Military history of Europe
18005:Maritime history of Europe
16538:Rise of the Ottoman Empire
16073:Cambridge University Press
16006:Cambridge University Press
15967:Cambridge University Press
15924:Cambridge University Press
15856:Cambridge University Press
15817:W. W. Norton & Company
15766:Cambridge University Press
15642:Cambridge University Press
15603:Cambridge University Press
15473:Cambridge University Press
15096:; Friedrichsen, G. W. S.;
15021:Princeton University Press
14982:Essays in Medieval Studies
14881:Cambridge University Press
14553:W. W. Norton & Company
14480:Cambridge University Press
14455:Cambridge University Press
14287:Princeton University Press
14231:Cambridge University Press
14206:Cambridge University Press
14098:Cambridge University Press
14012:Cambridge University Press
13987:Cambridge University Press
13957:. Pelican History of Art.
13779:Cambridge University Press
13718:W. W. Norton & Company
13690:Cambridge University Press
8357:, pp. 97–98, 117–118.
7327:and the miniatures in the
6529:in southern Scotland from
6488:Gospel Book of Charlemagne
6466:, indicate the renewal of
6431:Theobald I, Count of Blois
6385:Cathedral of Saint Étienne
6336:, and also the singing of
6093:in a 14th-century copy of
6073:Dark Ages (historiography)
6070:
5642:
5405:
5402:Rise of the Ottoman Empire
5395:
5016:
5005:
4866:
4809:, near Paris, under Abbot
4793:to reduce lateral thrust,
4376:
4286:tribes developed into the
4175:
4165:
4132:Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate
3153:
3146:
3012:made of gold, pearls, and
2834:
2644:in 951. His coronation as
2532:
2349:
2160:
1959:(pope 590–604) had sent a
1902:, dictating to a secretary
1804:
1656:
1500:
1391:
1171:
1160:
929:as the eastern capital of
834:
828:
714:
710:
577:, the Middle Ages and the
447:, led to the expansion of
18:
19009:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
18989:
18907:
18744:
18579:
18450:Standard Average European
18318:
18147:
18067:
17980:Genetic history of Europe
17962:
17767:
17583:
17523:
17490:
17391:Principality of Chernigov
17300:
17221:Principality of Catalonia
17118:
17109:
17006:
16886:
16873:
16795:
16724:
16583:
16478:
16465:Mongol invasion of Europe
16370:
16250:
15965:. Vol. IV (Part 2).
15922:. Vol. IV (Part 1).
15719:D'Arcens, Louise (2021).
12705:, pp. 407, 412, 472.
7539:Holmes & Standen 2018
6747:in western Anatolia, and
6722:A good example is Prince
6410:royal palace at Ingelheim
6355:consonance and dissonance
6257:assumed the command of a
6063:, was published in 1493.
5818:his voyage of exploration
5742:. The standardisation of
5495:Controversy in the church
5055:Great Famine of 1315–1317
4994:, heavy body armour, and
4901:, and the manufacture of
4689:Architecture and the arts
4432:Ancient Greek philosopher
4332:to expand into the region
4326:, against the Cathars of
4043:In the east, Kievan Rus'
3737:representative assemblies
3560:Eastern Orthodox Churches
3170:), those who fought (the
2951:from Childeric's tomb at
2634:(d. 999) for protection,
2302:(d. 804). He developed a
2268:"emperor of the Romans".
2024:hagiographical literature
2018:. Monastic ideals spread
1442:, was made under Emperor
997:Christ's enthroned figure
669:Romance language-speaking
207:
186:
178:
117:
91:
52:
41:
36:
19149:Lancaster House Treaties
18639:Christian existentialism
18599:Ancient Roman philosophy
18589:Ancient Greek philosophy
17370:Bosnia and Herzegovina (
15295:Sedlar, Jean W. (1994).
15246:Very Short Introductions
15130:Encyclopedia of Religion
14598:Ilardi, Vincent (2007).
14342:Harvard University Press
14040:W. W. Norton and Company
13548:Very Short Introductions
13540:Arnold, Rebecca (2009).
13518:What is Medieval History
13490:A History of Western Art
13353:, pp. 241–253, 264.
12981:, pp. 302–315, 322.
12633:, pp. 177–178, 359.
12333:, pp. 165, 194–196.
12220:, pp. 153, 198–208.
11464:, pp. 266, 295–301.
11293:, pp. 107, 209–224.
11029:, pp. 185–188, 299.
8657:, pp. 753–754, 763.
8537:, pp. 136, 141–142.
8345:, pp. 116, 195–197.
7763:, pp. 65–68, 82–94.
7220:league of Albanian lords
7107:The Luxemburgs held the
6891:Basilica of Saint-Sernin
6804:(d. 1158), the poems of
6189:
5938:The Lady and the Unicorn
5903:quickly began to spread
5633:early modern witch hunts
5263:, consolidated power as
5074:pogroms against the Jews
4665:positional number system
4648:in Catholic Europe: the
4312:Michael VIII Palaiologos
4024:(two dynasties from the
3877:Robert, Count of Mortain
3085:composite bow. The Avar
2906:, fortified courtyards,
2543:Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
2488:raided the British Isles
2418:. A kingdom between the
2109:In Western Christendom,
1647:Muslim conquest of Spain
1313:in northwestern Iberia,
1276:(d. 481). Under his son
1255:(r. 493–526). He set up
510:a new Muslim power: the
376:agricultural innovations
18927:Equality before the law
18134:Romano-Germanic culture
17985:History of Christianity
17301:Central, Eastern Europe
17007:Central, Eastern Europe
16420:Investiture Controversy
16390:Second Bulgarian Empire
16129:Oxford University Press
15809:Hartnell, Jack (2019).
15727:Oxford University Press
15522:Wickham, Chris (2016).
15445:Oxford University Press
15387:Oxford University Press
15360:Oxford University Press
15250:Oxford University Press
15218:Oxford University Press
15159:Oxford University Press
15108:Oxford University Press
15050:Oxford University Press
15038:Nees, Lawrence (2002).
15013:Naismith, Rory (2023).
14963:Oxford University Press
14773:Oxford University Press
14652:Jordan, William Chester
14581:Oxford University Press
14517:Oxford University Press
14399:Oxford University Press
14177:Life in a Medieval City
14129:Oxford University Press
13931:Oxford University Press
13898:Oxford University Press
13751:Oxford University Press
13682:Bitel, Lisa M. (2002).
13577:Oxford University Press
13552:Oxford University Press
12645:, pp. 24, 394–395.
11671:, pp. 82, 93, 109.
10945:, pp. 60, 149–152.
7505:, pp. 21, 132–134.
7337:Very Rich Hours of the
7166:broke out when Emperor
7057:This happened with the
6897:is one of the earliest
6525:(d. 1141) received the
6414:kings' palace at Oviedo
6294:Among the Slav rulers,
6178:, with its emphasis on
6130:, the brutality of the
5899:, and the use of cheap
5844:, from a manuscript of
5515:(r. 1285–1314) brought
5319:Polish–Lithuanian union
5219:, captured the city of
4909:were introduced in the
4817:Manuscript illumination
4667:, and the invention of
4592:. Theatre developed in
4390:, and the more-lenient
4239:Raymond of Saint-Gilles
3875:and his half-brothers,
3640:. In the 13th century,
3583:Investiture Controversy
3081:in place of the weaker
3053:Military and technology
2885:Great Mosque of Córdoba
2823:, in 965. Bulgaria was
2426:rivers was created for
2296:Carolingian Renaissance
2123:their personal property
2040:(d. 547) developed the
1987:—typically prayers and
1930:unilateral modification
1784:(or Muslim Spain), the
1076:sacked the city of Rome
1009:illuminated manuscripts
870:combined to create the
703:, although studies of "
654:interpersonal relations
625:'s first voyage to the
416:Investiture Controversy
19484:15th century in Europe
19479:14th century in Europe
19474:13th century in Europe
19469:12th century in Europe
19464:11th century in Europe
19459:10th century in Europe
19089:Eastern European Group
18678:Continental philosophy
18609:Judeo-Christian ethics
18594:Hellenistic philosophy
18075:Cradle of civilization
17809:Grand Duchy of Tuscany
17185:Burgundian Netherlands
17026:Bosnia and Herzegovina
16777:Post-classical history
16533:Fall of Constantinople
16440:Capet–Plantagenet feud
16307:First Bulgarian Empire
15268:Russel, Jeffrey Burton
15151:Power, Daniel (2006).
14632:. The Medieval World.
14450:The Global Middle Ages
14223:Grant, Edward (2001).
13656:Art of the Middle Ages
13651:Benton, Janetta Rebold
13377:, pp. 17–18, 137.
12765:, pp. 26, 32, 96.
10582:, pp. 45–48, 116.
9953:, pp. 6, 11, 171.
7379:, pp. xvii–xviii.
7329:
7306:The Portuguese prince
7293:
7287:
6903:
6872:
6843:
6841:) in Castile, and the
6831:
6827:Constitutions of Melfi
6810:
6502:
6320:
6238:Brunhilda of Austrasia
6164:
6099:
6043:
6031:
5956:(d. 1446) studied the
5849:
5774:
5766:
5758:
5748:
5666:
5621:
5591:
5436:
5430:
5416:Hungarian–Ottoman Wars
5412:Bulgarian–Ottoman wars
5408:Byzantine–Ottoman wars
5368:). Under Grand Prince
5343:Danish–Norwegian union
5329:(r. 1384–99), and the
5297:
5188:
5171:
5163:
5155:
5086:
5039:
5029:
4893:
4717:
4705:
4650:
4636:
4610:
4539:
4523:
4512:
4504:
4498:
4477:
4469:
4434:, and his emphasis on
4418:about the concept of "
4400:
4306:in 1204, setting up a
4274:
4206:
3972:
3959:
3917:Anglo-Norman lordships
3894:
3708:
3685:
3516:
3457:
3412:
3404:
3382:
3333:. The introduction of
3288:
3245:
3179:
3089:introduced the use of
3070:
2860:
2859:from the British Isles
2857:illuminated manuscript
2752:Macedonian Renaissance
2654:fight for independence
2618:established itself in
2573:
2281:
2182:
1903:
1828:
1751:the Visigothic Kingdom
1705:
1679: Expansion under
1673:early Muslim conquests
1663:Early Muslim conquests
1625:
1612:
1579:
1436:
1423:
1416:Basilica of San Vitale
1351:First Bulgarian Empire
1290:
1187:
1139:
855:
766:
754:
741:
631:Protestant Reformation
619:fall of Constantinople
595:
566:
271:personal relationships
165:Fall of Constantinople
23:. For other uses, see
21:Post-classical history
19454:9th century in Europe
19449:8th century in Europe
19444:7th century in Europe
19439:6th century in Europe
19209:Three Seas Initiative
19184:Pacific Islands Forum
19049:British–Irish Council
18797:Greek Orthodox Church
18256:Industrial Revolution
18226:Scientific Revolution
17889:Industrial Revolution
17062:Late Medieval Kingdom
17058:High Medieval Kingdom
15985:McKitterick, Rosamond
15946:Riley-Smith, Jonathan
15903:Riley-Smith, Jonathan
15556:Aberth, John (2019).
15530:Yale University Press
15383:The Later Middle Ages
15356:Oxford History of Art
15278:Bloomsbury Publishing
15076:Arms and Armour Press
15046:Oxford History of Art
14998:10.1353/ems.2005.0010
14769:The Later Middle Ages
14344:. pp. ix–xviii.
13959:Yale University Press
13807:Yale University Press
9842:, pp. 41, 88–91.
7067:Edward III of England
7010:in Europe during the
6986:Saint Vitus Cathedral
6909:(Way of Saint James).
6870:Reportedly, the tall
6678:verses from the Quran
6527:Lordship of Annandale
6144:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc
6088:
5966:one-point perspective
5835:Labours of the Months
5833:
5656:
5629:Hammer of the Witches
5423:
5335:Margaret I of Denmark
5331:Lithuanian conversion
5241:Charles VII of France
5183:
5026:
4881:Portrait of Cardinal
4880:
4867:Further information:
4696:
4496:
4450:(d. 1164) introduced
4193:
4116:between 1236 and 1242
4102:With the rise of the
4099:gained independence.
4085:anti-Byzantine revolt
4055:in 1169. Poland also
3903:William the Conqueror
3870:William the Conqueror
3863:
3706:
3671:(d. 1226), was often
3506:
3387:commercial revolution
3376:
3161:
3060:
3010:sumptuous book covers
2977:—two examples of the
2883:. In Al-Andalus, the
2848:
2807:, the princes of the
2791:, dukes of the Czech
2558:
2470:(r. 987–96) as king.
2308:Carolingian minuscule
2306:, presently known as
2170:
2151:Liberty of the Church
2016:Christian monasticism
1893:
1814:
1670:
1603:
1412:Maximianus of Ravenna
1405:
1181:
1003:. Under Constantine,
923:Constantine the Great
844:
728:
615:Western Roman Emperor
557:
380:commercial revolution
311:, which had begun in
19204:Special Relationship
18614:Christian philosophy
18559:Western Christianity
18221:Age of Enlightenment
18095:Hellenistic Kingdoms
17944:European debt crisis
17939:European integration
17879:Age of Enlightenment
17719:Republic of Florence
17270:Caliphate of Córdoba
17176:Republic of Florence
16757:Medieval reenactment
16553:Renaissance Humanism
16460:Medieval Warm Period
16430:Republic of Florence
16244:European Middle Ages
16034:Blackwell Publishing
15690:; Doubleday, Simon;
15621:Allmand, Christopher
15447:. pp. 297–351.
15220:. pp. 362–378.
14965:. pp. 175–234.
14899:Mommsen, Theodore E.
14848:Lock, Peter (2006).
14791:Lightbown, Ronald W.
14775:. pp. 109–134.
14579:(Seventh ed.).
14526:10.1093/pastj/gty030
14277:Grzymała-Busse, Anna
14100:. pp. 454–493.
13933:. pp. 235–296.
12561:, pp. 192, 231.
12549:, pp. 178, 198.
12477:, pp. 186, 328.
11113:, pp. 300, 333.
9242:, pp. 350, 365.
8840:, pp. 322, 495.
8487:Gies & Gies 1973
8333:, pp. 116, 197.
6947:in the Rus' city of
6701:by marrying heiress
6541:in Ireland by force.
6427:the residential keep
6152:Romantic nationalism
5920:International Gothic
5914:Art and architecture
5848:'s manual on farming
5718:The Canterbury Tales
5694:classical literature
5568:anti-heresy crusades
5537:Council of Constance
5350:Lithuanian invasions
5251:, which ended after
5239:(d. 1431). By 1453,
5096:in England, and the
4637:Corpus Juris Civilis
4575:Geoffrey of Monmouth
4535:vernacular languages
4203:Knights Hospitallers
4095:. West of Bulgaria,
4008:Caliphate of Córdoba
3965:royal court at Paris
3911:(r. 1154–89) of the
3540:Michael I Cerularius
3219:more clement climate
3204:population expansion
3162:13th-century French
3018:monumental sculpture
2889:Moorish architecture
2837:Migration Period art
2831:Architecture and art
2769:, Danubian Bulgars,
2404:in 843, 855, and 870
2195:Mayors of the Palace
2046:Theodore the Studite
1753:in 711, and invaded
1525:Sidonius Apollinaris
1438:Corpus Juris Civilis
1111:Hunnic confederation
1052:Battle of Adrianople
968:in Egypt and Syria.
814:chronological dating
623:Christopher Columbus
372:Medieval Warm Period
333:Eastern Roman Empire
321:Western Roman Empire
80:Parable of the Sower
65:Canterbury Cathedral
19229:West Nordic Council
19094:Eastern Partnership
18683:Analytic philosophy
18384:Classical tradition
18206:Early modern period
18162:Classical antiquity
18157:European Bronze Age
17909:Revolutions of 1848
17839:Early modern France
17620:Anglo-Saxon England
17525:Classical antiquity
17261:Lordship of Ireland
17256:Kingdom of Scotland
17245:Kingdom of Portugal
17225:Kingdom of Valencia
17195:Kingdom of Asturias
16470:Kingdom of Portugal
16337:Old Church Slavonic
16322:Anglo-Saxon England
15389:. pp. 79–107.
15379:Lazzarini, Isabella
15134:Macmillan Reference
14799:Thames & Hudson
14765:Lazzarini, Isabella
14742:Ars Sacra, 800–1200
14718:(Second ed.).
14497:Holmes, Catherine;
14308:(Second ed.).
14180:. Apollo Editions.
13665:Thames & Hudson
13603:(Second ed.).
13575:(Fourth ed.).
13437:, pp. 626–630.
13365:, pp. 265–267.
13341:, pp. 257–262.
13305:, pp. 237–238.
13293:, pp. 237–240.
13281:, pp. 294–298.
13257:, pp. 241–242.
13197:, pp. 203–204.
13149:, pp. 492–493.
13137:, pp. 284–285.
13125:, pp. 483–490.
13089:, pp. 131–134.
13029:, pp. 213–214.
13017:, pp. 213–222.
12993:, pp. 568–569.
12969:, pp. 460–462.
12957:, pp. 437–439.
12945:, pp. 211–213.
12933:, pp. 359–361.
12921:, pp. 199–200.
12909:, pp. 146–147.
12885:, pp. 213–217.
12873:, pp. 136–137.
12861:, pp. 389–390.
12837:, pp. 135–136.
12825:, pp. 193–194.
12789:, pp. 331–333.
12777:, pp. 164–170.
12717:, pp. 266–267.
12693:, pp. 385–387.
12681:, pp. 256–257.
12609:, pp. 177–178.
12597:, pp. 183–184.
12573:, pp. 200–201.
12537:, pp. 229–230.
12465:, pp. 184–186.
12453:, pp. 268–270.
12441:, pp. 220–221.
12429:, pp. 324–327.
12417:, pp. 344–345.
12405:, pp. 549–550.
12393:, pp. 320–322.
12345:, pp. 319–322.
12309:, pp. 171–172.
12256:, pp. 420–425.
12232:, pp. 105–114.
12208:, pp. 237–239.
12184:, pp. 246–247.
12160:, pp. 234–237.
12136:, pp. 236–242.
12124:, pp. 236–239.
12112:, pp. 531–542.
12100:, pp. 420–423.
12049:, pp. 323–325.
12037:, pp. 210–219.
12025:, pp. 294–296.
12013:, pp. 134–138.
11905:, pp. 193–194.
11863:, pp. 191–192.
11851:, pp. 248–250.
11839:, pp. 264–278.
11827:, pp. 245–247.
11815:, pp. 250–258.
11803:, pp. 199–219.
11791:, pp. 201–240.
11779:, pp. 205–219.
11755:, pp. 198–199.
11707:, pp. 240–250.
11695:, pp. 638–644.
11683:, pp. 639–640.
11659:, pp. 186–191.
11635:, pp. 138–147.
11599:, pp. 343–344.
11587:, pp. 333–337.
11561:Grzymała-Busse 2023
11551:, pp. 325–334.
11539:, pp. 209–211.
11527:, pp. 178–182.
11500:, pp. 413–414.
11488:, pp. 352–359.
11452:, pp. 433–434.
11440:, pp. 324–333.
11416:, pp. 409–410.
11404:, pp. 345–348.
11380:, pp. 353–355.
11356:, pp. 333–342.
11344:, pp. 313–317.
11332:, pp. 173–174.
11308:, pp. 423–424.
11269:, pp. 118–126.
11257:, pp. 313–314.
11245:, pp. 115–118.
11233:, pp. 139–140.
11221:, pp. 112–115.
11209:, pp. 716–717.
11185:, pp. 703–715.
11173:, pp. 711–712.
11161:, pp. 458–460.
11149:, pp. 660–666.
11137:, pp. 674–694.
11101:, pp. 300–305.
11089:, pp. 344–352.
11077:, pp. 307–315.
11065:, pp. 304–307.
11053:, pp. 322–325.
11041:, pp. 279–281.
11005:, pp. 266–268.
10993:, pp. 404–406.
10981:, pp. 400–401.
10969:, pp. 156–160.
10921:, pp. 261–264.
10873:, pp. 160–170.
10861:, pp. 409–413.
10837:, pp. 182–203.
10825:, pp. 259–260.
10813:, pp. 206–210.
10789:, pp. 371–379.
10765:, pp. 155–160.
10763:Grzymała-Busse 2023
10753:, pp. 395–399.
10739:Grzymała-Busse 2023
10727:Grzymała-Busse 2023
10681:, pp. 272–273.
10667:Grzymała-Busse 2023
10657:, pp. 395–396.
10633:, pp. 287–288.
10621:, pp. 188–191.
10570:, pp. 133–134.
10558:, pp. 199–203.
10546:, pp. 162–172.
10450:, pp. 140–143.
10438:, pp. 298–300.
10402:, pp. 217–218.
10330:, pp. 461–464.
10318:, pp. 110–118.
10294:, pp. 100–103.
10193:, pp. 177–178.
10025:, pp. 111–123.
10013:, pp. 221–222.
9989:, pp. 231–232.
9977:, pp. 220–221.
9893:, pp. 247–249.
9719:, pp. 233–238.
9596:, pp. 104–105.
9497:, pp. 232–233.
9470:, pp. 239–248.
9458:, pp. 289–300.
9434:, pp. 343–347.
9422:, pp. 391–400.
9410:, pp. 321–326.
9398:, pp. 318–320.
9386:, pp. 476–477.
9374:, pp. 366–370.
9362:, pp. 143–151.
9326:, pp. 376–386.
9314:, pp. 255–257.
9302:, pp. 394–411.
9266:, pp. 362–363.
9230:, pp. 394–395.
9218:, pp. 191–199.
9206:, pp. 488–489.
9191:, pp. 341–342.
9164:, pp. 401–403.
9140:, pp. 186–189.
9116:, pp. 318–331.
9044:, pp. 162–165.
9020:, pp. 159–162.
9008:, pp. 103–110.
8996:, pp. 105–110.
8984:, pp. 280–288.
8960:, pp. 276–279.
8948:, pp. 150–154.
8924:, pp. 214–216.
8900:, pp. 285–286.
8852:, pp. 185–187.
8828:, pp. 239–240.
8804:, pp. 527–530.
8792:, pp. 127–130.
8768:, pp. 130–133.
8756:, pp. 170–172.
8720:, pp. 220–233.
8693:, pp. 670–677.
8681:, pp. 791–792.
8669:, pp. 708–733.
8621:, pp. 347–349.
8609:, pp. 218–219.
8597:, pp. 372–373.
8585:, pp. 373–375.
8561:, pp. 376–377.
8453:, pp. 119–120.
8441:, pp. 733–744.
8417:, pp. 211–212.
8405:, pp. 205–210.
8393:, pp. 180–182.
8369:, pp. 113–118.
8321:, pp. 195–199.
8309:, pp. 189–193.
8285:, pp. 174–181.
8273:, pp. 138–141.
8249:, pp. 150–156.
8237:, pp. 374–375.
8225:, pp. 130–131.
8189:, pp. 235–238.
8153:, pp. 203–209.
8066:, pp. 164–165.
8054:, pp. 156–159.
8042:, pp. 102–103.
8006:, pp. 116–134.
7898:, pp. 145–180.
7886:, pp. 122–124.
7859:, pp. 156–157.
7493:, pp. 291–293.
7308:Henry the Navigator
7253:George of Poděbrady
6974:Salisbury Cathedral
6920:Studenica Monastery
6899:pilgrimage churches
6765:or excommunication.
6707:Louis VII of France
6570:their own districts
6464:Harbaville Triptych
6412:, and the Asturian
6381:Barcelona Cathedral
6255:Unn the Deep-Minded
6060:Nuremberg Chronicle
5970:Florence Baptistery
5846:Pietro de Crescenzi
5623:Malleus Maleficarum
5572:Council of Florence
5471:, Byzantine Greece
5441:Catalan mercenaries
5426:Battle of Nicopolis
5122:Spanish Inquisition
5084:which included the
5013:Society and economy
4787:Gothic architecture
4567:classical mythology
4554:The Poem of the Cid
4442:. Scholars such as
4347:plenary indulgences
4324:Albigensian Crusade
4235:Godfrey of Bouillon
4219:Council of Clermont
4195:Krak des Chevaliers
4186:Rhineland massacres
3721:hereditary monarchy
3699:Rise of state power
3677:Hildegard of Bingen
3542:(d. 1059), refused
3256:fundamental classes
3164:historiated initial
3123:militia-type levies
2975:Lindisfarne Gospels
2689:East European Plain
2662:counts of Barcelona
2081:liturgical language
2077:Old Church Slavonic
2075:(d. 869) developed
2036:. The Italian monk
1967:to popular saints'
1717:. The emergence of
1282:Merovingian dynasty
1253:Theoderic the Great
1242:150 tribal kingdoms
1168:Post-Roman kingdoms
1001:early Christian art
985:their own symbolism
956:faced persecution.
954:ecumenical councils
919:period of civil war
868:outbreaks of plague
591:Christoph Cellarius
473:Gothic architecture
353:Carolingian dynasty
297:counterurbanisation
212:Early modern period
18688:Post-structuralism
18651:Christian humanism
18281:Universal suffrage
18015:Crusading movement
17919:Russian Revolution
17754:Hundred Years' War
17650:Maritime republics
17553:Early Christianity
17543:Hellenistic period
17500:Paleolithic Europe
17421:Grand Principality
17339:Kingdom of Croatia
17286:Emirate of Granada
17251:Kingdom of England
17235:Kingdom of Navarre
17229:Kingdom of Majorca
17207:Kingdom of Galicia
17203:Kingdom of Castile
17166:Republic of Venice
17137:Kingdom of Bohemia
16651:In popular culture
16616:Crusading movement
16488:Hundred Years' War
16347:Civitas Schinesghe
16332:Carolingian Empire
16317:Kingdom of Croatia
16270:Barbarian kingdoms
15206:Bennett, Judith M.
15041:Early Medieval Art
14821:Numbers, Ronald L.
14817:Lindberg, David C.
14543:Hoppin, Richard H.
14508:Past & Present
14131:. pp. 68–83.
14117:Bennett, Judith M.
13493:(Fifth ed.).
13317:, p. 253–256.
12525:, pp. 64, 86.
10282:, pp. 83, 89.
10097:, pp. 32, 79.
9815:, pp. 59, 67.
9803:, pp. 58, 76.
9791:, pp. 34, 39.
9080:, pp. 45, 49.
8018:, pp. 98–101.
7589:, pp. 37, 40.
7274:Basilios Bessarion
7192:John Kantakouzenos
7174:(r. 1328–41), for
7096:Valois of Burgundy
6943:in Venice and the
6941:St Mark's Basilica
6905:Camino de Santiago
6861:) in royal courts.
6808:(d. 1202/03), and
6553:War of Saint Sabas
6533:(r. 1124–53), but
6470:during the period.
6408:, the Carolingian
6383:, the five-aisled
6281:by the end of the
6156:national awakening
6100:
5997:The Birth of Venus
5962:Florence Cathedral
5850:
5727:Christine de Pizan
5686:Marsilius of Padua
5682:natural philosophy
5667:
5437:
5305:Granada in 1492.
5259:and his opponent,
5233:Henry V of England
5207:(r. 1327–77) laid
5201:Hundred Years' War
5189:
5134:the Ottoman Empire
5040:
4971:led to the use of
4894:
4883:Hugh of Saint-Cher
4752:Nicholas of Verdun
4706:
4646:ecclesiastical law
4548:The Song of Roland
4524:
4452:Aristotelian logic
4384:Cathedral chapters
4339:crusading movement
4280:Emirate of Granada
4259:captured Jerusalem
4207:
4172:Crusading movement
4075:, and the nomadic
3937:Philip II Augustus
3895:
3843:Rudolf of Habsburg
3835:Charles I of Anjou
3709:
3587:Concordat of Worms
3517:
3473:in northern France
3437:maritime republics
3383:
3258:: the clergy, the
3180:
3071:
3039:Islamic decorative
3014:polished gemstones
2861:
2748:Macedonian dynasty
2721:settled in Iceland
2719:. Norse colonists
2658:Kingdom of Navarre
2646:Holy Roman Emperor
2574:
2515:Battle of Lechfeld
2503:Charles the Simple
2402:Carolingian Empire
2251:(r. 768–814), and
2183:
2163:Carolingian Empire
2157:Carolingian Europe
2038:Benedict of Nursia
1995:. They emphasised
1973:Irish missionaries
1904:
1898:, inspired by the
1829:
1757:beginning in 713.
1706:
1691:Rashidun Caliphate
1613:
1467:outbreak of plague
1424:
1388:Byzantine survival
1192:Popular assemblies
1188:
1174:Barbarian kingdoms
1135:Romulus Augustulus
1105:. The Hunnic king
1095:settled in Britain
950:Christian theology
911:junior co-emperors
856:
831:Later Roman Empire
825:Later Roman Empire
742:
599:("middle age"), a
567:
500:Hundred Years' War
414:and triggered the
365:Carolingian Empire
293:Population decline
155:Hundred Years' War
19252:
19251:
19079:Council of Europe
18981:International law
18934:Constitutionalism
18792:Eastern Orthodoxy
18298:Post–Cold War era
18231:Age of Revolution
18085:Greco-Roman world
18023:
18022:
17949:COVID-19 pandemic
17894:French Revolution
17869:Habsburg monarchy
17849:Cossack Hetmanate
17829:Portuguese Empire
17819:Absolute monarchy
17814:Thirty Years' War
17709:Holy Roman Empire
17634:Bulgarian Empire
17593:Early Middle Ages
17510:Bronze Age Europe
17484:History of Europe
17450:
17449:
17446:
17445:
17402:Novgorod Republic
17376:Kingdom of Bosnia
17314:Bulgarian Empire
17217:Kingdom of Aragon
17181:Duchy of Burgundy
17171:Republic of Genoa
17161:Kingdom of Naples
17156:Kingdom of Sicily
17145:Swiss Confederacy
17133:Holy Roman Empire
17105:
17104:
16833:
16832:
16742:Basic topics list
16543:Swiss mercenaries
16493:Wars of the Roses
16400:Kingdom of Poland
16385:Holy Roman Empire
16252:Early Middle Ages
16163:978-0-8122-1290-7
16138:978-0-19-924427-0
16110:978-0-19-820648-4
16082:978-1-139-05572-7
16071:. Vol. III.
16043:978-1-405-12964-0
16015:978-1-139-05571-0
15976:978-1-139-05403-4
15933:978-1-139-05402-7
15890:978-0-2747-9776-9
15865:978-1-139-05574-1
15826:978-1-324-00216-1
15801:978-0-226-31083-1
15775:978-1-139-05393-8
15736:978-0-19-882595-1
15711:978-0-415-78065-0
15679:978-0-688-12302-4
15660:Cantor, Norman F.
15651:978-1-139-05575-8
15640:. Vol. VII.
15612:978-1-139-05573-4
15573:978-0-415-72930-7
15539:978-0-3002-0834-4
15514:978-0-713-99429-2
15482:978-0-521-79664-4
15454:978-0-19-285220-5
15421:978-0-340-60118-1
15396:978-0-19-873163-4
15369:978-0-19-284223-7
15337:978-0-313-36076-3
15312:978-0-295-97290-9
15287:978-0-275-95904-3
15259:978-0-19-969729-8
15227:978-0-19-877938-4
15210:Karras, Ruth Mazo
15196:978-0-7535-5957-4
15168:978-0-19-925312-8
15143:978-0-02-865980-0
15117:978-0-19-861112-7
15098:Burchfield, R. W.
15085:978-1-854-09236-6
15059:978-0-19-284243-5
15030:978-0-691-17740-3
14972:978-0-19-285220-5
14890:978-0-521-66102-7
14865:978-0-415-39312-6
14840:978-0-226-48214-9
14833:. pp. 7–32.
14808:978-0-500-99027-8
14782:978-0-19-873163-4
14703:978-0-14-021085-9
14675:978-0-140-16664-4
14664:. Vol. III.
14643:978-0-582-77296-0
14615:978-0-87169-259-7
14590:978-0-19-431606-4
14562:978-0-393-09090-1
14501:(November 2018).
14489:978-0-521-70037-5
14464:978-1-009-16116-9
14436:978-0-8020-6984-9
14417:Henderson, George
14408:978-0-19-532541-6
14380:978-0-415-87113-6
14373:. pp. 1–27.
14351:978-0-674-00506-8
14319:978-0-340-80839-9
14296:978-0-6912-4508-9
14268:978-0-520-20714-1
14249:Griffiths, Antony
14240:978-0-521-80279-6
14215:978-0-521-43344-0
14187:978-0-8152-0345-2
14166:978-0-674-05562-9
14138:978-0-19-877938-4
14121:Karras, Ruth Mazo
14107:978-0-521-26646-8
14077:978-0-472-08260-5
14049:978-0-393-92915-7
14021:978-0-521-70653-7
13996:978-1-107-02335-2
13977:Ellenblum, Ronnie
13968:978-0-300-06493-3
13940:978-0-19-285220-5
13907:978-0-19-520912-9
13893:Europe: A History
13879:978-90-04-41534-8
13848:978-0-333-69381-0
13816:978-0-300-07852-7
13797:Colish, Marcia L.
13788:978-0-521-84666-0
13760:978-0-19-285220-5
13753:. pp. 1–62.
13727:978-0-393-95803-4
13699:978-0-521-59773-9
13674:978-0-500-20350-7
13642:978-0-140-15409-2
13614:978-0-415-17415-2
13586:978-0-1975-7153-8
13561:978-0-19-954790-6
13532:978-1-5095-3256-8
13504:978-0-07-337922-7
13425:, pp. 49–58.
13185:, pp. 6, 51.
12813:, pp. 83–86.
11929:, pp. 69–70.
11647:, pp. 61–62.
11368:, pp. 46–47.
10741:, pp. 92–98.
10729:, pp. 86–90.
10717:, pp. 75–79.
10669:, pp. 68–70.
10498:, pp. 87–94.
10486:, pp. 93–94.
10366:, pp. 78–83.
10342:, pp. 78–81.
10306:, pp. 48–49.
10270:, pp. 70–71.
10246:, pp. 74–85.
10205:, pp. 41–42.
10181:, pp. 14–15.
10145:, pp. 11–12.
10109:, pp. 24–39.
10049:, pp. 36–37.
10001:, pp. 10–12.
9755:, pp. 30–31.
9743:, pp. 28–29.
9731:, pp. 60–77.
9707:, pp. 16–18.
9695:, pp. 47–49.
9680:, pp. 40–41.
9668:, pp. 32–38.
9656:, pp. 36–37.
9644:, pp. 22–28.
9632:, pp. 41–42.
9620:, pp. 63–64.
9608:, pp. 47–57.
9584:, pp. 35–40.
9572:, pp. 83–90.
9560:, pp. 88–89.
9548:, pp. 96–97.
9521:, pp. 43–44.
9509:, pp. 21–44.
9485:, pp. 28–29.
9056:, pp. 66–70.
8972:, pp. 97–99.
8876:, pp. 63–65.
8864:, pp. 43–44.
8816:, pp. 75–77.
8780:, pp. 62–63.
8732:, pp. 45–46.
8477:, pp. 24–26.
8297:, pp. 45–49.
8201:, pp. 81–82.
8177:, pp. 71–77.
8165:, pp. 51–59.
8102:, pp. 79–81.
8090:, pp. 77–78.
8078:, pp. 82–94.
8030:, pp. 11–13.
7982:, pp. 96–97.
7958:, pp. 67–69.
7922:, pp. 59–60.
7871:, pp. 31–33.
7847:, pp. 21–23.
7835:, pp. 52–56.
7811:, pp. 32–36.
7787:, pp. 60–75.
7775:, pp. 43–45.
7739:, pp. 23–24.
7700:, pp. 24–25.
7673:, pp. 10–14.
7661:, pp. 47–50.
7649:, pp. 17–19.
7625:, pp. 28–29.
7613:, pp. 17–23.
7601:, pp. 44–45.
7577:, pp. 26–27.
7553:, pp. 18–24.
7541:, pp. 15–16.
7257:Matthias Corvinus
7251:Czech aristocrat
7232:Stephen the Great
7027:in Germany, lost
6978:Cologne Cathedral
6851:Code of the Realm
6776:Guibert of Nogent
6709:(r. 1137–80) was
6566:distinctive badge
6387:in Paris and the
6326:Aurelian of Réôme
6308:March of Pannonia
6160:Leopold von Ranke
6132:French Revolution
5980:artists restored
5978:Early Renaissance
5810:Cape of Good Hope
5680:) concluded that
5671:William of Ockham
5657:Clerics studying
5525:their suppression
5360:, the princes of
5354:succession crises
5249:Wars of the Roses
5082:popular uprisings
4942:stern-post rudder
4934:mortise and tenon
4903:distilled spirits
4887:Tommaso da Modena
4807:Saint-Denis Abbey
4795:flying buttresses
4683:school at Salerno
4652:Decretum Gratiani
4626:Franco of Cologne
4622:mensural notation
4600:such as those by
4559:Chivalric romance
4541:chansons de geste
4529:and the ethos of
4494:
4392:cathedral schools
4373:Intellectual life
4343:beginning in 1213
4304:captured the city
4288:Northern Crusades
4032:, Denmark seized
3899:Dukes of Normandy
3892:Duchy of Normandy
3855:Swiss Confederacy
3814:the right of the
3781:Holy Roman Empire
3774:Kingdom of Sicily
3719:. The concept of
3717:state sovereignty
3669:Francis of Assisi
3513:Maria Laach Abbey
3418:Bills of exchange
3335:clerical celibacy
3062:Byzantine cavalry
3030:book illuminators
2793:Přemyslid dynasty
2742:(r. 886–912) and
2632:Adelaide of Italy
2628:disobedient dukes
2578:Kingdom of Dublin
2565:Magdeburg Ivories
2232:. His subsequent
2230:papal possessions
2056:during the 960s.
2026:, especially the
1957:Gregory the Great
1896:Gregory the Great
1801:Trade and economy
1778:Abbasid Caliphate
1774:Umayyad Caliphate
1713:on the Christian
1701:Umayyad Caliphate
1567:domestic violence
1509:Latin scholarship
1370:Romance languages
1307:Iberian Peninsula
1163:Early Middle Ages
1157:Early Middle Ages
1074:(a Gothic group)
1038:fleeing from the
808:Since the 1950s,
762:Ludovico Muratori
737:during the early
721:historical source
536:Early Renaissance
520:centuries-old war
516:Iberian Peninsula
508:were conquered by
453:cathedral schools
449:Latin Christendom
412:Orthodox Churches
345:Muslim conquerors
243:history of Europe
239:
238:
235:
234:
99:Early Middle Ages
19511:
19489:Christianization
19414:
19406:
19405:
19404:
19397:
19396:from Wikiversity
19389:
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19292:
19291:
19281:
19280:
19279:
19269:
19268:
19260:
19124:EU Customs Union
18656:Secular humanism
18604:Christian ethics
18554:East–West Schism
18537:Physical culture
18261:Great Divergence
18211:Age of Discovery
18050:
18043:
18036:
18027:
18026:
17884:Great Divergence
17799:Age of Discovery
17744:Late Middle Ages
17714:High Middle Ages
17625:Byzantine Empire
17608:Christianization
17598:Migration Period
17533:Classical Greece
17505:Neolithic Europe
17477:
17470:
17463:
17454:
17453:
17372:Banate of Bosnia
17310:Byzantine Empire
17191:Crown of Castile
17141:Kingdom of Italy
17116:
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16860:
16853:
16846:
16837:
16836:
16823:
16822:
16813:
16812:
16803:
16762:Medieval studies
16606:Church and State
16480:Late Middle Ages
16372:High Middle Ages
16290:Christianization
16260:Migration Period
16237:
16230:
16223:
16214:
16213:
16200:Official website
16185:Medievalists.net
16167:
16142:
16114:
16086:
16047:
16032:(2nd ed.).
16024:Moore, Robert I.
16019:
16004:. Vol. II.
15980:
15937:
15894:
15869:
15854:. Vol. VI.
15830:
15805:
15779:
15740:
15715:
15692:Lifshitz, Felice
15683:
15655:
15616:
15577:
15543:
15518:
15503:. Vol. II.
15486:
15458:
15425:
15400:
15373:
15341:
15316:
15291:
15263:
15231:
15200:
15172:
15147:
15136:. p. 8182.
15121:
15100:, eds. (1994) .
15089:
15063:
15034:
15009:
14976:
14945:Morris, Rosemary
14940:
14894:
14869:
14844:
14812:
14786:
14759:
14733:
14712:Kitzinger, Ernst
14707:
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14219:
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14142:
14111:
14081:
14058:Fine, John V. A.
14053:
14025:
14000:
13972:
13944:
13911:
13883:
13852:
13820:
13792:
13764:
13731:
13703:
13678:
13646:
13623:Bartlett, Robert
13618:
13590:
13565:
13536:
13508:
13474:
13473:, pp. 8–15.
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11762:
11756:
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11744:
11738:
11732:
11731:, pp. 7–44.
11726:
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9906:
9900:
9894:
9888:
9882:
9876:
9870:
9869:, pp. 5–10.
9864:
9855:
9854:, pp. 3–11.
9849:
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8715:
8709:
8703:
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8682:
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8646:
8640:
8634:
8628:
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8616:
8610:
8604:
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8502:
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8406:
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8364:
8358:
8352:
8346:
8340:
8334:
8328:
8322:
8316:
8310:
8304:
8298:
8292:
8286:
8280:
8274:
8268:
8262:
8261:, pp. 8–10.
8256:
8250:
8244:
8238:
8232:
8226:
8220:
8214:
8208:
8202:
8196:
8190:
8184:
8178:
8172:
8166:
8160:
8154:
8148:
8142:
8136:
8130:
8124:
8115:
8109:
8103:
8097:
8091:
8085:
8079:
8073:
8067:
8061:
8055:
8049:
8043:
8037:
8031:
8025:
8019:
8013:
8007:
8001:
7995:
7989:
7983:
7977:
7971:
7965:
7959:
7953:
7947:
7941:
7935:
7929:
7923:
7917:
7911:
7905:
7899:
7893:
7887:
7881:
7872:
7866:
7860:
7854:
7848:
7842:
7836:
7830:
7824:
7823:, pp. 1–15.
7818:
7812:
7806:
7800:
7794:
7788:
7782:
7776:
7770:
7764:
7758:
7752:
7746:
7740:
7734:
7728:
7727:, pp. 8–11.
7722:
7716:
7710:
7701:
7695:
7686:
7680:
7674:
7668:
7662:
7656:
7650:
7644:
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7602:
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7554:
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7542:
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7530:
7524:
7518:
7512:
7506:
7500:
7494:
7488:
7479:
7473:
7467:
7461:
7452:
7446:
7440:
7434:
7428:
7422:
7416:
7410:
7404:
7398:
7392:
7386:
7380:
7374:
7365:
7359:
7343:
7334:
7321:
7315:
7304:
7298:
7296:
7290:
7283:
7277:
7270:
7264:
7249:moderate Hussite
7245:
7239:
7213:
7207:
7201:
7197:
7185:
7184:Andronikos III's
7180:second civil war
7160:
7154:
7147:
7141:
7136:, then with her
7134:her underage son
7130:
7124:
7105:
7099:
7076:
7070:
7055:
7049:
7038:
7032:
7030:
7021:
7015:
7013:
7012:mid-13th century
7004:
6998:
6995:
6989:
6958:
6952:
6937:
6931:
6929:
6916:
6910:
6908:
6887:
6881:
6875:
6868:
6862:
6848:
6836:
6823:
6817:
6815:
6802:Otto of Freising
6795:
6792:
6784:
6781:
6772:
6766:
6758:
6752:
6737:
6731:
6724:Alexander Nevsky
6720:
6714:
6689:Henry inherited
6687:
6681:
6675:
6671:
6665:
6660:(r. 1194–98) in
6652:(r. 1137–62) in
6639:
6633:
6614:
6608:
6597:
6591:
6579:
6573:
6562:
6556:
6548:
6542:
6515:
6509:
6507:
6498:
6492:
6477:
6471:
6460:Daphni Monastery
6456:
6450:
6447:
6441:
6439:
6436:
6423:
6417:
6406:palace at Aachen
6402:
6396:
6377:
6371:
6364:
6358:
6347:
6341:
6323:
6317:
6311:
6306:(d. 861) in the
6292:
6286:
6284:
6280:
6277:
6272:
6266:
6252:
6247:
6241:
6230:
6224:
6221:
6215:
6212:end of the world
6200:
6169:
6129:
6096:L'Image du monde
6077:Medieval studies
6055:Vlad the Impaler
6048:
6036:
6007:Ghent Altarpiece
5974:Lorenzo Ghiberti
5926:
5909:
5906:
5898:
5843:
5840:
5783:
5779:
5771:
5763:
5755:
5735:
5732:
5723:Geoffrey Chaucer
5679:
5676:
5645:Age of Discovery
5626:
5618:
5615:
5599:Gregory of Sinai
5596:
5499:Since prolonged
5490:
5453:tributary states
5435:
5359:
5312:
5300:
5266:
5176:
5168:
5160:
5140:State resurgence
5094:Peasants' Revolt
5091:
5068:
5048:
5045:
5034:
5008:Late Middle Ages
5002:Late Middle Ages
4962:
4927:
4924:
4912:
4854:
4722:
4715:structures, but
4713:motte-and-bailey
4702:Rayonnant Gothic
4700:, an example of
4655:
4639:
4630:
4615:
4602:Adam de la Halle
4583:
4580:
4544:
4517:
4509:
4501:
4495:
4482:
4479:Summa Theologica
4475:, including the
4474:
4429:
4405:
4402:studium generale
4396:monastic schools
4389:
4363:Teutonic Knights
4353:, including the
4277:
4263:Mamluks of Egypt
4182:List of Crusades
4148:Genoese colonies
4136:Turkic lordships
4094:
4061:Duchy of Silesia
4034:parts of Estonia
4016:). Although the
4000:Italian Angevins
3977:
3962:
3948:
3910:
3831:
3827:
3807:
3794:
3751:
3733:court of appeals
3714:
3690:
3681:Jewish mysticism
3642:mendicant orders
3579:Pope Gregory VII
3552:East–West Schism
3462:
3415:
3409:
3369:Economic revival
3352:
3293:
3281:
3250:
3212:
3209:
3188:
3185:
3149:High Middle Ages
3143:High Middle Ages
3119:mounted infantry
3096:
3067:Madrid Skylitzes
3035:Ottonian artists
2998:artistic renewal
2967:, including the
2849:A page from the
2790:
2787:
2783:Magyar invasions
2758:(r. 969–76) and
2725:political system
2705:Christianisation
2682:
2639:
2625:
2616:Ottonian dynasty
2602:
2599:
2594:Kenneth MacAlpin
2582:Alfred the Great
2572:
2563:plaque from the
2523:Balearic Islands
2519:conquered Sicily
2500:
2497:
2440:Charles the Bald
2436:Louis the German
2416:Treaty of Verdun
2394:
2385:
2376:
2329:
2320:musical notation
2286:
2203:Pepin of Herstal
2200:
2171:A page from the
2116:
2089:
2086:
2042:Benedictine Rule
1978:
1947:
1865:
1862:
1855:
1835:
1698:
1688:
1678:
1628:
1622:
1596:
1584:
1548:
1545:
1537:
1534:
1518:
1441:
1429:
1374:Slavic languages
1303:by the Visigoths
1293:
1211:
1208:
1201:In Britain, the
1196:taxation systems
1184:Byzantine Empire
1144:
1029:
1018:
990:
981:early Christians
948:. Debates about
947:
938:classical period
896:
894:
865:
771:
759:
740:
694:
686:
667:Historians from
650:(re)urbanisation
642:Christianisation
612:
609:
598:
571:European history
559:Palais des Papes
544:Age of Discovery
493:
489:
451:. The spread of
438:. Stone castles
362:
350:
323:and the rise of
309:Christianisation
305:Germanic peoples
283:Late Middle Ages
265:, medieval, and
231:
222:Age of Discovery
191:
184:
140:East–West Schism
135:Treaty of Verdun
109:Late Middle Ages
104:High Middle Ages
78:, depicting the
77:
73:
70:
57:
48: – 1500
47:
44:
34:
33:
19519:
19518:
19514:
19513:
19512:
19510:
19509:
19508:
19499:Historical eras
19419:
19418:
19417:
19413:from Wikivoyage
19407:
19402:
19400:
19390:
19385:
19383:
19373:
19368:
19366:
19362:from Wikisource
19356:
19351:
19349:
19339:
19334:
19332:
19322:
19317:
19315:
19312:
19308:sister projects
19305:at Knowledge's
19299:
19289:
19287:
19277:
19275:
19263:
19255:
19253:
19248:
19214:UKUSA Agreement
19154:Lublin Triangle
19039:Baltic Assembly
18991:
18985:
18903:
18740:
18575:
18445:Eurolinguistics
18314:
18303:Information age
18276:Interwar period
18143:
18063:
18054:
18024:
18019:
17958:
17924:Interwar period
17899:Napoleonic Wars
17763:
17734:Mongol invasion
17687:Crown of Aragon
17579:
17519:
17515:Iron Age Europe
17486:
17481:
17451:
17442:
17387:Kingdom of Rus'
17345:Crusader states
17302:
17296:
17213:Crown of Aragon
17199:Kingdom of León
17128:Frankish Empire
17121:Northern Europe
17120:
17111:
17101:
17008:
17002:
16889:Northern Europe
16888:
16880:political units
16879:
16877:
16875:
16869:
16864:
16834:
16829:
16791:
16772:Neo-medievalism
16720:
16656:Itinerant court
16579:
16474:
16395:Georgian Empire
16380:Norman Conquest
16366:
16312:Frankish Empire
16246:
16241:
16211:
16196:Medieval Worlds
16175:
16170:
16164:
16139:
16111:
16101:Clarendon Press
16091:Reynolds, Susan
16083:
16052:Reuter, Timothy
16044:
16016:
15977:
15948:, eds. (2004).
15942:Luscombe, David
15934:
15905:, eds. (2004).
15899:Luscombe, David
15891:
15866:
15827:
15802:
15776:
15764:. Vol. I.
15737:
15712:
15688:Chazelle, Celia
15680:
15652:
15613:
15601:. Vol. V.
15582:Abulafia, David
15574:
15551:
15549:Further reading
15546:
15540:
15525:Medieval Europe
15515:
15483:
15455:
15422:
15397:
15370:
15338:
15328:Greenwood Press
15313:
15288:
15260:
15228:
15197:
15177:Ramirez, Janina
15169:
15144:
15118:
15086:
15060:
15031:
14973:
14921:10.2307/2856364
14891:
14866:
14841:
14809:
14783:
14756:
14730:
14704:
14676:
14644:
14634:Pearson Longman
14616:
14591:
14563:
14490:
14465:
14445:Heng, Geraldine
14437:
14409:
14381:
14369:. Vol. 7.
14352:
14320:
14297:
14269:
14241:
14216:
14188:
14167:
14152:The Middle Ages
14147:Fried, Johannes
14139:
14108:
14086:Fossier, Robert
14078:
14050:
14030:Fassler, Margot
14022:
13997:
13969:
13941:
13908:
13880:
13849:
13839:Red Globe Press
13817:
13789:
13761:
13728:
13700:
13675:
13643:
13615:
13595:Barber, Malcolm
13587:
13562:
13533:
13513:Arnold, John H.
13505:
13482:
13477:
13469:
13465:
13461:, pp. 6–9.
13457:
13453:
13445:
13441:
13433:
13429:
13421:
13417:
13409:
13405:
13397:
13393:
13385:
13381:
13373:
13369:
13361:
13357:
13349:
13345:
13337:
13333:
13325:
13321:
13313:
13309:
13301:
13297:
13289:
13285:
13277:
13273:
13265:
13261:
13253:
13249:
13241:
13237:
13229:
13225:
13217:
13213:
13205:
13201:
13193:
13189:
13181:
13177:
13169:
13165:
13157:
13153:
13145:
13141:
13133:
13129:
13121:
13117:
13109:
13105:
13097:
13093:
13085:
13081:
13073:
13069:
13061:
13057:
13049:
13045:
13037:
13033:
13025:
13021:
13013:
13009:
13001:
12997:
12989:
12985:
12977:
12973:
12965:
12961:
12953:
12949:
12941:
12937:
12929:
12925:
12917:
12913:
12905:
12901:
12893:
12889:
12881:
12877:
12869:
12865:
12857:
12853:
12845:
12841:
12833:
12829:
12821:
12817:
12809:
12805:
12797:
12793:
12785:
12781:
12773:
12769:
12761:
12757:
12749:
12745:
12737:
12733:
12725:
12721:
12713:
12709:
12701:
12697:
12689:
12685:
12677:
12673:
12665:
12661:
12653:
12649:
12641:
12637:
12629:
12625:
12617:
12613:
12605:
12601:
12593:
12589:
12581:
12577:
12569:
12565:
12557:
12553:
12545:
12541:
12533:
12529:
12521:
12517:
12509:
12505:
12497:
12493:
12485:
12481:
12473:
12469:
12461:
12457:
12449:
12445:
12437:
12433:
12425:
12421:
12413:
12409:
12401:
12397:
12389:
12385:
12377:
12373:
12365:
12361:
12353:
12349:
12341:
12337:
12329:
12325:
12317:
12313:
12305:
12301:
12293:
12289:
12281:
12277:
12269:
12260:
12252:
12248:
12240:
12236:
12228:
12224:
12216:
12212:
12204:
12200:
12192:
12188:
12180:
12176:
12168:
12164:
12156:
12152:
12144:
12140:
12132:
12128:
12120:
12116:
12108:
12104:
12096:
12092:
12084:
12080:
12072:
12065:
12057:
12053:
12045:
12041:
12033:
12029:
12021:
12017:
12009:
12005:
11997:
11993:
11985:
11981:
11973:
11969:
11961:
11957:
11949:
11945:
11937:
11933:
11925:
11921:
11913:
11909:
11901:
11894:
11890:, pp. 4–5.
11886:
11882:
11874:
11867:
11859:
11855:
11847:
11843:
11835:
11831:
11823:
11819:
11811:
11807:
11799:
11795:
11787:
11783:
11775:
11771:
11763:
11759:
11751:
11747:
11739:
11735:
11727:
11723:
11715:
11711:
11703:
11699:
11691:
11687:
11679:
11675:
11667:
11663:
11655:
11651:
11643:
11639:
11631:
11627:
11619:
11615:
11607:
11603:
11595:
11591:
11583:
11579:
11571:
11567:
11559:
11555:
11547:
11543:
11535:
11531:
11523:
11516:
11508:
11504:
11496:
11492:
11484:
11480:
11472:
11468:
11460:
11456:
11448:
11444:
11436:
11432:
11424:
11420:
11412:
11408:
11400:
11396:
11388:
11384:
11376:
11372:
11364:
11360:
11352:
11348:
11340:
11336:
11328:
11324:
11316:
11312:
11304:
11297:
11289:
11285:
11277:
11273:
11265:
11261:
11253:
11249:
11241:
11237:
11229:
11225:
11217:
11213:
11205:
11201:
11193:
11189:
11181:
11177:
11169:
11165:
11157:
11153:
11145:
11141:
11133:
11129:
11121:
11117:
11109:
11105:
11097:
11093:
11085:
11081:
11073:
11069:
11061:
11057:
11049:
11045:
11037:
11033:
11025:
11021:
11013:
11009:
11001:
10997:
10989:
10985:
10977:
10973:
10965:
10961:
10953:
10949:
10941:
10937:
10929:
10925:
10917:
10913:
10905:
10901:
10893:
10889:
10881:
10877:
10869:
10865:
10857:
10853:
10845:
10841:
10833:
10829:
10821:
10817:
10809:
10805:
10797:
10793:
10785:
10781:
10773:
10769:
10761:
10757:
10749:
10745:
10737:
10733:
10725:
10721:
10713:
10709:
10701:
10697:
10689:
10685:
10677:
10673:
10665:
10661:
10653:
10649:
10641:
10637:
10629:
10625:
10617:
10610:
10602:
10598:
10590:
10586:
10578:
10574:
10566:
10562:
10554:
10550:
10542:
10538:
10530:
10526:
10518:
10514:
10510:, pp. 7–8.
10506:
10502:
10494:
10490:
10482:
10478:
10470:
10466:
10458:
10454:
10446:
10442:
10434:
10430:
10422:
10418:
10410:
10406:
10398:
10394:
10386:
10382:
10374:
10370:
10362:
10358:
10350:
10346:
10338:
10334:
10326:
10322:
10314:
10310:
10302:
10298:
10290:
10286:
10278:
10274:
10266:
10262:
10254:
10250:
10242:
10238:
10230:
10221:
10213:
10209:
10201:
10197:
10189:
10185:
10177:
10173:
10165:
10161:
10153:
10149:
10141:
10137:
10129:
10125:
10117:
10113:
10105:
10101:
10093:
10089:
10081:
10077:
10069:
10065:
10057:
10053:
10045:
10041:
10033:
10029:
10021:
10017:
10009:
10005:
9997:
9993:
9985:
9981:
9973:
9969:
9961:
9957:
9949:
9945:
9937:
9933:
9925:
9921:
9913:
9909:
9905:, pp. 4–6.
9901:
9897:
9889:
9885:
9877:
9873:
9865:
9858:
9850:
9846:
9838:
9834:
9826:
9819:
9811:
9807:
9799:
9795:
9787:
9783:
9775:
9771:
9763:
9759:
9751:
9747:
9739:
9735:
9727:
9723:
9715:
9711:
9703:
9699:
9691:
9684:
9676:
9672:
9664:
9660:
9652:
9648:
9640:
9636:
9628:
9624:
9616:
9612:
9604:
9600:
9592:
9588:
9580:
9576:
9568:
9564:
9556:
9552:
9544:
9537:
9529:
9525:
9517:
9513:
9505:
9501:
9493:
9489:
9481:
9474:
9466:
9462:
9454:
9450:
9442:
9438:
9430:
9426:
9418:
9414:
9406:
9402:
9394:
9390:
9382:
9378:
9370:
9366:
9358:
9354:
9346:
9342:
9334:
9330:
9322:
9318:
9310:
9306:
9298:
9294:
9286:
9282:
9274:
9270:
9262:
9258:
9250:
9246:
9238:
9234:
9226:
9222:
9214:
9210:
9202:
9195:
9187:
9180:
9172:
9168:
9160:
9156:
9148:
9144:
9136:
9132:
9124:
9120:
9112:
9108:
9100:
9096:
9088:
9084:
9076:
9072:
9064:
9060:
9052:
9048:
9040:
9036:
9028:
9024:
9016:
9012:
9004:
9000:
8992:
8988:
8980:
8976:
8968:
8964:
8956:
8952:
8944:
8940:
8932:
8928:
8920:
8916:
8908:
8904:
8896:
8892:
8884:
8880:
8872:
8868:
8860:
8856:
8848:
8844:
8836:
8832:
8824:
8820:
8812:
8808:
8800:
8796:
8788:
8784:
8776:
8772:
8764:
8760:
8752:
8748:
8740:
8736:
8728:
8724:
8716:
8712:
8704:
8697:
8689:
8685:
8677:
8673:
8665:
8661:
8653:
8649:
8641:
8637:
8629:
8625:
8617:
8613:
8605:
8601:
8593:
8589:
8581:
8577:
8569:
8565:
8557:
8553:
8545:
8541:
8533:
8529:
8521:
8517:
8509:
8505:
8497:
8493:
8489:, pp. 3–4.
8485:
8481:
8473:
8469:
8461:
8457:
8449:
8445:
8437:
8433:
8425:
8421:
8413:
8409:
8401:
8397:
8389:
8385:
8377:
8373:
8365:
8361:
8353:
8349:
8341:
8337:
8329:
8325:
8317:
8313:
8305:
8301:
8293:
8289:
8281:
8277:
8269:
8265:
8257:
8253:
8245:
8241:
8233:
8229:
8221:
8217:
8209:
8205:
8197:
8193:
8185:
8181:
8173:
8169:
8161:
8157:
8149:
8145:
8137:
8133:
8125:
8118:
8110:
8106:
8098:
8094:
8086:
8082:
8074:
8070:
8062:
8058:
8050:
8046:
8038:
8034:
8026:
8022:
8014:
8010:
8002:
7998:
7990:
7986:
7978:
7974:
7966:
7962:
7954:
7950:
7942:
7938:
7930:
7926:
7918:
7914:
7906:
7902:
7894:
7890:
7882:
7875:
7867:
7863:
7855:
7851:
7843:
7839:
7831:
7827:
7819:
7815:
7807:
7803:
7795:
7791:
7783:
7779:
7771:
7767:
7759:
7755:
7747:
7743:
7735:
7731:
7723:
7719:
7711:
7704:
7696:
7689:
7685:, pp. 3–6.
7681:
7677:
7669:
7665:
7657:
7653:
7645:
7641:
7633:
7629:
7621:
7617:
7609:
7605:
7597:
7593:
7585:
7581:
7573:
7569:
7561:
7557:
7549:
7545:
7537:
7533:
7525:
7521:
7513:
7509:
7501:
7497:
7489:
7482:
7474:
7470:
7462:
7455:
7447:
7443:
7439:, p. viii.
7435:
7431:
7423:
7419:
7411:
7407:
7399:
7395:
7387:
7383:
7375:
7368:
7360:
7356:
7352:
7347:
7346:
7322:
7318:
7305:
7301:
7284:
7280:
7271:
7267:
7246:
7242:
7234:(r. 1457–1504)
7214:
7210:
7204:third civil war
7199:
7195:
7183:
7164:first civil war
7161:
7157:
7148:
7144:
7131:
7127:
7106:
7102:
7077:
7073:
7056:
7052:
7039:
7035:
7028:
7022:
7018:
7011:
7005:
7001:
6996:
6992:
6982:Milan Cathedral
6970:Sainte-Chapelle
6959:
6955:
6938:
6934:
6927:
6917:
6913:
6888:
6884:
6869:
6865:
6824:
6820:
6793:
6782:
6773:
6769:
6759:
6755:
6738:
6734:
6721:
6717:
6688:
6684:
6673:
6672:
6668:
6640:
6636:
6615:
6611:
6598:
6594:
6580:
6576:
6563:
6559:
6549:
6545:
6516:
6512:
6499:
6495:
6482:Utrecht Psalter
6478:
6474:
6457:
6453:
6448:
6444:
6437:
6424:
6420:
6403:
6399:
6378:
6374:
6365:
6361:
6348:
6344:
6318:
6314:
6293:
6289:
6282:
6278:
6273:
6269:
6250:
6248:
6244:
6231:
6227:
6222:
6218:
6201:
6197:
6192:
6127:
6091:spherical Earth
6083:
6069:
6033:Biblia pauperum
6014:(d. 1441) used
6000:by the painter
5924:
5916:
5907:
5896:
5841:
5828:
5806:Bartolomeu Dias
5781:
5744:song structures
5733:
5677:
5651:
5643:Main articles:
5641:
5616:
5603:Gregory Palamas
5593:Devotio Moderna
5583:Meister Eckhart
5578:died in exile.
5558:in England and
5501:papal elections
5497:
5488:
5481:Albanian lords'
5418:
5404:
5396:Main articles:
5394:
5357:
5341:, but only the
5339:Union of Kalmar
5310:
5264:
5142:
5114:Massive pogroms
5092:in France, the
5066:
5046:
5021:
5015:
5010:
5004:
4960:
4957:rotation system
4925:
4919:spinning wheels
4910:
4875:
4865:
4852:
4756:classical style
4691:
4586:autobiographies
4581:
4571:Arthurian cycle
4520:Comtessa de Dia
4490:
4454:into theology.
4427:
4387:
4381:
4375:
4367:their own state
4355:Knights Templar
4320:parts of Greece
4270:theaters of war
4257:(d. 1193), who
4251:crusader states
4188:
4174:
4166:Main articles:
4164:
4144:peaceful period
4108:Eurasian Steppe
4092:
4049:Vladimir-Suzdal
3944:
3931:(r. 1199–1216)
3913:Angevin dynasty
3906:
3866:Bayeux Tapestry
3839:prince-electors
3829:
3823:
3805:
3792:
3747:
3712:
3701:
3606:anticlericalism
3544:papal supremacy
3520:Papal elections
3501:
3371:
3350:
3343:peace movements
3319:parish churches
3279:
3210:
3191:Eurasian Steppe
3186:
3156:
3151:
3145:
3111:lamellar armour
3094:
3055:
3041:motifs such as
3002:Carolingian art
2943:and the Nordic
2871:of Justinian's
2843:
2833:
2813:Rurikid princes
2788:
2744:Constantine VII
2680:
2666:Kingdom of León
2635:
2623:
2609:Kingdom of Alba
2600:
2586:Danish invaders
2568:
2553:
2531:
2498:
2456:Louis the Child
2447:Charles the Fat
2412:Louis the Pious
2408:
2407:
2406:
2405:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2387:
2386:
2378:
2377:
2366:
2350:Main articles:
2348:
2327:
2316:Gregorian chant
2261:border province
2226:Pepin the Short
2199:mid-7th century
2198:
2174:Utrecht Psalter
2165:
2159:
2147:Cluniac Reforms
2119:their patronage
2114:
2087:
2029:Life of Anthony
1997:sexual morality
1976:
1945:
1888:
1882:in Al-Andalus.
1863:
1853:
1833:
1809:
1803:
1770:Battle of Tours
1704:
1696:
1694:
1686:
1684:
1676:
1665:
1659:Spread of Islam
1657:Main articles:
1655:
1643:quickly revived
1621:700 inhabitants
1620:
1594:
1546:
1535:
1516:
1505:
1499:
1497:Western society
1427:
1400:
1392:Main articles:
1390:
1333:conquered most
1262:reconquer Italy
1209:
1176:
1170:
1165:
1159:
1032:mass migrations
1027:
1016:
988:
958:Heretical views
945:
891:
880:Sasanian Empire
863:
839:
833:
827:
805:, and letters.
738:
733:in the city of
723:
713:
692:
684:
660:, kinship, and
610:
552:
542:introduced the
491:
487:
396:papal supremacy
360:
351:. Although the
348:
251:medieval period
226:
205:
182:
174:
130:Spread of Islam
113:
87:
75:
71:
45:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
19517:
19507:
19506:
19501:
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19486:
19481:
19476:
19471:
19466:
19461:
19456:
19451:
19446:
19441:
19436:
19431:
19416:
19415:
19398:
19381:
19379:from Wikibooks
19364:
19347:
19345:from Wikiquote
19330:
19301:
19298:
19297:
19285:
19273:
19250:
19249:
19247:
19246:
19244:Westernization
19241:
19236:
19231:
19226:
19224:Visegrád Group
19221:
19216:
19211:
19206:
19201:
19196:
19191:
19186:
19181:
19176:
19171:
19166:
19164:Nordic Council
19161:
19156:
19151:
19146:
19141:
19136:
19131:
19126:
19121:
19116:
19111:
19106:
19101:
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19091:
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19081:
19076:
19071:
19066:
19061:
19059:Bucharest Nine
19056:
19051:
19046:
19041:
19036:
19031:
19026:
19024:Arctic Council
19021:
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19011:
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18993:
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18680:
18675:
18670:
18665:
18660:
18659:
18658:
18653:
18643:
18642:
18641:
18634:Existentialism
18631:
18626:
18621:
18616:
18611:
18606:
18601:
18596:
18591:
18585:
18583:
18577:
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18213:
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18171:
18170:
18169:
18167:Late antiquity
18159:
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18142:
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18131:
18126:
18121:
18120:
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17926:
17921:
17916:
17911:
17906:
17901:
17896:
17891:
17886:
17881:
17876:
17874:Russian Empire
17871:
17866:
17864:British Empire
17861:
17859:Dutch Republic
17856:
17854:Swedish Empire
17851:
17846:
17841:
17836:
17834:Spanish Empire
17831:
17826:
17824:Ottoman Empire
17821:
17816:
17811:
17806:
17801:
17796:
17795:
17794:
17784:
17779:
17773:
17771:
17765:
17764:
17762:
17761:
17756:
17751:
17746:
17741:
17739:Serbian Empire
17736:
17731:
17726:
17721:
17716:
17711:
17706:
17684:
17679:
17674:
17673:
17672:
17667:
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17612:
17611:
17610:
17600:
17595:
17589:
17587:
17581:
17580:
17578:
17577:
17575:Late antiquity
17572:
17567:
17562:
17561:
17560:
17550:
17545:
17540:
17538:Roman Republic
17535:
17529:
17527:
17521:
17520:
17518:
17517:
17512:
17507:
17502:
17496:
17494:
17488:
17487:
17480:
17479:
17472:
17465:
17457:
17448:
17447:
17444:
17443:
17441:
17440:
17413:
17398:Rus' Khaganate
17394:
17379:
17368:
17342:
17327:
17326:
17325:
17320:
17312:
17306:
17304:
17298:
17297:
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17000:
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16871:
16870:
16863:
16862:
16855:
16848:
16840:
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16828:
16827:
16817:
16807:
16796:
16793:
16792:
16790:
16789:
16784:
16779:
16774:
16769:
16767:Misconceptions
16764:
16759:
16754:
16749:
16744:
16739:
16734:
16728:
16726:
16722:
16721:
16719:
16718:
16713:
16708:
16703:
16698:
16693:
16688:
16683:
16678:
16673:
16668:
16663:
16658:
16653:
16648:
16643:
16638:
16633:
16628:
16623:
16618:
16613:
16608:
16603:
16598:
16593:
16587:
16585:
16581:
16580:
16578:
16577:
16575:Little Ice Age
16572:
16571:
16570:
16560:
16555:
16550:
16545:
16540:
16535:
16530:
16528:Western Schism
16525:
16520:
16515:
16510:
16505:
16500:
16495:
16490:
16484:
16482:
16476:
16475:
16473:
16472:
16467:
16462:
16457:
16452:
16447:
16442:
16437:
16432:
16427:
16422:
16417:
16412:
16407:
16402:
16397:
16392:
16387:
16382:
16376:
16374:
16368:
16367:
16365:
16364:
16359:
16354:
16349:
16344:
16339:
16334:
16329:
16324:
16319:
16314:
16309:
16304:
16299:
16294:
16293:
16292:
16282:
16277:
16275:Late antiquity
16272:
16267:
16262:
16256:
16254:
16248:
16247:
16240:
16239:
16232:
16225:
16217:
16210:
16209:
16203:
16193:
16188:
16182:
16176:
16174:
16173:External links
16171:
16169:
16168:
16162:
16143:
16137:
16115:
16109:
16087:
16081:
16054:, ed. (2000).
16048:
16042:
16020:
16014:
15987:, ed. (1995).
15981:
15975:
15938:
15932:
15895:
15889:
15870:
15864:
15837:, ed. (2000).
15835:Jones, Michael
15831:
15825:
15806:
15800:
15784:Gurevich, Aron
15780:
15774:
15747:, ed. (2005).
15745:Fouracre, Paul
15741:
15735:
15716:
15710:
15684:
15678:
15656:
15650:
15623:, ed. (1998).
15617:
15611:
15584:, ed. (1999).
15578:
15572:
15552:
15550:
15547:
15545:
15544:
15538:
15519:
15513:
15491:Wickham, Chris
15487:
15481:
15459:
15453:
15431:Holmes, George
15426:
15420:
15401:
15395:
15374:
15368:
15346:Stalley, Roger
15342:
15336:
15317:
15311:
15292:
15286:
15264:
15258:
15232:
15226:
15201:
15195:
15173:
15167:
15148:
15142:
15122:
15116:
15090:
15084:
15068:Nicolle, David
15064:
15058:
15035:
15029:
15010:
14977:
14971:
14949:Holmes, George
14941:
14895:
14889:
14870:
14864:
14845:
14839:
14813:
14807:
14787:
14781:
14760:
14754:
14734:
14728:
14708:
14702:
14680:
14674:
14648:
14642:
14620:
14614:
14595:
14589:
14567:
14561:
14548:Medieval Music
14539:
14499:Standen, Naomi
14494:
14488:
14469:
14463:
14441:
14435:
14422:Early Medieval
14413:
14407:
14389:Heather, Peter
14385:
14379:
14356:
14350:
14328:Hankins, James
14324:
14318:
14301:
14295:
14273:
14267:
14245:
14239:
14220:
14214:
14192:
14186:
14171:
14165:
14143:
14137:
14112:
14106:
14082:
14076:
14054:
14048:
14026:
14020:
14001:
13995:
13973:
13967:
13949:Dodwell, C. R.
13945:
13939:
13917:Holmes, George
13912:
13906:
13888:Davies, Norman
13884:
13878:
13853:
13847:
13825:Collins, Roger
13821:
13815:
13793:
13787:
13769:Chazan, Robert
13765:
13759:
13737:Holmes, George
13732:
13726:
13704:
13698:
13679:
13673:
13647:
13641:
13619:
13613:
13591:
13585:
13566:
13560:
13537:
13531:
13509:
13503:
13483:
13481:
13478:
13476:
13475:
13463:
13451:
13439:
13427:
13415:
13403:
13399:Griffiths 1996
13391:
13389:, p. 451.
13379:
13375:Griffiths 1996
13367:
13355:
13343:
13331:
13327:Lightbown 1978
13319:
13307:
13295:
13283:
13271:
13269:, p. 233.
13259:
13247:
13245:, p. 323.
13235:
13233:, p. 212.
13223:
13221:, p. 221.
13211:
13209:, p. 213.
13199:
13187:
13175:
13163:
13151:
13139:
13127:
13115:
13113:, p. 284.
13103:
13101:, p. 490.
13091:
13079:
13077:, p. 346.
13067:
13065:, p. 287.
13055:
13053:, p. 224.
13043:
13041:, p. 484.
13031:
13019:
13007:
13005:, p. 241.
12995:
12983:
12971:
12959:
12947:
12935:
12923:
12911:
12899:
12897:, p. 370.
12887:
12875:
12863:
12851:
12849:, p. 218.
12839:
12827:
12815:
12803:
12801:, p. 213.
12791:
12779:
12767:
12755:
12743:
12731:
12729:, p. 563.
12719:
12707:
12695:
12683:
12671:
12659:
12647:
12635:
12623:
12621:, p. 380.
12611:
12599:
12587:
12585:, p. 201.
12575:
12563:
12551:
12539:
12527:
12515:
12513:, p. 231.
12503:
12501:, p. 281.
12491:
12479:
12467:
12455:
12443:
12431:
12419:
12407:
12395:
12383:
12381:, p. 211.
12371:
12359:
12357:, p. 308.
12347:
12335:
12323:
12321:, p. 225.
12311:
12299:
12297:, p. 171.
12287:
12275:
12273:, p. 414.
12258:
12246:
12244:, p. 103.
12234:
12222:
12210:
12198:
12196:, p. 238.
12186:
12174:
12172:, p. 237.
12162:
12150:
12148:, p. 318.
12138:
12126:
12114:
12102:
12090:
12088:, p. 189.
12078:
12076:, p. 210.
12063:
12061:, p. 531.
12051:
12039:
12027:
12015:
12003:
12001:, p. 124.
11991:
11989:, p. 125.
11979:
11967:
11965:, p. 225.
11955:
11943:
11941:, p. 241.
11931:
11919:
11907:
11892:
11880:
11878:, p. 344.
11865:
11853:
11841:
11829:
11817:
11805:
11793:
11781:
11769:
11767:, p. 152.
11757:
11745:
11743:, p. 150.
11733:
11721:
11709:
11697:
11685:
11673:
11661:
11649:
11637:
11625:
11623:, p. 142.
11613:
11601:
11589:
11577:
11575:, p. 153.
11565:
11563:, p. 131.
11553:
11541:
11529:
11514:
11512:, p. 182.
11502:
11490:
11478:
11476:, p. 129.
11466:
11454:
11442:
11430:
11428:, p. 265.
11418:
11406:
11394:
11392:, p. 332.
11382:
11370:
11358:
11346:
11334:
11322:
11320:, p. 112.
11310:
11295:
11283:
11281:, p. 118.
11271:
11259:
11247:
11235:
11223:
11211:
11199:
11197:, p. 181.
11187:
11175:
11163:
11151:
11139:
11127:
11115:
11103:
11091:
11079:
11067:
11055:
11043:
11031:
11019:
11017:, p. 145.
11007:
10995:
10983:
10971:
10959:
10947:
10935:
10933:, p. 257.
10923:
10911:
10909:, p. 104.
10899:
10897:, p. 319.
10887:
10885:, p. 413.
10875:
10863:
10851:
10849:, p. 411.
10839:
10827:
10815:
10803:
10801:, p. 271.
10791:
10779:
10767:
10755:
10743:
10731:
10719:
10707:
10695:
10683:
10671:
10659:
10647:
10645:, p. 105.
10635:
10623:
10608:
10596:
10594:, p. 324.
10584:
10572:
10560:
10548:
10536:
10534:, p. 199.
10524:
10522:, p. 137.
10512:
10500:
10488:
10476:
10474:, p. 301.
10464:
10462:, p. 309.
10452:
10440:
10428:
10416:
10414:, p. 213.
10404:
10392:
10390:, p. 107.
10380:
10368:
10356:
10344:
10332:
10320:
10308:
10296:
10284:
10272:
10260:
10248:
10236:
10219:
10207:
10195:
10183:
10171:
10169:, p. 209.
10159:
10157:, p. 252.
10147:
10135:
10123:
10111:
10099:
10087:
10075:
10063:
10051:
10039:
10027:
10015:
10003:
9991:
9979:
9967:
9965:, p. 220.
9955:
9943:
9931:
9929:, p. 467.
9919:
9907:
9895:
9883:
9881:, p. 221.
9871:
9856:
9852:Ellenblum 2012
9844:
9832:
9817:
9805:
9793:
9781:
9769:
9757:
9745:
9733:
9729:Kitzinger 1969
9721:
9717:Henderson 1993
9709:
9697:
9682:
9678:Kitzinger 1969
9670:
9658:
9646:
9642:Kitzinger 1969
9634:
9622:
9618:Henderson 1993
9610:
9606:Henderson 1993
9598:
9586:
9582:Henderson 1993
9574:
9562:
9550:
9535:
9533:, p. 172.
9523:
9511:
9499:
9487:
9472:
9460:
9448:
9446:, p. 334.
9436:
9424:
9412:
9400:
9388:
9376:
9364:
9352:
9340:
9338:, p. 500.
9328:
9316:
9304:
9292:
9290:, p. 169.
9280:
9278:, p. 368.
9268:
9256:
9254:, p. 196.
9244:
9232:
9220:
9208:
9193:
9178:
9176:, p. 254.
9166:
9154:
9152:, p. 337.
9142:
9130:
9118:
9106:
9104:, p. 187.
9094:
9092:, p. 189.
9082:
9070:
9058:
9046:
9034:
9032:, p. 302.
9022:
9010:
8998:
8986:
8974:
8962:
8950:
8938:
8926:
8914:
8912:, p. 163.
8902:
8890:
8878:
8866:
8854:
8842:
8830:
8818:
8806:
8794:
8782:
8770:
8758:
8746:
8734:
8722:
8710:
8695:
8691:McCormick 2010
8683:
8679:McCormick 2010
8671:
8667:McCormick 2010
8659:
8655:McCormick 2010
8647:
8645:, p. 354.
8635:
8623:
8611:
8599:
8587:
8575:
8563:
8551:
8539:
8527:
8525:, p. 649.
8523:McCormick 2010
8515:
8503:
8491:
8479:
8467:
8455:
8443:
8439:McCormick 2010
8431:
8429:, p. 215.
8419:
8407:
8395:
8383:
8381:, p. 120.
8371:
8359:
8347:
8335:
8323:
8311:
8299:
8287:
8275:
8263:
8251:
8239:
8227:
8215:
8203:
8191:
8179:
8167:
8155:
8143:
8131:
8116:
8114:, p. 124.
8104:
8092:
8080:
8068:
8056:
8044:
8032:
8020:
8008:
7996:
7984:
7972:
7960:
7948:
7936:
7934:, p. 417.
7924:
7912:
7910:, p. 219.
7900:
7888:
7873:
7861:
7849:
7837:
7825:
7821:Kitzinger 1969
7813:
7801:
7789:
7777:
7765:
7753:
7741:
7729:
7717:
7715:, p. 111.
7702:
7687:
7675:
7663:
7651:
7639:
7637:, p. 204.
7627:
7615:
7603:
7591:
7579:
7567:
7555:
7543:
7531:
7529:, p. 226.
7519:
7517:, p. 304.
7507:
7495:
7480:
7468:
7453:
7441:
7429:
7427:, p. 566.
7417:
7415:, p. 955.
7405:
7393:
7391:, p. 238.
7381:
7366:
7353:
7351:
7348:
7345:
7344:
7316:
7299:
7278:
7265:
7240:
7208:
7186:underage son,
7172:Andronikos III
7155:
7142:
7125:
7100:
7071:
7050:
7033:
7016:
6999:
6990:
6984:in Italy, and
6953:
6932:
6911:
6882:
6863:
6833:Siete Partidas
6818:
6798:The Two Cities
6767:
6753:
6732:
6715:
6682:
6666:
6634:
6624:(d. 1596) and
6609:
6592:
6588:their election
6574:
6557:
6555:in the Levant.
6543:
6535:John de Courcy
6510:
6493:
6472:
6451:
6442:
6418:
6397:
6372:
6359:
6342:
6312:
6287:
6267:
6242:
6225:
6216:
6194:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6180:class conflict
6148:Richard Wagner
6140:Thomas Carlyle
6116:Earth was flat
6104:David Lindberg
6068:
6065:
6039:Paupers' Bible
5994:(d. 1466) and
5915:
5912:
5827:
5824:
5786:printing press
5780:—in the early
5756:(fixed forms)—
5713:Tuscan dialect
5703:The poetry of
5640:
5637:
5601:(d. 1346) and
5529:Western Schism
5521:Pope Clement V
5509:Avignon Papacy
5496:
5493:
5461:Constantine XI
5393:
5390:
5366:with Lithuania
5141:
5138:
5118:new Christians
5051:Little Ice Age
5017:Main article:
5014:
5011:
5006:Main article:
5003:
5000:
4973:draught horses
4940:sails and the
4864:
4861:
4845:panel painting
4825:Limoges enamel
4791:pointed arches
4709:Encastellation
4698:León Cathedral
4690:
4687:
4658:Roman numerals
4618:rhythmic modes
4485:Thomas Aquinas
4446:(d. 1142) and
4377:Main article:
4374:
4371:
4351:military order
4300:Fourth Crusade
4237:(d. 1100) and
4163:
4160:
3921:Angevin Empire
3864:Detail of the
3830:Frederick II's
3828:(r. 1220–50).
3816:Lombard cities
3801:German princes
3744:Papal Monarchy
3725:queens regnant
3700:
3697:
3610:Catholic dogma
3556:Roman Catholic
3500:
3499:Church reforms
3497:
3422:money changers
3370:
3367:
3323:regular clergy
3315:secular clergy
3284:legal capacity
3235:, inalienable
3155:
3152:
3147:Main article:
3144:
3141:
3054:
3051:
3047:Moorish arches
2931:Literary works
2832:
2829:
2723:and created a
2685:Volga Bulgaria
2530:
2527:
2511:Magyar assault
2399:
2398:
2389:
2388:
2380:
2379:
2371:
2370:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2356:Middle Francia
2347:
2344:
2312:church liturgy
2283:missi dominici
2211:Charles Martel
2161:Main article:
2158:
2155:
1887:
1884:
1872:slave soldiers
1827:(r. 533–47/48)
1802:
1799:
1768:forces at the
1749:, annihilated
1711:Zoroastrianism
1695:
1685:
1675:
1654:
1651:
1631:Medieval Latin
1521:original works
1498:
1495:
1389:
1386:
1382:eastern Europe
1327:northern Italy
1214:small kingdoms
1203:Celtic Britons
1172:Main article:
1169:
1166:
1161:Main article:
1158:
1155:
1013:silent reading
931:Constantinople
913:(known as the
903:western halves
895: 284–305
864:2nd century AD
829:Main article:
826:
823:
791:royal charters
712:
709:
705:Medieval India
701:global history
583:Leonardo Bruni
581:. The Italian
551:
548:
524:Western Schism
512:Ottoman Empire
378:introduced a "
317:disintegration
313:late antiquity
237:
236:
233:
232:
225:
224:
219:
214:
208:
206:
204:
203:
201:Late antiquity
198:
192:
176:
175:
173:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
142:
137:
132:
127:
121:
119:
115:
114:
112:
111:
106:
101:
95:
93:
89:
88:
58:
50:
49:
39:
38:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
19516:
19505:
19502:
19500:
19497:
19495:
19492:
19490:
19487:
19485:
19482:
19480:
19477:
19475:
19472:
19470:
19467:
19465:
19462:
19460:
19457:
19455:
19452:
19450:
19447:
19445:
19442:
19440:
19437:
19435:
19432:
19430:
19427:
19426:
19424:
19412:
19411:
19410:Travel guides
19399:
19395:
19394:
19382:
19378:
19377:
19365:
19361:
19360:
19348:
19344:
19343:
19331:
19327:
19326:
19314:
19313:
19310:
19304:
19296:
19286:
19284:
19274:
19272:
19267:
19262:
19261:
19258:
19245:
19242:
19240:
19237:
19235:
19232:
19230:
19227:
19225:
19222:
19220:
19217:
19215:
19212:
19210:
19207:
19205:
19202:
19200:
19197:
19195:
19192:
19190:
19189:PROSUR/PROSUL
19187:
19185:
19182:
19180:
19177:
19175:
19172:
19170:
19167:
19165:
19162:
19160:
19157:
19155:
19152:
19150:
19147:
19145:
19142:
19140:
19137:
19135:
19132:
19130:
19127:
19125:
19122:
19120:
19117:
19115:
19112:
19110:
19107:
19105:
19102:
19100:
19097:
19095:
19092:
19090:
19087:
19085:
19084:Craiova Group
19082:
19080:
19077:
19075:
19072:
19070:
19067:
19065:
19062:
19060:
19057:
19055:
19052:
19050:
19047:
19045:
19042:
19040:
19037:
19035:
19032:
19030:
19027:
19025:
19022:
19020:
19017:
19015:
19012:
19010:
19007:
19005:
19002:
19000:
18999:ABCANZ Armies
18997:
18996:
18994:
18988:
18982:
18979:
18977:
18974:
18970:
18967:
18965:
18962:
18960:
18957:
18955:
18952:
18950:
18947:
18945:
18942:
18941:
18940:
18937:
18935:
18932:
18928:
18925:
18924:
18923:
18920:
18918:
18915:
18914:
18912:
18910:
18906:
18900:
18897:
18895:
18892:
18888:
18885:
18883:
18880:
18878:
18875:
18873:
18870:
18866:
18863:
18861:
18858:
18856:
18853:
18851:
18848:
18847:
18846:
18843:
18841:
18838:
18836:
18833:
18831:
18828:
18827:
18826:
18823:
18817:
18814:
18813:
18812:
18809:
18805:
18804:Protestantism
18802:
18798:
18795:
18794:
18793:
18790:
18786:
18783:
18782:
18781:
18778:
18774:
18770:
18767:
18766:
18765:
18762:
18761:
18760:
18757:
18756:
18755:
18752:
18751:
18749:
18747:
18743:
18735:
18732:
18731:
18730:
18727:
18725:
18724:Sovereigntism
18722:
18720:
18717:
18713:
18712:
18708:
18707:
18706:
18703:
18699:
18696:
18695:
18694:
18691:
18689:
18686:
18684:
18681:
18679:
18676:
18674:
18671:
18669:
18666:
18664:
18661:
18657:
18654:
18652:
18649:
18648:
18647:
18644:
18640:
18637:
18636:
18635:
18632:
18630:
18627:
18625:
18622:
18620:
18619:Scholasticism
18617:
18615:
18612:
18610:
18607:
18605:
18602:
18600:
18597:
18595:
18592:
18590:
18587:
18586:
18584:
18582:
18578:
18570:
18567:
18565:
18562:
18560:
18557:
18555:
18552:
18551:
18550:
18547:
18543:
18540:
18539:
18538:
18535:
18531:
18528:
18526:
18523:
18522:
18521:
18518:
18514:
18511:
18510:
18509:
18506:
18504:
18501:
18497:
18494:
18492:
18489:
18487:
18484:
18483:
18482:
18479:
18475:
18472:
18471:
18470:
18467:
18463:
18460:
18459:
18458:
18455:
18451:
18448:
18446:
18443:
18442:
18441:
18438:
18436:
18433:
18431:
18428:
18426:
18423:
18419:
18416:
18415:
18414:
18411:
18409:
18406:
18402:
18399:
18398:
18397:
18394:
18390:
18387:
18386:
18385:
18382:
18378:
18375:
18374:
18373:
18370:
18368:
18365:
18361:
18358:
18357:
18356:
18353:
18351:
18348:
18344:
18341:
18339:
18336:
18334:
18331:
18330:
18329:
18326:
18325:
18323:
18321:
18317:
18309:
18308:War on terror
18306:
18304:
18301:
18300:
18299:
18296:
18292:
18289:
18287:
18284:
18282:
18279:
18277:
18274:
18272:
18269:
18267:
18264:
18262:
18259:
18257:
18254:
18252:
18249:
18247:
18244:
18242:
18239:
18237:
18234:
18232:
18229:
18227:
18224:
18222:
18219:
18217:
18214:
18212:
18209:
18207:
18204:
18203:
18202:
18201:Modern period
18199:
18197:
18194:
18190:
18187:
18185:
18182:
18180:
18177:
18176:
18175:
18172:
18168:
18165:
18164:
18163:
18160:
18158:
18155:
18154:
18152:
18150:
18146:
18140:
18137:
18135:
18132:
18130:
18127:
18125:
18122:
18116:
18113:
18111:
18108:
18107:
18106:
18103:
18101:
18098:
18096:
18093:
18091:
18088:
18087:
18086:
18083:
18081:
18078:
18076:
18073:
18072:
18070:
18066:
18062:
18058:
18057:Western world
18051:
18046:
18044:
18039:
18037:
18032:
18031:
18028:
18016:
18013:
18011:
18008:
18006:
18003:
18001:
17998:
17996:
17993:
17991:
17988:
17986:
17983:
17981:
17978:
17976:
17973:
17971:
17970:Art of Europe
17968:
17967:
17965:
17961:
17955:
17952:
17950:
17947:
17945:
17942:
17940:
17937:
17935:
17932:
17930:
17927:
17925:
17922:
17920:
17917:
17915:
17912:
17910:
17907:
17905:
17902:
17900:
17897:
17895:
17892:
17890:
17887:
17885:
17882:
17880:
17877:
17875:
17872:
17870:
17867:
17865:
17862:
17860:
17857:
17855:
17852:
17850:
17847:
17845:
17842:
17840:
17837:
17835:
17832:
17830:
17827:
17825:
17822:
17820:
17817:
17815:
17812:
17810:
17807:
17805:
17802:
17800:
17797:
17793:
17790:
17789:
17788:
17785:
17783:
17780:
17778:
17775:
17774:
17772:
17770:
17769:Modern period
17766:
17760:
17757:
17755:
17752:
17750:
17747:
17745:
17742:
17740:
17737:
17735:
17732:
17730:
17727:
17725:
17722:
17720:
17717:
17715:
17712:
17710:
17707:
17704:
17700:
17696:
17692:
17688:
17685:
17683:
17680:
17678:
17675:
17671:
17668:
17666:
17663:
17661:
17658:
17656:
17653:
17652:
17651:
17648:
17644:
17641:
17639:
17636:
17635:
17633:
17631:
17628:
17626:
17623:
17621:
17618:
17616:
17613:
17609:
17606:
17605:
17604:
17601:
17599:
17596:
17594:
17591:
17590:
17588:
17586:
17582:
17576:
17573:
17571:
17568:
17566:
17563:
17559:
17556:
17555:
17554:
17551:
17549:
17546:
17544:
17541:
17539:
17536:
17534:
17531:
17530:
17528:
17526:
17522:
17516:
17513:
17511:
17508:
17506:
17503:
17501:
17498:
17497:
17495:
17493:
17489:
17485:
17478:
17473:
17471:
17466:
17464:
17459:
17458:
17455:
17438:
17434:
17430:
17426:
17422:
17418:
17414:
17411:
17407:
17403:
17399:
17395:
17392:
17388:
17384:
17380:
17377:
17373:
17369:
17366:
17362:
17358:
17354:
17350:
17346:
17343:
17340:
17336:
17332:
17328:
17324:
17321:
17319:
17316:
17315:
17313:
17311:
17308:
17307:
17305:
17303:and Near East
17299:
17293:
17290:
17287:
17283:
17279:
17275:
17271:
17267:
17264:
17262:
17259:
17257:
17254:
17252:
17249:
17246:
17242:
17238:
17236:
17233:
17230:
17226:
17222:
17218:
17214:
17211:
17208:
17204:
17200:
17196:
17192:
17189:
17186:
17182:
17179:
17177:
17174:
17172:
17169:
17167:
17164:
17162:
17159:
17157:
17154:
17152:
17149:
17146:
17142:
17138:
17134:
17131:
17129:
17126:
17125:
17123:
17117:
17114:
17108:
17097:
17093:
17089:
17085:
17081:
17079:
17076:
17074:
17071:
17069:
17066:
17063:
17059:
17055:
17052:
17048:
17044:
17042:
17039:
17037:
17034:
17032:
17029:
17027:
17024:
17022:
17019:
17017:
17014:
17013:
17011:
17009:and Near East
17005:
16998:
16994:
16990:
16986:
16983:
16981:
16978:
16976:
16973:
16970:
16966:
16962:
16958:
16955:
16953:
16950:
16947:
16943:
16939:
16935:
16932:
16930:
16927:
16925:
16922:
16919:
16915:
16911:
16907:
16904:
16902:
16899:
16897:
16894:
16893:
16891:
16885:
16882:
16872:
16868:
16861:
16856:
16854:
16849:
16847:
16842:
16841:
16838:
16826:
16818:
16816:
16808:
16806:
16802:
16798:
16797:
16794:
16788:
16785:
16783:
16780:
16778:
16775:
16773:
16770:
16768:
16765:
16763:
16760:
16758:
16755:
16753:
16750:
16748:
16745:
16743:
16740:
16738:
16735:
16733:
16730:
16729:
16727:
16723:
16717:
16714:
16712:
16709:
16707:
16704:
16702:
16699:
16697:
16694:
16692:
16689:
16687:
16684:
16682:
16679:
16677:
16674:
16672:
16669:
16667:
16664:
16662:
16659:
16657:
16654:
16652:
16649:
16647:
16644:
16642:
16639:
16637:
16634:
16632:
16629:
16627:
16624:
16622:
16619:
16617:
16614:
16612:
16609:
16607:
16604:
16602:
16599:
16597:
16594:
16592:
16589:
16588:
16586:
16582:
16576:
16573:
16569:
16566:
16565:
16564:
16561:
16559:
16556:
16554:
16551:
16549:
16546:
16544:
16541:
16539:
16536:
16534:
16531:
16529:
16526:
16524:
16521:
16519:
16516:
16514:
16511:
16509:
16506:
16504:
16501:
16499:
16496:
16494:
16491:
16489:
16486:
16485:
16483:
16481:
16477:
16471:
16468:
16466:
16463:
16461:
16458:
16456:
16453:
16451:
16448:
16446:
16443:
16441:
16438:
16436:
16435:Scholasticism
16433:
16431:
16428:
16426:
16423:
16421:
16418:
16416:
16413:
16411:
16408:
16406:
16403:
16401:
16398:
16396:
16393:
16391:
16388:
16386:
16383:
16381:
16378:
16377:
16375:
16373:
16369:
16363:
16360:
16358:
16355:
16353:
16350:
16348:
16345:
16343:
16340:
16338:
16335:
16333:
16330:
16328:
16325:
16323:
16320:
16318:
16315:
16313:
16310:
16308:
16305:
16303:
16300:
16298:
16297:Rise of Islam
16295:
16291:
16288:
16287:
16286:
16283:
16281:
16278:
16276:
16273:
16271:
16268:
16266:
16263:
16261:
16258:
16257:
16255:
16253:
16249:
16245:
16238:
16233:
16231:
16226:
16224:
16219:
16218:
16215:
16207:
16206:The Labyrinth
16204:
16201:
16197:
16194:
16192:
16189:
16186:
16183:
16181:
16178:
16177:
16165:
16159:
16155:
16151:
16150:
16144:
16140:
16134:
16130:
16126:
16125:
16120:
16116:
16112:
16106:
16102:
16098:
16097:
16092:
16088:
16084:
16078:
16074:
16070:
16066:
16065:
16061:
16057:
16053:
16049:
16045:
16039:
16035:
16031:
16030:
16025:
16021:
16017:
16011:
16007:
16003:
15999:
15998:
15994:
15990:
15986:
15982:
15978:
15972:
15968:
15964:
15960:
15959:
15955:
15951:
15947:
15943:
15939:
15935:
15929:
15925:
15921:
15917:
15916:
15912:
15908:
15904:
15900:
15896:
15892:
15886:
15882:
15881:Da Capo Press
15878:
15877:
15871:
15867:
15861:
15857:
15853:
15849:
15848:
15844:
15840:
15836:
15832:
15828:
15822:
15818:
15814:
15813:
15807:
15803:
15797:
15793:
15789:
15785:
15781:
15777:
15771:
15767:
15763:
15759:
15758:
15754:
15750:
15746:
15742:
15738:
15732:
15728:
15724:
15723:
15717:
15713:
15707:
15703:
15699:
15698:
15693:
15689:
15685:
15681:
15675:
15671:
15670:HarperCollins
15667:
15666:
15661:
15657:
15653:
15647:
15643:
15639:
15635:
15634:
15630:
15626:
15622:
15618:
15614:
15608:
15604:
15600:
15596:
15595:
15591:
15587:
15583:
15579:
15575:
15569:
15565:
15561:
15560:
15554:
15553:
15541:
15535:
15531:
15527:
15526:
15520:
15516:
15510:
15506:
15505:Penguin Books
15502:
15498:
15497:
15492:
15488:
15484:
15478:
15474:
15470:
15469:
15464:
15460:
15456:
15450:
15446:
15442:
15438:
15437:
15432:
15427:
15423:
15417:
15413:
15409:
15408:
15402:
15398:
15392:
15388:
15384:
15380:
15375:
15371:
15365:
15361:
15357:
15353:
15352:
15347:
15343:
15339:
15333:
15329:
15325:
15324:
15318:
15314:
15308:
15304:
15300:
15299:
15293:
15289:
15283:
15279:
15275:
15274:
15269:
15265:
15261:
15255:
15251:
15247:
15243:
15242:
15237:
15233:
15229:
15223:
15219:
15215:
15211:
15207:
15202:
15198:
15192:
15188:
15184:
15183:
15178:
15174:
15170:
15164:
15160:
15156:
15155:
15149:
15145:
15139:
15135:
15131:
15127:
15123:
15119:
15113:
15109:
15105:
15104:
15099:
15095:
15094:Onions, C. T.
15091:
15087:
15081:
15077:
15073:
15069:
15065:
15061:
15055:
15051:
15047:
15043:
15042:
15036:
15032:
15026:
15022:
15018:
15017:
15011:
15007:
15003:
14999:
14995:
14991:
14987:
14983:
14978:
14974:
14968:
14964:
14960:
14956:
14955:
14950:
14946:
14942:
14938:
14934:
14930:
14926:
14922:
14918:
14914:
14910:
14906:
14905:
14900:
14896:
14892:
14886:
14882:
14878:
14877:
14871:
14867:
14861:
14857:
14853:
14852:
14846:
14842:
14836:
14832:
14828:
14827:
14822:
14818:
14814:
14810:
14804:
14800:
14796:
14792:
14788:
14784:
14778:
14774:
14770:
14766:
14761:
14757:
14751:
14747:
14746:Penguin Books
14743:
14739:
14735:
14731:
14725:
14721:
14717:
14713:
14709:
14705:
14699:
14695:
14694:Penguin Books
14691:
14690:
14685:
14684:Keen, Maurice
14681:
14677:
14671:
14667:
14666:Penguin Books
14663:
14659:
14658:
14653:
14649:
14645:
14639:
14635:
14631:
14630:
14625:
14624:James, Edward
14621:
14617:
14611:
14607:
14603:
14602:
14596:
14592:
14586:
14582:
14578:
14577:
14572:
14571:Hornby, A. S.
14568:
14564:
14558:
14554:
14550:
14549:
14544:
14540:
14536:
14532:
14527:
14522:
14518:
14514:
14510:
14509:
14504:
14500:
14495:
14491:
14485:
14481:
14477:
14476:
14470:
14466:
14460:
14456:
14452:
14451:
14446:
14442:
14438:
14432:
14428:
14424:
14423:
14418:
14414:
14410:
14404:
14400:
14396:
14395:
14390:
14386:
14382:
14376:
14372:
14368:
14364:
14363:
14357:
14353:
14347:
14343:
14339:
14335:
14334:
14329:
14325:
14321:
14315:
14311:
14307:
14302:
14298:
14292:
14288:
14284:
14283:
14278:
14274:
14270:
14264:
14260:
14256:
14255:
14250:
14246:
14242:
14236:
14232:
14228:
14227:
14221:
14217:
14211:
14207:
14203:
14202:
14197:
14196:Grant, Edward
14193:
14189:
14183:
14179:
14178:
14172:
14168:
14162:
14158:
14154:
14153:
14148:
14144:
14140:
14134:
14130:
14126:
14122:
14118:
14113:
14109:
14103:
14099:
14095:
14091:
14087:
14083:
14079:
14073:
14069:
14065:
14064:
14059:
14055:
14051:
14045:
14041:
14037:
14036:
14031:
14027:
14023:
14017:
14013:
14009:
14008:
14002:
13998:
13992:
13988:
13984:
13983:
13978:
13974:
13970:
13964:
13960:
13956:
13955:
13950:
13946:
13942:
13936:
13932:
13928:
13924:
13923:
13918:
13913:
13909:
13903:
13899:
13895:
13894:
13889:
13885:
13881:
13875:
13871:
13867:
13866:
13863:
13858:
13857:Curta, Florin
13854:
13850:
13844:
13840:
13836:
13832:
13831:
13826:
13822:
13818:
13812:
13808:
13804:
13803:
13798:
13794:
13790:
13784:
13780:
13776:
13775:
13770:
13766:
13762:
13756:
13752:
13748:
13744:
13743:
13738:
13733:
13729:
13723:
13719:
13715:
13714:
13709:
13705:
13701:
13695:
13691:
13687:
13686:
13680:
13676:
13670:
13666:
13662:
13658:
13657:
13652:
13648:
13644:
13638:
13634:
13633:Penguin Books
13630:
13629:
13624:
13620:
13616:
13610:
13606:
13602:
13601:
13596:
13592:
13588:
13582:
13578:
13574:
13573:
13567:
13563:
13557:
13553:
13549:
13545:
13544:
13538:
13534:
13528:
13524:
13520:
13519:
13514:
13510:
13506:
13500:
13496:
13492:
13491:
13485:
13484:
13472:
13467:
13460:
13455:
13448:
13443:
13436:
13431:
13424:
13419:
13412:
13411:Lindberg 2003
13407:
13401:, p. 18.
13400:
13395:
13388:
13383:
13376:
13371:
13364:
13359:
13352:
13347:
13340:
13335:
13329:, p. 78.
13328:
13323:
13316:
13311:
13304:
13299:
13292:
13287:
13280:
13275:
13268:
13263:
13256:
13251:
13244:
13239:
13232:
13227:
13220:
13215:
13208:
13203:
13196:
13191:
13184:
13179:
13173:, p. 38.
13172:
13167:
13161:, p. 36.
13160:
13155:
13148:
13143:
13136:
13131:
13124:
13119:
13112:
13107:
13100:
13095:
13088:
13083:
13076:
13071:
13064:
13059:
13052:
13047:
13040:
13035:
13028:
13023:
13016:
13011:
13004:
12999:
12992:
12987:
12980:
12975:
12968:
12963:
12956:
12951:
12944:
12939:
12932:
12927:
12920:
12915:
12908:
12907:Hamilton 2003
12903:
12896:
12891:
12884:
12879:
12872:
12871:Hamilton 2003
12867:
12860:
12855:
12848:
12843:
12836:
12835:Hamilton 2003
12831:
12824:
12819:
12812:
12807:
12800:
12795:
12788:
12783:
12776:
12771:
12764:
12759:
12752:
12747:
12740:
12735:
12728:
12723:
12716:
12711:
12704:
12699:
12692:
12687:
12680:
12675:
12668:
12663:
12656:
12651:
12644:
12639:
12632:
12627:
12620:
12615:
12608:
12603:
12596:
12591:
12584:
12579:
12572:
12567:
12560:
12555:
12548:
12543:
12536:
12531:
12524:
12519:
12512:
12507:
12500:
12495:
12488:
12483:
12476:
12471:
12464:
12459:
12452:
12447:
12440:
12435:
12428:
12423:
12416:
12411:
12404:
12399:
12392:
12387:
12380:
12375:
12368:
12363:
12356:
12351:
12344:
12339:
12332:
12327:
12320:
12315:
12308:
12303:
12296:
12291:
12285:, p. 98.
12284:
12279:
12272:
12267:
12265:
12263:
12255:
12250:
12243:
12238:
12231:
12226:
12219:
12214:
12207:
12202:
12195:
12190:
12183:
12178:
12171:
12166:
12159:
12154:
12147:
12142:
12135:
12134:Bartlett 1994
12130:
12123:
12122:Bartlett 1994
12118:
12111:
12106:
12099:
12094:
12087:
12082:
12075:
12070:
12068:
12060:
12055:
12048:
12047:Hoffmann 2014
12043:
12036:
12031:
12024:
12019:
12012:
12007:
12000:
11995:
11988:
11983:
11977:, p. 76.
11976:
11971:
11964:
11959:
11953:, p. 45.
11952:
11947:
11940:
11935:
11928:
11923:
11917:, p. 64.
11916:
11911:
11904:
11899:
11897:
11889:
11884:
11877:
11872:
11870:
11862:
11857:
11850:
11845:
11838:
11833:
11826:
11821:
11814:
11809:
11802:
11797:
11790:
11785:
11778:
11773:
11766:
11761:
11754:
11749:
11742:
11737:
11730:
11725:
11718:
11713:
11706:
11701:
11694:
11689:
11682:
11677:
11670:
11665:
11658:
11653:
11646:
11641:
11634:
11629:
11622:
11617:
11611:, p. 13.
11610:
11605:
11598:
11593:
11586:
11581:
11574:
11569:
11562:
11557:
11550:
11545:
11538:
11533:
11526:
11521:
11519:
11511:
11506:
11499:
11494:
11487:
11482:
11475:
11470:
11463:
11458:
11451:
11446:
11439:
11434:
11427:
11422:
11415:
11410:
11403:
11398:
11391:
11386:
11379:
11374:
11367:
11366:Hamilton 2003
11362:
11355:
11350:
11343:
11338:
11331:
11326:
11319:
11314:
11307:
11302:
11300:
11292:
11287:
11280:
11275:
11268:
11263:
11256:
11251:
11244:
11239:
11232:
11227:
11220:
11215:
11208:
11203:
11196:
11191:
11184:
11179:
11172:
11167:
11160:
11155:
11148:
11143:
11136:
11131:
11124:
11119:
11112:
11107:
11100:
11095:
11088:
11083:
11076:
11071:
11064:
11059:
11052:
11047:
11040:
11035:
11028:
11023:
11016:
11011:
11004:
10999:
10992:
10987:
10980:
10975:
10968:
10963:
10957:, p. 85.
10956:
10951:
10944:
10939:
10932:
10927:
10920:
10915:
10908:
10903:
10896:
10891:
10884:
10879:
10872:
10867:
10860:
10855:
10848:
10843:
10836:
10831:
10824:
10819:
10812:
10807:
10800:
10795:
10788:
10783:
10776:
10775:Hamilton 2003
10771:
10764:
10759:
10752:
10747:
10740:
10735:
10728:
10723:
10716:
10711:
10705:, p. 75.
10704:
10699:
10693:, p. 64.
10692:
10687:
10680:
10675:
10668:
10663:
10656:
10651:
10644:
10639:
10632:
10627:
10620:
10615:
10613:
10606:, p. 32.
10605:
10604:Hamilton 2003
10600:
10593:
10588:
10581:
10580:Hamilton 2003
10576:
10569:
10568:Hamilton 2003
10564:
10557:
10552:
10545:
10540:
10533:
10528:
10521:
10516:
10509:
10508:Hamilton 2003
10504:
10497:
10492:
10485:
10480:
10473:
10468:
10461:
10456:
10449:
10448:Hamilton 2003
10444:
10437:
10432:
10425:
10420:
10413:
10408:
10401:
10396:
10389:
10384:
10377:
10372:
10365:
10360:
10354:, p. 61.
10353:
10348:
10341:
10336:
10329:
10324:
10317:
10312:
10305:
10300:
10293:
10288:
10281:
10276:
10269:
10264:
10258:, p. 99.
10257:
10252:
10245:
10240:
10234:, p. 58.
10233:
10228:
10226:
10224:
10217:, p. 15.
10216:
10211:
10204:
10199:
10192:
10187:
10180:
10175:
10168:
10163:
10156:
10151:
10144:
10139:
10133:, p. 87.
10132:
10127:
10121:, p. 11.
10120:
10115:
10108:
10107:Bartlett 1994
10103:
10096:
10095:Bartlett 1994
10091:
10085:, p. 40.
10084:
10079:
10072:
10067:
10060:
10055:
10048:
10043:
10036:
10031:
10024:
10023:Bartlett 1994
10019:
10012:
10007:
10000:
9995:
9988:
9983:
9976:
9971:
9964:
9959:
9952:
9947:
9941:, p. 73.
9940:
9935:
9928:
9923:
9916:
9911:
9904:
9899:
9892:
9887:
9880:
9875:
9868:
9863:
9861:
9853:
9848:
9841:
9836:
9830:, p. 80.
9829:
9824:
9822:
9814:
9809:
9802:
9797:
9790:
9785:
9779:, p. 41.
9778:
9773:
9767:, p. 52.
9766:
9761:
9754:
9749:
9742:
9737:
9730:
9725:
9718:
9713:
9706:
9701:
9694:
9689:
9687:
9679:
9674:
9667:
9662:
9655:
9650:
9643:
9638:
9631:
9626:
9619:
9614:
9607:
9602:
9595:
9590:
9583:
9578:
9571:
9566:
9559:
9554:
9547:
9542:
9540:
9532:
9527:
9520:
9515:
9508:
9503:
9496:
9491:
9484:
9479:
9477:
9469:
9464:
9457:
9452:
9445:
9440:
9433:
9428:
9421:
9416:
9409:
9404:
9397:
9392:
9385:
9380:
9373:
9368:
9361:
9356:
9349:
9344:
9337:
9332:
9325:
9320:
9313:
9308:
9301:
9296:
9289:
9284:
9277:
9272:
9265:
9260:
9253:
9248:
9241:
9236:
9229:
9224:
9217:
9212:
9205:
9200:
9198:
9190:
9185:
9183:
9175:
9170:
9163:
9158:
9151:
9146:
9139:
9134:
9127:
9122:
9115:
9110:
9103:
9098:
9091:
9086:
9079:
9074:
9068:, p. 51.
9067:
9062:
9055:
9050:
9043:
9038:
9031:
9026:
9019:
9014:
9007:
9002:
8995:
8990:
8983:
8978:
8971:
8966:
8959:
8954:
8947:
8942:
8936:, p. 87.
8935:
8930:
8923:
8918:
8911:
8906:
8899:
8894:
8887:
8882:
8875:
8870:
8863:
8862:Hamilton 2003
8858:
8851:
8846:
8839:
8834:
8827:
8822:
8815:
8810:
8803:
8798:
8791:
8786:
8779:
8774:
8767:
8762:
8755:
8750:
8744:, p. 35.
8743:
8742:Hamilton 2003
8738:
8731:
8726:
8719:
8714:
8708:, p. 41.
8707:
8702:
8700:
8692:
8687:
8680:
8675:
8668:
8663:
8656:
8651:
8644:
8639:
8632:
8631:Naismith 2023
8627:
8620:
8615:
8608:
8603:
8596:
8595:Ringrose 2016
8591:
8584:
8579:
8573:, p. 15.
8572:
8567:
8560:
8555:
8548:
8543:
8536:
8531:
8524:
8519:
8513:, p. 92.
8512:
8507:
8500:
8495:
8488:
8483:
8476:
8471:
8465:, p. 26.
8464:
8459:
8452:
8447:
8440:
8435:
8428:
8423:
8416:
8411:
8404:
8399:
8392:
8387:
8380:
8375:
8368:
8363:
8356:
8351:
8344:
8339:
8332:
8327:
8320:
8315:
8308:
8303:
8296:
8291:
8284:
8279:
8272:
8267:
8260:
8255:
8248:
8243:
8236:
8235:Ringrose 2016
8231:
8224:
8219:
8213:, p. 83.
8212:
8207:
8200:
8195:
8188:
8183:
8176:
8171:
8164:
8159:
8152:
8147:
8141:, p. 77.
8140:
8135:
8129:, p. 78.
8128:
8123:
8121:
8113:
8108:
8101:
8096:
8089:
8084:
8077:
8072:
8065:
8060:
8053:
8048:
8041:
8036:
8029:
8024:
8017:
8012:
8005:
8000:
7994:, p. 86.
7993:
7988:
7981:
7976:
7970:, p. 79.
7969:
7964:
7957:
7952:
7946:, p. 80.
7945:
7940:
7933:
7928:
7921:
7916:
7909:
7904:
7897:
7892:
7885:
7880:
7878:
7870:
7865:
7858:
7853:
7846:
7841:
7834:
7829:
7822:
7817:
7810:
7805:
7799:, p. 35.
7798:
7793:
7786:
7781:
7774:
7769:
7762:
7757:
7751:, p. 34.
7750:
7745:
7738:
7733:
7726:
7721:
7714:
7709:
7707:
7699:
7694:
7692:
7684:
7679:
7672:
7667:
7660:
7655:
7648:
7647:Naismith 2023
7643:
7636:
7631:
7624:
7619:
7612:
7607:
7600:
7595:
7588:
7583:
7576:
7571:
7564:
7559:
7552:
7547:
7540:
7535:
7528:
7523:
7516:
7511:
7504:
7499:
7492:
7487:
7485:
7477:
7472:
7465:
7460:
7458:
7450:
7445:
7438:
7433:
7426:
7421:
7414:
7409:
7402:
7397:
7390:
7385:
7378:
7373:
7371:
7363:
7358:
7354:
7341:
7340:
7339:Duke of Berry
7333:
7332:
7326:
7320:
7313:
7309:
7303:
7295:
7289:
7282:
7275:
7269:
7262:
7261:Vladislaus II
7258:
7254:
7250:
7244:
7237:
7233:
7229:
7225:
7221:
7217:
7212:
7205:
7193:
7189:
7181:
7177:
7173:
7169:
7168:Andronikos II
7165:
7159:
7152:
7146:
7139:
7135:
7129:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7110:
7104:
7097:
7093:
7089:
7088:Jagiellonians
7085:
7081:
7075:
7068:
7064:
7060:
7054:
7047:
7043:
7037:
7026:
7020:
7009:
7003:
6994:
6987:
6983:
6980:in Germany,
6979:
6975:
6971:
6967:
6963:
6957:
6950:
6946:
6942:
6936:
6925:
6921:
6915:
6907:
6906:
6900:
6896:
6892:
6886:
6879:
6878:San Gimignano
6874:
6867:
6860:
6859:trial by jury
6856:
6852:
6847:
6846:
6840:
6835:
6834:
6828:
6822:
6814:
6813:
6807:
6806:Alan of Lille
6803:
6799:
6788:
6777:
6771:
6764:
6757:
6750:
6746:
6742:
6736:
6729:
6725:
6719:
6712:
6708:
6704:
6700:
6697:, and seized
6696:
6692:
6686:
6679:
6670:
6663:
6659:
6655:
6651:
6647:
6643:
6638:
6631:
6627:
6626:Thomas Hobbes
6623:
6620:philosophers
6619:
6613:
6606:
6605:female orgasm
6602:
6599:Often facing
6596:
6589:
6585:
6578:
6572:of the towns.
6571:
6567:
6561:
6554:
6547:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6520:
6514:
6506:
6505:
6504:ministerialis
6497:
6490:
6489:
6484:
6483:
6476:
6469:
6468:ivory carving
6465:
6461:
6455:
6446:
6432:
6428:
6422:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6401:
6394:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6376:
6369:
6363:
6356:
6352:
6346:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6322:
6316:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6291:
6279: 30,000
6271:
6264:
6263:Birka Warrior
6260:
6256:
6246:
6239:
6235:
6229:
6220:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6199:
6195:
6187:
6185:
6181:
6177:
6173:
6168:
6167:
6161:
6157:
6153:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6124:
6121:
6117:
6113:
6112:Enlightenment
6109:
6105:
6102:According to
6098:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6064:
6062:
6061:
6056:
6052:
6047:
6046:
6040:
6035:
6034:
6028:
6024:
6019:
6017:
6013:
6009:
6008:
6003:
5999:
5998:
5993:
5989:
5988:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5964:. The use of
5963:
5959:
5955:
5951:
5947:
5942:
5940:
5939:
5934:
5930:
5921:
5911:
5902:
5894:
5890:
5886:
5882:
5881:child tribute
5878:
5877:standing army
5874:
5869:
5867:
5863:
5862:blast furnace
5859:
5855:
5847:
5836:
5832:
5823:
5821:
5819:
5815:
5814:Vasco da Gama
5812:in 1486, and
5811:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5793:
5791:
5787:
5778:
5777:
5770:
5769:
5762:
5761:
5754:
5752:
5746:led to three
5745:
5741:
5740:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5719:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5701:
5699:
5695:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5672:
5664:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5646:
5636:
5634:
5630:
5625:
5624:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5595:
5594:
5588:
5587:Martin Luther
5584:
5579:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5548:John Wycliffe
5544:
5542:
5541:Pope Martin V
5538:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5517:false charges
5514:
5510:
5506:
5502:
5492:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5466:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5445:Ottoman Turks
5442:
5434:
5433:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5403:
5399:
5389:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5355:
5351:
5346:
5345:was lasting.
5344:
5340:
5336:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5306:
5304:
5299:
5294:
5290:
5286:
5285:seizing Ceuta
5282:
5276:
5274:
5270:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5175:
5174:
5167:
5166:
5159:
5158:
5152:
5147:
5137:
5135:
5131:
5130:from Portugal
5128:in 1492, and
5127:
5123:
5119:
5115:
5109:
5105:
5103:
5099:
5098:Ciompi Revolt
5095:
5090:
5089:
5083:
5079:
5075:
5070:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5038:
5033:
5032:
5025:
5020:
5009:
4999:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4976:
4974:
4970:
4969:horse collars
4966:
4958:
4953:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4931:
4930:rib-and-plank
4920:
4916:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4892:
4888:
4885:(d. 1263) by
4884:
4879:
4874:
4870:
4860:
4858:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4821:book of hours
4818:
4814:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4803:stained glass
4800:
4796:
4792:
4788:
4783:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4760:font at Liège
4757:
4753:
4749:
4744:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4721:
4720:
4714:
4710:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4686:
4684:
4680:
4679:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4663:
4659:
4654:
4653:
4647:
4643:
4638:
4632:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4614:
4613:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4595:
4594:mystery plays
4591:
4587:
4576:
4573:collected by
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4555:
4550:
4549:
4543:
4542:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4521:
4516:
4515:
4508:
4507:
4500:
4488:
4487:(d. 1274).
4486:
4481:
4480:
4473:
4472:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4456:Scholasticism
4453:
4449:
4448:Peter Lombard
4445:
4444:Peter Abelard
4441:
4437:
4433:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4404:
4403:
4397:
4393:
4385:
4380:
4370:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4335:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4310:in the east.
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4215:First Crusade
4212:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4173:
4169:
4159:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4104:Mongol Empire
4100:
4098:
4090:
4086:
4083:during their
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4057:disintegrated
4054:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4014:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3976:
3975:
3968:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3900:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3878:
3874:
3871:
3867:
3862:
3858:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3826:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3810:(r. 1155–90)
3809:
3802:
3798:
3797:Hohenstaufens
3790:
3786:
3782:
3777:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3766:Muslim rulers
3763:
3759:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3705:
3696:
3694:
3689:
3688:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3598:Monte Gargano
3595:
3590:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3563:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3532:reform-minded
3529:
3525:
3524:controlled by
3521:
3514:
3510:
3505:
3496:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3476:
3474:
3470:
3469:Trading fairs
3466:
3465:Low Countries
3461:
3460:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3433:
3431:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3414:
3408:
3407:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3388:
3380:
3375:
3366:
3364:
3360:
3354:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3339:Church courts
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3311:
3309:
3308:primogeniture
3304:
3299:
3297:
3292:
3291:
3285:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3252:
3249:
3248:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3205:
3201:
3200:Seljuk Empire
3197:
3192:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3160:
3150:
3140:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3129:
3124:
3120:
3114:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3092:
3088:
3087:heavy cavalry
3084:
3080:
3079:composite bow
3076:
3069:
3068:
3063:
3059:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3022:Christian art
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2990:Byzantine art
2987:
2982:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2970:Book of Kells
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2941:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2927:animal motifs
2924:
2920:
2916:
2911:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2858:
2854:
2853:
2852:Book of Kells
2847:
2842:
2838:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2809:Árpád dynasty
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2763:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2622:in the early
2621:
2617:
2612:
2610:
2606:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2571:
2566:
2562:
2559:10th-century
2557:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2403:
2393:
2384:
2375:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2292:
2290:
2285:
2284:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2222:Childeric III
2219:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2180:
2176:
2175:
2169:
2164:
2154:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2112:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2092:monastic name
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2030:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2012:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1977:7th centuries
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1901:
1897:
1892:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1857:
1850:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1834:8th centuries
1826:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1798:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1755:southern Gaul
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1702:
1692:
1682:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1653:Rise of Islam
1650:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1639:Hispanic Jews
1634:
1632:
1627:
1617:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1598:
1592:
1588:
1583:
1582:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1554:
1552:
1541:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1494:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1451:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1439:
1433:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1266:their kingdom
1263:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1204:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1164:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1142:
1136:
1132:
1129:(d. 472), or
1128:
1124:
1120:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1066:crossed into
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1025:
1020:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
986:
982:
977:
975:
971:
967:
966:monophysitism
963:
959:
955:
951:
943:
939:
934:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
861:
853:
849:
848:
843:
838:
832:
822:
819:
815:
811:
806:
804:
800:
796:
792:
787:
783:
779:
775:
770:
769:
763:
758:
757:
751:
747:
736:
732:
731:on birch bark
727:
722:
718:
708:
706:
702:
698:
690:
683:. During the
682:
678:
674:
670:
665:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
634:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
604:
602:
597:
592:
588:
587:periodisation
584:
580:
576:
572:
564:
560:
556:
547:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
485:
481:
476:
474:
470:
466:
462:
461:scholasticism
458:
454:
450:
446:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
424:heavy cavalry
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
368:
366:
358:
354:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
230:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
209:
202:
199:
197:
194:
193:
190:
185:
181:
177:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
122:
120:
116:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
96:
94:
90:
85:
81:
66:
62:
61:stained-glass
56:
51:
46: AD 500
40:
35:
32:
30:
26:
22:
19408:
19391:
19374:
19357:
19340:
19328:from Commons
19323:
19302:
19234:Western Bloc
19034:AUSCANNZUKUS
18990:Contemporary
18939:Human rights
18785:Latin Church
18759:Christianity
18709:
18668:Conservatism
18513:contemporary
18350:Architecture
18286:World War II
18246:Emancipation
18241:Abolitionism
18173:
18129:Romanization
18124:Roman legacy
18105:Roman Empire
17929:World War II
17782:Early modern
17759:Kalmar Union
17630:Papal States
17584:
17548:Roman Empire
17417:Principality
17151:Papal States
16876:histories of
16596:Architecture
16568:Great Famine
16558:Universities
16498:Hussite Wars
16415:Great Schism
16302:Papal States
16243:
16148:
16123:
16119:Smith, Julia
16095:
16063:
16059:
16056:
16028:
15996:
15992:
15989:
15957:
15953:
15950:
15914:
15910:
15907:
15875:
15846:
15842:
15839:
15811:
15787:
15756:
15752:
15749:
15721:
15696:
15664:
15632:
15628:
15625:
15593:
15589:
15586:
15558:
15524:
15495:
15467:
15434:
15406:
15382:
15350:
15322:
15297:
15271:
15240:
15213:
15181:
15153:
15129:
15101:
15071:
15040:
15015:
14985:
14981:
14952:
14908:
14902:
14875:
14850:
14825:
14794:
14768:
14741:
14738:Lasko, Peter
14715:
14688:
14656:
14628:
14600:
14574:
14547:
14515:(suppl_13).
14512:
14506:
14474:
14449:
14421:
14393:
14361:
14332:
14305:
14281:
14253:
14225:
14200:
14176:
14151:
14124:
14089:
14062:
14034:
14006:
13981:
13953:
13920:
13892:
13865:
13861:
13829:
13801:
13773:
13740:
13712:
13708:Brown, Peter
13684:
13661:World of Art
13655:
13627:
13599:
13571:
13542:
13517:
13489:
13466:
13454:
13449:, p. 9.
13442:
13430:
13418:
13413:, p. 7.
13406:
13394:
13382:
13370:
13358:
13346:
13334:
13322:
13310:
13298:
13286:
13279:Nicolle 1996
13274:
13262:
13250:
13238:
13231:Wickham 2016
13226:
13214:
13207:Epstein 2009
13202:
13195:Epstein 2009
13190:
13178:
13171:Singman 1999
13166:
13159:Singman 1999
13154:
13147:Fossier 1986
13142:
13130:
13123:Fossier 1986
13118:
13106:
13099:Fossier 1986
13094:
13082:
13070:
13058:
13051:Singman 1999
13046:
13039:Backman 2022
13034:
13027:Fassler 2014
13022:
13010:
12998:
12991:Backman 2022
12986:
12974:
12962:
12950:
12943:Thomson 1998
12938:
12926:
12919:Thomson 1998
12914:
12902:
12890:
12883:Thomson 1998
12878:
12866:
12854:
12847:Thomson 1998
12842:
12830:
12823:Thomson 1998
12818:
12811:Swanson 2021
12806:
12799:Wickham 2016
12794:
12782:
12775:Thomson 1998
12770:
12758:
12746:
12734:
12722:
12710:
12698:
12686:
12674:
12662:
12650:
12638:
12626:
12614:
12602:
12595:Wickham 2016
12590:
12578:
12566:
12559:Wickham 2016
12554:
12542:
12535:Wickham 2016
12530:
12518:
12511:Wickham 2016
12506:
12494:
12482:
12470:
12458:
12446:
12439:Wickham 2016
12434:
12422:
12410:
12403:Backman 2022
12398:
12386:
12379:Wickham 2016
12374:
12362:
12350:
12338:
12326:
12319:Wickham 2016
12314:
12302:
12290:
12278:
12249:
12242:Swanson 2021
12237:
12225:
12213:
12201:
12189:
12182:Epstein 2009
12177:
12165:
12153:
12141:
12129:
12117:
12110:Backman 2022
12105:
12093:
12086:Singman 1999
12081:
12074:Wickham 2016
12059:Backman 2022
12054:
12042:
12030:
12023:Nicolle 1996
12018:
12011:Nicolle 1996
12006:
11999:Singman 1999
11994:
11987:Nicolle 1996
11982:
11970:
11963:Backman 2022
11958:
11951:Epstein 2009
11946:
11939:Backman 2022
11934:
11922:
11910:
11903:Epstein 2009
11883:
11876:Backman 2022
11861:Epstein 2009
11856:
11844:
11832:
11820:
11808:
11796:
11784:
11772:
11760:
11748:
11736:
11729:Dodwell 1993
11724:
11719:, p. 7.
11717:Dodwell 1993
11712:
11700:
11688:
11676:
11664:
11652:
11640:
11633:Nicolle 1996
11628:
11621:Nicolle 1996
11616:
11604:
11597:Backman 2022
11592:
11585:Backman 2022
11580:
11568:
11556:
11544:
11532:
11505:
11493:
11486:Backman 2022
11481:
11474:Fassler 2014
11469:
11457:
11450:Backman 2022
11445:
11438:Backman 2022
11433:
11421:
11409:
11402:Backman 2022
11397:
11385:
11373:
11361:
11349:
11337:
11325:
11313:
11306:Backman 2022
11286:
11274:
11262:
11255:Backman 2022
11250:
11238:
11226:
11214:
11202:
11195:Wickham 2016
11190:
11178:
11166:
11154:
11142:
11130:
11118:
11106:
11094:
11082:
11070:
11058:
11046:
11039:Backman 2022
11034:
11022:
11015:Wickham 2016
11010:
10998:
10991:Backman 2022
10986:
10979:Backman 2022
10974:
10962:
10955:Wickham 2016
10950:
10938:
10926:
10919:Backman 2022
10914:
10902:
10890:
10883:Backman 2022
10878:
10866:
10859:Backman 2022
10854:
10847:Backman 2022
10842:
10830:
10823:Backman 2022
10818:
10806:
10794:
10787:Backman 2022
10782:
10777:, p. 7.
10770:
10758:
10751:Backman 2022
10746:
10734:
10722:
10710:
10698:
10686:
10674:
10662:
10655:Backman 2022
10650:
10638:
10626:
10619:Ramirez 2022
10599:
10587:
10575:
10563:
10551:
10539:
10527:
10515:
10503:
10491:
10479:
10472:Backman 2022
10467:
10460:Backman 2022
10455:
10443:
10436:Backman 2022
10431:
10419:
10407:
10395:
10388:Epstein 2009
10383:
10371:
10364:Epstein 2009
10359:
10347:
10340:Epstein 2009
10335:
10328:Backman 2022
10323:
10316:Epstein 2009
10311:
10299:
10292:Epstein 2009
10287:
10280:Epstein 2009
10275:
10263:
10251:
10244:Epstein 2009
10239:
10215:Singman 1999
10210:
10198:
10191:Singman 1999
10186:
10179:Singman 1999
10174:
10167:Thomson 1998
10162:
10155:Backman 2022
10150:
10143:Singman 1999
10138:
10131:Thomson 1998
10126:
10119:Singman 1999
10114:
10102:
10090:
10078:
10073:, p. 3.
10071:Singman 1999
10066:
10061:, p. 8.
10059:Singman 1999
10054:
10042:
10037:, p. 2.
10035:Singman 1999
10030:
10018:
10011:Backman 2022
10006:
9994:
9987:Backman 2022
9982:
9975:Backman 2022
9970:
9963:Backman 2022
9958:
9951:Singman 1999
9946:
9934:
9922:
9917:, p. 6.
9915:Singman 1999
9910:
9903:Singman 1999
9898:
9891:Backman 2022
9886:
9879:Backman 2022
9874:
9847:
9840:Nicolle 1996
9835:
9828:Nicolle 1996
9813:Nicolle 1996
9808:
9801:Nicolle 1996
9796:
9789:Nicolle 1996
9784:
9777:Nicolle 1996
9772:
9760:
9753:Nicolle 1996
9748:
9741:Nicolle 1996
9736:
9724:
9712:
9700:
9673:
9661:
9649:
9637:
9625:
9613:
9601:
9589:
9577:
9570:Stalley 1999
9565:
9558:Stalley 1999
9553:
9546:Stalley 1999
9526:
9519:Stalley 1999
9514:
9507:Stalley 1999
9502:
9495:Wickham 2009
9490:
9483:Stalley 1999
9463:
9451:
9439:
9427:
9415:
9403:
9391:
9384:Wickham 2009
9379:
9372:Collins 2010
9367:
9355:
9343:
9336:Wickham 2009
9331:
9324:Collins 2010
9319:
9312:Backman 2022
9307:
9300:Collins 2010
9295:
9288:Wickham 2009
9283:
9276:Collins 2010
9271:
9264:Collins 2010
9259:
9252:Backman 2022
9247:
9240:Collins 2010
9235:
9228:Collins 2010
9223:
9216:Backman 2022
9211:
9204:Wickham 2009
9189:Collins 2010
9174:Backman 2022
9169:
9162:Wickham 2009
9157:
9150:Collins 2010
9145:
9138:Backman 2022
9133:
9126:Wickham 2009
9121:
9114:Collins 2010
9109:
9097:
9085:
9078:Fassler 2014
9073:
9066:Fassler 2014
9061:
9049:
9042:Backman 2022
9037:
9025:
9018:Backman 2022
9013:
9001:
8989:
8982:Collins 2010
8977:
8965:
8958:Collins 2010
8953:
8946:Backman 2022
8941:
8929:
8922:Backman 2022
8917:
8905:
8893:
8881:
8869:
8857:
8850:Wickham 2009
8845:
8833:
8826:Collins 2010
8821:
8814:Collins 2010
8809:
8797:
8785:
8773:
8761:
8754:Wickham 2009
8749:
8737:
8725:
8718:Collins 2010
8713:
8686:
8674:
8662:
8650:
8643:Collins 2010
8638:
8626:
8619:Collins 2010
8614:
8607:Wickham 2009
8602:
8590:
8583:Collins 2010
8578:
8566:
8559:Collins 2010
8554:
8547:Collins 2010
8542:
8535:Collins 2010
8530:
8518:
8506:
8494:
8482:
8470:
8458:
8451:Backman 2022
8446:
8434:
8427:Wickham 2009
8422:
8415:Wickham 2009
8410:
8403:Wickham 2009
8398:
8386:
8379:Backman 2022
8374:
8367:Ramirez 2022
8362:
8355:Ramirez 2022
8350:
8343:Wickham 2009
8338:
8331:Wickham 2009
8326:
8319:Wickham 2009
8314:
8307:Wickham 2009
8302:
8290:
8278:
8271:Collins 2010
8266:
8254:
8242:
8230:
8223:Backman 2022
8218:
8211:Wickham 2009
8206:
8199:Wickham 2009
8194:
8182:
8170:
8158:
8151:Collins 2010
8146:
8134:
8107:
8095:
8083:
8071:
8064:Wickham 2009
8059:
8052:Wickham 2009
8047:
8040:Wickham 2009
8035:
8023:
8016:Wickham 2009
8011:
8004:Collins 2010
7999:
7992:Wickham 2009
7987:
7980:Wickham 2009
7975:
7968:Wickham 2009
7963:
7951:
7944:Collins 2010
7939:
7932:Heather 2006
7927:
7920:Collins 2010
7915:
7908:Heather 2006
7903:
7896:Heather 2006
7891:
7869:Collins 2010
7864:
7852:
7845:Stalley 1999
7840:
7828:
7816:
7804:
7792:
7785:Collins 2010
7780:
7773:Backman 2022
7768:
7756:
7744:
7737:Collins 2010
7732:
7725:Collins 2010
7720:
7713:Heather 2006
7683:Collins 2010
7678:
7671:Heather 2006
7666:
7654:
7642:
7635:Wickham 2009
7630:
7618:
7606:
7594:
7582:
7570:
7565:, p. 4.
7558:
7546:
7534:
7527:Mommsen 1942
7522:
7510:
7498:
7478:, p. 5.
7471:
7466:, p. 1.
7451:, p. 1.
7449:Wickham 2016
7444:
7432:
7420:
7408:
7403:, p. 4.
7396:
7389:Mommsen 1942
7384:
7377:Hankins 2001
7364:, p. 3.
7357:
7336:
7319:
7302:
7281:
7268:
7243:
7224:John Hunyadi
7211:
7158:
7145:
7138:young nephew
7128:
7113:Wittelsbachs
7103:
7074:
7053:
7036:
7019:
7002:
6993:
6976:in England,
6956:
6935:
6928:12th century
6914:
6885:
6866:
6850:
6838:
6821:
6812:Stabat Mater
6797:
6770:
6756:
6735:
6718:
6685:
6674:Frederick II
6669:
6637:
6618:early modern
6612:
6595:
6577:
6560:
6546:
6531:King David I
6523:Robert Bruce
6519:Anglo-Norman
6513:
6496:
6486:
6480:
6475:
6454:
6445:
6421:
6400:
6375:
6362:
6345:
6315:
6290:
6270:
6245:
6228:
6219:
6208:Four Empires
6198:
6128:19th century
6125:
6120:Edward Grant
6101:
6094:
6058:
6051:Art of Dying
6050:
6045:Ars moriendi
6038:
6020:
6012:Jan van Eyck
6005:
5995:
5985:
5954:Brunelleschi
5946:Quattrocento
5943:
5936:
5931:chests, and
5925:15th century
5917:
5897:14th century
5870:
5851:
5822:
5794:
5790:movable type
5782:14th century
5751:formes fixes
5737:
5716:
5702:
5668:
5628:
5611:witch trials
5580:
5576:church union
5545:
5498:
5489:15th century
5449:at Gallipoli
5438:
5358:14th century
5347:
5311:14th century
5307:
5293:Ferdinand II
5277:
5271:and much of
5190:
5143:
5110:
5106:
5071:
5041:
5036:
4996:horse armour
4977:
4954:
4911:11th century
4895:
4857:carved-ivory
4853:12th century
4815:
4784:
4745:
4707:
4676:
4633:
4596:, but comic
4552:
4546:
4531:courtly love
4525:
4388:11th century
4382:
4359:Hospitallers
4336:
4308:Latin Empire
4267:
4243:at Dorylaeum
4208:
4152:described by
4140:Ottoman clan
4128:Golden Horde
4112:Genghis Khan
4101:
4093:12th century
4091:in the late
4042:
4011:
3969:
3896:
3886:, Bishop of
3879:
3872:
3825:Frederick II
3778:
3749:Innocent III
3741:
3713:18th century
3710:
3654:
3591:
3564:
3548:papal legate
3538:, Patriarch
3518:
3481:antisemitism
3477:
3435:The Italian
3434:
3426:
3400:partnerships
3384:
3355:
3351:13th century
3312:
3300:
3280:11th century
3253:
3223:
3181:
3126:
3115:
3103:scale armour
3072:
3065:
3045:letters and
2994:iconophiles'
2983:
2968:
2965:Gospel Books
2938:
2933:such as the
2912:
2893:
2873:Hagia Sophia
2862:
2850:
2764:
2733:
2670:
2624:10th century
2613:
2590:Viking realm
2575:
2472:
2444:
2409:
2360:West Francia
2352:East Francia
2332:music theory
2293:
2289:royal chapel
2270:
2246:
2242:Papal States
2218:Carolingians
2215:
2184:
2178:
2177:, completed
2172:
2115:10th century
2108:
2058:
2027:
2013:
1981:penitentials
1951:Few western
1950:
1946:10th century
1934:Nicene Creed
1905:
1868:house slaves
1858:
1838:walrus ivory
1830:
1825:Theudebert I
1759:
1747:North Africa
1707:
1635:
1614:
1555:
1551:compensation
1506:
1475:
1471:public roads
1452:
1425:
1359:
1355:Danube Delta
1319:North Africa
1300:
1246:
1200:
1189:
1115:
1092:Anglo-Saxons
1021:
978:
935:
860:Roman Empire
857:
845:
807:
778:Rolls Series
743:
739:12th century
693:20th century
685:19th century
666:
646:Christianity
635:
605:
596:medium aevum
568:
540:trade routes
492:14th century
480:great famine
477:
457:universities
418:between the
410:and eastern
369:
341:North Africa
325:new kingdoms
291:
258:
254:
253:(also spelt
250:
246:
240:
179:
31:
29:
19434:5th century
19429:Middle Ages
19303:Middle Ages
19271:Middle Ages
19174:Open Balkan
18992:integration
18922:Rule of law
18917:Natural law
18894:Agnosticism
18872:Hellenistic
18850:Anglo-Saxon
18780:Catholicism
18719:Atlanticism
18624:Rationalism
18430:Immigration
18413:Esotericism
18271:World War I
18236:Romanticism
18216:Reformation
18196:Renaissance
18174:Middle Ages
18139:Christendom
18068:Foundations
17914:World War I
17904:Nationalism
17792:Reformation
17777:Renaissance
17749:Black Death
17682:Kievan Rus'
17585:Middle Ages
17383:Kievan Rus'
17119:Western and
17112:territories
17036:Czech lands
16887:Western and
16825:WikiProject
16752:Medievalism
16591:Agriculture
16455:Manorialism
16450:Communalism
16445:Monasticism
16362:Reconquista
16352:Kievan Rus'
15463:Watts, John
15236:Rubin, Miri
15126:Peters, Ted
14915:: 226–242.
14755:14-056036-X
14729:7141-1327-1
13495:McGraw Hill
13471:Arnold 2021
13423:Russel 1991
13387:Sedlar 1994
13339:Benton 2002
13315:Benton 2002
13267:Sedlar 1994
13255:Sedlar 1994
13183:Arnold 2009
13135:Denley 2001
13111:Denley 2001
13063:Denley 2001
13015:Colish 2002
12979:Colish 2002
12859:Sedlar 1994
12763:Sedlar 1994
12739:Sedlar 1994
12715:Denley 2001
12691:Sedlar 1994
12679:Denley 2001
12643:Sedlar 1994
12619:Sedlar 1994
12499:Denley 2001
12451:Denley 2001
12355:Jordan 2002
12230:Chazan 2006
12218:Chazan 2006
12035:Sedlar 1994
11975:Barber 2004
11927:Barber 2004
11915:Barber 2004
11888:Ilardi 2007
11849:Benton 2002
11837:Benton 2002
11825:Benton 2002
11813:Benton 2002
11789:Benton 2002
11765:Benton 2002
11741:Benton 2002
11669:Benton 2002
11645:Benton 2002
11609:Jordan 2002
11573:Jordan 2002
11549:Hoppin 1978
11537:Colish 2002
11525:Colish 2002
11510:Colish 2002
11498:Barber 2004
11462:Colish 2002
11426:Colish 2002
11414:Barber 2004
11390:Barber 2004
11330:Barber 2004
11279:Barber 2004
11267:Barber 2004
11243:Barber 2004
11219:Barber 2004
11159:Barber 2004
11111:Barber 2004
11087:Barber 2004
11075:Barber 2004
11051:Barber 2004
11003:Barber 2004
10967:Jordan 2002
10943:Jordan 2002
10931:Barber 2004
10835:Barber 2004
10811:Barber 2004
10643:Chazan 2006
10592:Jordan 2002
10556:Morris 2001
10544:Barber 2004
10532:Morris 2001
10520:Barber 2004
10496:Barber 2004
10484:Barber 2004
10424:Chazan 2006
10412:Chazan 2006
10400:Chazan 2006
10376:Chazan 2006
10352:Barber 2004
10304:Barber 2004
10268:Barber 2004
10232:Barber 2004
10203:Barber 2004
10083:Barber 2004
10047:Barber 2004
9999:Jordan 2002
9939:Sedlar 1994
9867:Jordan 2002
9693:Benton 2002
9666:Benton 2002
9654:Benton 2002
9630:Benton 2002
9444:Barber 2004
9408:Davies 1996
9396:Davies 1996
9102:Hoppin 1978
9090:Hoppin 1978
9054:Colish 2002
9030:Davies 1996
8934:Barber 2004
8910:Colish 2002
8874:Colish 2002
8778:Colish 2002
8511:Chazan 2006
8499:Chazan 2006
8187:Davies 1996
7797:Chazan 2006
7659:Arnold 2021
7599:Arnold 2021
7587:Arnold 2021
7575:Arnold 2021
7563:Harris 2008
7503:Arnold 2021
7491:Davies 1996
7413:Hornby 2005
7401:Murray 2004
7294:illiteratus
7228:at Belgrade
7202:caused the
7092:Trastámaras
7080:Luxembourgs
7029:90 per cent
6972:in France,
6962:in Chartres
6839:Seven Parts
6794: 1164
6783: 1125
6584:possessions
6521:aristocrat
6330:eight modes
6302:river, and
6283:6th century
6251:9th century
6184:Soviet Bloc
6150:(d. 1883).
6136:medievalism
6126:During the
6108:Renaissance
6023:Block books
5976:(d. 1455).
5908: 1360
5889:wagon forts
5885:Jannisaries
5873:mercenaries
5842: 1470
5734: 1430
5678: 1348
5617: 1450
5543:(1417–31).
5531:; two and,
5298:Reconquista
5261:Henry Tudor
5253:Richard III
5237:Joan of Arc
5231:, allowing
5185:Joan of Arc
5078:flagellants
5059:Black Death
5047: 1200
4980:crossbowmen
4961:30 per cent
4926: 1200
4582: 1155
4563:troubadours
4440:rationalism
4416:nominalists
4275:Reconquista
4231:annihilated
4158:(d. 1324).
4154:the trader
4053:sacked Kyiv
3974:Reconquista
3941:Magna Carta
3806:Frederick I
3693:kabbalistic
3663:of popular
3657:revelations
3646:Franciscans
3638:Cistercians
3634:Carthusians
3622:inquisitors
3614:Waldensians
3567:investiture
3485:blood libel
3392:in Florence
3268:manorialism
3211: 1000
3095:6th century
2986:Hellenistic
2979:Insular art
2949:grave goods
2935:Old English
2904:drawbridges
2801:Piast dukes
2779:Kievan Rus'
2691:, captured
2681:9th century
2328:9th century
2249:Charlemagne
2209:. His son,
2139:Cluny Abbey
2073:Constantine
2061:land trusts
2054:Mount Athos
2050:Great Lavra
2005:homosexuals
2001:fornicators
1965:pilgrimages
1900:Holy Spirit
1886:Church life
1854:7th century
1616:Landholding
1595:9th century
1569:, act as a
1529:Cassiodorus
1517:6th century
1428:7th century
1315:the Vandals
1286:Gallo-Roman
1274:Childeric I
1088:Burgundians
1028:4th century
1017:5th century
989:3rd century
946:4th century
810:archaeology
795:chrysobulls
697:Eurocentric
656:—violence,
496:intensified
488:50 per cent
484:Black Death
465:pilgrimages
361:9th century
349:7th century
337:Middle East
329:Later Roman
247:Middle Ages
217:Renaissance
160:Black Death
150:Magna Carta
76: 1180
72: 1175
63:panel from
37:Middle Ages
19423:Categories
19342:Quotations
19194:Rio Treaty
18705:Relativism
18663:Liberalism
18629:Empiricism
18581:Philosophy
18569:Secularism
18520:Philosophy
18457:Literature
18251:Capitalism
17677:Viking Age
17492:Prehistory
17278:Almoravids
17266:al-Andalus
17239:Portugal (
17082:Anatolia (
16747:Land terms
16701:Technology
16681:Philosophy
16661:Literature
16626:Demography
16327:Viking Age
13480:References
13459:Rubin 2014
13447:Grant 2001
13435:Grant 1994
13363:Adams 2011
13351:Adams 2011
13303:Adams 2011
13291:Adams 2011
13219:Watts 2014
13003:Adams 2011
12967:Fried 2015
12931:Fried 2015
12895:Fried 2015
12631:Watts 2014
12607:Watts 2014
12583:Watts 2014
12571:Watts 2014
12547:Watts 2014
12523:Watts 2014
12487:Watts 2014
12475:Watts 2014
12463:Watts 2014
12427:Watts 2014
12415:Watts 2014
12391:Watts 2014
12367:Watts 2014
12331:Watts 2014
12307:Watts 2014
12295:Watts 2014
12283:Rubin 2014
12271:Watts 2014
12254:Watts 2014
12098:Fried 2015
11801:Adams 2011
11777:Adams 2011
11753:Adams 2011
11705:Lasko 1972
11693:Curta 2019
11681:Curta 2019
11657:Adams 2011
11207:Curta 2019
11183:Curta 2019
11171:Curta 2019
11147:Curta 2019
11135:Curta 2019
11123:Curta 2019
11099:Curta 2019
11063:Fried 2015
11027:Fried 2015
10907:Watts 2014
10895:Fried 2015
10871:Watts 2014
10799:Fried 2015
10715:Fößel 2016
10703:Fößel 2016
10691:Watts 2014
10679:Fried 2015
10631:Bitel 2002
10256:Rubin 2014
9927:Curta 2019
9765:Curta 2019
9705:Lasko 1972
9531:Adams 2011
9468:Curta 2019
9456:Curta 2019
9432:Curta 2019
9420:Curta 2019
9360:Curta 2019
9348:Curta 2019
9006:Curta 2019
8994:Curta 2019
8970:Brown 2001
8898:Bitel 2002
8886:Curta 2019
8838:Curta 2019
8802:Curta 2019
8790:Bitel 2002
8766:Bitel 2002
8730:Brown 2001
8706:Brown 2001
8571:Brown 2001
8475:Brown 2001
8463:Brown 2001
8391:Bitel 2002
8295:Brown 2001
8283:Brown 1989
8259:Brown 2001
8247:Brown 1989
8175:Curta 2019
8163:Curta 2019
8139:James 2009
8127:James 2009
8112:Brown 1989
8100:James 2009
8088:James 2009
8076:James 2009
8028:Rubin 2014
7956:James 2009
7884:Brown 1989
7761:Brown 1989
7749:Brown 1989
7698:Brown 1989
7623:Curta 2019
7611:Curta 2019
7515:Power 2006
7476:Rubin 2014
7464:Rubin 2014
7437:Fried 2015
7362:Power 2006
7216:Skanderbeg
7176:fratricide
7121:Palatinate
6988:in Prague.
6968:, and the
6855:common law
6695:his father
6650:Petronilla
6622:Jean Bodin
6438: 950
6234:Goiswintha
6172:Marc Bloch
6071:See also:
5866:patent law
5854:sheep with
5800:landed at
5798:Dinis Dias
5479:, and the
5406:See also:
5303:conquering
5289:Isabella I
5205:Edward III
5126:from Spain
5067:50 percent
4899:spectacles
4891:spectacles
4835:, and the
4780:needlework
4776:tapestries
4772:Embroidery
4741:rib vaults
4725:Romanesque
4719:Bergfriede
4514:trobairitz
4436:empiricism
4420:universals
4408:university
4316:rump state
4223:indulgence
4176:See also:
4156:Marco Polo
4045:fell apart
4018:Almoravids
3960:enquêteurs
3946:Louis VIII
3820:recognised
3812:sanctioned
3808:Barbarossa
3695:teaching.
3673:sanctioned
3667:, such as
3661:veneration
3650:Dominicans
3626:hermetical
3594:Compostela
3511:Church of
3509:Romanesque
3439:, such as
3321:, and the
3262:, and the
3187: 950
3099:longswords
3075:cataphract
3026:Gero Cross
2957:Sutton Hoo
2937:epic poem
2919:polychrome
2835:See also:
2825:annexed by
2789: 900
2729:chieftains
2601: 860
2533:See also:
2499: 931
2468:Hugh Capet
2460:Franconian
2364:Viking Age
2257:subjugated
2191:Arnulfings
2131:sacraments
2088: 900
2034:cenobitism
2020:from Egypt
1942:church tax
1926:iconoclasm
1864: 750
1846:base metal
1821:Austrasian
1805:See also:
1797:servants.
1782:Al-Andalus
1645:after the
1587:concubines
1581:Morgengabe
1547: 525
1536: 585
1527:(d. 489),
1501:See also:
1459:Belisarius
1455:Nika riots
1366:vernacular
1321:, and the
1249:Ostrogoths
1210: 600
1198:declined.
1125:(d. 454),
1121:(d. 408),
1086:, and the
983:developed
888:Diocletian
835:See also:
786:chronicles
715:See also:
638:Miri Rubin
611: 500
579:modern era
469:Romanesque
440:were built
388:colonising
180:Chronology
118:Key events
74: – c.
19494:Dark ages
19393:Resources
19376:Textbooks
19139:Five Eyes
19134:EU–UK TCA
18976:Democracy
18865:Old Norse
18754:Abrahamic
18711:Peritrope
18693:Tolerance
18673:Socialism
18503:Mythology
18491:Classical
18440:Languages
18418:Astrology
18266:Modernism
18080:Old World
17724:Feudalism
17695:Catalonia
17437:Despotate
17381:Ukraine (
17365:Jerusalem
17329:Croatia (
17084:Byzantine
17056:Hungary (
17047:Byzantine
16946:1169–1536
16732:Dark Ages
16641:Household
16636:Hastilude
16405:Feudalism
16093:(2001) .
16026:(2006) .
15702:Routledge
15662:(1993) .
15564:Routledge
15465:(2014) .
15006:1538-4608
14929:0038-7134
14856:Routledge
14714:(1969) .
14686:(1976) .
14654:(2002) .
14535:0031-2746
14419:(1993) .
14391:(2006) .
14371:Routledge
14149:(2015) .
14090:1250–1520
14060:(2009) .
13827:(2010) .
13799:(2002) .
13710:(1989) .
13625:(1994) .
13605:Routledge
13597:(2004) .
13515:(2021) .
13243:Vale 2001
13075:Vale 2001
12955:Fine 2009
12787:Vale 2001
12751:Fine 2009
12727:Fine 2009
12703:Fine 2009
12667:Fine 2009
12655:Fine 2009
12343:Vale 2001
12206:Keen 1976
12194:Keen 1976
12170:Keen 1976
12158:Keen 1976
12146:Vale 2001
11378:Lock 2006
11354:Lock 2006
11342:Lock 2006
11318:Lock 2006
11291:Lock 2006
11231:Lock 2006
9594:Nees 2002
7857:Nees 2002
7833:Nees 2002
7809:Nees 2002
7551:Heng 2021
7350:Citations
7288:literatus
7236:at Vaslui
7084:Habsburgs
7008:gunpowder
6749:Trebizond
6699:Aquitaine
6658:Constance
6433:(d. 975)
6429:built by
6349:The monk
6338:antiphons
6016:oil paint
6002:Boticelli
5992:Donatello
5804:in 1444,
5802:Cap Verde
5709:Boccaccio
5698:humanists
5659:astronomy
5607:Hesychasm
5560:Hussitism
5552:Eucharist
5513:Philip IV
5475:, Bosnia
5465:Mehmed II
5432:Hünername
5382:Wallachia
5315:Lithuania
5265:Henry VII
5229:civil war
5088:Jacquerie
5031:Jacquerie
4946:astrolabe
4921:appeared
4915:windmills
4748:Mosan art
4660:with the
4464:patristic
4424:Aristotle
4369:in 1226.
4328:Occitania
4265:in 1291.
4120:Batu Khan
4030:Greenland
3998:from the
3951:appanages
3925:Richard I
3890:, in the
3851:Habsburgs
3762:Byzantine
3630:apostolic
3528:Henry III
3413:compagnia
3402:known as
3264:commoners
3225:Feudalism
3215:assarting
3176:peasantry
3137:horseshoe
2961:strapwork
2923:cloisonné
2896:pilasters
2865:basilicas
2767:Moravians
2607:into the
2428:Lothair I
2340:polyphony
2336:intervals
2265:destroyed
2187:Austrasia
2104:Hrosvitha
2079:as a new
1922:his claim
1920:rejected
1786:Aghlabids
1715:Armenians
1703:, 661–750
1693:, 632–661
1683:, 622–632
1513:education
1491:Heraclius
1461:(d. 565)
1444:Justinian
1432:Roman law
1311:the Suebi
1291:Britannia
1257:a kingdom
1216:(such as
1072:Visigoths
1005:basilicas
993:Roman art
927:Byzantium
915:Tetrarchy
878:with the
850:, now in
717:Cartulary
689:Dark Ages
658:patronage
621:), 1492 (
601:Neo-Latin
575:antiquity
565:, France)
514:; in the
428:feudalism
287:Dark Ages
263:antiquity
255:mediaeval
196:Antiquity
92:Including
86:narrative
19199:Schengen
19129:Eurozone
18969:Property
18964:Religion
18855:Frankish
18845:Germanic
18825:Paganism
18746:Religion
18734:European
18646:Humanism
18549:Religion
18508:Painting
18474:Internet
18425:Folklore
18396:Clothing
18367:Calendar
18343:Cyrillic
18328:Alphabet
18291:Cold War
17963:See also
17934:Cold War
17729:Crusades
17699:Valencia
17433:Lordship
17415:Serbia (
17396:Russia (
17335:Pannonia
17331:Dalmatia
17282:Almohads
17110:Medieval
17045:Greece (
16957:Scotland
16942:800–1169
16874:Medieval
16815:Category
16782:Timeline
16671:Minstrel
16666:Medicine
16548:Chivalry
16503:Burgundy
16425:Crusades
16121:(2005).
15786:(1992).
15493:(2009).
15348:(1999).
15270:(1991).
15238:(2014).
15212:(eds.).
15187:WH Allen
15179:(2022).
15070:(1996).
14992:: 1–22.
14904:Speculum
14823:(eds.).
14793:(1978).
14740:(1972).
14626:(2009).
14545:(1978).
14519:: 1–44.
14447:(2021).
14279:(2023).
14251:(1996).
14198:(1994).
14123:(eds.).
14032:(2014).
13979:(2012).
13951:(1993).
13890:(1996).
13864:Volume I
13859:(2019).
13771:(2006).
13653:(2002).
13087:Lee 2021
7325:Champmol
7119:and the
7046:Limerick
6924:tympanum
6895:Toulouse
6845:Landslov
6728:Novgorod
6711:annulled
6630:decretal
6601:misogyny
6368:Robert I
6296:Liudewit
6204:Six Ages
6027:woodcuts
5982:the nude
5958:Pantheon
5933:maiolica
5901:handguns
5690:Petrarch
5663:geometry
5556:Lollardy
5386:Moldavia
5374:Novgorod
5370:Ivan III
5269:Scotland
5257:Bosworth
5217:Poitiers
5209:claim to
5193:Florence
5151:burghers
5146:polities
5102:Florence
5063:pandemic
4837:Trecento
4782:images.
4764:sketches
4678:Almagest
4631:1260.
4527:Chivalry
4414:and the
4412:realists
4361:and the
4211:Urban II
4201:for the
4199:crusades
4168:Crusades
4162:Crusades
4089:Bulgaria
4069:Dalmatia
4022:Almohads
4020:and the
4004:Sardinia
3992:Portugal
3955:Louis IX
3908:Henry II
3873:(centre)
3868:showing
3793:Henry IV
3789:Burgundy
3770:Roger II
3729:chancery
3648:and the
3636:and the
3575:prelates
3571:Henry IV
3406:commenda
3359:ordained
3298:.
3260:nobility
3182:Between
3133:crossbow
3091:stirrups
3083:Scythian
2973:and the
2908:cisterns
2877:transept
2760:Basil II
2677:resisted
2660:and the
2561:Ottonian
2507:Normandy
2464:Conrad I
2277:counties
2253:Carloman
2238:Holy See
2207:Neustria
2143:Burgundy
2133:such as
2096:Cyrillic
2065:classics
2009:Bogomils
1880:Zaragoza
1807:Saqaliba
1790:Tulunids
1762:Asturias
1723:Muhammad
1681:Muhammad
1626:slavicus
1591:monogamy
1559:abbesses
1540:Boethius
1483:Anatolia
1422:, Italy)
1347:defeated
1323:Lombards
1296:Brittany
1278:Clovis I
1230:Scotland
1151:emperors
1119:Stilicho
1099:province
1084:Alemanni
1024:invaders
976:rights.
962:Arianism
933:in 330.
909:and two
799:graffiti
776:and the
735:Novgorod
662:charisma
627:Americas
532:Humanist
528:heresies
482:and the
445:crusades
430:, noble
408:Catholic
303:(mainly
259:mediæval
145:Crusades
84:biblical
19283:History
19257:Portals
19044:Benelux
18949:Thought
18899:Atheism
18840:Finnish
18816:Culture
18811:Judaism
18773:Eastern
18769:Western
18764:Culture
18698:Paradox
18564:Decline
18525:Science
18401:History
18389:Studies
18372:Cuisine
18360:Periods
18320:Culture
18149:History
18115:Eastern
18110:Western
18061:culture
17804:Baroque
17703:Majorca
17615:Francia
17425:Kingdom
17357:Antioch
17353:Tripoli
17096:Ottoman
17073:Romania
17051:Ottoman
17041:Georgia
17031:Croatia
17021:Armenia
17016:Albania
16938:400–800
16934:Ireland
16929:Germany
16906:England
16901:Denmark
16896:Corsica
16878:current
16725:Related
16711:Warfare
16706:Theatre
16696:Slavery
16691:Science
16646:Hunting
16611:Cuisine
16584:Culture
16523:Castile
16518:England
15433:(ed.).
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6901:on the
6787:Héloïse
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6646:Castile
6393:Ravenna
6351:Hucbald
6304:Pribina
6249:In the
6206:or the
6176:Marxism
6166:Annales
5929:cassone
5893:cannons
5858:fashion
5776:virelai
5768:ballade
5760:rondeau
5564:Jan Hus
5505:Avignon
5477:in 1463
5473:in 1460
5469:in 1459
5362:Muscovy
5327:Jadwiga
5323:Jogaila
5281:Morocco
5273:Ireland
5225:Gascony
5173:Landtag
4992:helmets
4984:sappers
4950:compass
4839:master
4829:Cimabue
4673:Ptolemy
4669:algebra
4662:decimal
4642:Bologna
4612:organum
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4460:Vulgate
4430:), the
4255:Saladin
4247:Antioch
4217:at the
4106:in the
4065:Croatia
4038:Finland
4026:Maghreb
3988:Navarre
3980:Castile
3880:(right)
3847:Austria
3785:Salians
3779:In the
3665:mystics
3618:Cathars
3489:pogroms
3379:Hamburg
3347:confess
3303:knights
3290:corvées
3276:serfdom
3272:demesne
3247:pronoia
3233:Hungary
3172:knights
3154:Society
3006:codices
2953:Tournai
2940:Beowulf
2915:fibulae
2805:Hungary
2736:Basil I
2709:Denmark
2673:Khazars
2620:Germany
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2480:Moravia
2476:Bohemia
2236:to the
2201:. One,
2135:baptism
1993:sinners
1985:penance
1969:shrines
1961:mission
1953:bishops
1932:of the
1914:Leo III
1849:coinage
1819:of the
1817:solidus
1610:Germany
1606:Bavaria
1571:seeress
1538:), and
1479:new war
1448:eunuchs
1420:Ravenna
1378:central
1343:Bulgars
1305:in the
1270:Francia
1238:Ireland
1131:Odoacer
1127:Ricimer
1060:Vandals
1048:Balkans
1015:in the
987:by the
970:Judaism
899:eastern
876:the war
854:, Italy
774:Germany
711:Sources
563:Avignon
506:states
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432:knights
400:get rid
384:Slavery
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319:of the
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19295:Europe
19064:CANZUK
18954:Speech
18882:Slavic
18860:Gothic
18835:Celtic
18830:Baltic
18729:Values
18530:Values
18090:Greece
17691:Aragon
17670:Amalfi
17655:Venice
17643:Second
17429:Empire
17410:Moscow
17406:Ryazan
17361:Edessa
17349:Cyprus
17323:Second
17241:County
17088:Seljuk
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17068:Poland
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2100:Saxon
1991:—for
1989:fasts
1938:tithe
1823:king
1815:Gold
1795:harem
1735:Egypt
1727:Syria
1719:Islam
1362:Latin
1331:Avars
1234:Picts
1226:Wales
1064:Suebi
1056:Alans
1036:Goths
803:seals
746:women
673:Early
275:Early
19179:OSCE
19159:NATO
19104:EFTA
19069:CBSS
19054:BSEC
18944:Life
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