Anglo-Saxons - Knowledge

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in Anglo-Saxon times. The most important court in the later Anglo-Saxon period was the shire court. Many shires (such as Kent and Sussex) were in the early days of the Anglo-Saxon settlement the centre of small independent kingdoms. As the kings first of Mercia and then of Wessex slowly extended their authority over the whole of England, they left the shire courts with overall responsibility for the administration of law. The shire met in one or more traditional places, earlier in the open air and then later in a moot or meeting hall. The meeting of the shire court was presided over by an officer, the shire reeve or sheriff, whose appointment came in later Anglo-Saxon times into the hands of the king but had in earlier times been elective. The sheriff was not the judge of the court, merely its president. The judges of the court were all those who had the right and duty of attending the court, the suitors. These were originally all free male inhabitants of the neighbourhood, but over time suit of court became an obligation attached to particular holdings of land. The sessions of a shire court resembled more closely those of a modern local administrative body than a modern court. It could and did act judicially, but this was not its prime function. In the shire court, charters and writs would be read out for all to hear.

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defeat the Vikings. One of his reforms was to divide his military resources into thirds. One part manned the burhs and found the permanent garrisons which would make it impossible for the Danes to overrun Wessex, although they would also take to the field when extra soldiers were needed. The remaining two would take it in turns to serve. They were allocated a fixed term of service and brought the necessary provisions with them. This arrangement did not always function well. On one occasion a division on service went home in the middle of blockading a Danish army on Thorney Island; its provisions were consumed and its term had expired before the king came to relieve them. This method of division and rotation remained in force up to 1066. In 917, when armies from Wessex and Mercia were in the field from early April until November, one division went home and another took over. Again, in 1052 when Edward's fleet was waiting at Sandwich to intercept Godwine's return, the ships returned to London to take on new earls and crews. The importance of supply, vital to military success, was appreciated even if it was taken for granted and features only incidentally in the sources.

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characterised the deposition of objects in Anglo-Saxon graves. In Early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, 47% of male adults and 9% of all juveniles were buried with weapons. The proportion of adult weapon burials is much too high to suggest that they all represent a social elite. The usual assumption is that these are 'warrior burials', and this term is used throughout the archaeological and historical literature. However, a systematic comparison of burials with and without weapons, using archaeological and skeletal data, suggests that this assumption is much too simplistic and even misleading. Anglo-Saxon weapon burial rite involved a complex ritual symbolism: it was multi-dimensional, displaying ethnic affiliation, descent, wealth, élite status, and age groups. This symbol continued until c.700 when it ceased to have the symbolic power that it had before. Heinrich Härke suggests this change was the result of the changing structure of society and especially in ethnicity and assimilation, implying the lowering of ethnic boundaries in the Anglo-Saxon settlement areas of England towards a common culture.

3683:(prayer). The vast majority of early Anglo-Saxon female graves contain beads, which are often found in large numbers in the area of the neck and chest. Beads are sometimes found in male burials, with large beads often associated with prestigious weapons. A variety of materials other than glass were available for Anglo-Saxon beads, including amber, rock crystal, amethyst, bone, shells, coral and even metal. These beads are usually considered to have a social or ritual function. Anglo-Saxon glass beads show a wide variety of bead manufacturing techniques, sizes, shapes, colours and decorations. Various studies have been carried out investigating the distribution and chronological change of bead types. The crystal beads which appear on bead strings in the pagan Anglo-Saxon period seems to have gone through various changes in meaning in the Christian period, which Gale Owen-Crocker suggests was linked to symbolism of the Virgin Mary, and hence to intercession. John Hines has suggested that the over 2,000 different types of beads found at 3380:

judgment which fixed how the case would be decided: legal problems were considered to be too complex and difficult for mere human decision, and so proof or demonstration of the right would depend upon some irrational, non-human criterion. The normal methods of proof were oath-helping or the ordeal. Oath-helping involved the party undergoing proof swearing to the truth of his claim or denial and having that oath reinforced by five or more others, chosen either by the party or by the court. The number of helpers required and the form of their oath differed from place to place and upon the nature of the dispute. If either the party or any of the helpers failed in the oath, either refusing to take it or sometimes even making an error in the required formula, the proof failed and the case was adjudged to the other side. As "wager of law," it remained a way of determining cases in the common law until its abolition in the 19th century.

2116:, he soon after put the same into poetical expressions of much sweetness and humility in Old English, which was his native language. By his verse the minds of many were often excited to despise the world, and to aspire to heaven." The story of Cædmon illustrates the blending of Christian and Germanic, Latin and oral tradition, monasteries and double monasteries, pre-existing customs and new learning, popular and elite, that characterizes the Conversion period of Anglo-Saxon history and culture. Cædmon does not destroy or ignore traditional Anglo-Saxon poetry. Instead, he converts it into something that helps the Church. Anglo-Saxon England finds ways to synthesize the religion of the Church with the existing "northern" customs and practices. Thus the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons was not just their switching from one practice to another, but making something new out of their old inheritance and their new belief and learning. 799:. (The price of peace, Higham argues, must have been a better treaty for the Saxons, giving them the ability to receive tribute from people across the lowlands of Britain.) Gildas himself did not mention the defeated Saxons as an ongoing problem, but instead he noted that the Britons had become divided into many small "tyrannies". His interest was in criticizing the Romano-British ruling class, whereas archaeological evidence shows that Anglo-Saxon culture had long become dominant over much of Britain. Historians who accept Bede's understanding interpret Gildas as ignoring a large part of Britain, and writing about Romano-British kingdoms which had been limited to the north and west. Other historians have argued that in the 5th century many Romano-British people must have adopted the new culture which we now call Anglo-Saxon, even when they did not have Germanic ancestry or rulers. 3455:

converted into writing and preserved. Much of this preservation can be attributed to the monks of the tenth century, who made – at the very least – the copies of most of the literary manuscripts that still exist. Manuscripts were not common items. They were expensive and hard to make. First, cows or sheep had to be slaughtered and their skins tanned. The leather was then scraped, stretched, and cut into sheets, which were sewn into books. Then inks had to be made from oak galls and other ingredients, and the books had to be hand written by monks using quill pens. Every manuscript is slightly different from another, even if they are copies of each other, because every scribe had different handwriting and made different errors. Individual scribes can sometimes be identified from their handwriting, and different

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military skills and the teamwork essential for success in battle. Perhaps the games the youthful Cuthbert played ('wrestling, jumping, running, and every other exercise') had some military significance. Turning to strategy, of the period before Alfred the evidence gives the impression that Anglo-Saxon armies fought battles frequently. Battle was risky and best avoided unless all the factors were on your side. But if you were in a position so advantageous that you were willing to take the chance, it is likely that your enemy would be in such a weak position that he would avoid battle and pay tribute. Battles put the princes' lives at risk, as is demonstrated by the Northumbrian and Mercian overlordships brought to an end by a defeat in the field. Gillingham has shown how few pitched battles

2188:, Alfred retreated to Athelney after Easter and then seven weeks after Easter mustered an army at "Egbert's stone". It is not difficult to imagine that Alfred sent out word to the ealdormen to call his men to arms. This may explain the delay, and it is probably no more than coincidence that the army mustered at the beginning of May, a time when there would have been sufficient grass for the horses. There is also information about the mustering of fleets in the eleventh century. From 992 to 1066 fleets were assembled at London, or returned to the city at the end of their service, on several occasions. Where they took up station depended on the quarter from which a threat was expected: Sandwich if invasion was expected from the north, or the Isle of Wight if it was from Normandy. 2328:

recognised by the people of surrounding places. Similarly with Sapperton, the "soap-makers' tun". While Boultham, the "meadow with burdock plants", may well have developed a specialism in the production of burrs for wool-carding, since meadows with burdock merely growing in them must have been relatively numerous. From places named for their services or location within a single district, a category of which the most obvious perhaps are the Eastons and Westons, it is possible to move outwards to glimpse component settlements within larger economic units. Names betray some role within a system of seasonal pasture, Winderton in Warwickshire is the winter tun and various Somertons are self-explanatory. Hardwicks are dairy farms and Swinhopes the valleys where pigs were pastured.

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the pre-existing distinction between the art of the north and that of the south. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the Viking dominated areas were characterised by stone sculpture in which the Anglo-Saxon tradition of cross shafts took on new forms, and a distinctive Anglo-Scandinavian monument, the 'hogback' tomb, was produced. The decorative motifs used on these northern carvings (as on items of personal adornment or everyday use) echo Scandinavian styles. The Wessexan hegemony and the monastic reform movement appear to have been the catalysts for the rebirth of art in southern England from the end of the 9th century. Here artists responded primarily to continental art; foliage supplanting interlace as the preferred decorative motif. Key early works are the

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northern Netherlands through northern Germany to Denmark. This began already in the Roman era, and then increased rapidly in the 5th century. The burial evidence showed that the locals and immigrants were being buried together using the same new customs, and that they were having mixed children. The authors estimate the effective contributions to modern English ancestry are between 25% and 47% "north continental", 11% and 57% British Iron Age, and 14% and 43% was attributed to a more stretched out migration into southern England, from nearby populations such as modern Belgium and France. There were significant regional variations in north continental ancestry ― lower in the west, and highest in Sussex, the East Midlands and East Anglia.

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buildings have sunken floors, with a shallow pit over which a plank floor was suspended. The pit may have been used for storage, but more likely was filled with straw for insulation. A variation on the sunken floor design has been found in towns, where the "basement" may be as deep as 9 feet, suggesting a storage or work area below a suspended floor. Another common design was simple post framing, with heavy posts set directly into the ground, supporting the roof. The space between the posts was filled in with wattle and daub, or occasionally, planks. The floors were generally packed earth, though planks were sometimes used. Roofing materials varied, with thatch being the most common, though turf and even wooden shingles were also used.

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leadership to his people in a time of grave national crisis; who soon found out that he could rely on little but the treachery of his military commanders; and who, throughout his reign, tasted nothing but the ignominy of defeat. The raids exposed tensions and weaknesses which went deep into the fabric of the late Anglo-Saxon state, and it is apparent that events proceeded against a background more complex than the chronicler probably knew. It seems, for example, that the death of Bishop Æthelwold in 984 had precipitated further reaction against certain ecclesiastical interests; that by 993 the king had come to regret the error of his ways, leading to a period when the internal affairs of the kingdom appear to have prospered.

2312:, has been developed in a range of studies. Colm O'Brien, in applying this to Yeavering, proposes a geographical definition of the wider shire of Yeavering and also a geographical definition of the principal estate whose structures Hope-Taylor excavated. One characteristic that the king's tun shared with some other groups of places is that it was a point of public assembly. People came together not only to give the king and his entourage board and lodging; but they attended upon the king in order to have disputes settled, cases appealed, lands granted, gifts given, appointments made, laws promulgated, policy debated, and ambassadors heard. People also assembled for other reasons, such as to hold fairs and to trade. 1483: 1983:, for all its heroic content, clearly makes the point that economic and military success were intimately linked. A 'good' king was a generous king who through his wealth won the support which would ensure his supremacy over other kingdoms. The smaller kingdoms did not disappear without trace once they were incorporated into larger polities; on the contrary their territorial integrity was preserved when they became ealdormanries or, depending on size, parts of ealdormanries within their new kingdoms. An example of this tendency for later boundaries to preserve earlier arrangements is Sussex; the county boundary is essentially the same as that of the West Saxon shire and the Anglo-Saxon kingdom. 2256:

of livestock, the gradual spread of the mould-board plough, 'informally regular plots' and a greater permanence, with further settlement consolidation thereafter foreshadowing post-Norman Conquest villages. The later periods saw a proliferation of service features including barns, mills and latrines, most markedly on high-status sites. Throughout the Anglo-Saxon period as Hamerow suggests, "local and extended kin groups remained...the essential unit of production". This is very noticeable in the early period. However, by the tenth and eleventh centuries, the rise of the manor and its significance in terms of both settlement and the management of land, which becomes very evident in the

2693: 3161: 2316: 1633:, dated to 1014. Malcolm Godden suggests that ordinary people saw the return of the Vikings as the imminent "expectation of the apocalypse," and this was given voice in Ælfric and Wulfstan writings, which is similar to that of Gildas and Bede. Raids were taken as signs of God punishing his people; Ælfric refers to people adopting the customs of the Danish and exhorts people not to abandon the native customs on behalf of the Danish ones, and then requests a "brother Edward" to try to put an end to a "shameful habit" of drinking and eating in the outhouse, which some of the countrywomen practised at beer parties. 3133: 2737: 1112: 1243: 3361:

of the earliest of which is attributed to Ethelbert, king of Kent, ca.560–616. The Anglo-Saxon law codes follow a pattern found in mainland Europe where other groups of the former Roman Empire encountered government dependent upon written sources of law and hastened to display the claims of their own native traditions by reducing them to writing. These legal systems should not be thought of as operating like modern legislation, rather they are educational and political tools designed to demonstrate standards of good conduct rather than act as criteria for subsequent legal judgment.

2241: 1201:. He was joined the following year by his colleague Hadrian, a Latin-speaking African by origin and former abbot of a monastery in Campania (near Naples). One of their first tasks at Canterbury was the establishment of a school; and according to Bede (writing some sixty years later), they soon "attracted a crowd of students into whose minds they daily poured the streams of wholesome learning". As evidence of their teaching, Bede reports that some of their students, who survived to his own day, were as fluent in Greek and Latin as in their native language. Bede does not mention 3399: 3088: 3068: 2000:

that of the warriors waging heavenly warfare. However what Alfred was alluding to was that in order for a king to fulfil his responsibilities towards his people, particularly those concerned with defence, he had the right to make considerable exactions from the landowners and people of his kingdom. The need to endow the church resulted in the permanent alienation of stocks of land which had previously only been granted on a temporary basis and introduced the concept of a new type of hereditary land which could be freely alienated and was free of any family claims.

1309: 3376:(or wapentakes in the north of England). These were originally groups of families rather than geographical areas. The hundred court was a smaller version of the shire court, presided over by the hundred bailiff, formerly a sheriff's appointment, but over the years many hundreds fell into the private hands of a local large landowner. Little is known about hundred court business, which was likely a mix of the administrative and judicial, but they remained in some areas an important forum for the settlement of local disputes well into the post-Conquest period. 1730:Ða com Wyllelm eorl of Normandige into Pefnesea on Sancte Michæles mæsseæfen, sona þæs hi fere wæron, worhton castel æt Hæstingaport. Þis wearð þa Harolde cynge gecydd, he gaderade þa mycelne here, com him togenes æt þære haran apuldran, Wyllelm him com ongean on unwær, ær þis folc gefylced wære. Ac se kyng þeah him swiðe heardlice wið feaht mid þam mannum þe him gelæstan woldon, þær wearð micel wæl geslægen on ægðre healfe. Ðær wearð ofslægen Harold kyng, Leofwine eorl his broðor, Gyrð eorl his broðor, fela godra manna, þa Frencyscan ahton wælstowe geweald. 3108: 2219:

standstill by their repeated ability to pursue and besiege them closely in fortified camps throughout the country. The fortification of sites at Witham, Buckingham, Towcester and Colchester persuaded the Danes of the surrounding regions to submit. The key to this warfare was sieges and the control of fortified places. It is clear that the new fortresses had permanent garrisons, and that they were supported by the inhabitants of the existing burhs when danger threatened. This is brought out most clearly in the description of the campaigns of 917 in the

2341: 2065:. Most poems from before the Norman Conquest are steeped in pagan symbolism, and their integration into the new faith goes beyond the literary sources. Thus, as Lethbridge reminds us, "to say, 'this is a monument erected in Christian times and therefore the symbolism on it must be Christian,' is an unrealistic approach. The rites of the older faith, now regarded as superstition, are practised all over the country today. It did not mean that people were not Christian; but that they could see a lot of sense in the old beliefs also" 2791: 3048: 1667:

fact that Cnut did not systematically introduce a new landholding class, major and permanent alterations occurred in the Saxon social and political structures. Eric John remarks that for Cnut "the simple difficulty of exercising so wide and so unstable an empire made it necessary to practise a delegation of authority against every tradition of English kingship". The disappearance of the aristocratic families which had traditionally played an active role in the governance of the realm, coupled with Cnut's choice of

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festering, the case was lost. In the ordeal by water, the victim, usually an accused person, was cast bound into water: if he sunk he was innocent, if he floated he was guilty. Although for perhaps understandable reasons, the ordeals became associated with trials in criminal matters. They were in essence tests of the truth of a claim or denial of a party and appropriate for trying any legal issue. The allocation of a mode of proof and who should bear it was the substance of the shire court's judgment.

1539:, opened the way for him to be hailed as the first king of England. Æthelstan's legislation shows how the king drove his officials to do their respective duties. He was uncompromising in his insistence on respect for the law. However this legislation also reveals the persistent difficulties which confronted the king and his councillors in bringing a troublesome people under some form of control. His claim to be "king of the English" was by no means widely recognised. The situation was complex: the 2264: 780: 2383:('thegns'), the latter coming to predominate. After the Norman Conquest the title 'thegn' was equated to the Norman 'baron'. A certain amount of social mobility is implied by regulations detailing the conditions under which a ceorl could become a thegn. Again these would have been subject to local variation, but one text refers to the possession of five hides of land (around 600 acres), a bell and a castle-gate, a seat and a special office in the king's hall. In the context of the control of 1975:; scholars believe this just meant the collection of tribute. Oswiu's extension of overlordship over the Picts and Scots is expressed in terms of making them tributary. Military overlordship could bring great short-term success and wealth, but the system had its disadvantages. Many of the overlords enjoyed their powers for a relatively short period. Foundations had to be carefully laid to turn a tribute-paying under-kingdom into a permanent acquisition, such as Bernician absorption of Deira. 1750:, many of the Anglo-Saxon nobility were either exiled or had joined the ranks of the peasantry. It has been estimated that only about 8% of the land was under Anglo-Saxon control by 1087. In 1086, only four major Anglo-Saxon landholders still held their lands. However, the survival of Anglo-Saxon heiresses was significantly greater. Many of the next generation of the nobility had English mothers and learned to speak English at home. Some Anglo-Saxon nobles fled to Scotland, Ireland, and 2004:

in the affairs of man and so would probably have agreed that there is a limit to the extent one can understand why one kingdom failed while another succeeded. They also believed in 'destiny' and interpreted the fate of the kingdom of England with Biblical and Carolingian ideology, with parallels, between the Israelites, the great European empires and the Anglo-Saxons. Danish and Norman conquests were just the manner in which God punished his sinful people and the fate of great empires.

2715: 80: 2120: 2356:(1086), or as ordinary members of society. They could act as principals in legal transactions, were entitled to the same weregild as men of the same class, and were considered 'oath-worthy', with the right to defend themselves on oath against false accusations or claims. Sexual and other offences against them were penalised heavily. There is evidence that even married women could own property independently, and some surviving wills are in the joint names of husband and wife. 1435:...When I had learned it I translated it into English, just as I had understood it, and as I could most meaningfully render it. And I will send one to each bishopric in my kingdom, and in each will be an æstel worth fifty mancuses. And I command in God's name that no man may take the æstel from the book nor the book from the church. It is unknown how long there may be such learned bishops as, thanks to God, are nearly everywhere. (Preface: "Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care") 842: 3337: 9399: 1547:; terms had to be made with the Scots, who had the capacity not merely to interfere in Northumbrian affairs, but also to block a line of communication between Dublin and York; and the inhabitants of northern Northumbria were considered a law unto themselves. It was only after twenty years of crucial developments following Æthelstan's death in 939 that a unified kingdom of England began to assume its familiar shape. However, the major political problem for 2845:, it consists of over 3,500 items that are nearly all martial in character and contains no objects specific to female uses. It demonstrates that considerable quantities of high-grade goldsmiths' work were in circulation among the elite during the 7th century. It also shows that the value of such items as currency and their potential roles as tribute or the spoils of war could, in a warrior society, outweigh appreciation of their integrity and artistry. 2192: 33: 2162:, before the reformers built new foundations and refoundations at Thorney, Peterborough, and Ely, among other places. Benedictine monasticism spread throughout England, and these became centers of learning again, run by people trained in Glastonbury, with one rule, the works of Aldhelm at the center of their curricula but also influenced by the vernacular efforts of Alfred. From this mixture sprung a great flowering of literary production. 2475: 2432: 1387:

Alfred responded by the offer of repeated tribute payments. However, after a decisive victory at Edington in 878, Alfred offered vigorous opposition. He established a chain of fortresses across the south of England, reorganised the army, "so that always half its men were at home, and half out on service, except for those men who were to garrison the burhs", and in 896 ordered a new type of craft to be built which could oppose the Viking

1474:. However charters, law-codes and coins supply detailed information on various aspects of royal government, and the surviving works of Anglo-Latin and vernacular literature, as well as the numerous manuscripts written in the 10th century, testify in their different ways to the vitality of ecclesiastical culture. Yet as Keynes suggests "it does not follow that the 10th century is better understood than more sparsely documented periods". 1842: 1419:...So completely had wisdom fallen off in England that there were very few on this side of the Humber who could understand their rituals in English, or indeed could translate a letter from Latin into English; and I believe that there were not many beyond the Humber. There were so few of them that I indeed cannot think of a single one south of the Thames when I became king. (Preface: "Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care") 1401: 1182: 1698:; and William of Normandy paid Edward a visit during which Edward may have promised William succession to the English throne, although this Norman claim may have been mere propaganda. Godwine and his sons came back the following year with a strong force, and the magnates were not prepared to engage them in civil war but forced the king to make terms. Some unpopular Normans were driven out, including 1663:

moved away from the late West Saxon standard that is called "Old English". Yet neither are they "Middle English"; moreover, as Treharne explains, for around three-quarters of this period, "there is barely any 'original' writing in English at all". These factors have led to a gap in scholarship, implying a discontinuity either side of the Norman Conquest, however this assumption is being challenged.

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tribute should first be paid to the Danish men because of the great terror they were causing along the coast. The first payment was 10,000 pounds." The payment of Danegeld had to be underwritten by a huge balance of payments surplus; this could only be achieved by stimulating exports and cutting imports, itself accomplished through currency devaluation. This affected everyone in the kingdom.

1288:; the Mercian force was met by the local ealdorman, "and the people of Wiltshire had the victory". In 829, Egbert went on, the chronicler reports, to conquer "the kingdom of the Mercians and everything south of the Humber". It was at this point that the chronicler chooses to attach Egbert's name to Bede's list of seven overlords, adding that "he was the eighth king who was 3636:, which was apparently promulgated to monasteries by the royal court. Anglo-Saxon clergy also continued to write in Latin, the language of Bede's works, monastic chronicles, and theological writing, although Bede's biographer records that he was familiar with Old English poetry and gives a five line lyric which he either wrote or liked to quote – the sense is unclear. 465:). In Bede's work the term "Saxon" is also used to refer sometimes to the Old English language, and also to refer to the early pagan Anglo-Saxons before the arrival of Christian missionaries among the Anglo-Saxons of Kent in 597. The term "Saxon", on the other hand, was at this time increasingly used by mainland writers to designate specific northern neighbours of the 3225:. Over time, Old English developed into four major dialects: Northumbrian, spoken north of the Humber; Mercian, spoken in the Midlands; Kentish, spoken in Kent; and West Saxon, spoken across the south and southwest. All of these dialects have direct descendants in modern England. Standard English developed from the Mercian dialect, as it was predominant in London. 3833:" (WASP) is a term especially popular in the United States that refers chiefly to long-established wealthy families with mostly English, but also sometimes Scottish, Dutch or German ancestors. As such, WASP is not a historical label or a precise ethnological term but rather a reference to contemporary family-based political, financial and cultural power, e.g. 1089:, which has not been used by scholars since the early 20th century as it gives the impression of a single political structure and does not afford the "opportunity to treat the history of any one kingdom as a whole". Simon Keynes suggests that the 8th and 9th century was a period of economic and social flourishing which created stability both below the 3297:

the king as a leader could be exalted, the office of kingship was not in any sense so powerful or invested with authority as it was to become. One of the tools kings used was to tie themselves closely to the new Christian church, through the practice of having a church leader anoint and crown the king; God and king were then joined in peoples' minds.

425:" (English), both of which terms could be used either as collectives referring to all the Old English speakers, or to specific tribal groups. Although the term "Anglo Saxon" was not used as a common term until modern times, it is not a modern invention because it was also used in some specific contexts already between the 8th and 10th centuries. 2360:

relatives, at least during the early period. Widows were in a particularly favourable position, with inheritance rights, custody of their children and authority over dependents. However, a degree of vulnerability may be reflected in laws stating that they should not be forced into nunneries or second marriages against their will. The system of

795:. Historian Nick Higham calls it the "War of the Saxon Federates". Unlike Bede and later writers who followed him, for whom this war turned into a very long war between two nations which was eventually won by the descendants of the Saxons, Gildas reported that by the time he was born this war ended successfully for the Britons after the 6893:, described by its most recent specialist as "a pedestrian and unimaginative piece of poetic translation. It is rarely read by students of Old English, and most Anglo-Saxonists make only passing reference to it. There is scarcely any literary criticism written on the text, although some work has been done on its vocabulary and metre", 1383:

identity which overrode deeper distinctions; they could be perceived as an instrument of divine punishment for the people's sins, raising awareness of a collective Christian identity; and by 'conquering' the kingdoms of the East Angles, the Northumbrians and the Mercians, they created a vacuum in the leadership of the English people.

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unawares before his folk were ready. But the king nevertheless withstood him very strongly with fighting with those men who would follow him, and there was a great slaughter on either side. Then Harald the King was slain, and Leofwine the Earl, his brother, and Gyrth, and many good men, and the Frenchmen held the place of slaughter.

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there was no real concept of patriotism or loyalty to a cause. This explains why dynasties waxed and waned so quickly, since a kingdom was only as strong as its leader-king. There was no underlying administration or bureaucracy to maintain any gains beyond the lifetime of a leader. An example of this was the leadership of

2088:, the mythical ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons, were associated with horses, and references to horses are found throughout Anglo-Saxon literature. Actual horse burials in England are relatively rare and "may point to influence from the continent". A well-known Anglo-Saxon horse burial (from the sixth/seventh century) is 3596:, which is about heroes, warfare, monsters, and the Germanic past; and poetry about "smaller" topics, including introspective poems (the so-called elegies), "wisdom" poems (which communicate both traditional and Christian wisdom), and riddles. For a long time all Anglo-Saxon poetry was divided into three groups: 3041:, is arguably the apex of Anglo-Saxon art. Surveying nearly 600 years of continuous change, three common strands stand out: lavish colour and rich materials; an interplay between abstract ornament and representational subject matter; and a fusion of art styles reflecting English links to other parts of Europe. 2287:. The farmer had freedom and rights over lands, with provision of a rent or duty to an overlord who provided only slight lordly input. Most of this land was common outfield arable land (of an outfield-infield system) that provided individuals with the means to build a basis of kinship and group cultural ties. 1774:, who was the product of an Anglo-Norman marriage, writes: "And so the English groaned aloud for their lost liberty and plotted ceaselessly to find some way of shaking off a yoke that was so intolerable and unaccustomed". The inhabitants of the North and Scotland never warmed to the Normans following the 2612:. The majority of churches that have been described as Anglo-Saxon fall into the period between the late 10th century and the early 12th century. During this period, many settlements were first provided with stone churches, but timber also continued to be used; the best wood-framed church to survive is 3663:

The visual riddles and ambiguities of early Anglo-Saxon animal art, for example, has been seen as emphasising the protective roles of animals on dress accessories, weapons, armour and horse equipment, and its evocation of pre-Christian mythological themes. However Howard Williams and Ruth Nugent have

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Rather than being organized around rhyme, the poetic line in Anglo-Saxon is organised around alliteration, the repetition of stressed sounds; any repeated stressed sound, vowel or consonant, could be used. Anglo-Saxon lines are made up of two half-lines (in old-fashioned scholarship, these are called

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The royal council or witan played a central but limited role in the Anglo-Saxon period. The main feature of the system was its high degree of decentralisation. The interference by the king through his granting of charters and the activity of his witan in litigation are exceptions rather than the rule

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and how the East Anglian primacy did not survive his death. Kings could not make new laws barring exceptional circumstances. Their role instead was to uphold and clarify previous custom and to assure his subjects that he would uphold their ancient privileges, laws, and customs. Although the person of

2997:

There was demonstrable continuity in the south, even though the Danish settlement represented a watershed in England's artistic tradition. Wars and pillaging removed or destroyed much Anglo-Saxon art, while the settlement introduced new Scandinavian craftsmen and patrons. The result was to accentuate

2303:

which Bede uses of the site suggests an estate centre as the functional heart of a territory held in the king's demesne. The territory is the land whose surplus production is taken into the centre as food-render to support the king and his retinue on their periodic visits as part of a progress around

2255:

Helena Hamerow suggests that the prevailing model of working life and settlement, particularly for the early period, was one of shifting settlement and building tribal kinship. The mid-Saxon period saw diversification, the development of enclosures, the beginning of the toft system, closer management

2206:

Military training and strategy are two important matters on which the sources are typically silent. There are no references in literature or laws to men training, and so it is necessary to fall back on inference. For the noble warrior, his childhood was of first importance in learning both individual

1994:

In the case of the king, the resources and tools with which to rule are that he have his land fully manned: he must have praying men, fighting men and working men. You know also that without these tools no king may make his ability known. Another aspect of his resources is that he must have the means

1736:

Then came William, the Earl of Normandy, into Pevensey on the evening of St Michael's mass, and soon as his men were ready, they built a fortress at Hasting's port. This was told to King Harold, and he gathered then a great army and came towards them at the Hoary Apple Tree, and William came upon him

1724:

The fall of England and the Norman Conquest is a multi-generational, multi-family succession problem caused in great part by Athelred's incompetence. By the time William of Normandy, sensing an opportunity, landed his invading force in 1066, the elite of Anglo-Saxon England had changed, although much

1571:

who were made priests, supposedly at the insistence of Athelstan, right at the end of his reign in 939. Between 970 and 973 a council was held, under the aegis of Edgar, where a set of rules were devised that would be applicable throughout England. This put all the monks and nuns in England under one

1559:

is said to have "succeeded to the kingdom both in Wessex and in Mercia and in Northumbria, and he was then 16 years old" (ASC, version 'B', 'C'), and is called "the Peacemaker". By the early 970s, after a decade of Edgar's 'peace', it may have seemed that the kingdom of England was indeed made whole.

1364:

says: "The heathen for the first time remained over the winter". The fleet does not appear to have stayed long in England, but it started a trend which others subsequently followed. In particular, the army which arrived in 865 remained over many winters, and part of it later settled what became known

1296:

suggests Egbert's foundation of a 'bipartite' kingdom is crucial as it stretched across southern England, and it created a working alliance between the West Saxon dynasty and the rulers of the Mercians. In 860, the eastern and western parts of the southern kingdom were united by agreement between the

611:

Britain was ravaged by Saxon invaders in 409 or 410. This was only a few years after Constantine "III" was declared Roman emperor in Britain, and during the period that he was still leading British Roman forces in rebellion on the continent. The rebellion was soon quashed, the Romano-British citizens

3305:

was instituted. The weregild set a monetary value on each person's life according to their wealth and social status. This value could also be used to set the fine payable if a person was injured or offended against. Robbing a thane called for a higher penalty than robbing a ceorl. On the other hand,

2411:

Some slaves may have been members of the native British population conquered by the Anglo-Saxons when they arrived from the continent; others may have been captured in wars between the early kingdoms, or have sold themselves for food in times of famine. However, slavery was not always permanent, and

2003:

The nobility under the influence of Alfred became involved with developing the cultural life of their kingdom. As the kingdom became unified, it brought the monastic and spiritual life of the kingdom under one rule and stricter control. However the Anglo-Saxons believed in 'luck' as a random element

1999:

This is the first written appearance of the division of society into the 'three orders'; the 'working men' provided the raw materials to support the other two classes. The advent of Christianity brought with it the introduction of new concepts of land tenure. The role of churchmen was analogous with

1826:

The larger narrative, seen in the history of Anglo-Saxon England, is the continued mixing and integration of various disparate elements into one Anglo-Saxon people. The outcome of this mixing and integration was a continuous re-interpretation by the Anglo-Saxons of their society and worldview, which

1662:

in October, 1066 at Hastings. The consequences of each conquest changed the Anglo-Saxon culture. Politically and chronologically, the texts of this period are not Anglo-Saxon; linguistically, those written in English (as opposed to Latin or French, the other official written languages of the period)

1592:

witnessed the resumption of Viking raids on England, putting the country and its leadership under strains as severe as they were long sustained. Raids began on a relatively small scale in the 980s but became far more serious in the 990s, and brought the people to their knees in 1009–12, when a large

1080:

had developed with smaller territories coalescing into kingdoms, and from this time larger kingdoms started dominating the smaller kingdoms. The development of kingdoms, with a particular king being recognised as an overlord, developed out of an early loose structure that, Higham believes, is linked

814:

bride, and is one of the first Anglo-Saxon rulers who can be identified with some confidence. Bede portrayed Æthelberht as a descendant of the original group of Saxons mentioned by Gildas. Unfortunately the King lists and genealogies produced by Bede and later writers are not considered reliable for

3840:

The term Anglo-Saxon is becoming increasingly controversial among some scholars, especially those in America, for its modern politicised nature and adoption by the far-right. In 2019, the International Society of Anglo-Saxonists changed their name to the International Society for the Study of Early

3587:

There is very strong evidence that Anglo-Saxon poetry has deep roots in oral tradition, but keeping with the cultural practices seen elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon culture, there was a blending between tradition and new learning. Thus while all Old English poetry has common features, three strands can be

3360:

The most noticeable feature of the Anglo-Saxon legal system is the apparent prevalence of legislation in the form of law codes. The early Anglo-Saxons were organised in various small kingdoms often corresponding to later shires or counties. The kings of these small kingdoms issued written laws, one

2399:

was not as common as in other societies, but appears to have been present throughout the period. Both the freemen and slaves were hierarchically structured, with several classes of freemen and many types of slaves. These varied at different times and in different areas, but the most prominent ranks

2351:

Alfred's reference to 'praying men, fighting men and working men' is far from a complete description of his society. Women in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms appear to have enjoyed considerable independence, whether as abbesses of the great 'double monasteries' of monks and nuns founded during the seventh

2298:

or king's tun. These 'tun' consisted of a series of buildings designed to provide short-term accommodation for the king and his household. It is thought that the king would have travelled throughout his land dispensing justice and authority and collecting rents from his various estates. Such visits

2226:

In 973, a single currency was introduced into England in order to bring about political unification, but by concentrating bullion production at many coastal mints, the new rulers of England created an obvious target which attracted a new wave of Viking invasions, which came close to breaking up the

1978:

Only five Anglo-Saxon kingdoms are known to have survived to 800, and several British kingdoms in the west of the country had disappeared as well. The major kingdoms had grown through absorbing smaller principalities, and the means through which they did it and the character their kingdoms acquired

1894:

of East Anglia. These centres of trade and production reflect the increased socio-political stratification and wider territorial authority which allowed seventh-century elites to extract and redistribute surpluses with far greater effectiveness than their sixth-century predecessors would have found

1817:

After 1066, it took more than three centuries for English to replace French as the language of government. The 1362 parliament opened with a speech in English and in the early 15th century, Henry V became the first monarch, since before the 1066 conquest, to use English in his written instructions.

1666:

At first sight, there would seem little to debate. Cnut appeared to have adopted wholeheartedly the traditional role of Anglo-Saxon kingship. However, an examination of the laws, homilies, wills, and charters dating from this period suggests that as a result of widespread aristocratic death and the

1511:

suggests that Edward may have extended this policy by rewarding his supporters with grants of land in the territories newly conquered from the Danes and that any charters issued in respect of such grants have not survived. When Athelflæd died, Mercia was absorbed by Wessex. From that point on there

1451:

Therefore it seems better to me, if it seems so to you, that we also translate certain books ...and bring it about ...if we have the peace, that all the youth of free men who now are in England, those who have the means that they may apply themselves to it, be set to learning, while they may not be

1216:

Anglo-Saxon monasticism developed the unusual institution of the "double monastery": a house of monks and a house of nuns, living next to each other, sharing a church but never mixing, and living separate lives of celibacy. These double monasteries were presided over by abbesses, who became some of

822:

samples from England and neighbouring countries to study the question of physical Anglo-Saxon migration and concluded that there was large-scale immigration of both men and women into Eastern England, from a "north continental" population matching early medieval people from the area stretching from

441:

who however expressed doubts about the stories he had heard about events in the west, which he apparently heard through Frankish diplomats. He never mentions the Saxons, but he states that an island called Brittia, which was supposedly distinct from Britain itself, was settled by three nations: the

3702:

is an example how symbolism of trees was fused into Christian symbolism. Richard North suggests that the sacrifice of the tree was in accordance with pagan virtues and "the image of Christ's death was constructed in this poem with reference to an Anglian ideology of the world tree". North suggests

3454:

This literature is remarkable for being in the vernacular (Old English) in the early medieval period: almost all other written literature in Western Europe was in Latin at this time, but because of Alfred's programme of vernacular literacy, the oral traditions of Anglo-Saxon England ended up being

3364:

Although not themselves sources of law, Anglo-Saxon charters are a most valuable historical source for tracing the actual legal practices of the various Anglo-Saxon communities. A charter was a written document from a king or other authority confirming a grant either of land or some other valuable

3291:

Local and extended kin groups were a key aspect of Anglo-Saxon culture. Kinship fueled societal advantages, freedom and the relationships to an elite, that allowed the Anglo-Saxons' culture and language to flourish. The ties of loyalty to a lord were to the person of a lord and not to his station;

3021:

and metalwork survives to show that the same styles were current in secular art and became widespread in the south at parochial level. The wealth of England in the later tenth and eleventh century is clearly reflected in the lavish use of gold in manuscript art as well as for vessels, textiles and

2218:

A defensive strategy becomes more apparent in the later part of Alfred's reign. It was built around the possession of fortified places and the close pursuit of the Danes to harass them and impede their preferred occupation of plundering. Alfred and his lieutenants were able to fight the Danes to a

2202:

Once they left home, these armies and fleets had to be supplied with food and clothing for the men as well as forage for the horses. Yet if armies of the seventh and eighth centuries were accompanied by servants and a supply train of lesser free men, Alfred found these arrangements insufficient to

1789:

to communicate with their rulers, but it is clear that among themselves they kept speaking Old English, which meant that England was in an interesting tri-lingual situation: Anglo-Saxon for the common people, Latin for the Church, and Norman French for the administrators, the nobility, and the law

1498:

During the course of the 10th century, the West Saxon kings extended their power first over Mercia, then into the southern Danelaw, and finally over Northumbria, thereby imposing a semblance of political unity on peoples, who nonetheless would remain conscious of their respective customs and their

1391:

in shallow coastal waters. When the Vikings returned from the Continent in 892, they found they could no longer roam the country at will, for wherever they went they were opposed by a local army. After four years, the Scandinavians therefore split up, some to settle in Northumbria and East Anglia,

1386:

Danish settlement continued in Mercia in 877 and East Anglia in 879—80 and 896. The rest of the army meanwhile continued to harry and plunder on both sides of the Channel, with new recruits evidently arriving to swell its ranks, for it clearly continued to be a formidable fighting force. At first,

1382:

when faced with resolute opposition, as in England in 878, or with famine, as on the Continent in 892. By this stage, the Vikings were assuming ever increasing importance as catalysts of social and political change. They constituted the common enemy, making the English more conscious of a national

1011:

from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism. Oswald had probably chosen Iona because after his father had been killed he had fled into south-west Scotland and had encountered Christianity, and had returned determined to make Northumbria Christian. Aidan achieved great success in spreading the Christian

639:

claims that he helped command a defence against an invasion of Picts and Saxons in 429. By about 430 the archaeological record in Britain begins to indicate a relatively rapid melt-down of Roman material culture, and its replacement by Anglo-Saxon material culture. At some time between 445 and 454

3690:

Symbolism continued to have a hold on the minds of Anglo-Saxon people into the Christian eras. The interiors of churches would have glowed with colour, and the walls of the halls were painted with decorative scenes from the imagination telling stories of monsters and heroes like those in the poem

2956: 2833:

and beast forms that were used in these early works remains unclear. These objects were the products of a society that invested its modest surpluses in personal display, that fostered craftsmen and jewellers of a high standard, and in which the possession of a fine brooch or buckle was a valuable

2404:

or 'man price', which was not only the amount payable in compensation for homicide, but was also used as the basis for other legal formulations such as the value of the oath that they could swear in a court of law. Slaves had no weregild, as offences against them were taken to be offences against

2367:

The age of majority was usually either ten or twelve, when a child could legally take charge of inherited property, or be held responsible for a crime. It was common for children to be fostered, either in other households or in monasteries, perhaps as a means of extending the circle of protection

2331:

Settlement patterns as well as village plans in England fall into two great categories: scattered farms and homesteads in upland and woodland Britain, nucleated villages across a swathe of central England. The chronology of nucleated villages is much debated and not yet clear. Yet there is strong

1986:

The Witan, also called Witenagemot, was the council of kings; its essential duty was to advise the king on all matters on which he chose to ask its opinion. It attested his grants of land to churches or laymen, consented to his issue of new laws or new statements of ancient custom, and helped him

3714:

of the first half of the 8th century is its portrayal of animals, to an extent found in no other European coinage of the Early Middle Ages. Some animals, such as lions or peacocks, would have been known in England only through descriptions in texts or through images in manuscripts or on portable

3383:

The ordeal offered an alternative for those unable or unwilling to swear an oath. The two most common methods were the ordeal by hot iron and by cold water. The former consisted in carrying a red-hot iron for five paces: the wound was immediately bound up, and if on unbinding, it was found to be

3317:

This emphasis on social standing affected all parts of the Anglo-Saxon world. The courts, for example, did not attempt to discover the facts in a case; instead, in any dispute it was up to each party to get as many people as possible to swear to the rightness of their case, which became known as

2981:

is an early 9th century Insular or Anglo-Saxon Latin personal prayer book with Old English components. This manuscript was decorated and embellished with four painted full-page miniatures, major and minor letters, and continuing panels. Further decorated motifs used in these manuscripts, such as

2179:

overlord of the southern English. Rædwald raised a large army, presumably from among the kings who accepted his overlordship, and "not giving him time to summon and assemble his whole army, Rædwald met him with a much greater force and slew him on the Mercian border on the east bank of the river

2170:

Soldiers throughout the country were summoned, for both offensive and defensive war; early armies consisted essentially of household bands, while later on men were recruited on a territorial basis. The mustering of an army, annually at times, occupied an important place in Frankish history, both

1377:

in England and by Adrevald of Fleury on the Continent. The invaders were able to exploit the feuds between and within the various kingdoms and to appoint puppet kings, such as Ceolwulf in Mercia in 873 and perhaps others in Northumbria in 867 and East Anglia in 870. The third phase was an era of

1155:

diocese that two successive bishops gave up their position because of lack of funds. In these accounts there is a rare glimpse of the realities of early Anglo-Saxon overlordship and how a widespread overlordship could be established in a relatively short period. By the middle of the 8th century,

3814:. The historian Catherine Hills contends that these views have influenced how versions of early English history are embedded in the sub-conscious of certain people and are "re-emerging in school textbooks and television programmes and still very congenial to some strands of political thinking." 3731:

diet based on cereal grains as did peasants. The discovery came after bioarchaeologist Sam Leggett analysed chemical dietary signatures from the bones of 2,023 people buried in England between the 5th to 11th Centuries and cross referenced the analysis with markers of social status. Rather than

3667:

Conventional interpretations of the symbolism of grave goods revolved around religion (equipment for the hereafter), legal concepts (inalienable possessions) and social structure (status display, ostentatious destruction of wealth). There was multiplicity of messages and variability of meanings

3379:

The Anglo-Saxon system put an emphasis upon compromise and arbitration: litigating parties were enjoined to settle their differences if possible. If they persisted in bringing a case for decision before a shire court, then it could be determined there. The suitors of the court would pronounce a

2806:

By the later 6th century, the best works from the south-east are distinguished by greater use of expensive materials, above all gold and garnets, reflecting the growing prosperity of a more organised society which had greater access to imported precious materials, as seen in the buckle from the

2231:

records renewed raiding against England. At first, the raids were probing ventures by small numbers of ships' crews, but soon grew in size and effect, until the only way of dealing with the Vikings appeared to be to pay protection money to buy them off: "And in that year it was determined that

420:

In modern times, the term "Anglo-Saxons" is used by scholars to refer collectively to the Old English speaking groups in Britain. As a compound term it has the advantage of covering the various English-speaking groups on the one hand, and to avoid possible misunderstandings from using the terms

3321:

Anglo-Saxon society was also decidedly patriarchal, but women were in some ways better off than they would be in later times. A woman could own property in her own right. She could and did rule a kingdom if her husband died. She could not be married without her consent, and any personal goods,

2848:

The Christianization of the society revolutionised the visual arts, as well as other aspects of society. Art had to fulfil new functions, and whereas pagan art was abstract, Christianity required images clearly representing subjects. The transition between the Christian and pagan traditions is

1605:

must be read in its own right, and set beside other material which reflects in one way or another on the conduct of government and warfare during Æthelred's reign. It is this evidence which is the basis for Keynes's view that the king lacked the strength, judgement and resolve to give adequate

1411:

More important to Alfred than his military and political victories were his religion, his love of learning, and his spread of writing throughout England. Keynes suggests Alfred's work laid the foundations for what really made England unique in all of medieval Europe from around 800 until 1066.

510:

in the late 880s, probably indicating that he was literally a king over both English (for example Mercian) and Saxon kingdoms. However, the term "English" continued to be used as a common collective term, and indeed became dominant. The increased use of these new collective terms, "English" or

2942:

was produced in the north of England at the same time and has been called the finest book in the world. It is certainly one of the largest, weighing 34 kilograms. It is a pandect, which was rare in the Middle Ages, and included all the books of the Bible in one volume. The Codex Amiatinus was

2359:

Marriage comprised a contract between the woman's family and the prospective bridegroom, who was required to pay a 'bride-price' in advance of the wedding and a 'morning gift' following its consummation. The latter became the woman's personal property, but the former may have been paid to her

2157:

and observed complete monastic discipline. What Mechthild Gretsch calls an "Aldhelm Seminar" developed at Glastonbury, and the effects of this seminar on the curriculum of learning and study in Anglo-Saxon England were enormous. Royal power was put behind the reforming impulses of Dunstan and

2580:

hearkens to the West Saxon reconquest in the early 10th century, when decorative features that were to be characteristic of Late Anglo-Saxon architecture were already developed, such as narrow raised bands of stone (pilaster strips) to surround archways and to articulate wall surfaces, as at

2470:

Even the elite had simple buildings, with a central fire and a hole in the roof to let the smoke escape; the largest homes rarely had more than one floor and one room. Buildings varied widely in size, most were square or rectangular, though some round houses have been found. Frequently these

2327:

The first creations of towns are linked to a system of specialism at individual settlements, which is evidenced in studying place-names. Sutterton, "shoe-makers' tun" (in the area of the Danelaw such places are Sutterby) was so named because local circumstances allowed the growth of a craft

1164:

to Æthelbald, although the East Saxon homelands do not seem to have been affected, and the East Saxon dynasty continued into the ninth century. The Mercian influence and reputation reached its peak when, in the late 8th century, the most powerful European ruler of the age, the Frankish king

3583:

The line above illustrates the principle: note that there is a natural pause after 'hondum' and that the first stressed syllable after that pause begins with the same sound as a stressed line from the first half-line (the first halfline is called the a-verse and the second is the b-verse).

2391:

notes that according to an 11th-century source, "a merchant who had carried out three voyages at his own charge regarded as of thegnly status." Loss of status could also occur, as with penal slavery, which could be imposed not only on the perpetrator of a crime but on his wife and family.

1766:

unit, from which the emperor's bodyguard was drawn and continued to serve the empire until the early 15th century. However, the population of England at home remained largely Anglo-Saxon; for them, little changed immediately except that their Anglo-Saxon lord was replaced by a Norman lord.

3659:

is used to store and pass on information and stand instead of literature in those cultures. This symbolism is less logical than literature and more difficult to read. Anglo-Saxons used symbolism to communicate as well as to aid their thinking about the world. Anglo-Saxons used symbols to

3617:

There are about 30,000 surviving lines of Old English poetry and about ten times that much prose, and the majority of both is religious. The prose was influential and obviously very important to the Anglo-Saxons and more important than the poetry to those who came after the Anglo-Saxons.

2535:

might continue along the nave to provide for burials and other purposes. In Northumbria the early development of Christianity was influenced by the Irish mission, important churches being built in timber. Masonry churches became prominent from the late 7th century with the foundations of

4901:

Regularis concordia Anglicae nationis, ed. T. Symons (CCM 7/3), Siegburg (1984), p.2 (revised edition of Regularis concordia Anglicae nationis monachorum sanctimonialiumque: The Monastic Agreement of the Monks and Nuns of the English Nation, ed. with English trans. T. Symons, London

1423:

Alfred knew that literature and learning, both in English and in Latin, were very important, but the state of learning was not good when Alfred came to the throne. Alfred saw kingship as a priestly office, a shepherd for his people. One book that was particularly valuable to him was

2531:, define the earliest type in southeast England. A simple nave without aisles provided the setting for the main altar; east of this a chancel arch separated the apse for use by the clergy. Flanking the apse and east end of the nave were side chambers serving as sacristies; further 2084:. Horses played a central role in funerary practices as well as in other rituals. Horses were prominent symbols of fertility, and there were many horse fertility cults. The rituals associated with these include horse fights, burials, consumption of horse meat, and horse sacrifice. 3664:

suggested that the number of artefact categories that have animals or eyes—from pots to combs, buckets to weaponry—was to make artefacts 'see' by impressing and punching circular and lentoid shapes onto them. This symbolism of making the object seems to be more than decoration.

1560:

In his formal address to the gathering at Winchester the king urged his bishops, abbots and abbesses "to be of one mind as regards monastic usage . . . lest differing ways of observing the customs of one Rule and one country should bring their holy conversation into disrepute".

1043:

was convened and established Roman practice as opposed to Irish practice (in style of tonsure and dates of Easter) as the norm in Northumbria, and thus "brought the Northumbrian church into the mainstream of Roman culture." The episcopal seat of Northumbria was transferred from

1189:

Michael Drout calls this period the "Golden Age", when learning flourished with a renaissance in classical knowledge. The growth and popularity of monasticism was not an entirely internal development, with influence from the continent shaping Anglo-Saxon monastic life. In 669

940:, instituted a complex system of fines. Kent was rich, with strong trade ties to the continent, and Æthelberht may have instituted royal control over trade. For the first time following the Anglo-Saxon invasion, coins began circulating in Kent during his reign. His son-in-law 1213:). His work showed that scholars in England, at the very edge of Europe, could be as learned and sophisticated as any writers in Europe." During this period, the wealth and power of the monasteries increased as elite families, possibly out of power, turned to monastic life. 1138:

Mercian military success was the basis of their power; it succeeded against not only 106 kings and kingdoms by winning set-piece battles, but by ruthlessly ravaging any area foolish enough to withhold tribute. There are a number of casual references scattered throughout the

4969:

Mary Clayton, "An Edition of Ælfric's Letter to Brother Edward," in Early Medieval English Texts and Interpretations: Studies Presented to Donald G. Scragg, ed. Elaine Treharne and Susan Rosser (Tempe, Arizona: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2002),

2453:

Only ten of the hundreds of settlement sites that have been excavated in England from this period have revealed masonry domestic structures and confined to a few specific contexts. Timber was the natural building medium of the age: the Anglo-Saxon word for "building" is

1217:

the most powerful and influential women in Europe. Double monasteries which were built on strategic sites near rivers and coasts, accumulated immense wealth and power over multiple generations (their inheritances were not divided) and became centers of art and learning.

1208:

Aldhelm wrote in elaborate and grandiloquent and very difficult Latin, which became the dominant style for centuries. Michael Drout states "Aldhelm wrote Latin hexameters better than anyone before in England (and possibly better than anyone since, or at least up until

344:

and Norman invasions changed the politics and culture of England significantly, but the overarching Anglo-Saxon identity evolved and remained dominant even after the Norman Conquest. Late Anglo-Saxon political structures and language are the direct predecessors of the

1906:

as methods of royal control over the import of prestige goods, rather than centre of actual trade-proper. Despite archaeological evidence of royal involvement, emporia are now widely understood to represent genuine trade and exchange, alongside a return to urbanism.

1794:. But this language had deep roots in Anglo-Saxon, which was being spoken much later than 1066. Research has shown that a form of Anglo-Saxon was still being spoken, and not merely among uneducated peasants, into the thirteenth century in the West Midlands. This was 3365:

right. Their prevalence in the Anglo-Saxon state is a sign of sophistication. They were frequently appealed to and relied upon in litigation. Making grants and confirming those made by others was a major way in which Anglo-Saxon kings demonstrated their authority.

2449:

roofing. Generally preferring not to settle within the old Roman cities, the Anglo-Saxons built small towns near their centres of agriculture, at fords in rivers, or near natural ports. In each town, a main hall was in the centre, provided with a central hearth.

1805:

Old English had been a central mark of the Anglo-Saxon cultural identity. With the passing of time, however, and particularly following the Norman conquest of England, this language changed significantly, and although some people (for example the scribe known as

2951:

for the manuscript. The Codex Amiatinus was meant to be a gift to the pope, and Ceolfrith was taking it to Rome when he died on the way. The copy ended up in Florence, where it still is today – a ninth-century copy of this book is in the possession of the pope.

2134:, but in the seventh century, monasticism in England confronted a dilemma that brought to question the truest representation of the Christian faith. The two monastic traditions were the Celtic and the Roman, and a decision was made to adopt the Roman tradition. 1431:(Pastoral Care). This is a priest's guide on how to care for people. Alfred took this book as his own guide on how to be a good king to his people; hence, a good king to Alfred increases literacy. Alfred translated this book himself and explains in the preface: 1224:, far from him, up in the North of England, Bede was writing a large quantity of books, gaining a reputation in Europe and showing that the English could write history and theology, and do astronomical computation (for the dates of Easter, among other things). 1123:, the border or frontier folk, in Latin Mercia. Mercia was a diverse area of tribal groups, as shown by the Tribal Hidage; the peoples were a mixture of Brittonic speaking peoples and "Anglo-Saxon" pioneers and their early leaders had Brittonic names, such as 2107:

Bede's story of Cædmon, the cowherd who became the 'Father of English Poetry,' represents the real heart of the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons from paganism to Christianity. Bede writes, "here was in the Monastery of this Abbess (Streonæshalch – now known as

979:

subsequently became the third king of Northumbria. Although not included in Bede's list of rulers with imperium, Penda defeated and killed Oswald in 642 and was the dominant king of the English until he was himself killed in battle against Oswald's brother

1869:

or another deity to justify their rule, but the true basis of their power was as warleaders. Kings were buried as warriors, and war helmets instead of crowns were used in coronations until the 10th century. A king's relationship with his warband (Latin:

3707:"uses the language of the myth of Ingui in order to present the Passion to his newly Christianized countrymen as a story from their native tradition". Furthermore, the tree's triumph over death is celebrated by adorning the cross with gold and jewels. 2466:

centuries before, even though the king could clearly have mustered the resources to build in stone. Their preference must have been a conscious choice, perhaps an expression of deeply–embedded Germanic identity on the part of the Anglo-Saxon royalty.

7008:

Guido, M. & M. Welch 1999. The glass beads of Anglo-Saxon England c. AD 400–700: a preliminary visual classification of the more definitive and diagnostic types. Rochester: Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiqaries of London

2947:. Bede probably had something to do with it. The production of the Codex shows the riches of the north of England at this time. We have records of the monastery needing a new grant of land to raise 2,000 more cattle to get the calf skins to make the 659:

records for the year 441: "The British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule". Bede, writing centuries later, reasoned that this happened in 450-455, and he named the "proud tyrant" as

1640:

to defend the country. The final struggles were complicated by internal dissension, and especially by the treacherous acts of Ealdorman Eadric of Mercia, who opportunistically changed sides to Cnut's party. After the defeat of the English in the

1447:, discovered in 1693, which is assumed to have been fitted with a small rod and used as a pointer when reading. Alfred provided functional patronage, linked to a social programme of vernacular literacy in England, which was unprecedented. 3014:. The surviving evidence points to Winchester and Canterbury as the leading centres of manuscript art in the second half of the 10th century: they developed colourful paintings with lavish foliate borders, and coloured line drawings. 536:. Catherine Hills suggests that it is no accident "that the English call themselves by the name sanctified by the Church, as that of a people chosen by God, whereas their enemies use the name originally applied to piratical raiders". 5383:

Härke, Heinrich. "Changing symbols in a changing society. The Anglo-Saxon weapon burial rite in the seventh century." The Age of Sutton Hoo. The Seventh Century in North-Western Europe, ed. Martin OH Carver (Woodbridge 1992) (1992):

1499:

separate pasts. The prestige, and indeed the pretensions, of the monarchy increased, the institutions of government strengthened, and kings and their agents sought in various ways to establish social order. This process started with

2552:

at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow. These buildings had long naves and small rectangular chancels; porticus sometimes surrounded the naves. Elaborate crypts are a feature of Wilfrid's buildings. The best preserved early Northumbrian church is

1328:

The wealth of the monasteries and the success of Anglo-Saxon society attracted the attention of people from mainland Europe, mostly Danes and Norwegians. Because of the plundering raids that followed, the raiders attracted the name

2907:. The fact that these works are all from Northumbria might be held to reflect the particular strength of the church in that kingdom. Works from the south were more restrained in their ornamentation than are those from Northumbria. 1456:

This began a growth in charters, law, theology and learning. Alfred thus laid the foundation for the great accomplishments of the tenth century and did much to make the vernacular more important than Latin in Anglo-Saxon culture.

1885:

The later sixth century saw the end of a 'prestige goods' economy, as evidenced by the decline of accompanied burial, and the appearance of the first 'princely' graves and high-status settlements. The ship burial in mound one at

1645:

in October 1016, Edmund and Cnut agreed to divide the kingdom so that Edmund would rule Wessex and Cnut Mercia, but Edmund died soon after his defeat in November 1016, making it possible for Cnut to seize power over all England.

4959:

Malcolm Godden, "Apocalypse and Invasion in Late Anglo-Saxon England," in From Anglo-Saxon to Early Middle English: Studies Presented to E. G. Stanley, ed. Malcolm Godden, Douglas Gray, and Terry Hoad (Oxford: Clarendon Press,

744:) in the eighth century "from whom the Angles or Saxons, who now inhabit Britain, are known to have derived their origin; for which reason they are still corruptly called Garmans by the neighbouring nation of the Britons": the 740:. Although this represents a turning point the continental ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons were probably quite diverse, and they arrived over a longer period. In another passage, Bede named pagan peoples still living in Germany ( 1686:. Problems also came for Edward from the resentment caused by the king's introduction of Norman friends. A crisis arose in 1051 when Godwine defied the king's order to punish the men of Dover, who had resisted an attempt by 1677:

became king in 1042, and given his upbringing might have been considered a Norman by those who lived across the English Channel. Following Cnut's reforms, excessive power was concentrated in the hands of the rival houses of

1131:(royal generals) fought on his behalf. Although there are many gaps in the evidence, it is clear that the seventh-century Mercian kings were formidable rulers who were able to exercise a wide-ranging overlordship from their 865:

From the time of the Christian conversions the first well-attested English kings and kingdoms appear in the written record. This situation with a small number of kingdoms competing for dominance is traditionally called the

3754:

Throughout the history of Anglo-Saxon studies, different historical narratives about the post Roman people of Britain and Ireland have been used to justify contemporary ideologies. In the early Middle Ages, the views of

3300:

The ties of kinship meant that the relatives of a murdered person were obliged to exact vengeance for his or her death. This led to bloody and extensive feuds. As a way out of this deadly and futile custom the system of

442:

Angili, Frissones, and Brittones, each ruled by its own king. Each nation was so prolific that it sent large numbers of individuals every year to the Franks, who planted them in unpopulated regions of their territory.

428:

Before the 8th century, the most common collective term for the Old-English speakers was "Saxons", which was a word originally associated since the 4th century not with a specific country or nation, but with raiders in

612:

reportedly expelled Constantine's imperial officials during this period, but they never again received new Roman officials or military forces. Writing in the mid-sixth century, Procopius states that after the death of

1127:. Although Penda does not appear in Bede's list of great overlords, it would appear from what Bede says elsewhere that he was dominant over the southern kingdoms. At the time of the battle of the river Winwæd, thirty 806:, reported a story which was apparently relayed to him by Frankish diplomats, that an island called Brittia which faced the Rhine was divided, but between three peoples, the Britons, Anglii, and Frisians. Much later, 7875: 511:"Anglo-Saxon", represents the strengthening of the idea of a single unifying cultural unity among the Anglo-Saxons themselves, who had previously invested in identities which differentiated various regional groups. 1995:

of support for his tools, the three classes of men. These, then, are their means of support: land to live on, gifts, weapons, food, ale, clothing and whatever else is necessary for each of the three classes of men.

6971:

Nugent, Ruth, and Howard Williams. "Sighted surfaces. Ocular Agency in early Anglo-Saxon cremation burials." Encountering images: materialities, perceptions, relations. Stockholm studies in archaeology 57 (2012):

6368:

Brown, Katherine L., and Robin JH Clark. "The Lindisfarne Gospels and two other 8th century Anglo-Saxon/Insular manuscripts: pigment identification by Raman microscopy." Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 35.1 (2004):

3971:

Oswiu of Northumbria (642–70) only won authority over the southern kingdoms after he defeated Penda at the battle of the Winwæd in 655 and must have lost it again soon after Wulfhere regained control in Mercia in

1507:, Lady of the Mercians, initially, charters reveal, encouraged people to purchase estates from the Danes, thereby to reassert some degree of English influence in territory which had fallen under Danish control. 6831:

Hyams, P. 'Trial by ordeal: the key to proof in the early common law' in Arnold, M.S. et al.. (eds) On the Laws and Customs of England: Essays in honor of S.E. Thorne. (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 1981)

4644:

Bede; Plummer, Charles (1896). Historiam ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum: Historiam abbatum; Epistolam ad Ecgberctum; una cum Historia abbatum auctore anonymo. Oxford, United Kingdom: e Typographeo Clarendoniano.

6207:

Wilkinson, David John, and Alan McWhirr. Cirencester Anglo-Saxon Church and Medieval Abbey: Excavations Directed by JS Wacher (1964), AD McWhirr (1965) and PDC Brown (1965–6). Cotswold Archaeological Trust,

3318:

oath-swearing. The word of a thane counted for that of six ceorls. It was assumed that any person of good character would be able to find enough people to swear to his innocence that his case would prosper.

2489:, 'in the manner of the Romans,' in explicit contrast to existing traditions of timber construction. Even at Canterbury, Bede believed that St Augustine's first cathedral had been 'repaired' or 'recovered' ( 724:. The Angles (or English) were from 'Anglia', a country which Bede understood to have now been emptied, and which lay between the homelands of the Saxons and Jutes. Anglia is usually interpreted as the old 652:

soldiers to Britain to help defend it from the Picts and Scots. He did not report the year, and later writers developed different estimates of when this occurred. Possibly referring to this same event, the

676:

is largely based on Bede but says this Saxon arrival happened in 449. The archaeological evidence suggests an earlier timescale. In particular, the work of Catherine Hills and Sam Lucy on the evidence of

554:

The migrations according to Bede, who wrote some 300 years after the arrival of Anglo-Saxon fashions in Britain. Archaeological and genetic evidence confirms that settlers in England came from these areas

3536:

also has carved riddles, a popular form with the Anglo-Saxons. Old English secular poetry is mostly characterized by a somewhat gloomy and introspective cast of mind, and the grim determination found in

502:), which helped him distinguish them from the European Saxons who he also discussed. In England itself this compound term also came to be used in some specific situations, both in Latin and Old English. 3193:. It was brought to Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers, and was spoken and written in parts of what are now England and southeastern Scotland until the mid-12th century, by which time it had evolved into 580:

there was an overall continuity and interconnectedness. Already before 400 Roman sources used the term Saxons to refer to coastal raiders who had been causing problems especially on the coasts of the

3743:

is still used as a term for the original Old English-derived vocabulary within the modern English language, in contrast to vocabulary derived from Old Norse and French. In the 19th century, the term

2849:

occasionally apparent in 7th century works; examples include the Crundale buckle and the Canterbury pendant. In addition to fostering metalworking skills, Christianity stimulated stone sculpture and

1461:

I desired to live worthily as long as I lived, and to leave after my life, to the men who should come after me, the memory of me in good works. (Preface: "The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius")

802:

Unfortunately, there are very few written sources apart from Gildas until the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity which began in the late 6th century. One eastern contemporary of Gildas,

318:

settlers who became one of the most important cultural groups in Britain by the 5th century. The Anglo-Saxon period in Britain is considered to have started by about 450 and ended in 1066, with the

2692: 2493:) from an existing Roman church, when in fact it had been newly constructed from Roman materials. The belief was "the Christian Church was Roman, therefore a masonry church was a Roman building". 692:

Bede, whose report of this period is partly based on Gildas, believed that the call was answered by kings from three powerful tribes from Germania, Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The Saxons came from

371:, commonly used by modern historians for the period before 1066, first appears in Bede's time, but it was probably not widely used until modern times. Bede was one of the first writers to prefer " 6343:

Mills, Allan A. "The Canterbury Pendant: A Saxon Seasonal-Hour Altitude Dial." PI Drinkwater:'Comments upon the Canterbury Pendant', and AJ Turner:'The Canterbury Dial', Bull BSS 95.2 (1995): 95.

3732:

elites eating regular banquets with huge quantities of meat, the researchers concluded these were occasional grand feasts hosted by the peasants for their rulers rather than regular occurrences.

5548:

Irvine, Susan, Susan Elizabeth Irvine, and Malcolm Godden, eds. The Old English Boethius: with verse prologues and epilogues associated with King Alfred. Vol. 19. Harvard University Press, 2012.

2853:. In these Germanic motifs, such as interlace and animal ornament along with Celtic spiral patterns, are juxtaposed with Christian imagery and Mediterranean decoration, notably vine-scroll. The 6247:

Adams, Noël. "Rethinking the Sutton Hoo Shoulder Clasps and Armour." Intelligible Beauty: Recent Research on Byzantine ewellery. London: British Museum Research Publications 178 (2010): 87–116.

3236:

spoken in southern Britain prior to the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, as it took in very few loan words from these languages. Though some scholars have claimed that Brittonic could have exerted

1601:, king of Denmark, to conquer the kingdom of England in 1013–14, and (after Æthelred's restoration) for his son Cnut to achieve the same in 1015–16. The tale of these years incorporated in the 3829:

cultures outside Britain for example, "Anglo-Saxon" ancestry and culture is sometimes contrasted with Irish ancestry and culture, which was once subject to negative stereotyping and bigotry. "

2973:

In the 8th century, Anglo-Saxon Christian art flourished with grand decorated manuscripts and sculptures, along with secular works which bear comparable ornament, like the Witham pins and the

3244:

has concluded that the strongest candidates for substratal Brittonic features in English are grammatical elements occurring in regional dialects in the north and west of England, such as the

2576:. Other lesser churches may be dated to the late eighth and early ninth centuries on the basis of their elaborate sculptured decoration and have simple naves with side porticus. The tower of 2023: 602:

soldiers from the same general regions in what is now Germany, and these are likely to have become more important after the withdrawal of field armies during internal Roman power struggles.

4941:

White, Stephen D. "Timothy Reuter, ed., The New Cambridge Medieval History, 3: C. 900–c. 1024. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. xxv." Speculum 77.01 (2002): pp455-485.

1814:, for example, seems to have been used to press gold leaf and at one point had a pot of fish-based glue sitting on top of it. For Michael Drout this symbolises the end of the Anglo-Saxons. 3715:

objects. The animals were not merely illustrated out of an interest in the natural world. Each was imbued with meanings and acted as a symbol which would have been understood at the time.

1060:

and the Ionan supporters, who did not change their practices, withdrew to Iona. Wilfred also influenced kings to the south who were under the dominance of Oswiu, such as the son of Penda,

2364:(inheritance by the first-born male) was not introduced to England until after the Norman Conquest, so Anglo-Saxon siblings – girls as well as boys – were more equal in terms of status. 7018:

Brugmann, B. 2004. Glass beads from Anglo-Saxon graves: a study of the provenance and chronology of glass beads from early Anglo-Saxon graves, based on visual examination. Oxford: Oxbow

4932:

See, e.g., EHD, no. 10 (the poem on the battle of Maldon), nos. 42–6 (law-codes), nos. 117–29 (charters, etc.), nos.230–1 (letters), and no. 240 (Archbishop Wulfstan's Sermo ad Anglos).

383:

raiders. However, despite also being used this way as collective terms in Britain, according to Bede the Saxons and Angles had originally been distinctive but neighbouring peoples in "

685:

has even speculated that Gildas was badly misread by Bede and all subsequent historians, and that the invitation of the foederati was part of a military reorganization in the time of

5833:

Brooks, N.P.1971: The Development of Military Obligations in Eighth-and Ninth-century England, in Clemoes, P. and Hughes, K. (ed.), England Before the Conquest (Cambridge) pp. 69—84.

1790:

courts. In this time, and because of the cultural shock of the Conquest, Anglo-Saxon began to change very rapidly, and by 1200 or so, it was no longer Anglo-Saxon English, but early

3322:

including lands, that she brought into a marriage remained her own property. If she were injured or abused in her marriage, her relatives were expected to look after her interests.

2171:

military and constitutional. The English kingdoms appear to have known no institution similar to this. The earliest reference is Bede's account of the overthrow of the Northumbrian

1012:

faith in the north, and since Aidan could not speak English and Oswald had learned Irish during his exile, Oswald acted as Aidan's interpreter when the latter was preaching. Later,

4235: 367:(d. 735), suggesting that they were long divided into smaller regional kingdoms, each with differing accounts of their continental origins. As a collective term, the compound term 2771:

Early Anglo-Saxon art is seen mostly in decorated jewellery, like brooches, buckles, beads and wrist-clasps, some of outstanding quality. Characteristic of the 5th century is the

2736: 1301:, though the union was not maintained without some opposition from within the dynasty; and in the late 870s King Alfred gained the submission of the Mercians under their ruler 1064:(died 675), who converted to Christianity and eventually recovered control over Mercia, and eventually expanded his dominance over most of England, beginning a long period of 558:

Although it involved immigrant communities from northern Europe, the culture of the Anglo-Saxons was not transplanted from there, but rather developed in Britain. In 400, the

1878:) involved mutual obligations. His warriors fought for the king in return for food, shelter, and gifts such as weapons. The people supported their king and his warriors with 6408:

Chazelle, Celia. "Ceolfrid's gift to St Peter: the first quire of the Codex Amiatinus and the evidence of its Roman destination." Early Medieval Europe 12.2 (2003): 129–157.

7911: 6894: 3314:

entry for 755, of Cynewulf and Cyneheard, in which the followers of a defeated king decided to fight to the death rather than be reconciled after the death of their lord.

1276:, though the annals represent a West Saxon point of view. On the day of Egbert's succession to the kingdom of Wessex, in 802, a Mercian ealdorman from the province of the 1890:(Suffolk) is the most widely known example of a 'princely' burial, containing lavish metalwork and feasting equipment, and possibly representing the burial place of King 6885:

Godden, Malcolm, and Michael Lapidge, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Cambridge University Press, 1991; there is also the Paris Psalter (not the

3310:(their warrior band). Evidence of this behavior (though it may be more a literary ideal than an actual social practice) can be observed in the story, made famous in the 3017:

By the early 11th century, these two traditions had fused and had spread to other centres. Although manuscripts dominate the corpus, sufficient architectural sculpture,

1898:

By 600, the establishment of the first Anglo-Saxon 'emporia' (alternatively 'wics') appears to have been in process. There are only four major archaeologically attested

5958:

Pickles, Thomas. "The Landscape Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England, ed. Nicholas J. Higham and Martin J. Ryan." The English Historical Review 127.528 (2012): 1184–1186.

4751:

Keynes, Simon. "Mercia and Wessex in the ninth century." Mercia. An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom in Europe, ed. Michelle P. Brown/Carol Ann Farr (London 2001) (2001): 310–328.

6111: 2620:

styles developed, associated with the rebuilding of many churches on a grand scale, made possible by a general advance in architectural technology and mason-craft.

5851:

Gillingham, J. 1984: Richard I and the Science of War in the Middle Ages, in J. Holt and J. Gillingham (eds.), War and Government in the Middle Ages (Woodbridge).

4892:

Dumville, David N. "Between Alfred the Great and Edgar the Peacemaker: Æthelstan, First King of England." Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar (1992): 141–171.

2592:

From the monastic revival of the second half of the tenth century, only a few documented buildings survive or have been excavated. Examples include the abbeys of

2277:, who was the lowest ranking freeman in early Anglo-Saxon society, was not a peasant but an arms-owning male with the support of a kindred, access to law and the 7239: 402:. Behind the symbolic nature of these cultural emblems, there are strong elements of tribal and lordship ties. The elite declared themselves kings who developed 1802:. Tolkien noticed that a subtle distinction preserved in these texts indicated that Old English had continued to be spoken far longer than anyone had supposed. 4626:

Drout, Michael DC. Imitating fathers: tradition, inheritance, and the reproduction of culture in Anglo-Saxon England. Diss. Loyola University of Chicago, 1997.

4484: 2616:

in Essex, no earlier than the 9th century, and no doubt typical of many parish churches. On the continent during the eleventh century, a group of interrelated

1990:

King Alfred's digressions in his translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy, provided these observations about the resources which every king needed:

584:. In what is now south-eastern England the Romans established a military commander who was assigned to oversee a chain of coastal forts which they called the 3695:. Although nothing much is left of the wall paintings, evidence of their pictorial art is found in Bibles and Psalters, in illuminated manuscripts. The poem 379:", especially when referring to the earliest periods of settlement. Roman and British writers of the 3rd to 6th century had described the earliest Saxons as 3630:, were both homilists. Almost all surviving poetry is found in only one manuscript copy, but there are several versions of some prose works, especially the 1758:

became a popular destination for many Anglo-Saxon soldiers, as it was in need of mercenaries. The Anglo-Saxons became the predominant element in the elite

1028:. An anonymous life of Cuthbert written at Lindisfarne is the oldest extant piece of English historical writing, and in his memory a gospel (known as the 572:. Although the empire had been dismembered several times during the previous centuries, often because of usurpations beginning in Britain such as those of 1933:, depicts a king not only as the leader of a warband but also as the maintainer of law and order. His laws concerned all levels of society: the nobility, 5776:

Frantzen, Allen J., and I. I. John Hines, eds. Cædmon's Hymn and Material Culture in the World of Bede: Six Essays. West Virginia University Press, 2007.

4914:

Gretsch, Mechthild. "Myth, Rulership, Church and Charters: Essays in Honour of Nicholas Brooks." The English Historical Review 124.510 (2009): 1136–1138.

1065: 2375:('earl and churl') though the term 'Earl' took on a more restricted meaning after the Viking period. The noble rank is designated in early centuries as 2332:

evidence to support the view that nucleation occurred in the tenth century or perhaps the ninth, and was a development parallel to the growth of towns.

2112:) a certain brother particularly remarkable for the Grace of God, who was wont to make religious verses, so that whatever was interpreted to him out of 2671: 2485:

Stone was sometimes used to build churches. Bede makes it clear that the masonry construction of churches, including his own at Jarrow, was undertaken

6680:

Fisher, Genevieve. "Kingdom and community in early Anglo-Saxon eastern England." Regional approaches to mortuary analysis. Springer US, 1995. 147–166.

6448:

O'Sullivan, Deirdre. "Normanising the North: The Evidence of Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Scandinavian Sculpture." Medieval Archaeology 55.1 (2011): 163–191.

2560:

From the mid-8th century to the mid-10th century, several important buildings survive. One group comprises the first known churches utilizing aisles:

2400:

within free society were the king, the nobleman or thegn, and the ordinary freeman or ceorl. They were differentiated primarily by the value of their

6235:

Suzuki, Seiichi. The Quoit Brooch Style and Anglo-Saxon Settlement: A Casting and Recasting of Cultural Identity Symbols. Boydell & Brewer, 2000.

5045:

Maddicott, J. R. (2004). "Edward the Confessor's Return to England in 1041". English Historical Review (Oxford University Press) CXIX (482): 650–666.

2130:, and not just the church, was at the centre of Anglo-Saxon Christian life. Western monasticism, as a whole, had been evolving since the time of the 6819:

Reynolds, Andrew. "Judicial culture and social complexity: a general model from Anglo-Saxon England." World Archaeology ahead-of-print (2014): 1–15.

6494:, ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola and Heli Pitkänen, Studies in Languages, 37 (Joensuu: University of Joensuu, Faculty of Humanities, 2002). 2783:

art. One style flourished from the late 5th century and continued throughout the 6th and is on many square-headed brooches, it is characterised by

7178:

Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism by Reginald Horsman. Harvard University Press, 1981. (pgs. 126, 173, 273)

2787:

patterns based on animals and masks. A different style, which gradually superseded it, is dominated by serpentine beasts with interlacing bodies.

2223:, but throughout the conquest of the Danelaw by Edward and Æthelflæd it is clear that a sophisticated and coordinated strategy was being applied. 6273: 6794:

Pollock, F. and Maitland, F.M. A History of English Law. Two volumes. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1898 reprinted 1968) 2nd edition,

2408:

The Exeter Book Riddle 12 , 49 and 52 both describe swarthy/dark haired Britons, while Riddle 72 describes a lower class 'dark' Welsh herdsman.

1971:

has been seen as significant in defining the status and powers of the bretwaldas, in fact it is a word Bede used regularly as an alternative to

670:, written in the 9th century, gives two different years, but the writer apparently believed it happened in 428. Another 9th century source, the 4853:

Dumville, David N. Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar: six essays on political, cultural, and ecclesiastical revival. Boydell Press, 1992.

2742: 2647: 2445:

Early Anglo-Saxon buildings in Britain were generally simple, not using masonry except in foundations but constructed mainly using timber with

375:" (or English) as the collective term, and this eventually became dominant. Bede, like other authors, also sometimes used the collective term " 5595:

Woodman, David. "Edgar, King of the English 959–975. New Interpretations–Edited by Donald Scragg." Early Medieval Europe 19.1 (2011): 118–120.

5417:

Hamerow, Helena. "The earliest Anglo-Saxon kingdoms' in The New Cambridge Medieval History, I, c. 500-c. 700. ed. Paul Fouracre." (2005): 265.

1305:, who in other circumstances might have been styled a king, but who under the Alfredian regime was regarded as the 'ealdorman' of his people. 588:. The homeland of these Saxon raiders was not clearly described in surviving sources but they were apparently the northerly neighbours of the 4742:

Bede, Saint. The Ecclesiastical History of the English People: The Greater Chronicle; Bede's Letter to Egbert. Oxford University Press, 1994.

3916: 2977:. The flourishing of sculpture in Mercia occurred slightly later than in Northumbria and is dated to the second half of the 8th century. The 681:

has moved the chronology for the settlement earlier than 450, with a significant number of items now in phases before Bede's date. Historian

273: 5505:

Wood, Mark. "Bernician Transitions: Place-names and Archaeology." Early medieval Northumbria: kingdoms and communities, AD (2011): 450–1100.

2657:–61) Abbot Wulfric aimed to retain the earlier churches while linking them with an octagonal rotunda, but the concept was still essentially 2638:. A more decorative interpretation of Romanesque in lesser churches can be dated only somewhere between the mid and late 11th century, e.g. 4696:

Dumville, David N., Simon Keynes, and Susan Irvine, eds. The Anglo-Saxon chronicle: a collaborative edition. MS E. Vol. 7. Ds Brewer, 2004.

3107: 4244: 3033:. Indeed, keen to possess it or recover its materials, the Normans appropriated it in large quantities in the wake of the Conquest. The 8309: 6876:

Fulk, R. D., and Christopher M. Cain. "Making Old English New: Anglo-Saxonism and the Cultural Work of Old English Literature." (2013).

3622:

are sermons, lessons to be given on moral and doctrinal matters, and the two most prolific and respected writers of Anglo-Saxon prose,

870:, which indicates a period of seven kingdoms. There were however more than seven kingdoms, and their interactions were quite complex. 2630:–60, now entirely lost to later construction), while the main development of the style only followed the Norman Conquest. However, at 2405:

their owners, but the earliest laws set out a detailed scale of penalties depending both on the type of slave and the rank of owner.

7562: 7437:

Martin, Kevin M. (1971). "Some Textual Evidence Concerning the Continental Origins of the Invaders of Britain in the Fifth Century".

4306: 3687:

show that the beads symbolise identity, roles, status and micro cultures within the tribal landscape of the early Anglo-Saxon world.

3306:

a thane who thieved could pay a higher fine than a ceorl who did likewise. Men were willing to die for the lord and to support their

3132: 2650:(Sussex); this style continued towards the end of the century as at Milborne Port (Somerset). At St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury ( 209: 6157:

Turner, H. L. (1970), Town Defences in England and Wales: An Architectural and Documentary Study A. D. 900–1500 (London: John Baker)

4676:

Farmers, monks and aristocrats: the environmental archaeology of an Anglo-Saxon Estate Centre at Flixborough, North Lincolnshire, UK

3588:

identified: religious poetry, which includes poems about specifically Christian topics, such as the cross and the saints; Heroic or

3240:

on English syntax and grammar, these ideas have not become consensus views, and have been criticized by other historical linguists.

2714: 2045:

Pagan Anglo-Saxons worshipped at a variety of different sites across their landscape, some of which were apparently specially built

1156:

other kingdoms of southern Britain were also affected by Mercian expansionism. The East Saxons seem to have lost control of London,

9356: 2720: 2582: 2577: 445:

By the 8th century the Saxons in Germany were seen as a country, and writers such as Bede and some of his contemporaries including

408:(fortifications and fortified settlements), and identified their roles and peoples in Biblical terms. Above all, as archaeologist 9374: 5794:

HE. Bede, Ecdesiastical History of the English People, quoted from the ed. by B. Colgrave and R.A.B. Mynors (Oxford, 1969). ii.12

5349: 1205:

in this connection; but we know from a letter addressed by Aldhelm to Hadrian that he too must be numbered among their students.

832: 613: 577: 237: 3990:

There is much evidence for loosely managed and shifting cultivation and no evidence of "top down" structured landscape planning.

3022:

statues (now known only from descriptions). Widely admired, southern English art was highly influential in Normandy, France and

1671:

advisors, put an end to the balanced relationship between monarchy and aristocracy so carefully forged by the West Saxon Kings.

4950:

Dorothy Whitelock, ed. Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, 2. ed., Methuen's Old English Library B. Prose selections (London: Methuen, 1952).

4769:

Coupland, Simon. "The Vikings in Francia and Anglo-Saxon England to 911." The New Cambridge Medieval History 2 (1995): 190–201.

1519:, whom Keynes calls the "towering figure in the landscape of the tenth century". His victory over a coalition of his enemies – 6962:

Sweet, Henry. An Anglo-Saxon reader in prose and verse: with grammar, metre, notes and glossary. At the Clarendon Press, 1908.

2934:

style that blends Irish and Western Mediterranean elements and incorporates imagery from the Eastern Mediterranean, including

2038:

Although Christianity dominates the religious history of the Anglo-Saxons, life in the 5th and 6th centuries was dominated by

8273: 8251: 8230: 8209: 8172: 8151: 8133: 8113: 8088: 8067: 8049: 8028: 8010: 7975: 7957: 7942: 7934: 7865: 7840: 7822: 7797: 7739: 7675: 7660: 7633: 7605: 7576: 7545: 7527: 7496: 7470: 7428: 7409: 7389: 7371: 7345: 7297: 7135: 7091: 7062: 6837: 6807: 6799: 6782: 6756: 6739: 6638: 6606: 6189: 6057: 6052:

Anglo-Saxon Dictionary edited by Joseph Bosworth, T. Northcote Toller and Alistair Campbell (1972), Oxford University Press,

6012: 5754: 5714: 5677: 5571: 5533: 5288: 5261: 5236: 5216: 5187: 5156: 5117: 5088: 5067: 4710: 4532:

Higham, Nicholas J. The English conquest: Gildas and Britain in the fifth century. Vol. 1. Manchester University Press, 1994.

4415: 4373: 4316: 4066: 3067: 1452:

set to any other use, until the time when they can well read English writings. (Preface: "Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care")

664:. However, the date could have been significantly earlier, and Bede's understanding of these events has been questioned. The 648:

in Gaul, begging for assistance, with no success. In desperation, an un-named "proud tyrant" at some point invited Saxons as

412:

has observed, "local and extended kin groups remained...the essential unit of production throughout the Anglo-Saxon period."

7218: 4635:

Lendinara, Patrizia. "The world of Anglo-Saxon learning." The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature (1991): 264–281.

1654:

In the 11th century, there were three conquests: one by Cnut on October 18, 1016; the second was an unsuccessful attempt of

1341:

was raided and while this was not the first raid of its type it was the most prominent. In 794, Jarrow, the monastery where

7766:"Population replacement or acculturation? An archaeological perspective on population and migration in post-Roman Britain." 5925:

O'Brien C (2002) The Early Medieval Shires of Yeavering, Bamburgh and Breamish. Archaeologia Aeliana 5th Series, 30, 53–73.

2935: 6103: 4431:

Gretzinger, J; Sayer, D; Justeau, P (2022), "The Anglo-Saxon migration and the formation of the early English gene pool",

3283:, and many linguists believe that the loss of inflectional endings in Old English was accelerated by contact with Norse. 2586: 2479: 2017: 791:

Gildas reported that a war broke out between the Saxons and the local population, who joined forces under a person named

242: 158: 7036:

John Hines (1998) The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Edix Hill (Barrington A), Cambridgeshire. Council for British Archaeology.

6306: 2089: 6981:

Härke, Heinrich. "Grave goods in early medieval burials: messages and meanings." Mortality ahead-of-print (2014): 1–21.

6918: 6417:

THOMAS, GABOR. "OVERVIEW: CRAFT PRODUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY." The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology (2011): 405.

3439:

from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research. The manuscripts use a modified

2661:. Anglo-Saxon churches of all periods would have been embellished with a range of arts, including wall-paintings, some 7160:

Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914 by Patrick Brantlinger. Cornell University Press, 1990

3723:

The food eaten by Anglo-Saxons was long presumed to differ between elites and commoners. However, a 2022 study by the

1337:

meaning an expedition – which soon became used for the raiding activity or piracy reported in western Europe. In 793,

8455: 5647:

Sikora, Maeve. "Diversity in Viking Age Horse Burial: A Comparative Study of Norway, Iceland, Scotland and Ireland".

3891: 2299:

would be periodic, and it is likely that he would visit each royal villa only once or twice per year. The Latin term

2104:, Suffolk, yielded the body of a man next to that of a complete horse in harness, with a bucket of food by its head. 2068:

Early Anglo-Saxon society attached great significance to the horse; a horse may have been an acquaintance of the god

1836: 1195: 858: 545: 483:), and he noted that there was no longer any country of Angles in Germany, as it had become empty due to emigration. 323: 266: 199: 96: 3087: 1302: 8417: 3759:

produced a personally inspired (and largely fictitious) history that was not challenged for some 500 years. In the

2841:

is the largest hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold and silver metalwork yet found. Discovered in a field near the village of

2698: 2561: 1911: 6999:

Guido and Welch. Indirect evidence for glass bead manufacture in early Anglo-Saxon England. In Price 2000 115–120.

6689:

Lynch, Joseph H. Christianizing kinship: ritual sponsorship in Anglo-Saxon England. Cornell University Press, 1998

9433: 9379: 8587: 6359:, and Marion Archibald. The Making of England: Anglo-Saxon Art and Culture, AD 600–900. Univ of Toronto Pr, 1991. 6226:

Conant, Kenneth John. Carolingian and Romanesque architecture, 800 to 1200. Vol. 13. Yale University Press, 1993.

5330:

De Caluwé-Dor, Juliette. "The chronology of the Scandinavian loan-verbs in the Katherine Group." (1979): 680–685.

3500: 3047: 1810:) could still read Old English into the thirteenth century, it fell out of use and the texts became useless. The 1807: 1482: 6990:

Pader, E.J. 1982. Symbolism, social relations and the interpretation of mortuary remains. Oxford. (B.A.R. S 130)

9369: 8637: 8442: 8302: 8121: 8097: 8076: 6461: 6436: 6352: 5436: 3901: 3424: 2677: 2524: 2053:, hilltops or wells. According to place name evidence, these sites of worship were known alternately as either 1903: 327: 163: 106: 5949:., and Martin J. Ryan, eds. Place-names, Language and the Anglo-Saxon Landscape. Vol. 10. Boydell Press, 2011. 5205:

Western Travellers to Constantinople: The West and Byzantium, 962–1204 : Cultural and Political Relations

3751:, and is sometimes so used at present, though the term 'Old English' is more commonly used for the language. 1572:

set of detailed customs for the first time. In 973, Edgar received a special second, 'imperial coronation' at

7264: 3896: 2565: 2520: 2345: 2245: 1687: 2412:

slaves who had gained their freedom would become part of an underclass of freedmen below the rank of ceorl.

1320:

dating to 720–750 AD and minted in Kent. It is edged with a dotted triangle pattern. Origin is the northern

644:, one of the only writers in this period, reported that the Britons also wrote to the Roman military leader 9423: 8518: 7355: 5456:"Anglo-Saxon Landscape and Economy: using portable antiquities to study Anglo-Saxon and Viking Age England" 4584:

Scharer, Anton. "The writing of history at King Alfred's court." Early Medieval Europe 5.2 (1996): 177–206.

3943: 3830: 2779:. While the origins of this style are disputed, it is either an offshoot of provincial Roman, Frankish, or 1895:

possible. Anglo-Saxon society, in short, looked very different in 600 than it did a hundred years earlier.

924:Æthelberht in Kent was later seen by Bede as the third king to have imperium over the English south of the 259: 101: 20: 6093:

Stenton, F. M. "The Thriving of the Anglo-Saxon Ceorl." Preparatory to Anglo-Saxon England (1970): 383–93.

5824:

ASC, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in Whitelock 893; also Asser c. 100 for the Organisation of the royal household

3604:, one of the few named poets in Anglo-Saxon. The most famous works from this period include the epic poem 3463:(centres of manuscript production), so the location of the manuscript production can often be identified. 3275:(that is, the area of land under Viking control, including the East Midlands and Northumbria south of the 1185:

Map of Britain in 802. By this date, historians today rarely distinguish between Angles, Saxons and Jutes.

1147:

and only a miraculous intervention from Aidan prevents the complete destruction of the settlement. In 676

1143:'s history to this aspect of Mercian military policy. Penda is found ravaging Northumbria as far north as 616:

in 411, "the Romans never succeeded in recovering Britain, but it remained from that time under tyrants."

9384: 8397: 4407: 3845: 2658: 2623:

The first fully Romanesque church in England was Edward the Confessor's rebuilding of Westminster Abbey (

2305: 1798:'s major scholarly discovery when he studied a group of texts written in early Middle English called the 725: 8191:

Wood, Ian (1984), "The end of Roman Britain: Continental evidence and parallels", in Lapidge, M. (ed.),

7876:"The Gallic Chronicle Restored: a Chronology for the Anglo-Saxon Invasions and the End of Roman Britain" 5993:

Rivers, T. J., 'Widows' rights in Anglo-Saxon law', American Journal of Legal History 19 (1975), 208–15.

3763:, Christians looking to establish an independent English church reinterpreted Anglo-Saxon Christianity. 9428: 8550: 8545: 7054: 6716:

Fell, Christine E., Cecily Clark, and Elizabeth Williams. Women in Anglo-Saxon England. Blackwell, 1987

3911: 3873: 3073: 1747: 1576:, and from this point England was ruled by Edgar under the strong influence of Dunstan, Athelwold, and 1524: 1520: 619:

The Romano-Britons nevertheless called upon the empire to help them fend off attacks from not only the

596:. At the same time, the Roman administration in Britain (and other parts of the empire) was recruiting 319: 6653:

Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change," in

6568:

Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change," in

6285: 5321:

Drout, Michael DC, ed. JRR Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and critical assessment. Routledge, 2006.

3821:

is sometimes used to refer to a broader group of peoples descended or associated in some way with the

1568: 9402: 8582: 8489: 8482: 8460: 8295: 6262:"Anglo-Saxon symbolism." The Age of Sutton Hoo: The Seventh Century in North-West Europe (1992): 139. 5890:

Hamerow, Helena. Rural Settlements and Society in Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford University Press, 2012.

3373: 1655: 1378:

settlement; however, the "Great Army" went wherever it could find the richest pickings, crossing the

1251: 932:(died about 593), and before this generation there are only semi-mythical accounts of earlier kings. 636: 340:. By 1066, most of the people of what is now England spoke Old English, and were considered English. 4687:

Godfrey, John. "The Double Monastery in Early English History." Ampleforth Journal 79 (1974): 19–32.

3293: 2176: 948: 330:

are not clear, by the 8th century a single Anglo-Saxon cultural identity which was generally called

8622: 8607: 8422: 8407: 7994: 7648: 6777:

Milsom, S.F.C. Historical Foundations of the Common Law. (London: Butterworths, 1981) 2nd edition,

6751:

Milsom, S.F.C. Historical Foundations of the Common Law. (London: Butterworths, 1981) 2nd edition,

3237: 2426: 1941:. Traders, missionaries, and other foreigners who lacked the protection of a lord or kinship ties ( 1198: 972: 391: 360:

owes less than 26% of its words to Old English, this includes the vast majority of everyday words.

148: 6895:"Poetic language and the Paris Psalter: the decay of the Old English tradition", by M. S. Griffith 3160: 2315: 1439:

What is presumed to be one of these "æstel" (the word only appears in this one text) is the gold,

1007:. He had been at the monastery in Iona when Oswald asked to be sent a mission to Christianise the 514:

In contrast, Irish and Welsh speakers long continued to refer to Anglo-Saxons as Saxons. The word

8737: 8627: 8617: 8612: 8432: 8412: 8369: 7083: 6133: 5972: 5253: 4989: 4132:

A View of the Irish Language: Language and History in Ireland from the Middle Ages to the Present

3962:

From its reference to "Aldfrith, who now reigns peacefully" it must date to between 685 and 704.

3724: 3341: 3280: 3198: 2889: 2885: 2635: 2617: 2597: 2497: 2185: 2158:

Athelwold, helping them to enforce their reform ideas. This happened first at the Old Minster in

1679: 1017: 874: 655: 607: 51: 7334: 6734:

Baker, J.H. An Introduction to English Legal History. (London: Butterworths, 1990) 3rd edition,

1589: 9139: 8572: 8567: 8494: 8389: 5881:(2013-06-01). Viking Age England (Kindle Locations 418–422). The History Press. Kindle Edition. 4653:

Lapidge, Michael. "The school of Theodore and Hadrian." Anglo-Saxon England 15.1 (1986): 45–72.

3826: 3822: 3393: 2850: 2609: 2154: 1683: 1556: 1173:'s power and accordingly treated him with respect, even if this could have been just flattery. 955:, who replaced Æthelfrith to become the second king over the two kingdoms north of the Humber, 918: 337: 127: 24: 8200:

Wood, Ian (1988), "The Channel from the 4th to the 7th centuries AD", in McGrail, Seàn (ed.),

7582: 7319: 7308: 7107: 6944:

Alexander, Michael. The Earliest English Poems. 3rd rev. ed. New York: Penguin Classics, 1992.

6464:, eds. The Golden Age of Anglo-Saxon Art, 966–1066. British Museum Publications Limited, 1984. 5173: 2987: 1415:

Thinking about how learning and culture had fallen since the last century, King Alfred wrote:

1298: 933: 8437: 8327: 7363: 6596: 6399:

Meyvaert, Paul. "Bede, Cassiodorus, and the Codex Amiatinus." Speculum 71.04 (1996): 827–883.

5984:

Klinck, A. L., 'Anglo-Saxon women and the law', Journal of Medieval History 8 (1982), 107–21.

5914:

Tradition and Transformation in Anglo-Saxon England: Archaeology, Common Rights and Landscape

5704: 5667: 5146: 4844:

Keynes, Simon. "Edward, King of the Anglo-Saxons."." Edward the Elder: 899 924 (2001): 40–66.

3644: 3632: 3245: 2127: 1850: 1775: 1659: 1563:

Athelstan's court had been an intellectual incubator. In that court were two young men named

1353:

in Kent was granted refuge inside the walls of Canterbury. Sometime around 800, a Reeve from

1272: 1111: 1025: 1000: 976: 672: 19:

This article is about the medieval Anglo-Saxons. For other uses and specific sub-topics, see

7752: 5586:

Higham, N.J. "From Tribal Chieftains to Christian Kings." The Anglo-Saxon World (2013): 126.

4401: 3825:, in ways which go beyond language, and often involve ideas about religion. In contemporary 3353: 2271:

Typical Anglo-Saxon farms of middle period are often characterised as "peasant farms" but a

2240: 1699: 1242: 1148: 882: 807: 363:

In the early 8th century, the earliest detailed account of Anglo-Saxon origins was given by

8528: 8499: 8402: 7700: 7563:"The early-medieval use of ethnic names from classical antiquity: The case of the Frisians" 6655:

Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English

6570:

Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English

6378: 6070: 4440: 3807: 3775: 3756: 3539: 3398: 3053: 3002:, which has fleshy leaves engraved on the back plate; and the stole and maniples of Bishop 2643: 2569: 2505: 2212: 2013: 1674: 1532: 988: 952: 906: 792: 247: 194: 178: 7566: 6768:

Robertson, Agnes Jane, ed. Anglo-Saxon Charters. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

6482:

Kemola, Juhani. 2000 "The Origins of the Northern Subject Rule – A Case of Early contact?"

5746: 4760:

Sawyer, Peter Hayes, ed. Illustrated history of the Vikings. Oxford University Press, 2001

3623: 1930: 1622: 1512:

was no contest for the throne, so the house of Wessex became the ruling house of England.

8: 9364: 8577: 8160: 8139: 7684: 6858:

Higham, Nicholas, and Martin J. Ryan. The Anglo-Saxon World. Yale University Press, 2013.

6028: 5610:

The Cult of Kingship in Anglo-Saxon England: The Transition from Paganism to Christianity

3933: 3849: 3760: 3627: 3506: 3432: 3007: 2963: 2915: 2893: 2838: 2320: 2153:

lines. For many years, this was the only monastery in England that strictly followed the

1626: 1577: 1308: 716:, the peninsula containing part of Denmark, was the homeland of the Jutes who settled in 214: 41: 7704: 6390:

Gameson, Richard. "THE COST OF THE CODEX-AMIATINUS." Notes and Queries 39.1 (1992): 2–9.

4444: 3178: 1865:

is little understood before the 7th century. Royal dynasties often claimed descent from

1621:

The increasingly difficult times brought on by the Viking attacks are reflected in both

941: 8747: 8599: 8538: 8427: 8359: 8335: 8262: 7999: 7903: 7895: 7716: 7485: 7446: 6259: 5878: 5276: 4871:

Hare, Kent G. "Athelstan of England: Christian king and hero." The Heroic Age 7 (2004).

4463: 4055: 3799: 3795: 3648: 3467: 3222: 3218: 2919: 2573: 2459: 2396: 2181: 1938: 1714: 1642: 1470:

A framework for the momentous events of the 10th and 11th centuries is provided by the

1370: 1191: 1061: 1029: 964: 666: 349: 6473:

Grape, Wolfgang. The Bayeux tapestry: monument to a Norman triumph. Prestel Pub, 1994.

5359: 4821:

Yorke, Barbara. Wessex in the Early Middle Ages. London: Pinter Publishers Ltd., 1995.

4575:

Yorke, Barbara. Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England. Routledge, 2002: p103

4566:

Yorke, Barbara. Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England. Routledge, 2002: p101

4557:

Keynes, Simon. "England, 700–900." The New Cambridge Medieval History 2 (1995): 18–42.

2880:

beasts, probably dates from the 680s; the golden, garnet-adorned pectoral cross of St

8523: 8374: 8349: 8269: 8247: 8226: 8205: 8168: 8147: 8129: 8109: 8084: 8063: 8045: 8024: 8006: 7971: 7953: 7938: 7930: 7907: 7861: 7836: 7818: 7793: 7735: 7671: 7656: 7629: 7613: 7601: 7572: 7541: 7523: 7492: 7466: 7424: 7405: 7385: 7367: 7341: 7293: 7087: 7058: 6833: 6803: 6795: 6778: 6752: 6735: 6634: 6602: 6185: 6053: 6008: 5750: 5710: 5673: 5567: 5529: 5284: 5257: 5232: 5212: 5183: 5152: 5113: 5084: 5063: 4988:

Treharne, Elaine. Living Through Conquest: The Politics of Early English, 1020–1220.

4830:

Keynes, Simon. "England, 900–1016." New Cambridge Medieval History 3 (1999): 456–484.

4706: 4468: 4411: 4379: 4369: 4312: 4062: 3886: 3783: 3698: 3563:. There must be at least one of the alliterating sounds on each side of the caesura. 3524: 3479: 3444: 2974: 2593: 2368:

beyond the kin group. Laws also make provision for orphaned children and foundlings.

2340: 2196: 2146: 2085: 2039: 2031: 1902:

in England – London, Ipswich, York, and Hamwic. These were originally interpreted by

1594: 1544: 1528: 1106: 1077: 937: 929: 894: 395: 311: 299: 173: 168: 132: 5426:

Scull, C. (1997),'Urban centres in Pre-Viking England?', in Hines (1997), pp. 269–98

1882:. Kings extracted surplus by raiding and collecting food rent and "prestige goods". 1555:, who succeeded Æthelstan, remained the difficulty of subjugating the north. In 959 437:. An especially early reference to the Angli is the 6th-century Byzantine historian 8946: 8318: 7887: 7748: 7720: 7708: 6902: 5496:

Fanning, Steven. "Bede, Imperium, and the bretwaldas." Speculum 66.01 (1991): 1–26.

5455: 5208: 5179: 4458: 4448: 4179: 3779: 3656: 3544: 3451:

are used in under 200 inscriptions on objects, sometimes mixed with Roman letters.

3347: 3229: 3214: 3190: 3113: 2790: 2613: 1763: 1755: 1500: 1487: 1354: 1267: 1263: 1056:, chief advocate for the Roman position, later became Bishop of Northumbria, while 898: 503: 357: 346: 315: 6217:

Whitehead, Matthew Alexander, and J. D. Whitehead. The Saxon Church, Escomb. 1979.

4156:

In the abstract for: Härke, Heinrich. "Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis."

783:

The approximate extent of Anglo-Saxon expansion into the former Roman province of

8555: 8533: 8477: 8447: 8331: 8180: 7983: 7688: 7399: 7140: 7136:"Anglo-Saxon kings 'were mostly vegetarian', before the Vikings new study claims" 6867:

Karkov, Catherine E. The Art of Anglo-Saxon England. Vol. 1. Boydell Press, 2011.

6507:, Anglistische Forschungen 247, 286, 324, 3 vols (Heidelberg: Winter, 1997–2003). 6457: 6356: 5785:

Keynes, Simon. "The 'Dunstan B'charters." Anglo-Saxon England 23 (1994): 165–193.

5739: 5354: 4608:

Yorke, B A E 1985: 'The kingdom of the East Saxons.' Anglo-Saxon England 14, 1–36

3811: 3331: 3034: 2939: 2897: 2858: 2830: 2766: 2549: 2528: 2384: 1854: 1799: 1786: 1771: 1759: 1718: 1695: 1649: 1637: 1598: 1540: 1379: 1194:, a Greek-speaking monk originally from Tarsus in Asia Minor, arrived in Britain 1152: 1124: 1040: 968: 951:, who also gave Christianity a foothold in his kingdom, and helped to install of 902: 796: 761: 519: 487: 399: 204: 153: 5937:

Sawyer, Peter. The Wealth of Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford University Press, 2013.

5016:

Mack, Katharin. "Changing thegns: Cnut's conquest and the English aristocracy."

4880:

Keynes, Simon. "Edgar, King of the English 959–975 New Interpretations." (2008).

2775:

with motifs based on crouching animals, as seen on the silver quoit brooch from

1227: 909:. Kent was probably chosen because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess, 550: 453:, began to refer to the overall group in Britain as the "English" people (Latin 9229: 9013: 8677: 8364: 7727: 7307:

Giles, John Allen, ed. (1843a), "Ecclesiastical History, Books I, II and III",

5605: 4733:

Whitelock, Dorothy, ed. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1965.

4453: 3938: 3853: 3834: 3652: 3548: 3529: 3440: 3241: 3194: 3093: 2923: 2854: 2799: 2772: 2509: 2131: 2076:) confidants of the gods. Horses were closely associated with gods, especially 1795: 1791: 1573: 1508: 1504: 1491: 1425: 1170: 1013: 910: 890: 878: 686: 645: 573: 559: 529: 450: 422: 409: 372: 353: 8244:

The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c.600–800

6906: 6849:

Leeson, Peter T. "Ordeals." Journal of Law and Economics 55.3 (2012): 691–714.

6707:

Harrison, Mark. Anglo-Saxon Thegn AD 449–1066. Vol. 5. Osprey Publishing, 1993

6520:, Routledge Studies in Linguistics, 13 (New York: Routledge, 2014), pp. 12–93. 4803:

Keynes, Simon, and Michael Lapidge. Alfred the Great. New York: Penguin, 1984.

4787:

Keynes, Simon, and Michael Lapidge. Alfred the Great. New York: Penguin, 1984.

4183: 2263: 2061: 9417: 8988: 8951: 8911: 8777: 8506: 8465: 8239: 8218: 8037: 7480: 7458: 6886: 6310: 6166:

Higham, R. and Barker, P. (1992), Timber Castles (London: B. T. Batsford):193

5001: 4617:

RYAN, MARTIN J. "The Mercian Supremacies." The Anglo-Saxon World (2013): 179.

4383: 4237:

Procopius: History of the Wars Books VII and VIII with an English Translation

3881: 3803: 3767: 3728: 3611: 3533: 3483: 3233: 3038: 3018: 3011: 2978: 2959: 2918:

might be the single most beautiful book produced in the Middle Ages, and the

2873: 2808: 2662: 2605: 2554: 2388: 2361: 2353: 2257: 2138:

seem to describe all religious congregations other than those of the bishop.

2027: 1922: 1918: 1709: 1161: 721: 564: 336:

had developed out of the interaction of these settlers with the pre-existing

9090: 8204:, London: Council for British Archaeology (published 1990), pp. 93–99, 8102: 5842:

Webb, J.F. and Farmer, D.H. 1965: The Age of Bede (Harmondsworth)., pp. 43–4

5634:

The Horse and its role in Icelandic burial practices, mythology, and society

5309:

Jack, George B. "Negative adverbs in early Middle English." (1978): 295–309.

3852:

referring to English-speaking countries, particularly the United States and

2991: 2184:

in 878, when the Danes made a surprise attack on Alfred at Chippenham after

2172: 2022: 779: 79: 8672: 8655: 8472: 8023:, London: Council for British Archaeology (published 1990), pp. 1–16, 7108:"Cambridge University study finds Anglo-Saxon kings were mostly vegetarian" 5946: 5231:"Byzantine Armies AD 1118–1461", p.23, Ian Heath, Osprey Publishing, 1995, 4671: 4472: 4397: 3921: 3491: 2999: 2865:

are leading Northumbrian examples of the Anglo-Saxon version of the Celtic

2784: 2746: 2631: 2601: 2371:

The traditional distinction in society, amongst free men, was expressed as

2150: 2119: 2109: 2046: 1444: 1440: 1405: 1313: 1293: 1247: 1132: 1090: 569: 7318:

Giles, John Allen, ed. (1843b), "Ecclesiastical History, Books IV and V",

3372:

Below the level of the shire, each county was divided into areas known as

2994:, which are the centre of a small corpus of fine ninth-century metalwork. 2462:, late Anglo-Saxon royal halls continued to be of timber in the manner of 1583: 1516: 984:

in 655. Oswiu remained the dominant king of England until he died in 670.

846: 9164: 9122: 9045: 8958: 8826: 8816: 8727: 8511: 7329: 7240:"Kremlin again points to 'Anglo-Saxons' over Nord Stream pipeline blasts" 4705:

Swanton, Michael (1996). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. New York: Routledge.

3791: 3771: 3589: 3487: 3456: 3416: 3336: 3228:

It is generally held that Old English received little influence from the

3202: 3170: 3155: 2986:

hoard (buried in the 870s) and on the rings which bear the names of King

2931: 2927: 2862: 2776: 2284: 2208: 2097: 1879: 1811: 1751: 1691: 1338: 1210: 1166: 1045: 1033: 1008: 996: 914: 850: 819: 811: 682: 632: 593: 585: 303: 122: 7450: 7200: 7027:

Owen-Crocker, Gale R. Dress in Anglo-Saxon England. Boydell Press, 2004.

6935:

Bradley, S.A.J. Anglo-Saxon Poetry. New York: Everyman Paperbacks, 1995.

3600:(the biblical paraphrase poems), heroic, and "Cynewulfian," named after 1706:; this act supplied an excuse for the Papal support of William's cause. 1357:

in Wessex was killed when he mistook some raiders for ordinary traders.

9341: 9129: 9112: 9060: 9050: 9035: 9003: 8993: 8871: 8821: 8697: 8692: 8660: 8379: 7080:

The Iconography of Early Anglo-Saxon Coinage: Sixth to Eighth Centuries

6181: 4812:

Frantzen, Allen J. King Alfred. Woodbridge, CT: Twayne Publishers, 1986

4112:

Nicholas Brooks (2003). "English Identity from Bede to the Millenium".

3684: 3460: 3436: 3276: 3210: 3003: 2983: 2967: 2955: 2866: 2842: 2812: 2795: 2496:

The building of churches in Anglo-Saxon England essentially began with

2295: 2159: 2101: 2093: 2050: 1951: 1899: 1887: 1636:

In April 1016, Æthelred died of illness, leaving his son and successor

1233: 1221: 886: 693: 678: 474: 7899: 7169:

Race and Empire in British Politics by Paul B. Rich. CUP Archive, 1990

4262: 2395:

A further division in Anglo-Saxon society was between slave and free.

1115:

A political map of Britain circa 650 (the names are in modern English)

947:

After Æthelberht's death in about 616/618, the most powerful king was

841: 518:

is the modern Welsh word for "English people"; the equivalent word in

9336: 9331: 9321: 9254: 9159: 9055: 9018: 9008: 8968: 8921: 8916: 8866: 8806: 8732: 8722: 8702: 8665: 8650: 7712: 6439:. "Early Medieval Art and Archaeology in the Northern World." (2013). 5901:

An English Empire: Bede, the Britons, and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings

5563: 5059: 3748: 3660:

differentiate between groups and people, status and role in society.

3556: 3428: 3412: 3252: 3206: 2944: 2943:

produced at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow in 692 under the direction of Abbot

2930:, the Lindisfarne Gospels are richly illuminated and decorated in an 2877: 2829:

respectively. The possible symbolism of the decorative elements like

2463: 2291: 2283:; situated at the apex of an extended household working at least one 2191: 1962: 1873: 1690:

to quarter his men on them by force. The support of Earl Leofric and

1289: 1285: 1281: 1157: 1086: 867: 836: 803: 697: 661: 598: 581: 524: 470: 438: 430: 380: 32: 8144:

Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800

7886:(November), The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 367–98, 3597: 3271:, and words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the 2589:. In plan, however, the churches remained essentially conservative. 2474: 2431: 1979:

as a result are one of the major themes of the Middle Saxon period.

1057: 9309: 9294: 9274: 9259: 9239: 9214: 9199: 9194: 9174: 9144: 9134: 9085: 9075: 9070: 8901: 8886: 8861: 8841: 8811: 8801: 8796: 8767: 8762: 8752: 8687: 8645: 8354: 8287: 7891: 7790:

Dark Age Naval Power: Frankish & Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity

7112: 3601: 3518: 3302: 3174: 3023: 2910:

Lindisfarne was an important centre of book production, along with

2881: 2639: 2564:, the most ambitious Anglo-Saxon church to survive largely intact; 2532: 2401: 1891: 1862: 1613:

Cnut's 'Quatrefoil' type penny with the legend "CNUT REX ANGLORU" (

1548: 1388: 1151:

conducted a similar ravaging in Kent and caused such damage in the

1144: 1004: 956: 854: 769: 745: 384: 55: 7765: 6725:

Simpson, A.W.B. 'The Laws of Ethelbert' in Arnold et al. (1981) 3.

5560:

Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England

2500:

in Kent following 597; for this he probably imported workmen from

2055: 2034:, which was apparently also a part of Anglo-Saxon pagan mythology. 1270:

in its closing decades. The outlines of the story are told in the

9326: 9314: 9304: 9279: 9269: 9264: 9244: 9234: 9209: 9149: 9107: 9080: 8998: 8931: 8926: 8906: 8896: 8851: 8846: 8836: 8831: 8772: 8757: 8707: 7518:

Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David A.; Crawford, Sally, eds. (2011),

3606: 3560: 3404: 3279:). Old Norse was related to Old English, as both originated from 3272: 3256: 2537: 2501: 2279: 2249: 2142: 2073: 1980: 1841: 1703: 1564: 1366: 1350: 1321: 1237: 1202: 1053: 733: 729: 713: 307: 37: 8185:

Anglo-Saxon: Art From The Seventh Century To The Norman Conquest

5815:

Hollister, C.W. 1962: Anglo-Saxon Military Institutions (Oxford)

5441:

Dark Age Economics: the origins of towns and trade A.D. 600–1000

4979:

Keynes, S. The Diplomas of King Æthelred "the Unready", 226–228.

4057:

Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History

3802:" them. Similar racist ideas were advocated in the 19th-century 3164: 1960: 1949: 1827:

Heinreich Härke calls a "complex and ethnically mixed society".

1629:'s works, but most notably in Wulfstan's fierce rhetoric in the 1316:. Material is lead and weighs approx 36 g. Embedded with a 331: 9346: 9299: 9284: 9249: 9224: 9189: 9184: 9117: 9102: 9040: 8978: 8963: 8941: 8891: 8881: 8876: 8789: 8784: 8742: 8712: 7568:

Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition

6890: 6003:

Fell, Christine E.; Clark, Cecily; Williams, Elizabeth (1984).

5175:

Slaves and Warriors in Medieval Britain and Ireland: 800 - 1200

3906: 3727:

found that Anglo-Saxon elites and royalty both ate a primarily

3619: 3475: 3420: 2948: 2545: 2446: 1926: 1552: 1400: 1330: 1277: 1259: 1094: 925: 737: 705: 701: 641: 620: 589: 466: 446: 376: 341: 8163:(2009), "Kings Without States: Britain and Ireland, 400–800", 8060:

Town Origins and Development in Early England, c. 400–950 A.D.

6203: 6201: 4862:

Keynes, Simon. King Athelstan's books. University Press, 1985.

4170:

Drinkwater, John F. (2023), "The 'Saxon Shore' Reconsidered",

3522:

are found in the Exeter Book, while the Vercelli Book has the

1959:

The most powerful king could be recognised by other rulers as

1650:

Conquest of England: Danes, Norwegians and Normans (1016–1066)

1181: 921:, who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. 9219: 9204: 9179: 9169: 9154: 9097: 9065: 9030: 9025: 8983: 8973: 8856: 8717: 8560: 8165:

The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages, 400–1000

7734:(3rd, revised ed.), London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 7205:

International Society for the Study of Early Medieval England

5622:

Lethbridge, Gogmagog. The Buried Gods (London, 1957), p. 136.

5126: 4311:. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. 3471: 2911: 2780: 2541: 2309: 2272: 2113: 2081: 2069: 2040:

pagan religious beliefs with a Scandinavian-Germanic heritage

1967:(Old English for "ruler of Britain"). Bede's use of the term 1934: 1925:

of the later 7th century lists 35 people groups south of the

1866: 1846: 1668: 1609: 1317: 1228:

West Saxon hegemony and the Anglo-Scandinavian Wars (793–878)

1021: 981: 960: 773: 768:" who are presumed to be inhabitants of the old lands of the 753: 709: 628: 624: 16:

Early medieval Old-English-speaking cultural group in Britain

8167:, London: Penguin Books (published 2010), pp. 150–169, 5514:

Campbell, J 1979: Bede's Reges and Principes. Jarrow Lecture

5466: 4243:. Harvard University Press. pp. 252–255. Archived from 2982:

hunched, triangular beasts, also appear on objects from the

1477: 810:(died 616) invited missionaries from the Pope and married a 9289: 8936: 7324:, vol. III, London: Whittaker and Co. (published 1843) 6255: 6253: 6198: 5967:

Hamerow, Helena, David A. Hinton, and Sally Crawford, eds.

5669:

The Four Funerals in Beowulf: And the Structure of the Poem

4274: 3711: 3512: 2077: 2049:

and others that were natural geographical features such as

1395: 1346: 1342: 1266:

in the first quarter of the century to the achievements of

1140: 1049: 992: 757: 717: 434: 404: 364: 219: 7313:, vol. II, London: Whittaker and Co. (published 1843) 6518:

Language Contact and the Origins of the Germanic Languages

5860:

ASC, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in Whitelock 1979 912, 914, 917

5018:

Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies

4910: 4908: 4729: 4727: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4719: 2708:, one of the largest churches to survive relatively intact 539: 6381:. The art of the Codex Amiatinus. Parish of Jarrow, 1967. 5283:, 6 volumes (Oxford, 1968–1980) (Oxford Medieval Texts), 5109: 4888: 4886: 4501: 4034: 2026:

The right half of the front panel of the seventh-century

1929:. The first law code written in a Germanic language, the 8083:, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 6325: 6250: 5803:

ASC, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in Whitelock 878, Asser c. 55

5250:

The Norman Conquest: England After William the Conqueror

5041: 5039: 4662:

Drout, M. Anglo-Saxon World (Audio Lectures) Audible.com

4298: 4092: 4090: 2634:

the crossing piers of the early 1050s are clearly proto-

2478:

Distinctive Anglo-Saxon pilaster strips on the tower of

2435:

Reconstruction of an Anglo-Saxon hall at Wychurst, Kent,

2352:

and eighth centuries, as major land-holders recorded in

1987:

deal with rebels and persons suspected of disaffection.

1392:

the remainder to try their luck again on the Continent.

8081:

An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600

7336:

Worlds of Arthur: Facts & Fictions of the Dark Ages

7265:"What do the pro-Kremlin media mean by "Anglo-Saxons"?" 6557:

Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter

6034: 5453: 5379: 5377: 5148:

From Norman Conquest to Magna Carta: England, 1066–1215

4905: 4716: 4403:

An English Empire: Bede and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings

3498:

Manuscript; most of the well-known lyric poems such as

2572:. These buildings may be compared with churches in the 2267:

Reconstructed workshop at West Stow Anglo-Saxon village

1584:Æthelred and the return of the Scandinavians (978–1016) 1071: 963:. After Rædwald died, Cadwallon ap Cadfan, the king of 5933: 5931: 5387: 4883: 4430: 4286: 4203: 4075: 3841:

Medieval England, in recognition of this controversy.

3551:

fire of 1731, but it had been transcribed previously.

3037:, probably designed by a Canterbury artist for Bishop 2892:, the Virgin and Child, archangels and apostles), the 1543:

rulers of Dublin still coveted their interests in the

1465: 1324:

region, and it dates from the late 8th to 9th century.

1284:, with the intention of mounting a raid into northern 826: 7571:, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University, pp. 321–337, 7517: 7465:(3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 5884: 5339:

Drout, M. The Modern Scholar: The Anglo-Saxon World

5036: 4840: 4838: 4836: 4799: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4596:

Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England, 2002

4553: 4551: 4489: 4215: 4087: 4022: 1694:

enabled Edward to secure the outlawry of Godwine and

1176: 1119:

Middle-lowland Britain was known as the place of the

8146:, Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 2006), 7860:, Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers (published 2007), 7618:

The Lindisfarne Gospels and the Early Medieval World

7181: 6243: 6241: 6178:

Rural Settlements and Society in Anglo-Saxon England

5478: 5399: 5374: 5081:

England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings 1075–1225

3863: 1349:

in Scotland was attacked; and in 804 the nunnery at

8187:, Thames and Hudson (US edn. Overlook Press), 1984. 8001:

An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire

7792:(revised ed.), Frithgarth: Anglo-Saxon Books, 5928: 4560: 4535: 3981:

Their names mean, literally, "Stallion" and "Horse"

1658:in September, 1066; and the third was conducted by 486:Similarly, a non-Anglo-Saxon contemporary of Bede, 8264:Mercia: The Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Central England 8261: 8101: 7998: 7988:The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England 7484: 7333: 7207:. The Advisory Board of ISSEME. 19 September 2019. 5738: 4833: 4790: 4548: 4054: 3999:York and London both offer examples of this trend. 3411:Old English literary works include genres such as 1593:part of the country was devastated by the army of 1032:) was placed in his coffin. The decorated leather 8108:, Malden: Blackwell Publishing (published 2005), 7596:Brown, Michelle P.; Farr, Carol A., eds. (2001), 6827: 6825: 6598:The history of English: a linguistic introduction 6238: 6002: 5659: 4390: 4304: 3647:was an essential element in Anglo-Saxon culture. 3435:and others. In all there are about 400 surviving 3352:, which contains the only surviving copy of King 3010:leaves, alongside figures that bear the stamp of 2680:, Essex: A simple nave church of the early style 1948:) were under the king's protection (Old English: 999:to establish a monastery which was close to King 9415: 6919:"Early-Medieval-England.net : The Wanderer" 3169:('Here is manifested the Word to thee'). Unique 2304:the kingdom. This territorial model, known as a 1725:of the culture and society had stayed the same. 7623: 7520:The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology. 7487:Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England 6631:The English Language: A Historical Introduction 4543:Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England 4111: 2235: 2123:An 8th-century copy of the Rule of St. Benedict 7855: 7643:Anglo-Saxon Culture and the Modern Imagination 6822: 5969:The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology 5811: 5809: 2227:kingdom of the English. From 980 onwards, the 2149:, where the two of them set up a monastery on 1360:Viking raids continued until in 850, then the 1100: 1085:. The traditional name for this period is the 8303: 8044:, London: Harper Perennial (published 2005), 5869:Campbell, J. 1981: The Anglo-Saxons (Oxford). 5317: 5315: 5281:The Ecclesiastical History of Orderic Vitalis 3917:Timeline of Anglo-Saxon settlement in Britain 3255:. Scandinavian loan words in English include 2335: 1782:utterly "ravaged and laid waste that shire". 1778:(1069–1070), where William, according to the 267: 6583:Reviewed Work: English and Celtic in Contact 6555:John Insley, "Britons and Anglo-Saxons," in 6134:"When did the Anglo-Saxons come to Britain?" 5702: 5665: 5079:Bartlett, Robert (2000). J.M.Roberts (ed.). 5007:. Vol. 15. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 3850:often use "Anglo-Saxon" as a derogatory term 3474:is a book in modern format, as opposed to a 1741: 1262:rose in power, from the foundations laid by 764:in this period), the "old Saxons", and the " 490:, referred variously to either the English ( 390:Anglo-Saxon material culture can be seen in 8334:origin primarily identified as speakers of 6633:. Cambridge University Press. p. 137. 6265: 5806: 5730: 5523: 3796:superior to those held by colonised peoples 3547:. This is from a book that was lost in the 3345: 3251:Old English was more clearly influenced by 2926:are other products of Lindisfarne. A Latin 1871: 936:for Kent, the earliest written code in any 494:), or Anglo-Saxons (Latin plural genitives 478: 40:monogram from the Gospel of Matthew in the 8310: 8296: 8005:, London: Penguin Books (published 2007), 7965: 7873: 7418: 7354: 6993: 6594: 6331: 5612:. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 5312: 5132: 4169: 4081: 4040: 4028: 2290:The collection of buildings discovered at 2072:, and/or they may have been (according to 1515:Edward the Elder was succeeded by his son 400:illuminated texts, metalwork and other art 274: 260: 7993: 7670:, Leicester: Leicester University Press, 7641:Clark, David, and Nicholas Perkins, eds. 7600:, Leicester: Leicester University Press, 7595: 7560: 7538:Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia 7321:The Miscellaneous Works of Venerable Bede 7310:The Miscellaneous Works of Venerable Bede 6588: 6271: 4462: 4452: 3794:, claiming that Anglo-Saxon heritage was 3209:(Old Low German). The language was fully 3006:of Winchester, which are ornamented with 1617:), struck in London by the moneyer Edwin. 1478:Reform and formation of England (899–978) 8259: 7835:, Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton Publishing, 7598:Mercia: An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom in Europe 7401:"An Ald Reht": Essays on Anglo-Saxon Law 7287: 6901:, Volume 20, December 1991, pp 167–186, 5706:Death in England: An Illustrated History 5703:Jupp, Peter C.; Gittings, Clare (1999). 5698: 5696: 5631: 5078: 4507: 4363: 4195: 4107: 4105: 4052: 3397: 3335: 3159: 2954: 2789: 2473: 2430: 2339: 2314: 2262: 2239: 2190: 2118: 2021: 1840: 1830: 1785:Many Anglo-Saxon people needed to learn 1708: 1608: 1481: 1399: 1396:King Alfred and the rebuilding (878–899) 1307: 1241: 1180: 1110: 840: 778: 549: 506:, himself a West Saxon, was for example 31: 9375:Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England 8159: 8138: 8018: 7952:(Revised ed.), London: Routledge, 7874:Jones, Michael E.; Casey, John (1988), 7856:Jones, Barri; Mattingly, David (1990), 7787: 7665: 7565:, in Derks, Ton; Roymans, Nico (eds.), 7457: 7328: 6666: 6529: 6175: 6040: 5202: 5144: 5138: 4495: 4308:Spong Hill IX: Chronology and Synthesis 4292: 4280: 4268: 4221: 4209: 4096: 3846:Russian government under Vladimir Putin 3651:suggests that in societies with strong 3466:There are four great poetic codices of 3173:inscription over the arch of the south 2344:An Anglo Saxon woman's attire shown at 2165: 2100:in Mound 1. A sixth-century grave near 2030:, depicting the pan-Germanic legend of 1036:is the oldest intact European binding. 833:Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England 540:Anglo-Saxon origins (4th–6th centuries) 9416: 8225:, London: Leicester University Press, 8096: 8075: 7968:Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 200–800 7966:Laing, Lloyd; Laing, Jennifer (1990), 7833:The Kingdom of Northumbria AD 350–1100 7830: 7812: 7699:(648), London: Bernard Quaritch: 501, 7540:, Santa Barbara and Oxford: ABC-CLIO, 7436: 7317: 7306: 7077: 7051:Heathen Gods in Old English Literature 7044: 7042: 6953:Anglo Saxon Poetry. Hachette UK, 2012. 6628: 5736: 5604: 5435: 5247: 4396: 4347: 4331: 4233: 3528:, some of which is also carved on the 2884:was presumably made before 687; while 8291: 8246:, Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 8238: 8217: 8057: 8036: 7947: 7763: 7747: 7732:Britannia: A History of Roman Britain 7726: 7683: 7624:Charles-Edwards, Thomas, ed. (2003), 7479: 7397: 7379: 7187: 7048: 6889:), a metrical version of most of the 6698:Hough, C. "Wergild." (1999): 469–470. 6309:. Staffordshire Hoard. Archived from 6272:Alexander, Caroline (November 2011). 5693: 5557: 5484: 5472: 5405: 5393: 5171: 4102: 2568:; Cirencester; and the rebuilding of 818:A 2022 genetic study used modern and 8317: 8199: 8190: 7535: 7133: 6503:Hildegard L. C. Von Tristram (ed.), 6114:from the original on 8 December 2020 5443:. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. 5151:. Psychology Press. pp. 13–14. 5103: 3402:First page of the fire-damaged epic 3259:, items of basic vocabulary such as 2745:, Sussex, with the only Anglo-Saxon 2508:, together with churches in Kent at 1220:While Aldhelm was doing his work in 1072:Middle Anglo-Saxon history (660–899) 8202:Maritime Celts, Frisians and Saxons 8021:Maritime Celts, Frisians and Saxons 7776:(Winter), Carl Winter Verlag: 13–28 7628:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 7419:Leahy, Kevin; Bland, Roger (2009), 7257: 7039: 6572:, Edinburgh University Press (2016) 6540:by Richard Hogg and David Denison; 5741:Sutton Hoo: Burial Ground of Kings? 5300:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 'D' s.a. 1069 5005:Kings and lords in Conquest England 2319:Reconstructed Anglo-Saxon house at 2096:, a few yards from the more famous 2018:Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England 1821: 1702:, whose archbishopric was given to 1466:Late Anglo-Saxon history (899–1066) 827:Christianity and the early kingdoms 736:border), and containing the modern 473:. Bede therefore called these the " 64:This article is part of the series: 13: 7815:Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons 7653:Anglo-Saxon Art, A New Perspective 7505: 5709:. Manchester UP. pp. 67, 72. 5646: 5524:Leslie, Kim; Short, Brian (1999). 4521:Earliest Life of Gregory the Great 4357: 3927: 2869:, generally with a slimmer shaft. 1486:Silver brooch imitating a coin of 1177:Learning and monasticism (660–793) 310:and south-eastern Scotland in the 306:and inhabited much of what is now 14: 9445: 8283: 8195:, Woodbridge: Boydell, p. 19 7404:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 7201:"Message from the Advisory Board" 6538:A History of the English Language 6534:A History of the English Language 5350:"English: language of government" 4593: 4485:Bede, Book III, chapters 3 and 5. 3892:Anglo-Saxon military organization 3675:comes from the Anglo-Saxon words 3545:action against the Vikings in 991 3179:St Mary's parish church, Breamore 2794:Shoulder clasp (closed) from the 2506:cathedral and abbey in Canterbury 1851:Illustrated Old English Hexateuch 1837:Government in Anglo-Saxon England 944:also converted to Christianity. 859:Corpus Christi College, Cambridge 700:coast of Germany, and settled in 546:Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain 290:, in some contexts simply called 9398: 9397: 7970:, New York: St. Martin's Press, 7232: 7219:"Showdown with the 'Anglosaksy'" 7211: 7193: 7172: 7163: 7154: 7127: 7100: 7071: 7030: 7021: 7012: 7002: 6984: 6975: 6965: 6956: 6947: 6938: 6929: 6911: 6879: 6870: 6861: 6852: 6843: 6813: 6788: 6771: 6762: 6745: 6728: 6719: 6710: 6701: 6692: 6683: 6674: 6669:Middle English: Language Contact 6660: 6647: 6622: 6575: 6562: 6549: 6523: 6510: 6497: 6485: 6476: 6467: 6451: 6442: 6429: 6420: 6411: 6402: 6393: 6384: 6372: 6362: 6346: 6337: 6299: 6229: 6220: 6211: 6169: 6160: 6151: 6126: 6096: 6087: 6063: 6046: 6021: 5996: 5987: 5978: 5961: 5952: 5940: 5919: 5906: 5893: 5872: 5863: 5854: 5845: 5836: 5827: 5818: 5797: 5788: 5779: 5770: 5649:The Journal of Irish Archaeology 5640: 5625: 5616: 5598: 5589: 5580: 5551: 5542: 5517: 5508: 5499: 5490: 5447: 4002: 3993: 3984: 3975: 3965: 3866: 3710:The most distinctive feature of 3166:Her sƿutelað seo gecƿydrædnes ðe 3131: 3106: 3086: 3066: 3046: 2735: 2713: 2691: 2670: 2480:All Saints' Church, Earls Barton 1917:, England was divided into many 1490:, c. 920, found in Rome, Italy. 78: 9380:Christianization of Scandinavia 8223:Wessex in the Early Middle Ages 7850:Britain in the First Millennium 7807:The Origins of the Anglo-Saxons 7757:The Works of Gildas and Nennius 6379:Bruce-Mitford, Rupert Leo Scott 6007:. British Museum Publications. 5745:. U of Pennsylvania P. p. 5558:Abels, Richard P (2013-11-26). 5454:Richards, Naylor; Holas-Clark. 5429: 5420: 5411: 5342: 5333: 5324: 5303: 5294: 5270: 5241: 5225: 5196: 5165: 5097: 5072: 5048: 5023: 5010: 4995: 4982: 4973: 4963: 4953: 4944: 4935: 4926: 4917: 4895: 4874: 4865: 4856: 4847: 4824: 4815: 4806: 4781: 4772: 4763: 4754: 4745: 4736: 4699: 4690: 4681: 4665: 4656: 4647: 4638: 4629: 4620: 4611: 4602: 4587: 4578: 4569: 4526: 4513: 4478: 4424: 4341: 4325: 4271:, pp. 13–15, 185–186, 246. 4227: 4189: 4163: 3956: 3559:) divided by a breath-pause or 2701:, Northants: monastery founded 2420: 1861:The development of Anglo-Saxon 1808:the Tremulous Hand of Worcester 314:. They traced their origins to 9370:Christianization of the Franks 8443:Continental Germanic mythology 8242:(2006), Robbins, Keith (ed.), 8128:, 2012, British Museum Press, 8062:, Greenwood Publishing Group, 7927:The Art of Anglo-Saxon England 6595:Scott Shay (30 January 2008). 6176:Hamerow, Helena (2012-07-05). 5666:Owen-Crocker, Gale R. (2000). 5203:Ciggaar, Krijna Nelly (1996). 4778:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle s.a. 893 4150: 4137: 4124: 4046: 3902:Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England 3798:, which justified efforts to " 3189:) is the earliest form of the 2914:and Monkwearmouth-Jarrow. The 2525:Chapel of St Peter-on-the-Wall 2294:formed part of an Anglo-Saxon 1535:, celebrated by a poem in the 356:language. Although the modern 1: 8268:, Little Logaston: Logaston, 8260:Zaluckyj, Sarah, ed. (2001), 7554: 7288:Campbell, James, ed. (1982). 7049:North, Richard (1997-12-11). 6542:The Oxford History of English 6104:"Early Medieval Architecture" 5672:. Manchester UP. p. 71. 5526:An Historical Atlas of Sussex 5145:Daniell, Christopher (2003). 4366:Essays in Anglo-Saxon history 3897:Burial in Anglo-Saxon England 3387: 3139: 3117: 3096: 3076: 3056: 3027: 2901: 2888:(incised with Christ and the 2823: 2816: 2750: 2724: 2702: 2681: 2651: 2624: 2513: 2436: 2346:West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village 2246:West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village 2244:Reconstructed buildings from 1527:, King of the Cumbrians; and 1076:By 660, the political map of 433:coastal areas of Britain and 44: 7689:"Origins of English History" 6601:. Wardja Press. p. 86. 6005:Women in Anglo-Saxon England 5916:. Bloomsbury Academic, 2013. 4305:Hills, C.; Lucy, S. (2013). 4053:Williams, Joseph M. (1986). 4015: 3944:White Anglo-Saxon Protestant 3848:and Russian state-run media 3831:White Anglo-Saxon Protestant 3639: 2723:, Peterborough: Lower tower 2236:Settlements and working life 1944: 1921:during the 7th century. The 1345:wrote, was attacked; in 795 971:, killed Edwin in battle at 69: 21:Anglo-Saxon (disambiguation) 7: 9385:Christianization of Iceland 8019:McGrail, Seàn, ed. (1988), 7990:, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999) 7809:, (Anglo-Saxon Books, 2006) 7340:. Oxford University Press. 7134:Webb, Samuel (2022-04-21). 7078:Gannon, Anna (2003-04-24). 6492:The Celtic Roots of English 6460:, Derek Howard Turner, and 5632:Jennbert, Kristina (2006). 4408:Manchester University Press 4368:. London: Hambledon Press. 4196:Springer, Matthias (2004), 4114:The Haskins Society Journal 3859: 3342:Rochester Cathedral Library 3149: 2872:The jamb of the doorway at 2523:(669), and in Essex at the 2007: 1942: 1580:, the Bishop of Worcester. 1101:Mercian supremacy (626–821) 1024:of the monastery, and then 889:. He had been sent by Pope 726:Schleswig-Holstein Province 415: 10: 9450: 7950:The Earliest English Kings 7728:Frere, Sheppard Sunderland 7666:Dornier, Ann, ed. (1977), 7511: 7358:; Ryan, Martin J. (2013), 7281: 7055:Cambridge University Press 6274:"Magical Mystery Treasure" 5106:In Search of the Dark Ages 5083:. London: OUP. p. 1. 4454:10.1038/s41586-022-05247-2 3912:States in Medieval Britain 3874:Anglo-Saxon England portal 3391: 3329: 3286: 3153: 3074:Codex Aureus of Canterbury 2764: 2424: 2415: 2336:Women, children and slaves 2011: 1845:Anglo-Saxon king with his 1834: 1531:, King of Dublin – at the 1280:had crossed the border at 1231: 1104: 830: 568:had long been part of the 543: 322:. Although the details of 18: 9393: 9355: 8636: 8598: 8388: 8342: 8325: 8058:Russo, Daniel G. (1998), 7858:An Atlas of Roman Britain 7831:Higham, Nicholas (1993), 7813:Higham, Nicholas (1992), 7380:Hills, Catherine (2003), 6907:10.1017/S0263675100001800 6667:Schendl, Herbert (2012), 5737:Carver, M. O. H. (1998). 5056:The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 5054:Swanton, Michael (1996). 5033:(Leicester, 1966), p. 61. 4184:10.1017/S0068113X23000193 4147:. Duckworth Pub, 2003: 15 4008:Example from the Wanderer 3792:colonialistic imperialism 3735: 3187:Ænglisċ, Anglisċ, Englisċ 3138:St Oswald's Priory Cross 2665:, metalwork and statues. 1742:After the Norman Conquest 1656:Battle of Stamford Bridge 1615:Cnut, King of the English 797:siege at 'Mons Badonicus' 689:in the late 4th century. 637:Saint Germanus of Auxerre 8623:North Germanic languages 8608:Germanic parent language 7852:, (London: Arnold, 2001) 7764:Härke, Heinrich (2003), 7423:, British Museum Press, 6629:Barber, Charles (2009). 5254:Rowman & Littlefield 5248:Thomas, Hugh M. (2008). 5172:Wyatt, David R. (2009). 4364:Campbell, James (1986). 3949: 3573: 2876:, carved with a pair of 2798:ship-burial 1, England. 2427:Anglo-Saxon architecture 1849:. Biblical scene in the 1258:During the 9th century, 1199:Archbishop of Canterbury 967:, in alliance with king 8628:West Germanic languages 8618:East Germanic languages 8613:Proto-Germanic language 8433:Proto-Germanic folklore 8370:Romano-Germanic culture 7929:, 2011, Boydell Press, 7817:, London: B. A. Seaby, 7655:, 1982, Manchester UP, 7561:Bazelmans, Jos (2009), 7421:The Staffordshire Hoard 7084:Oxford University Press 6530:Minkova, Donka (2009), 6426:Brown 1996, pp. 70, 73. 6284:(5): 44. Archived from 4990:Oxford University Press 3725:University of Cambridge 3718: 3165: 2886:his wooden inner coffin 2851:manuscript illumination 2811:and the jewellery from 2598:Old Minster, Winchester 2498:Augustine of Canterbury 1961: 1950: 1503:– who with his sister, 815:these early centuries. 728:(straddling the modern 656:Chronica Gallica of 452 608:Chronica Gallica of 452 332: 52:Eadfrith of Lindisfarne 9434:Early Germanic peoples 8193:Gildas: New Approaches 8098:Snyder, Christopher A. 8077:Snyder, Christopher A. 7925:Karkov, Catherine E., 7788:Haywood, John (1999), 7536:Koch, John T. (2006), 7398:Hough, Carole (2014). 7382:Origins of the English 6810:, Volume I, Chapter 1. 6536:by Elly van Gelderen; 6435:Reynolds, Andrew, and 6332:Leahy & Bland 2009 5475:, pp. 9 & 18. 5133:Higham & Ryan 2013 5104:Wood, Michael (2005). 4352:Ecclesiastical History 4336:Ecclesiastical History 4145:Origins of the English 4082:Higham & Ryan 2013 4061:. Simon and Schuster. 4041:Higham & Ryan 2013 3581: 3459:were used in specific 3408: 3394:Anglo-Saxon literature 3357: 3346: 3325: 3294:Rædwald of East Anglia 3199:West Germanic language 3182: 2970: 2803: 2760: 2610:Peterborough Cathedral 2482: 2442: 2348: 2324: 2268: 2252: 2229:Anglo -Saxon Chronicle 2199: 2124: 2035: 1997: 1914:Ecclesiastical History 1872: 1858: 1853:(11th century) in the 1739: 1733: 1721: 1618: 1545:Danish kingdom of York 1495: 1463: 1454: 1437: 1421: 1408: 1373:", a term used by the 1325: 1255: 1186: 1116: 1009:Kingdom of Northumbria 949:Rædwald of East Anglia 881:and proceeded to King 862: 853:to (the long-dead) St 788: 555: 479: 338:Romano-British culture 324:their early settlement 187:Power and organization 58: 50:, possibly created by 25:Saxon (disambiguation) 8438:Anglo-Saxon mythology 8328:Ethnolinguistic group 7948:Kirby, D. P. (2000), 7753:"The Works of Gildas" 7384:, London: Duckworth, 7364:Yale University Press 7360:The Anglo-Saxon World 3705:The Dream of the Rood 3633:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 3610:, which has achieved 3565: 3401: 3339: 3312:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 3246:Northern Subject Rule 3201:, closely related to 3163: 2958: 2793: 2477: 2434: 2343: 2318: 2266: 2243: 2194: 2145:brought Athelwold to 2141:In the 10th century, 2122: 2025: 1992: 1844: 1831:Kingship and kingdoms 1780:Anglo Saxon Chronicle 1776:Harrying of the North 1762:, hitherto a largely 1734: 1727: 1712: 1612: 1603:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 1537:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 1523:, King of the Scots; 1485: 1472:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 1459: 1449: 1433: 1417: 1403: 1333:– from the Old Norse 1311: 1273:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 1268:King Alfred the Great 1245: 1184: 1171:the Mercian King Offa 1114: 1081:back to the original 1026:Bishop of Lindisfarne 991:, an Irish monk from 844: 782: 673:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 553: 328:political development 210:Monarchs and kingdoms 35: 7759:, London: James Bohn 7685:Elton, Charles Isaac 6923:www.anglo-saxons.net 6544:by Lynda Mugglestone 6505:The Celtic Englishes 5899:Higham, Nicholas J. 5460:Internet Archaeology 5211:. pp. 140–141. 5112:. pp. 248–249. 4678:. Oxbow Books, 2007. 4283:, pp. 194, 203. 4234:Dewing, H B (1962). 4158:Medieval Archaeology 3823:English ethnic group 3808:Samuel George Morton 3776:James Anthony Froude 3757:Geoffrey of Monmouth 3747:was broadly used in 3540:The Battle of Maldon 3340:The initial page of 3197:. Old English was a 3177:in the 10th-century 3054:Sutton Hoo purse-lid 2890:Evangelists' symbols 2678:St Peter-in-the-Wall 2570:Canterbury Cathedral 2166:Fighting and warfare 2014:Anglo-Saxon Paganism 1631:Sermo Lupi ad Anglos 1590:Æthelred the Unready 1533:battle of Brunanburh 1196:to become the eighth 1003:'s main fortress of 953:Edwin of Northumbria 907:Anglo-Saxon paganism 793:Ambrosius Aurelianus 9424:Anglo-Saxon England 9365:Gothic Christianity 7705:1882Natur..25..501T 7463:Anglo-Saxon England 7356:Higham, Nicholas J. 7292:. London: Penguin. 6899:Anglo-Saxon England 6559:, De Gruyter (2018) 6278:National Geographic 6260:Richards, Julian D. 6029:Leges Henrici Primi 5912:Oosthuizen, Susan. 5879:Richards, Julian D. 5636:. pp. 130–133. 5135:, pp. 409–410. 4445:2022Natur.610..112G 3934:Anglo-Saxon economy 3703:that the author of 3614:status in Britain. 3223:grammatical genders 3219:grammatical numbers 2964:evangelist portrait 2936:Coptic Christianity 2922:and (probably) the 2916:Lindisfarne Gospels 2894:Lindisfarne Gospels 2839:Staffordshire Hoard 2321:Butser Ancient Farm 1688:Eustace of Boulogne 1660:William of Normandy 1426:Gregory the Great's 1312:Anglo-Saxon-Viking 997:Isle of Lindisfarne 975:. Æthelfrith's son 72:society and culture 42:Lindisfarne Gospels 8748:Germani cisrhenani 8456:Funerary practices 8360:Pre-Roman Iron Age 8336:Germanic languages 6532:Reviewed Work(s): 5947:Higham, Nicholas J 5606:Chaney, William A. 5277:Chibnall, Marjorie 4545:. Routledge, 2002. 4160:55.1 (2011): 1–28. 4143:Hills, Catherine. 4029:Higham et al. 2013 3835:The Boston Brahmin 3770:, writers such as 3649:Julian D. Richards 3468:Old English poetry 3425:Bible translations 3409: 3358: 3354:Æthelberht of Kent 3183: 2971: 2920:Echternach Gospels 2804: 2749:tower to survive, 2583:Barton-upon-Humber 2574:Carolingian Empire 2510:Minster in Sheppey 2483: 2460:Carolingian Empire 2443: 2379:('companions') or 2349: 2325: 2269: 2253: 2200: 2182:Battle of Edington 2125: 2036: 1859: 1722: 1715:Battle of Hastings 1643:Battle of Assandun 1619: 1597:. It remained for 1588:The reign of King 1496: 1409: 1404:A royal gift, the 1326: 1297:surviving sons of 1256: 1252:Viking Ship Museum 1187: 1117: 1062:Wulfhere of Mercia 1030:St Cuthbert Gospel 928:, having replaced 905:from their native 863: 808:Æthelberht of Kent 789: 667:Historia Brittonum 556: 350:Kingdom of England 59: 9429:Sub-Roman Britain 9411: 9410: 8583:Gothic and Vandal 8375:Germanic Iron Age 8350:Nordic Bronze Age 8332:Northern European 8275:978-1-873827-62-8 8253:978-0-582-77292-2 8232:978-0-7185-1856-1 8211:978-0-906780-93-0 8174:978-0-14-311742-1 8153:978-0-19-921296-5 8134:978-0-7141-2809-2 8115:978-0-631-22260-6 8090:978-0-271-01780-8 8069:978-0-313-30079-0 8051:978-0-00-718187-2 8030:978-0-906780-93-0 8012:978-0-14-014822-0 7977:978-0-312-04767-2 7959:978-0-415-24211-0 7943:978-1-84383-628-5 7935:978-1-84383-628-5 7867:978-1-84217-067-0 7842:978-0-86299-730-4 7824:978-1-85264-022-4 7799:978-1-898281-43-6 7749:Giles, John Allen 7741:978-0-7102-1215-3 7677:978-0-7185-1148-7 7661:978-0-7190-0926-6 7635:978-0-19-924982-4 7607:978-0-8264-7765-1 7578:978-90-8964-078-9 7547:978-1-85109-440-0 7529:978-0-19-921214-9 7498:978-0-415-16639-3 7472:978-0-19-280139-5 7430:978-0-7141-2328-8 7411:978-1-4438-5917-2 7391:978-0-7156-3191-1 7373:978-0-300-12534-4 7347:978-0-19-870084-5 7299:978-0-140-14395-9 7093:978-0-19-925465-1 7064:978-0-521-55183-0 6838:978-0-8078-1434-5 6808:978-0-521-09515-0 6800:978-0-521-07061-4 6783:978-0-406-62503-8 6757:978-0-406-62503-8 6740:978-0-406-53101-8 6640:978-0-521-67001-2 6608:978-0-615-16817-3 6516:Peter Schrijver, 6191:978-0-19-920325-3 6075:theriddleages.com 6058:978-0-19-863101-9 6014:978-0-7141-8057-1 5756:978-0-8122-3455-8 5716:978-0-7190-5811-0 5679:978-0-7190-5497-6 5573:978-1-317-90041-2 5535:978-1-86077-112-5 5396:, pp. 15–17. 5289:978-0-19-820220-2 5263:978-0-7425-3840-5 5237:978-1-85532-347-6 5218:978-90-04-10637-6 5189:978-90-04-17533-4 5158:978-0-415-22215-0 5119:978-0-563-52276-8 5090:978-0-19-925101-8 5068:978-0-415-92129-9 4711:978-0-415-92129-9 4510:, pp. 80–81. 4439:(7930): 112–119, 4417:978-0-7190-4424-3 4375:978-0-907628-32-3 4350::188–189, Bede's 4318:978-1-902937-62-5 4130:Ellis, Steven G. 4068:978-0-02-934470-5 3887:Anglo-Saxon dress 3784:Edward A. Freeman 3699:Dream of the Rood 3525:Dream of the Rood 3480:Junius Manuscript 3445:Anglo-Saxon runes 3215:grammatical cases 2975:Coppergate helmet 2566:Wareham St Mary's 2197:Sutton Hoo helmet 2086:Hengist and Horsa 2032:Wayland the Smith 1931:Law of Æthelberht 1713:Depiction of the 1700:Archbishop Robert 1684:Godwine of Wessex 1680:Leofric of Mercia 1595:Thorkell the Tall 1529:Olaf Guthfrithson 1107:Mercian Supremacy 1066:Mercian supremacy 1016:'s patron saint, 938:Germanic language 930:Ceawlin of Wessex 895:Gregorian mission 891:Gregory the Great 614:Constantine "III" 605:According to the 578:Constantine "III" 312:Early Middle Ages 284: 283: 9441: 9401: 9400: 9357:Christianization 8947:Ripuarian Franks 8319:Germanic peoples 8312: 8305: 8298: 8289: 8288: 8278: 8267: 8256: 8235: 8214: 8196: 8181:Wilson, David M. 8177: 8156: 8118: 8107: 8093: 8072: 8054: 8033: 8015: 8004: 7995:Mattingly, David 7984:Lapidge, Michael 7980: 7962: 7922: 7921: 7919: 7914:on 13 March 2020 7910:, archived from 7870: 7845: 7827: 7805:Henson, Donald. 7802: 7784: 7783: 7781: 7770:Celtic-Englishes 7760: 7744: 7723: 7713:10.1038/025501a0 7680: 7638: 7610: 7592: 7591: 7590: 7581:, archived from 7550: 7532: 7501: 7490: 7476: 7454: 7433: 7415: 7394: 7376: 7351: 7339: 7325: 7314: 7303: 7290:The Anglo-Saxons 7275: 7274: 7272: 7271: 7261: 7255: 7254: 7252: 7251: 7236: 7230: 7229: 7227: 7225: 7215: 7209: 7208: 7197: 7191: 7185: 7179: 7176: 7170: 7167: 7161: 7158: 7152: 7151: 7149: 7148: 7131: 7125: 7124: 7122: 7121: 7104: 7098: 7097: 7075: 7069: 7068: 7046: 7037: 7034: 7028: 7025: 7019: 7016: 7010: 7006: 7000: 6997: 6991: 6988: 6982: 6979: 6973: 6969: 6963: 6960: 6954: 6951: 6945: 6942: 6936: 6933: 6927: 6926: 6915: 6909: 6883: 6877: 6874: 6868: 6865: 6859: 6856: 6850: 6847: 6841: 6829: 6820: 6817: 6811: 6792: 6786: 6775: 6769: 6766: 6760: 6749: 6743: 6732: 6726: 6723: 6717: 6714: 6708: 6705: 6699: 6696: 6690: 6687: 6681: 6678: 6672: 6671: 6664: 6658: 6651: 6645: 6644: 6626: 6620: 6619: 6617: 6615: 6592: 6586: 6581:Richard Coates, 6579: 6573: 6566: 6560: 6553: 6547: 6546: 6527: 6521: 6514: 6508: 6501: 6495: 6489: 6483: 6480: 6474: 6471: 6465: 6455: 6449: 6446: 6440: 6433: 6427: 6424: 6418: 6415: 6409: 6406: 6400: 6397: 6391: 6388: 6382: 6376: 6370: 6366: 6360: 6350: 6344: 6341: 6335: 6329: 6323: 6322: 6320: 6318: 6303: 6297: 6296: 6294: 6293: 6269: 6263: 6257: 6248: 6245: 6236: 6233: 6227: 6224: 6218: 6215: 6209: 6205: 6196: 6195: 6173: 6167: 6164: 6158: 6155: 6149: 6148: 6146: 6144: 6130: 6124: 6123: 6121: 6119: 6108:English Heritage 6100: 6094: 6091: 6085: 6084: 6082: 6081: 6067: 6061: 6050: 6044: 6038: 6032: 6025: 6019: 6018: 6000: 5994: 5991: 5985: 5982: 5976: 5965: 5959: 5956: 5950: 5944: 5938: 5935: 5926: 5923: 5917: 5910: 5904: 5897: 5891: 5888: 5882: 5876: 5870: 5867: 5861: 5858: 5852: 5849: 5843: 5840: 5834: 5831: 5825: 5822: 5816: 5813: 5804: 5801: 5795: 5792: 5786: 5783: 5777: 5774: 5768: 5767: 5765: 5763: 5744: 5734: 5728: 5727: 5725: 5723: 5700: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5686: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5644: 5638: 5637: 5629: 5623: 5620: 5614: 5613: 5602: 5596: 5593: 5587: 5584: 5578: 5577: 5555: 5549: 5546: 5540: 5539: 5521: 5515: 5512: 5506: 5503: 5497: 5494: 5488: 5482: 5476: 5470: 5464: 5463: 5451: 5445: 5444: 5433: 5427: 5424: 5418: 5415: 5409: 5403: 5397: 5391: 5385: 5381: 5372: 5371: 5369: 5367: 5362:on 26 March 2023 5358:. Archived from 5346: 5340: 5337: 5331: 5328: 5322: 5319: 5310: 5307: 5301: 5298: 5292: 5274: 5268: 5267: 5245: 5239: 5229: 5223: 5222: 5200: 5194: 5193: 5169: 5163: 5162: 5142: 5136: 5130: 5124: 5123: 5101: 5095: 5094: 5076: 5070: 5052: 5046: 5043: 5034: 5031:Orbis Britanniae 5027: 5021: 5020:(1984): 375–387. 5014: 5008: 4999: 4993: 4986: 4980: 4977: 4971: 4967: 4961: 4957: 4951: 4948: 4942: 4939: 4933: 4930: 4924: 4923:ASC, pp. 230–251 4921: 4915: 4912: 4903: 4899: 4893: 4890: 4881: 4878: 4872: 4869: 4863: 4860: 4854: 4851: 4845: 4842: 4831: 4828: 4822: 4819: 4813: 4810: 4804: 4801: 4788: 4785: 4779: 4776: 4770: 4767: 4761: 4758: 4752: 4749: 4743: 4740: 4734: 4731: 4714: 4703: 4697: 4694: 4688: 4685: 4679: 4669: 4663: 4660: 4654: 4651: 4645: 4642: 4636: 4633: 4627: 4624: 4618: 4615: 4609: 4606: 4600: 4599: 4594:Yorke, Barbara. 4591: 4585: 4582: 4576: 4573: 4567: 4564: 4558: 4555: 4546: 4541:Yorke, Barbara. 4539: 4533: 4530: 4524: 4517: 4511: 4505: 4499: 4493: 4487: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4466: 4456: 4428: 4422: 4421: 4398:Higham, Nicholas 4394: 4388: 4387: 4361: 4355: 4345: 4339: 4329: 4323: 4322: 4302: 4296: 4290: 4284: 4278: 4272: 4266: 4260: 4259: 4257: 4255: 4249: 4242: 4231: 4225: 4219: 4213: 4207: 4201: 4200: 4193: 4187: 4186: 4167: 4161: 4154: 4148: 4141: 4135: 4128: 4122: 4121: 4109: 4100: 4094: 4085: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4060: 4050: 4044: 4043:, pp. 7–19. 4038: 4032: 4026: 4009: 4006: 4000: 3997: 3991: 3988: 3982: 3979: 3973: 3969: 3963: 3960: 3876: 3871: 3870: 3869: 3780:Charles Kingsley 3657:material culture 3574: 3543:, recounting an 3351: 3348:Textus Roffensis 3344:, MS A.3.5, the 3230:Common Brittonic 3191:English language 3168: 3144: 3141: 3135: 3126: 3122: 3119: 3114:Trewhiddle style 3110: 3101: 3098: 3090: 3081: 3078: 3070: 3061: 3058: 3050: 3032: 3029: 2906: 2903: 2828: 2825: 2821: 2818: 2755: 2752: 2739: 2730:– spire is later 2729: 2726: 2717: 2707: 2704: 2695: 2686: 2683: 2674: 2656: 2653: 2629: 2626: 2614:Greensted Church 2518: 2515: 2458:. Unlike in the 2441: 2438: 2215:chose to fight. 2155:Benedictine Rule 1966: 1955: 1947: 1877: 1822:Life and society 1756:Byzantine Empire 1525:Owain ap Dyfnwal 1501:Edward the Elder 1488:Edward the Elder 1369:. This was the " 942:Sæberht of Essex 934:Æthelberht's law 885:'s main town of 508:Anglosaxonum Rex 504:Alfred the Great 500:Anglorum Saxonum 496:Saxonum Anglorum 482: 358:English language 335: 276: 269: 262: 238:Christianisation 141:Material culture 82: 61: 60: 49: 46: 9449: 9448: 9444: 9443: 9442: 9440: 9439: 9438: 9414: 9413: 9412: 9407: 9389: 9351: 8632: 8594: 8556:Gothic alphabet 8448:Norse mythology 8384: 8338: 8321: 8316: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8254: 8233: 8212: 8175: 8154: 8126:Anglo-Saxon Art 8122:Webster, Leslie 8116: 8091: 8070: 8052: 8031: 8013: 7978: 7960: 7917: 7915: 7868: 7848:James, Edward. 7843: 7825: 7800: 7779: 7777: 7742: 7678: 7668:Mercian Studies 7636: 7614:Brown, Michelle 7608: 7588: 7586: 7579: 7557: 7548: 7530: 7522:, Oxford: OUP, 7514: 7508: 7506:Further reading 7499: 7491:, B. A. Seaby, 7473: 7431: 7412: 7392: 7374: 7348: 7300: 7284: 7279: 7278: 7269: 7267: 7263: 7262: 7258: 7249: 7247: 7238: 7237: 7233: 7223: 7221: 7217: 7216: 7212: 7199: 7198: 7194: 7186: 7182: 7177: 7173: 7168: 7164: 7159: 7155: 7146: 7144: 7141:The Independent 7132: 7128: 7119: 7117: 7106: 7105: 7101: 7094: 7076: 7072: 7065: 7057:. p. 273. 7047: 7040: 7035: 7031: 7026: 7022: 7017: 7013: 7007: 7003: 6998: 6994: 6989: 6985: 6980: 6976: 6970: 6966: 6961: 6957: 6952: 6948: 6943: 6939: 6934: 6930: 6917: 6916: 6912: 6884: 6880: 6875: 6871: 6866: 6862: 6857: 6853: 6848: 6844: 6830: 6823: 6818: 6814: 6793: 6789: 6776: 6772: 6767: 6763: 6750: 6746: 6742:, Chapters 1–2. 6733: 6729: 6724: 6720: 6715: 6711: 6706: 6702: 6697: 6693: 6688: 6684: 6679: 6675: 6665: 6661: 6652: 6648: 6641: 6627: 6623: 6613: 6611: 6609: 6593: 6589: 6580: 6576: 6567: 6563: 6554: 6550: 6528: 6524: 6515: 6511: 6502: 6498: 6490: 6486: 6481: 6477: 6472: 6468: 6458:Janet Backhouse 6456: 6452: 6447: 6443: 6437:Webster, Leslie 6434: 6430: 6425: 6421: 6416: 6412: 6407: 6403: 6398: 6394: 6389: 6385: 6377: 6373: 6367: 6363: 6357:Janet Backhouse 6351: 6347: 6342: 6338: 6330: 6326: 6316: 6314: 6305: 6304: 6300: 6291: 6289: 6270: 6266: 6258: 6251: 6246: 6239: 6234: 6230: 6225: 6221: 6216: 6212: 6206: 6199: 6192: 6174: 6170: 6165: 6161: 6156: 6152: 6142: 6140: 6132: 6131: 6127: 6117: 6115: 6102: 6101: 6097: 6092: 6088: 6079: 6077: 6069: 6068: 6064: 6051: 6047: 6039: 6035: 6026: 6022: 6015: 6001: 5997: 5992: 5988: 5983: 5979: 5966: 5962: 5957: 5953: 5945: 5941: 5936: 5929: 5924: 5920: 5911: 5907: 5898: 5894: 5889: 5885: 5877: 5873: 5868: 5864: 5859: 5855: 5850: 5846: 5841: 5837: 5832: 5828: 5823: 5819: 5814: 5807: 5802: 5798: 5793: 5789: 5784: 5780: 5775: 5771: 5761: 5759: 5757: 5735: 5731: 5721: 5719: 5717: 5701: 5694: 5684: 5682: 5680: 5664: 5660: 5655:(2004): 87–109. 5645: 5641: 5630: 5626: 5621: 5617: 5603: 5599: 5594: 5590: 5585: 5581: 5574: 5556: 5552: 5547: 5543: 5536: 5522: 5518: 5513: 5509: 5504: 5500: 5495: 5491: 5483: 5479: 5471: 5467: 5452: 5448: 5437:Hodges, Richard 5434: 5430: 5425: 5421: 5416: 5412: 5404: 5400: 5392: 5388: 5382: 5375: 5365: 5363: 5355:British Library 5348: 5347: 5343: 5338: 5334: 5329: 5325: 5320: 5313: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5295: 5275: 5271: 5264: 5246: 5242: 5230: 5226: 5219: 5201: 5197: 5190: 5182:. p. 385. 5170: 5166: 5159: 5143: 5139: 5131: 5127: 5120: 5102: 5098: 5091: 5077: 5073: 5053: 5049: 5044: 5037: 5028: 5024: 5015: 5011: 5000: 4996: 4987: 4983: 4978: 4974: 4968: 4964: 4958: 4954: 4949: 4945: 4940: 4936: 4931: 4927: 4922: 4918: 4913: 4906: 4900: 4896: 4891: 4884: 4879: 4875: 4870: 4866: 4861: 4857: 4852: 4848: 4843: 4834: 4829: 4825: 4820: 4816: 4811: 4807: 4802: 4791: 4786: 4782: 4777: 4773: 4768: 4764: 4759: 4755: 4750: 4746: 4741: 4737: 4732: 4717: 4704: 4700: 4695: 4691: 4686: 4682: 4670: 4666: 4661: 4657: 4652: 4648: 4643: 4639: 4634: 4630: 4625: 4621: 4616: 4612: 4607: 4603: 4592: 4588: 4583: 4579: 4574: 4570: 4565: 4561: 4556: 4549: 4540: 4536: 4531: 4527: 4518: 4514: 4506: 4502: 4494: 4490: 4483: 4479: 4429: 4425: 4418: 4395: 4391: 4376: 4362: 4358: 4346: 4342: 4334::72–73, Bede's 4330: 4326: 4319: 4303: 4299: 4291: 4287: 4279: 4275: 4267: 4263: 4253: 4251: 4250:on 3 March 2020 4247: 4240: 4232: 4228: 4220: 4216: 4208: 4204: 4194: 4190: 4168: 4164: 4155: 4151: 4142: 4138: 4129: 4125: 4110: 4103: 4095: 4088: 4080: 4076: 4069: 4051: 4047: 4039: 4035: 4027: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4012: 4007: 4003: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3985: 3980: 3976: 3970: 3966: 3961: 3957: 3952: 3930: 3928:Modern concepts 3872: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3812:George Fitzhugh 3738: 3721: 3653:oral traditions 3642: 3572: 3571:eran mid hondum 3427:, legal works, 3396: 3390: 3334: 3332:Anglo-Saxon law 3328: 3289: 3158: 3152: 3145: 3142: 3136: 3127: 3124: 3120: 3116:on silver ring 3111: 3102: 3099: 3091: 3082: 3079: 3071: 3062: 3059: 3051: 3035:Bayeux Tapestry 3030: 2940:Codex Amiatinus 2904: 2898:Codex Amiatinus 2859:Bewcastle Cross 2834:status symbol. 2826: 2819: 2769: 2767:Anglo-Saxon art 2763: 2756: 2753: 2743:Sompting Church 2740: 2731: 2727: 2718: 2709: 2705: 2696: 2687: 2684: 2675: 2654: 2627: 2550:Benedict Biscop 2529:Bradwell-on-Sea 2516: 2487:morem Romanorum 2439: 2429: 2423: 2418: 2338: 2306:multiple estate 2238: 2195:Replica of the 2168: 2020: 2012:Main articles: 2010: 1937:(freemen), and 1855:British Library 1839: 1833: 1824: 1800:Katherine Group 1772:Orderic Vitalis 1770:The chronicler 1760:Varangian Guard 1748:Norman conquest 1744: 1719:Bayeux Tapestry 1652: 1638:Edmund Ironside 1599:Swein Forkbeard 1586: 1480: 1468: 1429:Cura Pastoralis 1398: 1380:English Channel 1254:, Oslo, Norway. 1240: 1232:Main articles: 1230: 1179: 1109: 1103: 1078:Lowland Britain 1074: 1041:Synod of Whitby 969:Penda of Mercia 903:Kingdom of Kent 861:MS 183, fol. 1v 839: 829: 623:, but also the 548: 542: 520:Scottish Gaelic 488:Paul the Deacon 480:antiqui saxones 461:or Old English 418: 320:Norman Conquest 280: 71: 47: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9447: 9437: 9436: 9431: 9426: 9409: 9408: 9406: 9405: 9394: 9391: 9390: 9388: 9387: 9382: 9377: 9372: 9367: 9361: 9359: 9353: 9352: 9350: 9349: 9344: 9339: 9334: 9329: 9324: 9319: 9318: 9317: 9312: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9252: 9247: 9242: 9237: 9232: 9227: 9222: 9217: 9212: 9207: 9202: 9197: 9192: 9187: 9182: 9177: 9172: 9167: 9162: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9127: 9126: 9125: 9120: 9115: 9110: 9105: 9095: 9094: 9093: 9083: 9078: 9073: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9043: 9038: 9033: 9028: 9023: 9022: 9021: 9016: 9014:Thracian Goths 9011: 9006: 9001: 8996: 8991: 8981: 8976: 8971: 8966: 8961: 8956: 8955: 8954: 8949: 8939: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8909: 8904: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8839: 8834: 8829: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8794: 8793: 8792: 8787: 8782: 8781: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8755: 8740: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8705: 8700: 8695: 8690: 8685: 8680: 8675: 8670: 8669: 8668: 8663: 8658: 8653: 8642: 8640: 8634: 8633: 8631: 8630: 8625: 8620: 8615: 8610: 8604: 8602: 8596: 8595: 8593: 8592: 8591: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8570: 8565: 8564: 8563: 8558: 8548: 8543: 8542: 8541: 8536: 8531: 8521: 8516: 8515: 8514: 8504: 8503: 8502: 8497: 8487: 8486: 8485: 8480: 8470: 8469: 8468: 8463: 8453: 8452: 8451: 8445: 8440: 8435: 8425: 8420: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8400: 8394: 8392: 8386: 8385: 8383: 8382: 8377: 8372: 8367: 8365:Roman Iron Age 8362: 8357: 8352: 8346: 8344: 8340: 8339: 8326: 8323: 8322: 8315: 8314: 8307: 8300: 8292: 8285: 8284:External links 8282: 8280: 8279: 8274: 8257: 8252: 8240:Yorke, Barbara 8236: 8231: 8219:Yorke, Barbara 8215: 8210: 8197: 8188: 8178: 8173: 8161:Wickham, Chris 8157: 8152: 8140:Wickham, Chris 8136: 8119: 8114: 8094: 8089: 8073: 8068: 8055: 8050: 8038:Pryor, Francis 8034: 8029: 8016: 8011: 7991: 7981: 7976: 7963: 7958: 7945: 7923: 7892:10.2307/526206 7871: 7866: 7853: 7846: 7841: 7828: 7823: 7810: 7803: 7798: 7785: 7761: 7751:, ed. (1841), 7745: 7740: 7724: 7681: 7676: 7663: 7649:Dodwell, C. R. 7646: 7639: 7634: 7621: 7611: 7606: 7593: 7577: 7556: 7553: 7552: 7551: 7546: 7533: 7528: 7513: 7510: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7503: 7502: 7497: 7481:Yorke, Barbara 7477: 7471: 7459:Stenton, Frank 7455: 7434: 7429: 7416: 7410: 7395: 7390: 7377: 7372: 7352: 7346: 7326: 7315: 7304: 7298: 7283: 7280: 7277: 7276: 7256: 7231: 7210: 7192: 7180: 7171: 7162: 7153: 7126: 7099: 7092: 7070: 7063: 7038: 7029: 7020: 7011: 7001: 6992: 6983: 6974: 6964: 6955: 6946: 6937: 6928: 6910: 6878: 6869: 6860: 6851: 6842: 6821: 6812: 6787: 6770: 6761: 6744: 6727: 6718: 6709: 6700: 6691: 6682: 6673: 6659: 6646: 6639: 6621: 6607: 6587: 6574: 6561: 6548: 6522: 6509: 6496: 6484: 6475: 6466: 6462:Leslie Webster 6450: 6441: 6428: 6419: 6410: 6401: 6392: 6383: 6371: 6361: 6353:Leslie Webster 6345: 6336: 6324: 6298: 6264: 6249: 6237: 6228: 6219: 6210: 6197: 6190: 6168: 6159: 6150: 6125: 6095: 6086: 6062: 6045: 6043:, p. 530. 6033: 6020: 6013: 5995: 5986: 5977: 5960: 5951: 5939: 5927: 5918: 5905: 5892: 5883: 5871: 5862: 5853: 5844: 5835: 5826: 5817: 5805: 5796: 5787: 5778: 5769: 5755: 5729: 5715: 5692: 5678: 5658: 5639: 5624: 5615: 5597: 5588: 5579: 5572: 5550: 5541: 5534: 5528:. Phillimore. 5516: 5507: 5498: 5489: 5477: 5465: 5446: 5428: 5419: 5410: 5408:, p. 117. 5398: 5386: 5373: 5341: 5332: 5323: 5311: 5302: 5293: 5279:(translator), 5269: 5262: 5256:. p. 98. 5240: 5224: 5217: 5195: 5188: 5164: 5157: 5137: 5125: 5118: 5096: 5089: 5071: 5047: 5035: 5022: 5009: 4994: 4981: 4972: 4962: 4952: 4943: 4934: 4925: 4916: 4904: 4894: 4882: 4873: 4864: 4855: 4846: 4832: 4823: 4814: 4805: 4789: 4780: 4771: 4762: 4753: 4744: 4735: 4715: 4698: 4689: 4680: 4664: 4655: 4646: 4637: 4628: 4619: 4610: 4601: 4598:. p. 101. 4586: 4577: 4568: 4559: 4547: 4534: 4525: 4512: 4500: 4488: 4477: 4423: 4416: 4389: 4374: 4356: 4340: 4338:, Bk I, Ch 15. 4324: 4317: 4297: 4295:, p. 169. 4285: 4273: 4261: 4226: 4214: 4212:, p. 218. 4202: 4188: 4162: 4149: 4136: 4123: 4101: 4099:, p. 166. 4086: 4074: 4067: 4045: 4033: 4020: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4011: 4010: 4001: 3992: 3983: 3974: 3964: 3954: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3947: 3946: 3941: 3939:English people 3936: 3929: 3926: 3925: 3924: 3919: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3861: 3858: 3854:United Kingdom 3786:used the term 3737: 3734: 3720: 3717: 3679:(to pray) and 3641: 3638: 3549:Cotton Library 3530:Ruthwell Cross 3457:styles of hand 3441:Roman alphabet 3392:Main article: 3389: 3386: 3330:Main article: 3327: 3324: 3288: 3285: 3281:Proto-Germanic 3242:Richard Coates 3195:Middle English 3154:Main article: 3151: 3148: 3147: 3146: 3137: 3130: 3128: 3112: 3105: 3103: 3094:Ruthwell Cross 3092: 3085: 3083: 3072: 3065: 3063: 3052: 3045: 2924:Book of Durrow 2900:all date from 2855:Ruthwell Cross 2800:British Museum 2765:Main article: 2762: 2759: 2758: 2757: 2741: 2734: 2732: 2719: 2712: 2710: 2697: 2690: 2688: 2676: 2669: 2659:Pre-Romanesque 2440: 1000 AD 2425:Main article: 2422: 2419: 2417: 2414: 2373:eorl and ceorl 2337: 2334: 2237: 2234: 2180:Idle." At the 2167: 2164: 2132:Desert Fathers 2009: 2006: 1919:petty kingdoms 1904:Richard Hodges 1835:Main article: 1832: 1829: 1823: 1820: 1796:J.R.R. Tolkien 1792:Middle English 1764:North Germanic 1746:Following the 1743: 1740: 1717:(1066) on the 1651: 1648: 1585: 1582: 1509:David Dumville 1492:British Museum 1479: 1476: 1467: 1464: 1397: 1394: 1299:King Æthelwulf 1229: 1226: 1178: 1175: 1105:Main article: 1102: 1099: 1093:and above the 1073: 1070: 1018:Saint Cuthbert 1014:Northumberland 973:Hatfield Chase 913:, daughter of 897:to Britain to 879:Isle of Thanet 877:landed on the 828: 825: 687:Magnus Maximus 574:Magnus Maximus 560:Roman province 544:Main article: 541: 538: 530:Irish language 451:Saint Boniface 417: 414: 410:Helena Hamerow 354:Middle English 300:cultural group 282: 281: 279: 278: 271: 264: 256: 253: 252: 251: 250: 245: 240: 232: 231: 227: 226: 225: 224: 223: 222: 212: 207: 202: 197: 189: 188: 184: 183: 182: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 143: 142: 138: 137: 136: 135: 130: 125: 117: 116: 112: 111: 110: 109: 104: 99: 91: 90: 84: 83: 75: 74: 66: 65: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9446: 9435: 9432: 9430: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9421: 9419: 9404: 9396: 9395: 9392: 9386: 9383: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9371: 9368: 9366: 9363: 9362: 9360: 9358: 9354: 9348: 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9328: 9325: 9323: 9320: 9316: 9313: 9311: 9308: 9307: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9246: 9243: 9241: 9238: 9236: 9233: 9231: 9228: 9226: 9223: 9221: 9218: 9216: 9213: 9211: 9208: 9206: 9203: 9201: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9191: 9188: 9186: 9183: 9181: 9178: 9176: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9106: 9104: 9101: 9100: 9099: 9096: 9092: 9089: 9088: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9052: 9049: 9047: 9044: 9042: 9039: 9037: 9034: 9032: 9029: 9027: 9024: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9012: 9010: 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8989:Crimean Goths 8987: 8986: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8957: 8953: 8952:Salian Franks 8950: 8948: 8945: 8944: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8898: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8838: 8835: 8833: 8830: 8828: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8750: 8749: 8746: 8745: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8648: 8647: 8644: 8643: 8641: 8639: 8635: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8614: 8611: 8609: 8606: 8605: 8603: 8601: 8597: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 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8053: 8047: 8043: 8039: 8035: 8032: 8026: 8022: 8017: 8014: 8008: 8003: 8002: 7996: 7992: 7989: 7985: 7982: 7979: 7973: 7969: 7964: 7961: 7955: 7951: 7946: 7944: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7913: 7909: 7905: 7901: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7885: 7881: 7877: 7872: 7869: 7863: 7859: 7854: 7851: 7847: 7844: 7838: 7834: 7829: 7826: 7820: 7816: 7811: 7808: 7804: 7801: 7795: 7791: 7786: 7775: 7771: 7767: 7762: 7758: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7743: 7737: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7722: 7718: 7714: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7698: 7694: 7690: 7686: 7682: 7679: 7673: 7669: 7664: 7662: 7658: 7654: 7650: 7647: 7644: 7640: 7637: 7631: 7627: 7622: 7619: 7615: 7612: 7609: 7603: 7599: 7594: 7585:on 2017-08-30 7584: 7580: 7574: 7570: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7558: 7549: 7543: 7539: 7534: 7531: 7525: 7521: 7516: 7515: 7500: 7494: 7489: 7488: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7468: 7464: 7460: 7456: 7452: 7448: 7445:(1): 83–104. 7444: 7440: 7435: 7432: 7426: 7422: 7417: 7413: 7407: 7403: 7402: 7396: 7393: 7387: 7383: 7378: 7375: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7343: 7338: 7337: 7331: 7327: 7323: 7322: 7316: 7312: 7311: 7305: 7301: 7295: 7291: 7286: 7285: 7266: 7260: 7245: 7241: 7235: 7220: 7214: 7206: 7202: 7196: 7190:, p. 35. 7189: 7184: 7175: 7166: 7157: 7143: 7142: 7137: 7130: 7115: 7114: 7109: 7103: 7095: 7089: 7085: 7081: 7074: 7066: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7045: 7043: 7033: 7024: 7015: 7005: 6996: 6987: 6978: 6968: 6959: 6950: 6941: 6932: 6924: 6920: 6914: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6892: 6888: 6887:Paris Psalter 6882: 6873: 6864: 6855: 6846: 6839: 6835: 6828: 6826: 6816: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6791: 6784: 6780: 6774: 6765: 6759:(limp), 1–23. 6758: 6754: 6748: 6741: 6737: 6731: 6722: 6713: 6704: 6695: 6686: 6677: 6670: 6663: 6656: 6650: 6642: 6636: 6632: 6625: 6610: 6604: 6600: 6599: 6591: 6584: 6578: 6571: 6565: 6558: 6552: 6545: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6526: 6519: 6513: 6506: 6500: 6493: 6488: 6479: 6470: 6463: 6459: 6454: 6445: 6438: 6432: 6423: 6414: 6405: 6396: 6387: 6380: 6375: 6365: 6358: 6354: 6349: 6340: 6333: 6328: 6313:on 2011-07-03 6312: 6308: 6302: 6288:on 2016-12-25 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6268: 6261: 6256: 6254: 6244: 6242: 6232: 6223: 6214: 6204: 6202: 6193: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6172: 6163: 6154: 6139: 6135: 6129: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6099: 6090: 6076: 6072: 6071:"Riddle Ages" 6066: 6059: 6055: 6049: 6042: 6037: 6031: 6030: 6024: 6016: 6010: 6006: 5999: 5990: 5981: 5974: 5970: 5964: 5955: 5948: 5943: 5934: 5932: 5922: 5915: 5909: 5903:. Vol 2 p.244 5902: 5896: 5887: 5880: 5875: 5866: 5857: 5848: 5839: 5830: 5821: 5812: 5810: 5800: 5791: 5782: 5773: 5758: 5752: 5748: 5743: 5742: 5733: 5718: 5712: 5708: 5707: 5699: 5697: 5681: 5675: 5671: 5670: 5662: 5654: 5650: 5643: 5635: 5628: 5619: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5592: 5583: 5575: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5554: 5545: 5537: 5531: 5527: 5520: 5511: 5502: 5493: 5487:, p. 16. 5486: 5481: 5474: 5469: 5461: 5457: 5450: 5442: 5438: 5432: 5423: 5414: 5407: 5402: 5395: 5390: 5380: 5378: 5361: 5357: 5356: 5351: 5345: 5336: 5327: 5318: 5316: 5306: 5297: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5273: 5265: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5244: 5238: 5234: 5228: 5220: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5199: 5191: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5176: 5168: 5160: 5154: 5150: 5149: 5141: 5134: 5129: 5121: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5100: 5092: 5086: 5082: 5075: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5051: 5042: 5040: 5032: 5026: 5019: 5013: 5006: 5003: 5002:Robin Fleming 4998: 4991: 4985: 4976: 4966: 4956: 4947: 4938: 4929: 4920: 4911: 4909: 4898: 4889: 4887: 4877: 4868: 4859: 4850: 4841: 4839: 4837: 4827: 4818: 4809: 4800: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4784: 4775: 4766: 4757: 4748: 4739: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4720: 4712: 4708: 4702: 4693: 4684: 4677: 4673: 4672:Dobney, Keith 4668: 4659: 4650: 4641: 4632: 4623: 4614: 4605: 4597: 4590: 4581: 4572: 4563: 4554: 4552: 4544: 4538: 4529: 4522: 4516: 4509: 4508:Campbell 1982 4504: 4498:, p. 88. 4497: 4492: 4486: 4481: 4474: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4427: 4419: 4413: 4410:. p. 2. 4409: 4405: 4404: 4399: 4393: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4371: 4367: 4360: 4354:, Bk V, Ch 9. 4353: 4349: 4344: 4337: 4333: 4328: 4320: 4314: 4310: 4309: 4301: 4294: 4289: 4282: 4277: 4270: 4265: 4246: 4239: 4238: 4230: 4224:, p. 13. 4223: 4218: 4211: 4206: 4199: 4192: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4166: 4159: 4153: 4146: 4140: 4133: 4127: 4119: 4115: 4108: 4106: 4098: 4093: 4091: 4083: 4078: 4070: 4064: 4059: 4058: 4049: 4042: 4037: 4030: 4025: 4021: 4005: 3996: 3987: 3978: 3968: 3959: 3955: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3931: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3882:Anglo-Frisian 3880: 3879: 3875: 3864: 3857: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3804:United States 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3768:Victorian era 3764: 3762: 3758: 3752: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3733: 3730: 3726: 3716: 3713: 3708: 3706: 3701: 3700: 3694: 3688: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3637: 3635: 3634: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3615: 3613: 3612:national epic 3609: 3608: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3585: 3580: 3579: 3577: 3570: 3564: 3562: 3558: 3552: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3541: 3535: 3534:Franks Casket 3531: 3527: 3526: 3521: 3520: 3515: 3514: 3509: 3508: 3503: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3484:Vercelli Book 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3464: 3462: 3458: 3452: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3407: 3406: 3400: 3395: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3375: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3355: 3350: 3349: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3313: 3309: 3304: 3298: 3295: 3284: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3249: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3234:British Latin 3231: 3226: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3185:Old English ( 3180: 3176: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3134: 3129: 3115: 3109: 3104: 3095: 3089: 3084: 3075: 3069: 3064: 3055: 3049: 3044: 3043: 3042: 3040: 3039:Odo of Bayeux 3036: 3025: 3020: 3019:ivory carving 3015: 3013: 3012:Byzantine art 3009: 3005: 3001: 2995: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2979:Book of Cerne 2976: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2960:Book of Cerne 2957: 2953: 2950: 2946: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2908: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2874:Monkwearmouth 2870: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2846: 2844: 2840: 2835: 2832: 2814: 2810: 2809:Taplow burial 2801: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2768: 2748: 2744: 2738: 2733: 2722: 2716: 2711: 2700: 2694: 2689: 2679: 2673: 2668: 2667: 2666: 2664: 2663:stained glass 2660: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2621: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2590: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2558: 2556: 2555:Escomb Church 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2502:Frankish Gaul 2499: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2481: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2451: 2448: 2433: 2428: 2413: 2409: 2406: 2403: 2398: 2393: 2390: 2389:Frank Stenton 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2369: 2365: 2363: 2362:primogeniture 2357: 2355: 2354:Domesday Book 2347: 2342: 2333: 2329: 2322: 2317: 2313: 2311: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2293: 2288: 2286: 2282: 2281: 2276: 2275: 2265: 2261: 2259: 2258:Domesday Book 2251: 2247: 2242: 2233: 2230: 2224: 2222: 2216: 2214: 2210: 2204: 2198: 2193: 2189: 2187: 2186:Twelfth Night 2183: 2178: 2174: 2163: 2161: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2121: 2117: 2115: 2111: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2066: 2064: 2063: 2058: 2057: 2052: 2048: 2043: 2041: 2033: 2029: 2028:Franks Casket 2024: 2019: 2015: 2005: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1988: 1984: 1982: 1976: 1974: 1970: 1965: 1964: 1957: 1954: 1953: 1946: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1923:Tribal Hidage 1920: 1916: 1915: 1910:According to 1908: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1893: 1889: 1883: 1881: 1876: 1875: 1868: 1864: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1828: 1819: 1815: 1813: 1809: 1803: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1787:Norman French 1783: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1768: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1738: 1732: 1731: 1726: 1720: 1716: 1711: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1676: 1672: 1670: 1664: 1661: 1657: 1647: 1644: 1639: 1634: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1616: 1611: 1607: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1591: 1581: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1566: 1561: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1541:Hiberno-Norse 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1493: 1489: 1484: 1475: 1473: 1462: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1436: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1420: 1416: 1413: 1407: 1402: 1393: 1390: 1384: 1381: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1304: 1300: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1274: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1253: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1235: 1225: 1223: 1218: 1214: 1212: 1206: 1204: 1200: 1197: 1193: 1183: 1174: 1172: 1169:, recognised 1168: 1163: 1162:Hertfordshire 1159: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1136: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1113: 1108: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1069: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 985: 983: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 945: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 922: 920: 919:king of Paris 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 871: 869: 860: 856: 852: 849:presenting a 848: 843: 838: 834: 824: 821: 816: 813: 809: 805: 800: 798: 794: 786: 781: 777: 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 722:Isle of Wight 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 690: 688: 684: 680: 675: 674: 669: 668: 663: 658: 657: 651: 647: 643: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 617: 615: 610: 609: 603: 601: 600: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 566: 561: 552: 547: 537: 535: 531: 527: 526: 521: 517: 512: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 484: 481: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 459:gens Anglorum 456: 452: 448: 443: 440: 436: 432: 426: 424: 421:"Saxons" or " 413: 411: 407: 406: 401: 397: 393: 388: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 361: 359: 355: 351: 348: 347:high medieval 343: 339: 334: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 277: 272: 270: 265: 263: 258: 257: 255: 254: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 235: 234: 233: 229: 228: 221: 218: 217: 216: 213: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 192: 191: 190: 186: 185: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 146: 145: 144: 140: 139: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 120: 119: 118: 114: 113: 108: 105: 103: 100: 98: 95: 94: 93: 92: 89: 86: 85: 81: 77: 76: 73: 68: 67: 63: 62: 57: 54:in memory of 53: 43: 39: 34: 30: 26: 22: 8683:Anglo-Saxons 8682: 8673:Adrabaecampi 8656:Bucinobantes 8398:Architecture 8263: 8243: 8222: 8201: 8192: 8184: 8164: 8143: 8125: 8103: 8080: 8059: 8041: 8020: 8000: 7987: 7967: 7949: 7926: 7916:, retrieved 7912:the original 7883: 7879: 7857: 7849: 7832: 7814: 7806: 7789: 7778:, retrieved 7773: 7769: 7756: 7731: 7696: 7692: 7667: 7652: 7642: 7625: 7617: 7597: 7587:, retrieved 7583:the original 7567: 7537: 7519: 7486: 7462: 7442: 7438: 7420: 7400: 7381: 7359: 7335: 7330:Halsall, Guy 7320: 7309: 7289: 7268:. Retrieved 7259: 7248:. Retrieved 7246:. 2023-06-08 7243: 7234: 7222:. Retrieved 7213: 7204: 7195: 7183: 7174: 7165: 7156: 7145:. Retrieved 7139: 7129: 7118:. Retrieved 7116:. 2022-04-22 7111: 7102: 7079: 7073: 7050: 7032: 7023: 7014: 7004: 6995: 6986: 6977: 6967: 6958: 6949: 6940: 6931: 6922: 6913: 6898: 6881: 6872: 6863: 6854: 6845: 6815: 6790: 6785:(limp), 1–23 6773: 6764: 6747: 6730: 6721: 6712: 6703: 6694: 6685: 6676: 6668: 6662: 6654: 6649: 6630: 6624: 6612:. Retrieved 6597: 6590: 6582: 6577: 6569: 6564: 6556: 6551: 6543: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6525: 6517: 6512: 6504: 6499: 6491: 6487: 6478: 6469: 6453: 6444: 6431: 6422: 6413: 6404: 6395: 6386: 6374: 6364: 6348: 6339: 6334:, p. 9. 6327: 6315:. Retrieved 6311:the original 6301: 6290:. Retrieved 6286:the original 6281: 6277: 6267: 6231: 6222: 6213: 6177: 6171: 6162: 6153: 6141:. Retrieved 6138:BBC Bitesize 6137: 6128: 6116:. Retrieved 6107: 6098: 6089: 6078:. Retrieved 6074: 6065: 6048: 6041:Stenton 1971 6036: 6027: 6023: 6004: 5998: 5989: 5980: 5968: 5963: 5954: 5942: 5921: 5913: 5908: 5900: 5895: 5886: 5874: 5865: 5856: 5847: 5838: 5829: 5820: 5799: 5790: 5781: 5772: 5760:. Retrieved 5740: 5732: 5720:. Retrieved 5705: 5683:. Retrieved 5668: 5661: 5652: 5648: 5642: 5633: 5627: 5618: 5609: 5600: 5591: 5582: 5559: 5553: 5544: 5525: 5519: 5510: 5501: 5492: 5480: 5468: 5459: 5449: 5440: 5431: 5422: 5413: 5401: 5389: 5364:. Retrieved 5360:the original 5353: 5344: 5335: 5326: 5305: 5296: 5280: 5272: 5249: 5243: 5227: 5204: 5198: 5174: 5167: 5147: 5140: 5128: 5105: 5099: 5080: 5074: 5058:. New York: 5055: 5050: 5030: 5025: 5017: 5012: 5004: 4997: 4984: 4975: 4965: 4955: 4946: 4937: 4928: 4919: 4897: 4876: 4867: 4858: 4849: 4826: 4817: 4808: 4783: 4774: 4765: 4756: 4747: 4738: 4701: 4692: 4683: 4675: 4667: 4658: 4649: 4640: 4631: 4622: 4613: 4604: 4595: 4589: 4580: 4571: 4562: 4542: 4537: 4528: 4520: 4515: 4503: 4496:Stenton 1971 4491: 4480: 4436: 4432: 4426: 4402: 4392: 4365: 4359: 4351: 4343: 4335: 4327: 4307: 4300: 4293:Halsall 2013 4288: 4281:Halsall 2013 4276: 4269:Halsall 2013 4264: 4252:. Retrieved 4245:the original 4236: 4229: 4222:Halsall 2013 4217: 4210:Halsall 2013 4205: 4197: 4191: 4175: 4171: 4165: 4157: 4152: 4144: 4139: 4131: 4126: 4117: 4113: 4097:Hamerow 2012 4084:, p. 7. 4077: 4056: 4048: 4036: 4024: 4004: 3995: 3986: 3977: 3967: 3958: 3922:Anglo-Celtic 3843: 3839: 3818: 3816: 3787: 3765: 3753: 3744: 3740: 3739: 3722: 3709: 3704: 3696: 3692: 3689: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3643: 3631: 3616: 3605: 3593: 3586: 3582: 3575: 3568: 3567: 3566: 3553: 3538: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3507:The Seafarer 3505: 3501:The Wanderer 3499: 3495: 3492:Nowell Codex 3465: 3453: 3448: 3410: 3403: 3382: 3378: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3307: 3299: 3290: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3250: 3238:an influence 3227: 3213:, with five 3186: 3184: 3016: 3000:Alfred Jewel 2996: 2972: 2909: 2871: 2847: 2836: 2805: 2773:quoit brooch 2770: 2747:Rhenish helm 2632:Stow Minster 2622: 2591: 2587:Earls Barton 2559: 2495: 2490: 2486: 2484: 2469: 2455: 2452: 2444: 2421:Architecture 2410: 2407: 2394: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2358: 2350: 2330: 2326: 2300: 2289: 2285:hide of land 2278: 2273: 2270: 2254: 2228: 2225: 2220: 2217: 2205: 2201: 2169: 2140: 2135: 2126: 2110:Whitby Abbey 2106: 2067: 2060: 2054: 2051:sacred trees 2044: 2037: 2002: 1998: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1977: 1972: 1968: 1958: 1913: 1909: 1897: 1884: 1860: 1825: 1816: 1804: 1784: 1779: 1769: 1745: 1735: 1729: 1728: 1723: 1673: 1665: 1653: 1635: 1630: 1620: 1614: 1602: 1587: 1562: 1536: 1514: 1497: 1471: 1469: 1460: 1455: 1450: 1445:Alfred Jewel 1441:rock crystal 1438: 1434: 1428: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406:Alfred Jewel 1385: 1374: 1361: 1359: 1334: 1327: 1294:Simon Keynes 1271: 1257: 1248:Oseberg ship 1219: 1215: 1207: 1188: 1137: 1128: 1120: 1118: 1082: 1075: 1039:In 664, the 1038: 995:, chose the 986: 946: 923: 899:Christianise 893:to lead the 872: 864: 817: 801: 790: 784: 765: 749: 741: 691: 671: 665: 654: 649: 618: 606: 604: 597: 570:Roman Empire 563: 557: 533: 523: 515: 513: 507: 499: 495: 491: 485: 462: 458: 454: 444: 427: 419: 403: 396:dress styles 392:architecture 389: 368: 362: 295: 291: 288:Anglo-Saxons 287: 285: 243:Christianity 149:Architecture 87: 29: 9123:Nahanarvali 9046:Hilleviones 8959:Frisiavones 8827:Cananefates 8817:Burgundians 8728:Banochaemae 8578:Anglo-Saxon 8529:Anglo-Saxon 8495:Anglo-Saxon 8478:Anglo-Saxon 8461:Anglo-Saxon 8104:The Britons 7224:2 September 5029:Eric John, 4348:Giles 1843b 4332:Giles 1843a 4198:Die Sachsen 4178:: 275–303, 3819:Anglo-Saxon 3790:to justify 3788:Anglo-Saxon 3772:Robert Knox 3766:During the 3761:Reformation 3745:Anglo-Saxon 3741:Anglo-Saxon 3590:epic poetry 3578:imcealde sæ 3557:hemistiches 3488:Exeter Book 3437:manuscripts 3417:hagiography 3413:epic poetry 3257:place names 3203:Old Frisian 3181:, Hampshire 3171:Old English 3156:Old English 3031: 1000 2928:gospel book 2863:Easby Cross 2785:chip-carved 2777:Sarre, Kent 2754: 1050 2655: 1048 2628: 1042 2594:Glastonbury 2491:recuperavit 2323:, Hampshire 2301:villa regia 2209:Charlemagne 2151:Benedictine 2147:Glastonbury 2128:Monasticism 2098:ship burial 1812:Exeter Book 1752:Scandinavia 1692:Earl Siward 1521:Constantine 1443:and enamel 1339:Lindisfarne 1314:coin weight 1264:King Egbert 1211:John Milton 1167:Charlemagne 1129:duces regii 1046:Lindisfarne 1034:bookbinding 915:Charibert I 851:gospel book 820:ancient DNA 812:Merovingian 772:, near the 766:Boructuarii 683:Guy Halsall 633:hagiography 594:Lower Rhine 586:Saxon shore 528:and in the 469:kingdom of 369:Anglo-Saxon 304:Old English 70:Anglo-Saxon 9418:Categories 9342:Vinoviloth 9130:Marcomanni 9113:Helveconae 9091:Heaðobards 9061:Istvaeones 9051:Ingaevones 9036:Hermunduri 9004:Ostrogoths 8994:Greuthungi 8872:Chattuarii 8698:Angrivarii 8693:Ampsivarii 8661:Lentienses 8490:Literature 8380:Viking Age 8042:Britain AD 7780:18 January 7626:After Rome 7589:2017-05-31 7555:Historical 7270:2023-09-02 7250:2023-09-02 7188:Hills 2003 7147:2022-05-12 7120:2022-05-12 6614:29 January 6307:"The Find" 6292:2014-02-20 6182:OUP Oxford 6143:26 January 6118:26 January 6080:2024-07-25 5973:OUP Oxford 5485:Yorke 1990 5473:Yorke 1990 5406:Hough 2014 5394:Yorke 1990 5108:. London: 4519:Colgrave, 3827:Anglophone 3729:vegetarian 3685:Lakenheath 3592:, such as 3490:, and the 3461:scriptoria 3429:chronicles 3388:Literature 3221:and three 3143: 890 3125: 850 3123: – c. 3121: 775 3100: 750 3080: 750 3060: 620 3004:Frithestan 2992:Æthelswith 2990:and Queen 2984:Trewhiddle 2968:Saint Mark 2905: 700 2896:, and the 2867:high cross 2843:Hammerwich 2827: 625 2820: 600 2813:Sutton Hoo 2796:Sutton Hoo 2728: 970 2706: 690 2685: 650 2636:Romanesque 2618:Romanesque 2517: 664 2296:royal vill 2173:Æthelfrith 2160:Winchester 2136:Monasteria 2102:Lakenheath 2094:Sutton Hoo 1888:Sutton Hoo 1371:Great Army 1234:Viking Age 1222:Malmesbury 887:Canterbury 883:Æthelberht 831:See also: 787:, by c.600 694:Old Saxony 679:Spong Hill 475:Old Saxons 302:who spoke 200:Government 128:Literature 97:Settlement 48: 700 36:Page with 9337:Vidivarii 9332:Victohali 9322:Vangiones 9255:Thuringii 9160:Nuithones 9056:Irminones 9019:Visigoths 9009:Thervingi 8969:Gambrivii 8922:Dulgubnii 8917:Dauciones 8867:Chasuarii 8807:Brondings 8733:Bastarnae 8723:Baiuvarii 8703:Armalausi 8666:Raetovari 8600:Languages 8568:Symbology 8428:Folklore 8423:Festivals 7986:, et al. 7918:6 January 7908:163877146 7880:Britannia 7461:(1971) . 5564:Routledge 5366:4 January 5060:Routledge 4674:, et al. 4384:458534293 4172:Britannia 4016:Citations 3817:The term 3749:philology 3671:The word 3645:Symbolism 3640:Symbolism 3598:Cædmonian 3308:comitatus 3303:weregilds 3253:Old Norse 3211:inflected 3207:Old Saxon 2988:Æthelwulf 2945:Ceolfrith 2878:lacertine 2831:interlace 2699:Brixworth 2642:(Essex), 2562:Brixworth 2548:, and of 2464:Yeavering 2292:Yeavering 2260:of 1086. 2221:Chronicle 2213:Richard I 2114:scripture 1963:bretwalda 1880:food rent 1874:comitatus 1569:Æthelwold 1517:Æthelstan 1505:Æthelflæd 1389:longships 1375:Chronicle 1362:Chronicle 1290:Bretwalda 1286:Wiltshire 1282:Kempsford 1158:Middlesex 1153:Rochester 1087:Heptarchy 1020:, was an 875:Augustine 868:Heptarchy 847:Æthelstan 837:Heptarchy 804:Procopius 785:Britannia 698:North Sea 662:Vortigern 650:foederati 599:foederati 582:North Sea 565:Britannia 525:Sasannach 471:Austrasia 463:Angelcynn 439:Procopius 431:North Sea 381:North Sea 298:, were a 9403:Category 9310:Hasdingi 9295:Usipetes 9275:Tubantes 9260:Toxandri 9240:Tencteri 9215:Suarines 9200:Sicambri 9195:Semnones 9175:Reudigni 9145:Mattiaci 9135:Marsacii 9086:Lombards 9076:Lacringi 9071:Juthungi 8902:Corconti 8887:Cherusci 8862:Charudes 8842:Chaedini 8812:Bructeri 8797:Bateinoi 8768:Eburones 8763:Condrusi 8758:Caeroesi 8753:Atuatuci 8688:Ambrones 8651:Brisgavi 8646:Alemanni 8524:Paganism 8413:Clothing 8408:Calendar 8355:Germania 8221:(1995), 8142:(2005), 8100:(2003), 8079:(1998), 8040:(2004), 7997:(2006), 7730:(1987), 7687:(1882), 7483:(1990), 7451:41527856 7332:(2013). 7113:BBC News 6972:187–208. 6840:, p. 90. 6112:Archived 5608:(1970). 5439:(1982). 5384:149–165. 4970:280–283. 4473:36131019 4400:(1995). 4120:: 35–50. 3860:See also 3800:civilise 3628:Wulfstan 3620:Homilies 3602:Cynewulf 3519:The Ruin 3374:hundreds 3356:'s laws. 3217:, three 3175:porticus 3150:Language 3024:Flanders 3008:acanthus 2882:Cuthbert 2648:Sompting 2640:Hadstock 2533:porticus 2521:Reculver 2402:weregild 2385:boroughs 2090:Mound 17 2008:Religion 1969:imperium 1892:Raedwald 1863:kingship 1857:, London 1696:his sons 1627:Wulfstan 1355:Portland 1303:Æthelred 1192:Theodore 1149:Æthelred 1145:Bamburgh 1005:Bamburgh 987:In 635, 957:Bernicia 855:Cuthbert 776:river. 770:Bructeri 746:Frisians 742:Germania 720:and the 534:Sasanach 467:Frankish 416:Ethnonym 385:Germania 352:and the 316:Germanic 248:Paganism 230:Religion 220:Military 195:Charters 179:Weaponry 123:Language 115:Language 56:Cuthbert 9327:Varisci 9315:Silingi 9305:Vandals 9280:Tulingi 9270:Triboci 9265:Treveri 9245:Teutons 9235:Taifals 9210:Sitones 9150:Nemetes 9108:Helisii 9081:Lemovii 8999:Gutones 8932:Firaesi 8927:Favonae 8907:Cugerni 8897:Cobandi 8852:Chamavi 8847:Chaemae 8837:Casuari 8832:Caritni 8802:Betasii 8773:Paemani 8708:Auiones 8573:Warfare 8551:Scripts 8519:Numbers 8343:History 7721:4097604 7701:Bibcode 7512:General 7439:Latomus 7282:Sources 7244:Reuters 6317:14 June 5975:, 2011. 5762:25 June 5722:26 June 5685:25 June 4992:, 2012. 4902:(1953)) 4523:, p. 9. 4464:9534755 4441:Bibcode 4254:1 March 3712:coinage 3693:Beowulf 3607:Beowulf 3594:Beowulf 3561:caesura 3496:Beowulf 3478:): the 3449:futhorc 3433:riddles 3421:sermons 3405:Beowulf 3287:Kinship 3273:Danelaw 2932:Insular 2721:Barnack 2644:Clayton 2606:Cholsey 2578:Barnack 2538:Wilfrid 2416:Culture 2397:Slavery 2377:gesiþas 2280:wergild 2250:Suffolk 2177:Rædwald 2143:Dunstan 2074:Tacitus 2047:temples 1981:Beowulf 1912:Bede's 1704:Stigand 1669:thegnly 1625:'s and 1565:Dunstan 1367:Danelaw 1365:as the 1351:Lyminge 1335:víkingr 1322:Danelaw 1238:Danelaw 1203:Aldhelm 1133:Midland 1054:Wilfrid 965:Gwynedd 873:In 595 857:(934); 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