1629:– show the most marked Danish influence; the best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in the extensive word borrowings because, as Jespersen indicates, no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Northern England from this time to give certain evidence of an influence on syntax. The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character. Old Norse and Old English resembled each other closely like cousins, and with some words in common, speakers roughly understood each other; in time the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged. It is most important to recognize that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages that only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw, these endings must have led to much confusion, tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying English grammar".
878:
1409:
1103:
4890:
6258:
1269:
886:
2885:
4953:, a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as
53:
373:
1384:
translations produced under Alfred's programme, many of which were produced by
Mercian scholars. Other dialects certainly continued to be spoken, as is evidenced by the continued variation between their successors in Middle and Modern English. In fact, what would become the standard forms of Middle English and of Modern English are descended from Mercian rather than West Saxon, while
2726:. As in Modern English, and peculiar to the Germanic languages, the verbs formed two great classes: weak (regular), and strong (irregular). Like today, Old English had fewer strong verbs, and many of these have over time decayed into weak forms. Then, as now, dental suffixes indicated the past tense of the weak verbs, as in
5878:Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us ƿel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid-þam mannum þe me mid-foron into Denmearcon, þe eoƿ mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid-godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eoƿ næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hƿile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.
4915:
The corpus of Old
English literature is small but still significant, with some 400 surviving manuscripts. The pagan and Christian streams mingle in Old English, one of the richest and most significant bodies of literature preserved among the early Germanic peoples. In his supplementary article to the
5980:
At that time, I was told that we had been harmed more than we liked; and I departed with the men who accompanied me into
Denmark, from where the most harm has come to you; and I have already prevented it with God's help, so that from now on, strife will never come to you from there, while you regard
1592:
No less far-reaching was the influence of
Scandinavian upon the inflexional endings of English in hastening that wearing away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread from north to south. It was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss. There was a gain in
1459:
introduced into the language is very small, although dialect and toponymic terms are more often retained in western language contact zones (Cumbria, Devon, Welsh
Marches and Borders and so on) than in the east. However, various suggestions have been made concerning possible influence that Celtic may
6520:
We do not know what languages the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons spoke, nor even whether they were sufficiently similar to make them mutually intelligible, but it is reasonable to assume that by the end of the sixth century there must have been a language that could be understood by all and this we call
4985:
was found as a baby, washed ashore, and adopted by a noble family. The translation is literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old
English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the
4924:
In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the
Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogues of monastic libraries do not help us, and
1568:
texts, which are more often based on eastern dialects, a strong Norse influence becomes apparent. Modern
English contains many, often everyday, words that were borrowed from Old Norse, and the grammatical simplification that occurred after the Old English period is also often attributed to Norse
1383:
Due to the centralisation of power and the destruction wrought by Viking invasions, there is relatively little written record of the non-West Saxon dialects after Alfred's unification. Some
Mercian texts continued to be written, however, and the influence of Mercian is apparent in some of the
1286:
is not monolithic, Old
English varied according to place. Despite the diversity of language of the Germanic-speaking migrants who established Old English in England and southeastern Scotland, it is possible to reconstruct proto-Old English as a fairly unitary language. For the most part, the
6329:
came to refer to all things of the early English period, including language, culture, and people. While it remains the normal term for the latter two aspects, the language began to be called Old English towards the end of the 19th century, as a result of the increasingly strong anti-German
5961:
The following is a natural Modern English translation, with the overall structure of the Old English passage preserved. Even though "earl" is used to translate its Old English cognate "eorl", "eorl" in Old English does not correspond exactly to "earl" of the later medieval period:
5438:
After destitution was first experienced (by him), he met with consolation for that; he grew under the clouds of the sky and flourished in adulation, until all of the neighbouring people had to obey him over the whale-road (i.e. the sea), and pay tribute to the man. That was a good
6099:. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. Initially issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM, the dictionary is now primarily published online at
1162:
standard", or more commonly as Late West Saxon. It is considered to represent the "classical" form of Old English. It retained its position of prestige until the time of the Norman Conquest, after which English ceased for a time to be of importance as a literary language.
1322:
and south of the Humber River; West Saxon lay south and southwest of the Thames; and the smallest, Kentish region lay southeast of the Thames, a small corner of England. The Kentish region, settled by the Jutes from Jutland, has the scantest literary remains. The term
1358:. From that time on, the West Saxon dialect (then in the form now known as Early West Saxon) became standardised as the language of government, and as the basis for the many works of literature and religious materials produced or translated from Latin in that period.
1499:
of Western Europe. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the borrowing of individual Latin words based on which patterns of sound change they have undergone. Some Latin words had already been borrowed into the Germanic languages before the ancestral
4925:
there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.
5966:
King Cnut kindly greets his archbishops and his provincial bishops and Earl Thorkell, and all his earls, and all his people, both those with a weregild of 1,200 shillings and those with a weregild of 200 shillings, both ordained and layman, in England.
5452:
5453:
1287:
differences between the attested regional dialects of Old English developed within England and southeastern Scotland, rather than on the Mainland of Europe. Although from the tenth century Old English writing from all regions tended to conform to a
5973:
I recalled the writings and words which the archbishop Lyfing brought to me from the Pope of Rome, that I must promote the worship of God everywhere, and suppress unrighteousness, and promote perfect peace with the power which God would give me.
6214:
Like other historical languages, Old English has been used by scholars and enthusiasts of later periods to create texts either imitating Old English literature or deliberately transferring it to a different cultural context. Examples include
8172:. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1983/1994. (Issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM and on the
1559:
in eastern and northern England are of Scandinavian origin. Norse borrowings are relatively rare in Old English literature, being mostly terms relating to government and administration. The literary standard, however, was based on the
687:) as the language of the upper classes. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English era, since during the subsequent period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman, developing into what is now known as
858:
which could refer to curve or hook shapes including fishing hooks. Concerning the second option, it has been hypothesised that the Angles acquired their name either because they lived on a curved promontory of land shaped like a
4660:'s time. From then onward, thorn was used increasingly often at the start of words, while eth was normal in the middle and at the end of words, although usage varied in both cases. Some modern editions use only thorn. See also
5774:
Ic nam me to gemynde þa geƿritu and þa ƿord, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghƿær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið ƿyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan
5449:
6153:. 4th rev. edn by Herbet D. Meritt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Occasionally more accurate than Bosworth-Toller, and widely used as a reading dictionary. Various digitisations are available, including
2911:, extended by five more runes used to represent Anglo-Saxon vowel sounds and sometimes by several more additional characters. From around the 8th century, the runic system came to be supplanted by a (minuscule)
1388:
developed from the Northumbrian dialect. It was once claimed that, owing to its position at the heart of the Kingdom of Wessex, the relics of Anglo-Saxon accent, idiom and vocabulary were best preserved in the
5450:
1185:). This language, or closely related group of dialects, spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and pre-dating documented Old English or Anglo-Saxon, has also been called Primitive Old English.
4989:
The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in brackets are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how
6301:
5665:
and the English people written in AD 1019. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the
793:. Like other old Germanic languages, it is very different from Modern English and Modern Scots, and largely incomprehensible for Modern English or Modern Scots speakers without study. Within
5686:
Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, tƿelfhynde and tƿyhynde, gehadode and læƿede, on Englalande freondlice.
5428:
Here is a natural enough Modern English translation, although the phrasing of the Old English passage has often been stylistically preserved, even though it is not usual in Modern English:
1147:, appear to have been translated by Alfred himself. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, but Alfred chiefly inspired the growth of prose.
7468:(West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013,
836:
who settled in many parts of Britain in the 5th century. By the 9th century, all speakers of Old English, including those who claimed Saxon or Jutish ancestry, could be referred to as
6246:. However, one investigation found that many Neo-Old English texts published online bear little resemblance to the historical language and have many basic grammatical mistakes.
5008:
English poetry is based on stress and alliteration. In alliteration, the first consonant in a word alliterates with the same consonant at the beginning of another word, as with
2695:, but the latter applied only to "strong" masculine nouns in the nominative and accusative cases; different plural endings were used in other instances. Old English nouns had
1588:
in the Danelaw to communicate with their Anglo-Saxon neighbours produced a friction that led to the erosion of the complicated inflectional word endings. Simeon Potter notes:
1486:
do not become widespread until the late Middle English and Early Modern English periods, in addition to the fact that similar forms exist in other modern Germanic languages.
3968:, it is always palatal . Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly
5451:
1327:
actually is represented by two different dialects: Early West Saxon and Late West Saxon. Hogg has suggested that these two dialects would be more appropriately named
1117:. The 9th-century English King proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin.
1365:, above), although centred in the same region of the country, appears not to have been directly descended from Alfred's Early West Saxon. For example, the former
7321:
Christina Neuland and Florian Schleburg. (2014). "A New Old English? The Chances of an Anglo-Saxon Revival on the Internet". In: S. Buschfeld et al. (Eds.),
3098:. Macrons are used to indicate long vowels, where usually no distinction was made between long and short vowels in the originals. (In some older editions an
2489:: singular, and plural; and are strong or weak. The instrumental is vestigial and only used with the masculine and neuter singular and often replaced by the
983:. While indicating that the establishment of dates is an arbitrary process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections, a
6728:
6031:
Glossaries. Over time, these word-lists were consolidated and alphabeticised to create extensive Latin-Old English glossaries with some of the character of
1291:
based on Late West Saxon, in speech Old English continued to exhibit much local and regional variation, which remained in Middle English and to some extent
9128:
6306:
4547:. But due to changes over time, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty (for details, see
2699:, while modern English has only natural gender. Pronoun usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender when those conflicted, as in the case of
6062:
Old English lexicography was revived in the early modern period, drawing heavily on Anglo-Saxons' own glossaries. The major publication at this time was
6044:
8473:
8435:
8422:
8414:
7274:
Patrizia Lendinara, 'Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries: An Introduction', in Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries (Aldershot: Variorum, 1999), pp. 1–26.
852:, which referred to narrowness, constriction or anxiety, perhaps referring to shallow waters near the coast, or else it may derive from a related word
2218:
was an allophone of short /ɑ/ which occurred in stressed syllables before nasal consonants (/m/ and /n/). It was variously spelled either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩.
8430:
6227:
uses several Old English words, such as syndrigast (singular, peculiar), ymbryne (period, cycle), etc., dubbed as "Old Peculiar" ones. Advocates of
854:
10541:
8450:
5977:
I never hesitated from my peace payments (e.g. to the Vikings) while you had strife at hand. But with God's help and my payments, that went away.
3886:
3817:
3066:
Modern editions of Old English manuscripts generally introduce some additional conventions. The modern forms of Latin letters are used, including
1564:, away from the main area of Scandinavian influence; the impact of Norse may have been greater in the eastern and northern dialects. Certainly in
8173:
848:
6330:
nationalism in English society of the 1890s and early 1900s. However, many authors still also use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.
10546:
3206:). The following table lists the Old English letters and digraphs together with the phonemes they represent, using the same notation as in the
766:. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the literary standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle and
3055:
over vowels were originally used not to mark long vowels (as in modern editions), but to indicate stress, or as abbreviations for a following
9503:
8581:
8290:
603:
770:
would develop mainly from Mercian, and Scots from Northumbrian. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong
9301:
7524:
4656:. Eth was first attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 7th century, and thorn in the 8th. Eth was more common than thorn before
3964:
in modern editions. Word-initially before another consonant letter, the pronunciation is always the velar fricative . Word-finally after
4548:
3981:
3492:
2428:
For more details of these processes, see the main article, linked above. For sound changes before and after the Old English period, see
8465:
8440:
2583:
for case, gender, and number. Adjectives have both strong and weak sets of endings, weak ones being used when a definite or possessive
7053:Øystein Heggelund (2007) Old English subordinate clauses and the shift to verb-medial order in English, English Studies, 88:3, 351–361
6646:
8201:
3571:. The two geminates were not distinguished in Old English orthography; in modern editions, the palatal geminate is sometimes written
8211:
2328:
1397:
8246:
6196:
5828:
Nu ne ƿandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hƿile þe eoƿ unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid-godes fultume þæt totƿæmde mid-minum scattum.
1074:
8399:
1929:
8538:
8519:
8499:
7473:
6824:
4661:
2927:, a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental
1597:
The strength of the Viking influence on Old English appears from the fact that the indispensable elements of the language –
9118:
8407:
8100:
A Critical Bibliography of Old English Syntax to the end of 1984, including addenda and corrigenda to "Old English Syntax"
7466:
Das Westgermanische : von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert; Analyse und Rekonstruktion
6231:
often look to older forms of English, including Old English, as a means of either reviving old words or coining new ones.
1338:
Each of these four dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the islands. Of these, Northumbria south of the
8256:
2340:
1956:
1935:
1002:(also known as North Sea Germanic) dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the
461:
351:
10030:
5435:
Often Shield the son/descendant of Sheaf ripped away the mead-benches from many tribes' enemy bands – he terrified men!
1221:
to 1150), the final stage of the language leading up to the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent transition to
1087:, which was composed between 658 and 680 but not written down until the early 8th century. There is a limited corpus of
7628:
7489:
3629:
may have been a means of showing that the word was pronounced with a stop rather than a fricative; spellings with just
723:
6402:
5432:
What! We spear-Danes in ancient days inquired about the glory of the nation-kings, how the princes performed bravery.
8109:, PhD dissertation, Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki, vol. LXXX, Helsinki: Société Néophilologique.
7882:
7742:
7665:
7600:
7581:
7545:
7451:
7408:
7235:
7080:
6596:
6544:
6342:
5785:
1442:
976:
668:
6103:. This generally supersedes previous dictionaries where available. As of September 2018, the dictionary covered A-I.
1134:
8574:
8283:
3102:
mark was used for consistency with Old Norse conventions.) Additionally, modern editions often distinguish between
1880:
1811:
1482:. These ideas have generally not received widespread support from linguists, particularly as many of the theorized
1452:
596:
4741:
and derived from the rune of the same name. In earlier texts by continental scribes, and also later in the north,
2650:
of an adposition is marked in the dative case, an adposition may conceivably be located anywhere in the sentence.
987:. Perhaps around 85% of Old English words are no longer in use, but those that survived are the basic elements of
8387:
7649:
6751:
6202:
5477:
5056:
3222:
2429:
1838:
1390:
504:
341:
7922:
Philological Essays: studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt
7185:
Flom, George T. (1915). Flom, George T. (ed.). "On the Earliest History of the Latin Script in Eastern Norway".
7286:, ed. by Bogislav von Lindheim, Beiträge zur englischen Philologie, 35 (Bochum-Langendreer: Poppinghaus, 1941).
2804:
Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g. "When I got home, I ate dinner") do not use a
2064:
or when doubled. At some point before the Middle English period, also became the pronunciation word-initially.
7776:
Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: Vol 1: Linguistic Theory and Historical Linguistics
10397:
8241:
7864:
7299:, English Linguistics 1500–1800 (A Collection of Facsimile Reprints), 247 (Menston: The Scholar Press, 1970).
6286:
4028:
may have been realized as devoiced versions of the second consonants instead of as sequences starting with .
1817:
403:
221:
6945:"121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language" – 23:40 – 25:00; 30:20 – 30:45; 45:00 – 46:00"
1318:. In terms of geography the Northumbrian region lay north of the Humber River; the Mercian lay north of the
877:
10427:
9597:
9559:
9544:
8310:
7431:
6580:
6296:
6271:
6228:
6216:
2643:
2403:
Diphthongisation of certain vowels before certain consonants when preceding a back vowel ("back mutation").
2386:
2361:("Anglo-Frisian brightening"), partly reversed in certain positions by later "a-restoration" or retraction.
1866:
1844:
284:
20:
8871:
8424:
8416:
5741:
And ic cyðe eoƿ, þæt ic ƿylle beon hold hlaford and unsƿicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre ƿoroldlage.
4832:
4826:
4815:
4811:
4801:
4789:
4774:
4742:
4730:
4724:
4710:
4706:
4696:
4679:
4675:
4626:
4611:
4605:
4593:
4582:
4577:
4565:
4561:
4544:
4535:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4510:
4506:
4497:
4493:
4483:
4474:
4468:
4456:
4440:
4417:
4411:
4392:
4386:
4374:
4364:
4353:
4349:
4339:
4325:
4321:
4311:
4294:
4277:
4265:
4244:
4227:
4216:
4212:
4202:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4165:
4151:
4147:
4137:
4125:
4111:
4107:
4097:
4070:
4058:
4050:
4039:
4006:
3992:
3977:
3969:
3943:
3922:
3911:
3907:
3897:
3874:
3868:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3828:
3805:
3799:
3785:
3781:
3771:
3759:
3725:
3692:
3674:
3668:
3657:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3542:
3538:
3527:
3511:
3488:
3480:
3472:
3464:
3444:
3438:
3409:
3399:
3368:
3364:
3350:
3346:
3336:
3325:
3321:
3300:
3286:
3282:
3272:
3261:
3257:
3239:
3203:
3187:
2750:. Some differences are consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection, allowing freer
2407:
2379:
2375:
2321:
2317:
2308:
2303:
2293:
2288:
2278:
2273:
2237:
2233:
2225:
2205:
2199:
2192:
2180:
2171:
2159:
2152:
2147:
2092:
2088:
2072:
2061:
2057:
2050:
2035:
2028:
2017:
2013:
1377:
1373:
1369:
10551:
10531:
10407:
10267:
9617:
9576:
9566:
8567:
8276:
7702:
2400:
Loss of certain weak vowels in word-final and medial positions; reduction of remaining unstressed vowels.
1909:
1888:
1512:
and Latin-speaking priests became influential. It was also through Irish Christian missionaries that the
1509:
1434:
589:
69:", translated as "over the whale's road (sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the
6612:
6154:
5970:
And I declare to you, that I will be a kind lord, and faithful to God's laws and to proper secular law.
8783:
7560:
7537:
6263:
6052:
4961:. Cædmon, the earliest English poet known by name, served as a lay brother in the monastery at Whitby.
2879:
2709:
1944:
1852:
1766:
1752:
1447:
The language of the Anglo-Saxon settlers appears not to have been significantly affected by the native
1438:
1347:
1096:
810:
445:
262:
8139:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Based on Bosworth's 1838 dictionary, his papers & additions by Toller)
6781:
Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change", in
2552:
2539:
1151:
10526:
10124:
8168:
8135:
8114:
A History of English Syntax: a transformational approach to the history of English sentence structure
7657:
7573:
6190:
6184:
6168:, Costerus New Series, 131–32, 2nd rev. impression, 2 vols (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), also available
6115:
6095:
5482:
2654:
2535:
1896:
1872:
743:
6020:
4178:
in every dialect but Northumbrian, where it was preserved until Middle English. In Early West Saxon
1584:
most likely made a greater impact on the English language than any other language. The eagerness of
1091:
from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest coherent runic texts (notably the inscriptions on the
10402:
10356:
10351:
10275:
9885:
9869:
9748:
9607:
9498:
9493:
8345:
6692:
6090:
3534:
2920:
2316:
Other dialects had different systems of diphthongs. For example, the Northumbrian dialect retained
1977:
1717:
1483:
1448:
1303:
1129:
in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the
1059:
759:
541:
512:
413:
231:
6127:. Due to errors and omissions in the 1898 publication, this needs to be read in conjunction with:
6119:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. The main research dictionary for Old English, unless superseded by the
3637:
are also found. To disambiguate, the cluster ending in the palatal affricate is sometimes written
2410:
between vowels or between a voiced consonant and a vowel, with lengthening of the preceding vowel.
1408:
1150:
A later literary standard, dating from the late 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop
1031:
10341:
10285:
10280:
10200:
9873:
9823:
9123:
8941:
8697:
8625:
8613:
8325:
8320:
8315:
8107:
Non-finite Constructions in Old English, with Special Reference to Syntactic Borrowing from Latin
6710:
6588:
3024:
2813:
2780:
2591:
2556:
2222:
2215:
1858:
1782:
1771:
1757:
782:
526:
165:
155:
145:
10463:
10183:
9581:
3545:) was rare in Old English, and its etymological origin in the words in which it occurs (such as
3479:
of the word is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly
2080:
1137:
alongside Latin, and had many works translated into the English language; some of them, such as
10346:
9828:
9794:
9412:
9228:
9088:
8928:
8823:
7380:
6239:
4910:
4473:
Between vowels in the middle of a word, the pronunciation can be either a palatalized geminate
3476:
1901:
1677:
1520:, replacing the earlier runic system. Nonetheless, the largest transfer of Latin-based (mainly
1335:
respectively, so that the naive reader would not assume that they are chronologically related.
1178:
1102:
1078:
1015:
995:
672:
474:
7920:
Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). "On the consonantal phonemes of Old English". In: J. L. Rosier (ed.)
7072:
6242:
offer reference material and forums promoting the active use of Old English. There is also an
4905:"Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
2857:
is used, often preceded by (or replaced by) the appropriate form of the article/demonstrative
2607:
10504:
10468:
9736:
9729:
9681:
9451:
9422:
9391:
9354:
9279:
9036:
8949:
8810:
8772:
8357:
8036:
Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)
7797:
Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)
7215:
6814:
4941:
3306:
3013:
2928:
1983:
1918:
1723:
1707:
1638:
1622:
680:
486:
456:
9969:
8844:
6047:. In some cases, the material in these glossaries continued to be circulated and updated in
10536:
10473:
10453:
10422:
10295:
10155:
9901:
9719:
9311:
9138:
9100:
9095:
8969:
8916:
8674:
8506:
8367:
7400:
6783:
Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English
6653:
6174:
6056:
6036:
4889:
4421:
3316:
became more common during the 8th century, and was standard after 800. Modern editions use
3031:
2713:
2519:
Adjectives agree with nouns in case, gender, and number, and can be either strong or weak.
1788:
1626:
1606:
1539:, which came into contact with Old English via the Scandinavian rulers and settlers in the
1234:
1222:
636:
565:
381:
83:
19:
This article is about the early medieval language of the Anglo-Saxons. For other uses, see
10129:
7021:
2618:; and are strong (exhibiting ablaut) or weak (exhibiting a dental suffix). Verbs have two
2087:) have generally been lost, while the voiced affricate and fricatives (now also including
1508:
left continental Europe for Britain. More entered the language when the Anglo-Saxons were
1417:('Here the Word is revealed to thee'). Old English inscription over the arch of the south
1155:
8:
10412:
9648:
9602:
9536:
9289:
8936:
8849:
8647:
8335:
6110:
6000:
3415:
Used in this way in early texts (before 800). For example, the word "sheaves" is spelled
3157:
2837:
2441:
1832:
1799:
1602:
1350:
during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia that was successfully defended, and all of
1307:
1010:. This included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern
794:
751:
451:
201:
9959:
9804:
9051:
7823:; E. L. Deuschle (transl.). (Oudgermaansche Handboeken; No. 4). Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink.
6633:
6243:
4950:
2626:: present and past. The subjunctive has past and present forms. Finite verbs agree with
1426:
1083:
684:
491:
10458:
10382:
10310:
10300:
10255:
10017:
9944:
9841:
9686:
9661:
9656:
9549:
9377:
9262:
9083:
8861:
8856:
8835:
8796:
8600:
8590:
8455:
8350:
8299:
7984:
7955:
7939:
7909:
7851:
7194:
6871:"[BBC World News] BBC Documentary English Birth of a Language – 35:00 to 37:20"
6796:
6743:
6391:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 60–83, 110–130 (Scandinavian influence).
6004:
5457:
A recording of how the Lord's Prayer probably sounded in Old English, pronounced slowly
3052:
2767:
2763:
2717:
2696:
2672:
2639:
2595:
2528:
2486:
2482:
2257:
1735:
1672:
1573:
1561:
1465:
1311:
1130:
1023:
1007:
999:
984:
872:
763:
418:
236:
160:
150:
9612:
2364:
Monophthongisation of the diphthong , and modification of remaining diphthongs to the
331:
10432:
10231:
10147:
10140:
10095:
10039:
9799:
9789:
9772:
9767:
9671:
9554:
9433:
9233:
9194:
9174:
9012:
8904:
8886:
8738:
8445:
8156:
8003:
7988:
7878:
7809:
7738:
7661:
7624:
7596:
7577:
7541:
7485:
7469:
7447:
7404:
7372:
7231:
7076:
7065:
6820:
6592:
6540:
6338:
6146:
6016:
5662:
3107:
3035:
2904:
2875:
2783:
2627:
2599:
2498:
2478:
1694:
1684:
1648:
1610:
1577:
1469:
1288:
1182:
1088:
806:
657:
441:
254:
7931:. (Cambridge studies in linguistics; No. 14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7767:
Chapter 3, pp. 50–52. Edited by Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott.
6770:
Nominal vs. Verbal -ing Constructions and the Development of the English Progressive
6747:
347:
10387:
10178:
10112:
10068:
10063:
10023:
10012:
10004:
9809:
9777:
9724:
9713:
9626:
9335:
9274:
9064:
9046:
8881:
8642:
8634:
8511:
7976:
7901:
7870:
7843:
7223:
6220:
5462:
4854:
4657:
3541:). Consequently, the voiced velar geminate (which can be phonemically analyzed as
3537:, resulting in the voiced palatal geminate (which can be phonemically analyzed as
3161:
2848:
2798:
2647:
2611:
2603:
2531:
2458:
2043:
1667:
1662:
1644:
1355:
1292:
1126:
1106:
1043:
1027:
1019:
731:
645:
170:
10224:
2371:
Diphthongisation of long and short front vowels in certain positions ("breaking").
975:
Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the
10417:
10377:
10210:
10117:
10100:
10085:
10080:
10073:
9782:
9691:
9676:
9631:
9483:
9446:
9438:
9417:
9404:
9384:
9370:
9133:
9110:
9041:
9031:
9023:
8803:
8340:
8262:
8250:
8215:
8205:
7749:
6534:
6235:
6106:
6071:
6040:
6028:
6024:
4648:
was used for this phoneme, but these were later replaced in this function by eth
3103:
2747:
2615:
2466:
2462:
2365:
2358:
1966:
1701:
1689:
1525:
1351:
1299:
980:
951:
755:
735:
707:
676:
408:
226:
137:
10498:
10392:
10372:
10324:
10216:
10090:
9760:
9527:
9466:
9245:
9202:
9159:
9076:
9071:
8960:
8910:
8761:
8712:
8667:
8660:
8491:
8372:
8362:
7512:
6172:. A thesaurus based on the definitions in Bosworth-Toller and the structure of
6063:
6048:
6008:
5655:
5486:
4633:
4429:
3709:
2999:
2924:
2916:
2900:
2893:
2889:
2684:
2560:
2506:
2000:
The sounds enclosed in parentheses in the chart above are not considered to be
1746:
1565:
1529:
1513:
1501:
1385:
1283:
1238:
1230:
1138:
1051:
988:
962:
907:
896:
844:
833:
829:
767:
711:
688:
575:
570:
560:
247:
206:
123:
7980:
7500:
The Cambridge History of the English Language: (Vol 1): the Beginnings to 1066
7227:
6944:
6870:
6169:
1195:
to 900), the period of the oldest manuscript traditions, with authors such as
10520:
10448:
10290:
10046:
9997:
9814:
9753:
9666:
9571:
9509:
9456:
9340:
9267:
7461:
6403:"Why is the English spelling system so weird and inconsistent? | Aeon Essays"
6161:
4946:
4425:
4254:
3169:
3017:
2908:
2833:
2666:
2635:
2564:
2502:
2501:
forms. There is also sparse early Northumbrian evidence of a sixth case: the
2470:
2068:
1495:
1143:
1092:
967:
727:
699:
664:
3375:
is used as a modern editorial substitution for the modified Kentish form of
3086:, and others which may differ considerably from the insular script, notably
2349:
occurring in the pre-history and history of Old English were the following:
10317:
9741:
9705:
9638:
9461:
9284:
9257:
9240:
9184:
9143:
8725:
8704:
7616:
6516:
An Outline of English Literature; Anglo-Saxon and Middle English Literature
6224:
5996:
3705:
3099:
2995:
2631:
2346:
1319:
1257:
1246:
258:
112:
9964:
8221:
7874:
6711:"The Rise and Fall of Constructions and the History of English Do-Support"
4080:
2053:
occurring at the beginning of a word or after a front vowel, respectively.
301:
10134:
10107:
9925:
9833:
9515:
9476:
9059:
8754:
8718:
8531:
8526:
8002:
Moulton, WG (1972). "The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants)". In:
7967:
McCully, CB; Hogg, Richard M (1990). "An account of Old English stress".
6276:
4929:
Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are
3973:
3484:
3012:, which are borrowings from the futhorc. A few letter pairs were used as
2912:
2787:
2759:
2708:
In Old English's verbal compound constructions are the beginnings of the
2490:
2474:
2354:
2142:
2124:
2106:
1473:
1242:
1121:
With the unification of several of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (outside the
939:
918:
786:
692:
660:
127:
9979:
8233:
7621:
The Development of Old English: A Linguistic History of English, vol. II
7199:
4529:) at the time of palatalization, as illustrated by the contrast between
4074:
889:
The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:
805:
is much freer. The oldest Old English inscriptions were written using a
9974:
9954:
9319:
8989:
8690:
8483:
7959:
6291:
6032:
6012:
3744:
as a form of normalization and means of imposing consistency. Also see
2797:
Multiple negatives can stack up in a sentence intensifying each other (
2773:
2751:
2623:
2619:
2584:
2580:
2548:
2524:
2454:
2187:
2111:
2084:
2021:
1521:
1477:
1339:
1268:
1159:
1110:
802:
798:
703:
8236:
by Jonathan Slocum and Winfred P. Lehmann, free online lessons at the
7913:
7855:
7792:. North-Holland linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
7778:(pp. 753–762). Edited by Dieter Kastovsky and Aleksander Szwedek.
6532:
6302:
List of generic forms in place names in the United Kingdom and Ireland
3551:'frog') is unclear. Alternative spellings of either geminate included
722:. As the Germanic settlers became dominant in England, their language
10160:
9908:
9471:
9252:
9207:
9179:
9005:
8559:
8268:
8237:
7187:
Publications of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study
6611:
Hogg (1992), p. 117; but for a different interpretation of this, see
6281:
4936:
3950:
3448:
3380:
3253:
3079:
3071:
2653:
Remnants of the Old English case system in Modern English are in the
2166:
2009:
1581:
1536:
1366:
1114:
1063:
1003:
947:
943:
790:
771:
747:
536:
324:
310:
294:
276:
9984:
7834:
Hockett, Charles F (1959). "The stressed syllabics of Old English".
7482:
An introductory grammar of Old English with an anthology of readings
6533:
Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011).
4958:
1196:
885:
9949:
9297:
8478:
7905:
7892:
Kuhn, Sherman M (1961). "On the Syllabic Phonemes of Old English".
7847:
7719:
6932:. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd. p. 33.
5712:
5709:
4978:
4971:
The first example is taken from the opening lines of the folk epic
4637:
3736:
in the middle or at the end of a word. Some modern editors replace
2229:
1456:
1418:
1204:
1035:
1011:
860:
653:
359:
98:
97:(except Cornwall and the extreme north-west), southern and eastern
7676:
An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary
7519:. 7 vols. Heidelberg: C. Winter & Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard
6086:
In modern scholarship, the following dictionaries remain current:
6019:
glosses, but soon came to be gathered into word-lists such as the
2884:
52:
9990:
9586:
9488:
6693:"Function and Grammar in the History of English: Periphrastic Do"
5666:
5387:
5059:
4973:
4931:
4894:
3165:
2966:. The remaining 20 Latin letters were supplemented by four more:
2520:
2494:
2001:
1598:
1585:
1556:
1540:
1208:
1122:
1067:
1047:
979:
in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the
881:(Pre-)Old English and other West Germanic languages around 580 CE
775:
746:. Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular
649:
481:
372:
355:
94:
70:
59:
6971:
6969:
6967:
6123:. Various digitisations are available open-access, including at
5876:
5826:
5772:
5739:
5684:
5631:
5612:
5593:
5574:
5555:
5536:
5517:
5498:
5400:
5368:
5335:
5299:
5266:
5226:
5193:
5162:
5128:
5095:
5069:
5036:
5027:
5018:
5009:
4899:
4842:
4836:
4555:
4539:
4530:
4501:
4487:
4478:
4463:
3699:
3546:
3422:
3416:
3173:
3042:
2989:
2975:
2858:
2852:
2823:
2817:
2721:
2700:
2574:
2568:
2542:
1572:
The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a
1412:
1181:
as no literary witnesses survive (with the exception of limited
626:
620:
64:
42:
36:
9293:
8071:
Syntactic Case and Morphological Case in the History of English
7733:; with supplement prepared by Neil Ker originally published in
6729:"On the progression of the progressive in early Modern English"
6456:. Second edition of Barber (1993). Cambridge: University Press.
5595:
And forġief ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġiefaþ ūrum gyltendum.
4462:
At the start of a word, the usual pronunciation is palatalized
4250:
3728:, voiceless or voiced , but some texts show a tendency to use
3164:, with a mostly predictable correspondence between letters and
3083:
2743:
2598:: first, second, and third; two numbers: singular, plural; two
1505:
1461:
1396:
For details of the sound differences between the dialects, see
1343:
1158:("the Grammarian"). This form of the language is known as the "
715:
8193:
7336:
6124:
6100:
6003:
period itself, when English-speaking scholars created English
4901:
Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon...
2679:, which derives from the masculine and neuter genitive ending
9211:
8093:
Vol.2: Subordination, independent elements, and element order
6964:
6634:
The Somersetshire dialect: its pronunciation, 2 papers (1861)
5044:. In the text below, the letters that alliterate are bolded.
4982:
2779:
in questions and negatives. Questions were usually formed by
2039:
1490:
1055:
1039:
739:
719:
531:
102:
7812:(1983). "The Development of */k/ and */sk/ in Old English".
6949:
121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language"
2716:, which form the past tense by altering the root vowel, and
7828:
English Stress: its form, its growth, and its role in verse
7697:
L'orthographie de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle
5695:-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his
5659:
5624:
And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.
5621:
And not lead thou us in temptations, but allay us of evil.
5465:
is presented in the standardised Early West Saxon dialect.
4954:
4738:
3957:
3048:
3006:
2646:
are mostly before but are often after their object. If the
2527:
agree in case, gender, and number. First-person and second-
2451:
1548:
1200:
8151:
An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda
8050:
Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language
8022:
Generative Grammatical Studies in the Old English language
6139:
An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda
5005:, both an expression of surprise and a call to attention.
3386:
2969:
1951:
1361:
The later literary standard known as Late West Saxon (see
1062:); except in the areas of Scandinavian settlements, where
358:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
8087:(Vols. 1–2). Oxford: Clarendon Press (no more published)
5602:
And forgive us our guilts, as we forgiveth our guilters.
4977:, a poem of some 3,000 lines. This passage describes how
3982:
Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization
3949:
In Old English manuscripts, this letter usually took its
3493:
Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization
2892:
used to write Old English before the introduction of the
1489:
Old English contained a certain number of loanwords from
7323:
The Evolution of Englishes. The Dynamic Model and Beyond
6899:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 32.
5839:(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free)
5788:
me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere
4729:
Old English manuscripts typically represented the sound
4085:, whereas Mercian and Northumbrian texts generally used
3463:. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always
3363:
part was used; it is not clear whether this represented
2938:
The Latin alphabet of the time still lacked the letters
2236:. In West Saxon and Kentish, it had already merged with
809:, but from about the 8th century this was replaced by a
7284:
Das Durhamer Pflanzenglossar: lateinisch und altenglish
6679:
Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter
6452:
Barber, Charles, Joan C. Beal and Philip A. Shaw 2009.
6443:. 4th edition. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich).
4283:
The allophone occurred before a velar plosive ( or ).
2413:
Collapse of two consecutive vowels into a single vowel.
1314:. Mercian and Northumbrian are together referred to as
679:
of 1066, English was replaced for several centuries by
101:, and some localities in the eastern fringes of modern
8064:
Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung
6636:
Thomas Spencer Baynes, first published 1855 & 1856
5614:
And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālīes ūs of yfele.
1077:
in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving work of
7426:
The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 2
6797:"Verbal movement in Dutch present-participle clauses"
6518:. London: Forum House Publishing Company. p. 7.
5605:
And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.
8090:
Vol.1: Concord, the parts of speech and the sentence
7946:
Maling, J (1971). "Sentence stress in Old English".
7557:
The Cambridge Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Literature
6307:
List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English
6253:
3533:
Proto-Germanic *g was palatalized when it underwent
2954:; moreover native Old English spellings did not use
1464:
in the post–Old English period, such as the regular
7310:
The Tomb of Beowulf and Other Essays on Old English
6206:all also include material relevant to Old English.
4496:'to wish'), or an unpalatalized consonant sequence
4232:Rarely used; this sound is normally represented by
3421:in an early text, but later (and more commonly) as
2907:—a rune set derived from the Germanic 24-character
1398:
Phonological history of Old English § Dialects
1166:The history of Old English can be subdivided into:
1154:, and was followed by such writers as the prolific
7505:Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (eds.) (2006)
7308:Robinson, Fred C. 'The Afterlife of Old English'.
7064:
6897:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language
6858:. Leipzig, Germany: B. G. Teubner. pp. 58–82.
6536:A Practical Introduction to the History of English
6335:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language
6070:. The next substantial Old English dictionary was
5691:¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede'
5557:Ġeweorðe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum.
5026:. Vowels alliterate with any other vowel, as with
4344:Only occurs in some dialects. Modern editions use
3960:). The and pronunciations are sometimes written
1298:The four main dialectal forms of Old English were
1177:to 650); for this period, Old English is mostly a
8163:(4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8133:Bosworth, J; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898).
7790:Phonological structure and the history of English
7731:A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon
7724:A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon
7517:A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles
7337:"Bosworth-Toller's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary online"
7043:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 109–112.
6816:The history of English: a linguistic introduction
6495:. 4th edition. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall).
5564:Let there be thine will, on earth as in heavens.
3016:, representing a single sound. Also used was the
2794:before the finite verb, regardless of which verb.
863:, or else because they were fishermen (anglers).
10518:
7788:Anderson, John M; & Jones, Charles. (1977).
7590:
7038:
6428:A history of English. A sociolinguistic approach
5947:that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith
5246:(induce loathing in, terrify; related to "ugly")
4053:from the earliest Old English texts, the letter
2998:or edh), which were modified Latin letters, and
2416:"Palatal umlaut", which has given forms such as
797:nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs have many
7826:Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971).
7262:Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon
6478:Hogg, Richard M. and David Denison (ed.) 2006.
6454:The English language. A historical introduction
6441:Origins and development of the English language
3995:, including its allophone , which occurs after
3252:("land") suggest the short vowel had a rounded
1403:
7770:Wełna, Jerzy (1986). "The Old English Digraph
7765:The Oxford Handbook of the History of English,
7534:Old English: A historical linguistic companion
7417:Baugh, Albert C; & Cable, Thomas. (1993).
6868:
3355:In 9th-century Kentish manuscripts, a form of
2705:, a neuter noun referring to a female person.
2329:Phonological history of Old English (dialects)
1014:, which for several centuries belonged to the
8575:
8284:
7927:Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975).
7866:A grammar of Old English. Volume 1, Phonology
7678:. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
4949:, an inscribed early whalebone artefact; and
4554:In word-final position, the pronunciation of
3023:(a character similar to the digit 7) for the
2510:
1472:, as well as the eventual development of the
1058:and possibly also on the English side of the
1018:. Other parts of the island continued to use
778:and settlement beginning in the 9th century.
663:. It developed from the languages brought to
597:
8121:An Historical Syntax of the English Language
7936:Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache
7763:Shaw, Philip A (2012). "Coins As Evidence".
7216:"On the Consonantal Phonemes of Old English"
7024:Continuum Encyclopedia of British Literature
7016:
7014:
6856:Growth and Structure of the English Language
6677:John Insley, "Britons and Anglo-Saxons", in
5001:would be expected. This usage is similar to
3605:were occasionally used instead of the usual
16:Earliest historical form of English language
8010:(pp. 141–173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
7966:
7714:Angelsächsische Paleographie, I: Einleitung
7525:The Shape of English: structure and history
5784:me to mind the writs and the word that the
4061:. West Saxon scribes came to prefer to use
2091:) have become independent phonemes, as has
938: Continental West Germanic languages (
8582:
8568:
8291:
8277:
8247:The Electronic Introduction to Old English
7760:. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
7709:. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
7699:. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
7591:Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C (2001).
7039:Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C (2002).
6917:. London: Faber and Faber. pp. 70–71.
5925:, into Denmark that you most harm came of
4753:. In modern editions, wynn is replaced by
3673:In the earliest texts it also represented
3447:pronunciation is sometimes written with a
604:
590:
51:
8116:. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
7814:Journal of English and Germanic Philology
7609:Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, CL (1957).
7371:
7325:(pp. 486–504). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
7198:
7056:
7011:
6853:
6767:
6539:. : Universitat de València. p. 21.
6166:A Thesaurus of Old English in Two Volumes
5951:ne come the while that ye me rightly hold
5678:Representation with constructed cognates
4945:, a record of early English history; the
1493:, which was the scholarly and diplomatic
1354:, were then integrated into Wessex under
675:date from the mid-7th century. After the
8386:
7648:
7567:
7554:
7509:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7502:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7428:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6942:
6806:
6579:
6570:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959), §§5–22.
5567:Thy will be done on earth as in heaven.
5507:Father Ours, thou which art in heavens,
5447:
5359:(those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout)
5181:Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats
4888:
4170:By the time of the first written prose,
4057:is also found as a minority spelling of
3264:when it occurred in stressed syllables.
2883:
1593:directness, in clarity, and in strength.
1551:and other Danish kings in the early 11th
1524:) words into English occurred after the
1407:
1267:
1101:
1046:perhaps to the 12th century in parts of
884:
876:
644:, was the earliest recorded form of the
10542:Languages attested from the 5th century
8202:Old English – Modern English dictionary
7833:
7062:
7002:
6894:
6726:
6491:Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable 1993
6332:
6197:Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue
5420:(heed/obedience; related to "gormless")
3716:with the addition of a cross-bar. Both
3359:that was missing the upper hook of the
2505:. The evidence comes from Northumbrian
2485:: masculine, feminine, neuter; and two
2327:For more on dialectal differences, see
2079:The above system is largely similar to
1099:was introduced around the 8th century.
843:This name probably either derives from
352:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
10519:
8589:
8298:
7945:
7444:A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon
7334:
7071:. Cambridge University Press. p.
7067:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
6943:Lohmeier, Charlene (28 October 2012).
6927:
6912:
6513:
4993:is used by the poet where a word like
3160:, Old English spelling was reasonably
2497:and strong adjectives retain separate
2228:, spelled ⟨œ⟩, which had emerged from
2046:when the preceding sound was stressed.
1229:The Old English period is followed by
671:in the mid-5th century, and the first
635:
82:
10547:Languages extinct in the 13th century
10253:
9867:
8611:
8563:
8385:
8272:
8144:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement
7654:Old English and Its Closest Relatives
7446:. Bristol, PA: Evolution Publishing.
7441:
7394:
7297:Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum
6908:
6906:
6849:
6847:
6845:
6843:
6812:
6708:
6386:
6382:
6380:
6378:
6376:
6374:
6182:Though focused on later periods, the
6132:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement
6068:Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum
5576:Ūrne dæġhwamlīcan hlāf sele ūs tōdæġ,
3395:
1095:) date to the early 8th century. The
1073:Old English literacy developed after
828:is derived, means 'pertaining to the
8166:Cameron, Angus, et al. (ed.) (1983)
7924:(pp. 16–49). The Hague: Mouton.
7891:
7862:
7531:
7479:
7458:(Reissue of one of 4 eds. 1877–1902)
7379:. Vol. I: c. 500–1042. London:
7213:
7184:
6794:
6372:
6370:
6368:
6366:
6364:
6362:
6360:
6358:
6356:
6354:
5995:The earliest history of Old English
5443:
4916:1935 posthumous edition of Bright's
4568:when the preceding vowel was short.
3724:could represent either allophone of
3117:by placing dots above the palatals:
2382:in certain front-vowel environments.
1532:rather than the Old English period.
1460:have had on developments in English
1372:tended to become monophthongised to
698:Old English developed from a set of
9144:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
8112:Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972).
7737:; 5, 1957. Oxford: Clarendon Press
7685:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7595:(6th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
7570:A Biography of the English Language
7312:. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993. 275–303.
7259:
7097:A Biography of the English Language
6869:BBC World News (27 December 2014).
6785:, Edinburgh University Press (2016)
6439:Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo 1993.
4517:had been followed by a back vowel (
3145:are normally retained (except when
2923:missionaries. This was replaced by
2341:Phonological history of Old English
1516:was introduced and adapted for the
13:
10503:Languages between parentheses are
9868:
8066:(Vol. II). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
8038:(3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
8008:Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic
7997:A Historical Phonology of English.
7799:(3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
6903:
6840:
5649:
5586:Give us this day our daily bread,
4420:is not known; it may have been an
4190:, but by Late West Saxon only the
4049:is used for the palatal consonant
2221:The Anglian dialects also had the
57:A detail of the first page of the
14:
10563:
8182:
8123:(Vols. 1–3). Leiden: E. J. Brill.
7869:. Malden, MA: Oxford: Blackwell.
7507:A History of the English Language
7419:A History of the English Language
7112:, Anglo-Saxon Books 1997, p. 138.
6493:A history of the English language
6480:A history of the English language
6389:A History of the English Language
6351:
6011:texts. At first these were often
5671:
5669:represent the original division.
5654:This is a proclamation from King
5500:Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum,
5467:
5046:
3451:by modern editors: most commonly
3041:, which was used for the pronoun
2899:Old English was first written in
2851:. Instead, the indeclinable word
2822:, otherwise meaning "then" (e.g.
2710:compound tenses of Modern English
2579:("that over there"). These words
2389:(which for example led to modern
1982:
1976:
1955:
1943:
1934:
1928:
1908:
1900:
1895:
1887:
1879:
1871:
1865:
1857:
1851:
1843:
1837:
1816:
1810:
1787:
1781:
1770:
1765:
1756:
1751:
1734:
1722:
1716:
1706:
1443:Scandinavian influence in English
1427:St Mary's parish church, Breamore
977:Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
8253: (archived 7 September 2015)
8218: (archived 22 February 2012)
8196:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online
8161:A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary
7750:An Introduction to English Runes
7498:Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). (1992).
7005:An Introduction to English Runes
6975:Ringe & Taylor (2014), p. 4.
6690:
6256:
6244:Old English version of Knowledge
6234:A number of websites devoted to
6209:
6151:A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary
5990:
5981:me rightly and my life persists.
4416:The exact nature of Old English
4089:in the spelling of these words.
3593:was realized as . The spellings
3475:. Otherwise, a knowledge of the
2334:
2240:before the first written prose.
2038:respectively, occurring between
1547:century, and during the rule of
1535:Another source of loanwords was
1517:
1414:Her sƿutelað seo gecƿydrædnes ðe
785:, and its closest relatives are
436:
371:
8159:; & Merritt, H. D. (1969).
7528:. London: J. M. Dent & Sons
7484:. Tempe, Arizona: ACMRS Press.
7358:
7328:
7315:
7302:
7289:
7277:
7268:
7253:
7244:
7207:
7178:
7169:
7160:
7151:
7142:
7133:
7124:
7115:
7102:
7099:, Cengage Learning 2011, p. 96.
7089:
7047:
7032:
6996:
6987:
6978:
6955:
6936:
6921:
6888:
6862:
6813:Scott, Shay (30 January 2008).
6788:
6775:
6761:
6720:
6702:
6684:
6671:
6639:
6627:
6618:
6605:
6573:
6560:
6526:
6507:
6498:
6465:Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.) 2006.
6203:Historical Thesaurus of English
5985:
5510:Our Father, who art in heaven,
5213:(clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-)
4841:("best") is occasionally spelt
4395:, which was usually written as
4253:(as in Modern English) when in
2808:type conjunction, but rather a
2622:forms: bare and bound; and two
2430:Phonological history of English
853:
847:
63:manuscript, showing the words "
10507:of the language on their left.
8142:Toller, T. Northcote. (1921).
8078:Old English Syntax: a handbook
7335:Tichy, Ondrej; Rocek, Martin.
6485:
6482:. Cambridge: University Press.
6472:
6467:The Oxford History of English.
6459:
6446:
6433:
6420:
6395:
6337:. Cambridge University Press.
6319:
5812:by the might that me God would
5583:Our daily loaf sell us today,
4509:('to ask'). The pronunciation
4424:as in most modern English, an
3207:
2867:
2828:in place of "when X, Y"). The
2071:occur after in the sequences
1576:along the continuum to a more
1241:(after 1650), and in Scotland
1135:advocated education in English
832:'. The Angles were one of the
706:dialects originally spoken by
1:
10398:Germanic substrate hypothesis
10254:
8242:University of Texas at Austin
8076:MacLaughlin, John C. (1983).
7830:. New York: Harper & Row.
7758:A History of English Spelling
7716:. Berlin: Mayer & Müller.
7634:Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970)
7421:(4th ed.). London: Routledge.
6325:By the 16th century the term
6312:
6287:History of the Scots language
6130:T. Northcote Toller. (1921).
4884:
4662:Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩
4073:sequence found in verbs like
3980:elsewhere. (For details, see
3575:to distinguish it from velar
3491:elsewhere. (For details, see
3168:. There were not usually any
2720:, which use a suffix such as
2691:derives from the Old English
2446:
2353:Fronting of to except when
1273:
1250:
1215:
1189:
1171:
811:version of the Latin alphabet
10428:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
9119:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
8119:Visser, F. Th. (1963–1973).
8048:Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969).
7674:Bremmer Jr, Rolf H. (2009).
7377:English Historical Documents
6819:. Wardja Press. p. 86.
6297:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
6229:linguistic purism in English
5422:yield. That was good king!
4920:, Dr. James Hulbert writes:
4757:, to prevent confusion with
4009:, including its allophones
2712:. Old English verbs include
1632:
1404:Influence of other languages
1362:
1272:The dialects of Old English
816:
742:, brought to Britain by the
21:Old English (disambiguation)
7:
10408:High German consonant shift
8238:Linguistics Research Center
8208: (archived 2 July 2005)
8069:Kemenade, Ans van. (1982).
8052:. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.
8024:. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.
8020:Wagner, Karl Heinz (1969).
7999:Edinburgh University Press.
7695:Bourcier, Georges. (1978).
7397:Introduction to Old English
7095:C.M. Millward, Mary Hayes,
6768:Alexiadou, Artemis (2008),
6624:Magennis (2011), pp. 56–60.
6249:
6125:http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/
6101:https://www.doe.utoronto.ca
5545:To be come thine kingdom,
5357:him each of those umsitters
4986:feel of the original poem.
4897:manuscript with its opening
4881:are always voiceless , , .
4629:, including its allophone
4614:in the earliest texts (see
4280:, including its allophone
3946:, including its allophone
3925:, including its allophone
3704:in Old English; now called
3695:, including its allophone
3219:Variants in modern editions
2790:, and negatives by placing
2642:are formed with compounds.
2602:: present, and past; three
1435:Celtic influence in English
1263:
1237:(1500 to 1650) and finally
1133:(Early West Saxon). Alfred
710:traditionally known as the
10:
10568:
8946:Westlauwers–Terschellings
8599:According to contemporary
8265: (archived 3 May 2009)
8153:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
8146:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
8045:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7934:Luick, Karl. (1914–1940).
7806:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7726:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7712:Keller, Wolfgang. (1906).
7613:(2nd ed.) London: Methuen.
7561:Cambridge University Press
7538:Cambridge University Press
7438:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7264:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7157:Wełna (1986), pp. 754–755.
7110:First Steps in Old English
6264:Anglo-Saxon England portal
6141:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
6137:Alistair Campbell (1972).
6134:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
6053:Durham Plant-Name Glossary
4964:
4908:
4857:; the geminate fricatives
4443:, including its allophone
4194:spelling remained common.
3732:at the start of words and
3158:Modern English orthography
2880:Old English Latin alphabet
2873:
2630:in person and number. The
2439:
2435:
2338:
1636:
1439:Latin influence in English
1432:
1097:Old English Latin alphabet
870:
866:
781:Old English is one of the
673:Old English literary works
513:Development of Old English
18:
10490:
10441:
10365:
10334:
10266:
10262:
10249:
10198:
10171:
10125:Southern Schleswig Danish
10056:
9937:
9893:
9884:
9880:
9863:
9704:
9647:
9535:
9526:
9431:
9403:
9362:
9353:
9328:
9310:
9221:
9193:
9167:
9158:
9109:
9022:
8997:
8988:
8927:
8822:
8771:
8746:
8737:
8633:
8624:
8620:
8607:
8597:
8464:
8398:
8394:
8381:
8306:
8222:Dictionary of Old English
8169:Dictionary of Old English
8136:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary
8083:Mitchell, Bruce. (1985).
8080:. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
7981:10.1017/S0022226700014699
7863:Hogg, Richard M. (2011).
7819:Girvan, Ritchie. (1931).
7756:Scragg, Donald G (1974).
7658:Stanford University Press
7228:10.1515/9783110820263-004
7214:Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970).
6469:Oxford: University Press.
6191:Middle English Dictionary
6185:Oxford English Dictionary
6121:Dictionary of Old English
6116:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary
6096:Dictionary of Old English
6081:
5750:you, that I will be hold
5677:
5674:
5483:Word-for-word translation
4822:
4782:
4770:
4728:
4723:
4720:
4668:
4638:the rune of the same name
4622:
4601:
4589:
4461:
4449:
4436:
4407:
4382:
4370:
4343:
4332:
4287:
4273:
4261:
4240:
4223:
4158:
4118:
4032:
4002:
3948:
3936:
3918:
3861:
3792:
3752:
3708:or edh. Derived from the
3664:
3532:
3517:
3495:.) See also the digraphs
3442:
3431:
3304:
3293:
3244:Spelling variations like
3232:
3129:is usually replaced with
2737:
2534:occasionally distinguish
2374:Palatalisation of velars
2110:
2105:
2103:
2083:, except that (and for
2034:are voiced allophones of
1528:of 1066, and thus in the
1510:converted to Christianity
1170:Prehistoric Old English (
1038:and in adjacent parts of
652:and southern and eastern
338:
322:
308:
292:
274:
269:
244:
215:
194:
134:
118:
108:
90:
78:
50:
35:
30:
10403:West Germanic gemination
10357:Ancient Belgian language
10352:Germanic parent language
10296:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
9418:Austrian Standard German
8612:
8423:Changes before historic
8415:Changes before historic
8105:Timofeeva, Olga. (2010)
8098:Mitchell, Bruce. (1990)
8013:Sievers, Eduard (1893).
8006:& HL Kufner (Eds.),
7690:Orthography/Palaeography
7619:and Taylor, Ann (2014).
7568:Millward, Celia (1996).
6854:Jespersen, Otto (1919).
6727:Elsness, Johann (1997).
6093:, et al. (ed.) (1983–).
6051:glossaries, such as the
5869:(financial contribution)
5841:the while that you stood
5728:(ordained to priesthood)
5526:Be thine name hallowed.
5288:found, he of this frover
5149:(fortitude/courage/zeal)
4640:. In the earliest texts
4538:('fish') and its plural
3887:palatal diphthongization
3818:palatal diphthongization
3535:West Germanic gemination
3524:(between vowels; rare),
3178:, for example, both the
2935:) replaced the insular.
2320:, which had merged with
1449:British Celtic languages
8326:Anglo-Frisian languages
8062:Brunner, Karl. (1962).
8034:Brunner, Karl. (1965).
7995:Minkova, Donka (2014).
7795:Brunner, Karl. (1965).
7555:Magennis, Hugh (2011).
7395:Baker, Peter S (2003).
7381:Eyre & Spottiswoode
7063:Crystal, David (1987).
6928:Potter, Simeon (1950).
6913:McCrum, Robert (1987).
6895:Crystal, David (1995).
6589:Oxford University Press
6426:Fennell, Barbara 1998.
6333:Crystal, David (2003).
5877:
5827:
5773:
5740:
5734:, in England friendly.
5724:(200 shilling weregild)
5685:
5632:
5613:
5594:
5575:
5556:
5537:
5518:
5499:
5401:
5369:
5336:
5300:
5267:
5227:
5215:, of mead-settees atee
5194:
5163:
5129:
5119:(learn about by asking)
5096:
5070:
5037:
5028:
5019:
5010:
4900:
4853:Doubled consonants are
4843:
4837:
4556:
4540:
4531:
4502:
4488:
4479:
4464:
3845:. Sometimes stands for
3700:
3623:⟨cyningc⟩
3619:⟨cynincg⟩
3547:
3423:
3417:
3174:
3043:
2990:
2976:
2859:
2853:
2847:forms were not used as
2832:words are used only as
2824:
2818:
2814:correlative conjunction
2722:
2701:
2655:forms of a few pronouns
2575:
2569:
2557:demonstrative adjective
2543:
2223:mid front rounded vowel
2216:open back rounded vowel
2031:occurring before and .
1455:. The number of Celtic
1413:
1293:Modern English dialects
1152:Æthelwold of Winchester
1030:– in most of Scotland,
998:, and developed out of
801:endings and forms, and
783:West Germanic languages
627:
621:
65:
43:
37:
10464:Preterite-present verb
10347:Proto-Germanic grammar
10301:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
9413:German Standard German
9089:East Frisian Low Saxon
8017:. Halle: Max Niemeyer.
7969:Journal of Linguistics
7821:Angelsaksisch Handboek
7729:Ker, NR (1957: 1990).
7707:Runes: An introduction
7611:An Old English Grammar
7593:A Guide to Old English
7424:Blake, Norman (1992).
7166:Fulk (2014), pp. 68–69
7121:Minkova (2014), p. 79.
7041:A Guide to Old English
6984:Kuhn (1970), p. 42-44.
6961:Campbell (1959), p.21.
6613:Old English diphthongs
6521:Primitive Old English.
6387:Baugh, Albert (1951).
6240:historical reenactment
6076:Anglo-Saxon Dictionary
5983:
5529:Hallowed be thy name.
5519:Sīe þīn nama ġehālgod.
5458:
5441:
5084:What! We of Gare-Danes
4981:'s legendary ancestor
4927:
4911:Old English literature
4906:
4893:The first page of the
4045:Although the spelling
3635:⟨cyninc⟩
3627:⟨cyning⟩
3228:Description and notes
2896:
2758:Default word order is
2748:that of modern English
2345:Some of the principal
2099:Vowels – monophthongs
2081:that of Modern English
1595:
1518:writing of Old English
1430:
1348:overrun by the Vikings
1279:
1179:reconstructed language
1118:
1079:Old English literature
1016:kingdom of Northumbria
996:West Germanic language
972:
882:
824:, from which the word
340:This article contains
122:Mostly developed into
10469:Grammatischer Wechsel
9452:Namibian Black German
9423:Swiss Standard German
9392:Early New High German
8950:Mainland West Frisian
8811:Harlingerland Frisian
8358:Anglo-Norman language
8258:Old English Made Easy
8194:Bosworth and Toller,
8149:Campbell, A. (1972).
8041:Campbell, A. (1959).
8015:Altgermanische Metrik
7929:Old English Phonology
7875:10.1002/9781444341355
7802:Campbell, A. (1959).
7130:Wełna (1986), p. 755.
6514:Stumpf, John (1970).
6164:, with Lynne Grundy,
5964:
5929:: and that have , mid
5891:me that us more harm
5889:(made known/couth to)
5861:(separated/dispelled)
5748:(make known/couth to)
5456:
5430:
4942:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
4922:
4892:
4403:in modern editions).
3873:Sometimes stands for
3804:Sometimes stands for
3645:) by modern editors.
3617:in spellings such as
3589:was realized as and
3467:; word-finally after
2929:Carolingian minuscule
2887:
2561:demonstrative pronoun
2385:The process known as
1639:Old English phonology
1590:
1433:Further information:
1411:
1271:
1105:
888:
880:
871:Further information:
487:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
10474:Indo-European ablaut
10454:Germanic strong verb
10423:Germanic spirant law
9560:Southeast Limburgish
9056:Gelders-Overijssels
8685:Irish Middle English
8675:Early Modern English
8388:Phonological history
8368:Early Modern English
8212:Old English Glossary
7681:Stenton, FM (1971).
7636:A History of English
7532:Lass, Roger (1994).
7480:Fulk, R. D. (2014).
7442:Earle, John (2005).
7401:Blackwell Publishing
7108:Stephen Pollington,
6915:The Story of English
6709:Culicover, Peter W.
6430:. Oxford: Blackwell.
6057:Laud Herbal Glossary
6037:Cleopatra Glossaries
5804:lies, and full frith
5055:Representation with
4831:A rare spelling for
4810:to distinguish long
4806:Modern editions use
4705:to distinguish long
4701:Modern editions use
4422:alveolar approximant
4348:to distinguish long
4320:to distinguish long
4316:Modern editions use
4211:to distinguish long
4207:Modern editions use
4146:to distinguish long
4142:Modern editions use
4106:to distinguish long
4102:Modern editions use
3906:to distinguish long
3902:Modern editions use
3837:to distinguish long
3833:Modern editions use
3780:to distinguish long
3776:Modern editions use
3603:⟨ncgg⟩
3320:to distinguish long
3281:to distinguish long
3277:Modern editions use
3250:⟨lond⟩
3246:⟨land⟩
3032:scribal abbreviation
2766:, and verb-final in
1235:Early Modern English
1223:Early Middle English
1004:Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
748:Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
669:Anglo-Saxon settlers
566:Early Modern English
462:Phonological history
263:Old English alphabet
10442:Synchronic features
10413:Germanic a-mutation
10366:Diachronic features
9716:in the broad sense
9649:East Central German
9603:Lorraine Franconian
9577:Transylvanian Saxon
9537:West Central German
9312:East Low Franconian
9222:West Low Franconian
8321:Proto-West-Germanic
8311:Proto-Indo-European
8102:. Oxford: Blackwell
8073:. Dordrecht: Foris.
8043:Old English grammar
7804:Old English Grammar
7735:Anglo-Saxon England
7683:Anglo-Saxon England
7522:Lass, Roger (1987)
7436:Old English Grammar
7260:Ker, N. R. (1957).
7250:Hogg (1992), p. 257
7220:Philological Essays
7148:Hogg (1992), p. 91.
6993:Hogg (1992), p. 39.
6681:, De Gruyter (2018)
6585:Old English Grammar
6568:Old English Grammar
6504:Hogg (1992), p. 83.
6111:T. Northcote Toller
5955:and my life beeth.
5849:on-hand: now I, mid
5250:(since, as of when)
5143:how those athelings
4745:was represented by
4391:A rare spelling of
3643:⟨nġċ⟩
3639:⟨nċġ⟩
3599:⟨ngc⟩
3595:⟨ncg⟩
3569:⟨gcg⟩
3565:⟨ccg⟩
3561:⟨cgg⟩
3036:thorn with a stroke
2946:, and there was no
2838:indefinite pronouns
2768:subordinate clauses
2442:Old English grammar
2245:
2100:
2069:voiceless sonorants
2056:is an allophone of
2027:is an allophone of
1656:
1578:analytic word order
1470:analytic word order
1391:dialect of Somerset
1333:Æthelwoldian Saxon,
1188:Early Old English (
1183:epigraphic evidence
1026:– and perhaps some
795:Old English grammar
202:Proto-Indo-European
130:by the 12th century
10552:North Sea Germanic
10532:Medieval languages
10459:Germanic weak verb
10268:Language subgroups
9618:Pennsylvania Dutch
9567:Moselle Franconian
9545:Central Franconian
9378:Middle High German
9129:Central Pomeranian
9084:Northern Low Saxon
8797:Wangerooge Frisian
8591:Germanic languages
8456:Trisyllabic laxing
8436:Close front vowels
8300:History of English
8234:Old English Online
8085:Old English Syntax
7948:Linguistic Inquiry
7940:Bernhard Tauchnitz
7816:, 82 (3): 313–323.
7810:Cercignani, Fausto
7772:⟨cg⟩
7753:. London: Methuen.
7650:Robinson, Orrin W.
7638:. London: Methuen.
7373:Whitelock, Dorothy
7341:bosworthtoller.com
7175:Fulk (2014), p. 69
7139:Shaw (2012), p. 51
6951:. Dutch Lichliter.
6647:"Rotary-munich.de"
6581:Campbell, Alistair
6160:Roberts, Jane and
5917:those men that mid
5901:than us well liked
5835:(withdrew/changed)
5754:lord and unswiking
5548:Thy kingdom come,
5538:Tōbecume þīn rīċe,
5459:
5327:(throve/prospered)
5319:(firmament/clouds)
5317:waxed under welkin
5086:(lit. Spear-Danes)
4918:Anglo-Saxon Reader
4907:
4879:⟨þð⟩
4875:⟨ðþ⟩
4871:⟨þþ⟩
4867:⟨ðð⟩
4863:⟨ss⟩
4859:⟨ff⟩
4751:⟨uu⟩
4646:⟨th⟩
4515:⟨sc⟩
4486:('fisherman') and
4401:⟨cw⟩
4397:⟨cƿ⟩
4346:⟨ōe⟩
4209:⟨īo⟩
4192:⟨eo⟩
4188:⟨eo⟩
4184:⟨io⟩
4182:was often written
4144:⟨īe⟩
4087:⟨rg⟩
4067:⟨rg⟩
4063:⟨ri⟩
4026:⟨hw⟩
4022:⟨hn⟩
4018:⟨hr⟩
4014:⟨hl⟩
3976:(other than ) and
3904:⟨ēo⟩
3835:⟨ēa⟩
3654:(between vowels),
3631:⟨nc⟩
3609:. The addition of
3607:⟨ng⟩
3577:⟨cg⟩
3573:⟨ċġ⟩
3557:⟨gc⟩
3553:⟨gg⟩
3501:⟨sc⟩
3497:⟨cg⟩
3487:(other than ) and
3310:⟨ae⟩
3196:⟨gh⟩
3125:. The letter wynn
2897:
2697:grammatical gender
2243:
2098:
2049:are allophones of
1654:
1611:pronominal adverbs
1574:synthetic language
1562:West Saxon dialect
1431:
1280:
1214:Late Old English (
1131:West Saxon dialect
1119:
1089:runic inscriptions
1060:Anglo-Welsh border
1008:Kingdom of England
985:synthetic language
973:
883:
873:History of English
161:North Sea Germanic
10514:
10513:
10499:extinct languages
10486:
10485:
10482:
10481:
10433:Great Vowel Shift
10245:
10244:
10241:
10240:
10194:
10193:
10040:Greenlandic Norse
9859:
9858:
9855:
9854:
9851:
9850:
9790:Southern Bavarian
9773:Northern Bavarian
9749:Highest Alemannic
9700:
9699:
9434:standard variants
9349:
9348:
9195:Standard variants
9154:
9153:
9013:Middle Low German
8984:
8983:
8980:
8979:
8784:Saterland Frisian
8557:
8556:
8553:
8552:
8549:
8548:
8446:Great Vowel Shift
8431:Close back vowels
8157:Clark Hall, J. R.
7747:Page, RI (1973).
7703:Elliott, Ralph WV
7474:978-3-9812110-7-8
6826:978-0-615-16817-3
6757:on 6 August 2020.
6691:Koch, Anthony S.
6217:Alistair Campbell
6175:Roget's Thesaurus
6147:Clark Hall, J. R.
6045:Brussels Glossary
5959:
5958:
5949:(breach of peace)
5786:Archbishop Lyfing
5663:Thorkell the Tall
5647:
5646:
5461:This text of the
5454:
5444:The Lord's Prayer
5426:
5425:
5206:eodosetla oftēah,
5113:-kings, did thrum
4851:
4850:
4808:⟨ȳ⟩
4759:⟨p⟩
4755:⟨w⟩
4747:⟨u⟩
4735:⟨ƿ⟩
4703:⟨ū⟩
4684:⟨ƿ⟩
4678:, also sometimes
4654:⟨þ⟩
4650:⟨ð⟩
4642:⟨d⟩
4636:and derived from
4616:⟨þ⟩
4580:(between vowels),
4318:⟨ō⟩
4301:⟨a⟩
4234:⟨c⟩
4104:⟨ī⟩
4055:⟨i⟩
4047:⟨g⟩
4012:The combinations
3997:⟨n⟩
3972:before and after
3966:⟨i⟩
3962:⟨ġ⟩
3954:⟨ᵹ⟩
3930:⟨b⟩
3883:⟨ġ⟩
3879:⟨ċ⟩
3855:⟨ġ⟩
3851:⟨ċ⟩
3814:⟨ġ⟩
3810:⟨ċ⟩
3778:⟨ē⟩
3746:⟨þ⟩
3742:⟨þ⟩
3738:⟨ð⟩
3734:⟨ð⟩
3730:⟨þ⟩
3722:⟨ð⟩
3718:⟨þ⟩
3714:⟨d⟩
3679:⟨þ⟩
3615:⟨g⟩
3611:⟨c⟩
3469:⟨i⟩
3461:⟨ç⟩
3457:⟨č⟩
3453:⟨ċ⟩
3408:(an allophone of
3377:⟨æ⟩
3373:⟨ę⟩
3361:⟨a⟩
3357:⟨æ⟩
3318:⟨ǣ⟩
3314:⟨æ⟩
3279:⟨ā⟩
3192:⟨k⟩
3186:were pronounced (
3184:⟨h⟩
3180:⟨c⟩
3156:In contrast with
3151:⟨þ⟩
3147:⟨ð⟩
3143:⟨þ⟩
3139:⟨ð⟩
3135:⟨æ⟩
3131:⟨w⟩
3127:⟨ƿ⟩
3123:⟨ġ⟩
3119:⟨ċ⟩
3115:⟨g⟩
3111:⟨c⟩
3096:⟨r⟩
3092:⟨f⟩
3088:⟨e⟩
3076:⟨s⟩
3068:⟨g⟩
3061:⟨n⟩
3057:⟨m⟩
3039:⟨ꝥ⟩
3021:⟨⁊⟩
3010:⟨ƿ⟩
3003:⟨þ⟩
2986:⟨ð⟩
2964:⟨z⟩
2960:⟨q⟩
2956:⟨k⟩
2952:⟨u⟩
2950:as distinct from
2948:⟨v⟩
2944:⟨w⟩
2940:⟨j⟩
2876:Anglo-Saxon runes
2849:relative pronouns
2587:is also present.
2532:personal pronouns
2516:"on the Cross").
2393:as the plural of
2357:or followed by a
2314:
2313:
2212:
2211:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2120:
2044:voiced consonants
1998:
1997:
1643:The inventory of
1543:from the late 9th
1468:construction and
1453:largely displaced
1156:Ælfric of Eynsham
1006:which became the
994:Old English is a
776:Scandinavian rule
774:influence due to
726:the languages of
637:[ˈeŋɡliʃ]
614:
613:
366:
365:
348:rendering support
344:phonetic symbols.
84:[ˈeŋɡliʃ]
10559:
10527:Anglic languages
10291:Elbe (Irminonic)
10264:
10263:
10251:
10250:
10179:Mainland Gutnish
10069:Swedish dialects
10031:Middle Icelandic
10005:Middle Norwegian
9894:Historical forms
9891:
9890:
9882:
9881:
9865:
9864:
9824:South Franconian
9810:Hutterite German
9778:Central Bavarian
9598:Rhine Franconian
9533:
9532:
9363:Historical forms
9360:
9359:
9275:Surinamese Dutch
9168:Historical forms
9165:
9164:
8998:Historical forms
8995:
8994:
8747:Historical forms
8744:
8743:
8631:
8630:
8622:
8621:
8609:
8608:
8584:
8577:
8570:
8561:
8560:
8451:Open back vowels
8426:
8418:
8396:
8395:
8383:
8382:
8293:
8286:
8279:
8270:
8269:
7992:
7963:
7917:
7888:
7859:
7773:
7671:
7643:External history
7606:
7587:
7564:
7551:
7495:
7457:
7414:
7384:
7352:
7351:
7349:
7347:
7332:
7326:
7319:
7313:
7306:
7300:
7295:William Somner,
7293:
7287:
7281:
7275:
7272:
7266:
7265:
7257:
7251:
7248:
7242:
7241:
7211:
7205:
7204:
7202:
7182:
7176:
7173:
7167:
7164:
7158:
7155:
7149:
7146:
7140:
7137:
7131:
7128:
7122:
7119:
7113:
7106:
7100:
7093:
7087:
7086:
7070:
7060:
7054:
7051:
7045:
7044:
7036:
7030:
7029:
7018:
7009:
7008:
7003:Boydell (1999).
7000:
6994:
6991:
6985:
6982:
6976:
6973:
6962:
6959:
6953:
6952:
6940:
6934:
6933:
6925:
6919:
6918:
6910:
6901:
6900:
6892:
6886:
6885:
6883:
6881:
6866:
6860:
6859:
6851:
6838:
6837:
6835:
6833:
6810:
6804:
6803:
6801:
6795:Hoeksema, Jack.
6792:
6786:
6779:
6773:
6772:
6765:
6759:
6758:
6756:
6750:. Archived from
6733:
6724:
6718:
6717:
6715:
6706:
6700:
6699:
6697:
6688:
6682:
6675:
6669:
6668:
6666:
6664:
6659:on 27 March 2009
6658:
6652:. Archived from
6651:
6643:
6637:
6631:
6625:
6622:
6616:
6609:
6603:
6602:
6577:
6571:
6564:
6558:
6557:
6555:
6553:
6530:
6524:
6523:
6511:
6505:
6502:
6496:
6489:
6483:
6476:
6470:
6463:
6457:
6450:
6444:
6437:
6431:
6424:
6418:
6417:
6415:
6413:
6399:
6393:
6392:
6384:
6349:
6348:
6323:
6266:
6261:
6260:
6259:
6221:J. R. R. Tolkien
6107:Bosworth, Joseph
5953:(behold as king)
5880:
5859:, that totwemed
5830:
5777:
5743:
5688:
5672:
5635:
5616:
5597:
5578:
5559:
5540:
5521:
5502:
5468:
5455:
5415:
5380:
5350:
5323:(honour/worship)
5314:
5281:
5241:
5208:
5178:
5140:
5106:
5081:
5047:
5043:
5034:
5025:
5016:
4903:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4846:
4840:
4834:
4828:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4803:
4791:
4776:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4736:
4733:with the letter
4732:
4726:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4698:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4628:
4617:
4613:
4607:
4595:
4584:
4579:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4546:
4543:
4537:
4534:
4528:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4505:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4485:
4482:
4476:
4470:
4467:
4458:
4442:
4419:
4413:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4388:
4376:
4366:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4341:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4313:
4302:
4296:
4279:
4267:
4246:
4235:
4229:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4204:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4174:had merged with
4173:
4167:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4139:
4127:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4099:
4088:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4041:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4008:
3998:
3994:
3979:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3955:
3945:
3931:
3924:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3899:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3870:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3830:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3801:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3761:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3703:
3694:
3680:
3676:
3670:
3659:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3544:
3540:
3529:
3513:
3502:
3498:
3490:
3482:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3446:
3440:
3426:
3420:
3411:
3401:
3390:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3352:
3348:
3338:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3302:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3274:
3263:
3259:
3251:
3247:
3241:
3213:
3212:
3205:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3077:
3069:
3062:
3058:
3046:
3040:
3022:
3011:
3004:
2993:
2987:
2979:
2973:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2862:
2856:
2827:
2821:
2799:negative concord
2725:
2704:
2578:
2572:
2553:definite article
2546:
2540:definite article
2512:
2420:(compare German
2409:
2381:
2377:
2323:
2319:
2310:
2305:
2295:
2290:
2280:
2275:
2246:
2242:
2239:
2235:
2227:
2207:
2201:
2194:
2182:
2173:
2161:
2154:
2149:
2135:
2130:
2123:
2118:
2101:
2097:
2094:
2090:
2074:
2063:
2060:occurring after
2059:
2052:
2037:
2030:
2019:
2016:occurring after
2015:
1986:
1980:
1959:
1947:
1938:
1932:
1912:
1904:
1899:
1891:
1883:
1875:
1869:
1861:
1855:
1847:
1841:
1820:
1814:
1791:
1785:
1774:
1769:
1760:
1755:
1738:
1726:
1720:
1710:
1657:
1653:
1645:Early West Saxon
1554:
1546:
1424:
1416:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1356:Alfred the Great
1289:written standard
1278:
1275:
1255:
1252:
1233:(1150 to 1500),
1220:
1217:
1194:
1191:
1176:
1173:
1127:Alfred the Great
1107:Alfred the Great
1075:Christianisation
1032:Medieval Cornish
1020:Celtic languages
959:
937:
926:
915:
904:
893:
732:Common Brittonic
646:English language
639:
634:
630:
624:
606:
599:
592:
375:
368:
367:
334:
318:
313:
304:
297:
288:
287:
279:
250:
140:
86:
68:
55:
46:
40:
28:
27:
10567:
10566:
10562:
10561:
10560:
10558:
10557:
10556:
10517:
10516:
10515:
10510:
10478:
10437:
10418:Germanic umlaut
10383:Holtzmann's law
10361:
10330:
10258:
10237:
10190:
10167:
10101:South Jutlandic
10086:Danish dialects
10052:
9933:
9876:
9847:
9829:East Franconian
9783:Viennese German
9696:
9677:Silesian German
9643:
9632:Central Hessian
9522:
9447:Namibian German
9436:
9427:
9405:Standard German
9399:
9385:New High German
9371:Old High German
9345:
9324:
9306:
9217:
9189:
9150:
9134:East Pomeranian
9124:Brandenburgisch
9111:East Low German
9105:
9032:Dutch Low Saxon
9024:West Low German
9018:
8976:
8942:Schiermonnikoog
8923:
8818:
8804:Wursten Frisian
8767:
8733:
8616:
8603:
8593:
8588:
8558:
8545:
8515:-glottalization
8460:
8390:
8377:
8302:
8297:
8263:Wayback Machine
8251:Wayback Machine
8216:Wayback Machine
8206:Wayback Machine
8185:
8180:
8179:
7885:
7771:
7668:
7617:Ringe, Donald R
7603:
7584:
7548:
7513:Jespersen, Otto
7492:
7454:
7411:
7361:
7356:
7355:
7345:
7343:
7333:
7329:
7320:
7316:
7307:
7303:
7294:
7290:
7282:
7278:
7273:
7269:
7258:
7254:
7249:
7245:
7238:
7212:
7208:
7183:
7179:
7174:
7170:
7165:
7161:
7156:
7152:
7147:
7143:
7138:
7134:
7129:
7125:
7120:
7116:
7107:
7103:
7094:
7090:
7083:
7061:
7057:
7052:
7048:
7037:
7033:
7020:
7019:
7012:
7001:
6997:
6992:
6988:
6983:
6979:
6974:
6965:
6960:
6956:
6941:
6937:
6926:
6922:
6911:
6904:
6893:
6889:
6879:
6877:
6867:
6863:
6852:
6841:
6831:
6829:
6827:
6811:
6807:
6799:
6793:
6789:
6780:
6776:
6766:
6762:
6754:
6731:
6725:
6721:
6713:
6707:
6703:
6695:
6689:
6685:
6676:
6672:
6662:
6660:
6656:
6649:
6645:
6644:
6640:
6632:
6628:
6623:
6619:
6610:
6606:
6599:
6578:
6574:
6565:
6561:
6551:
6549:
6547:
6531:
6527:
6512:
6508:
6503:
6499:
6490:
6486:
6477:
6473:
6464:
6460:
6451:
6447:
6438:
6434:
6425:
6421:
6411:
6409:
6401:
6400:
6396:
6385:
6352:
6345:
6331:
6324:
6320:
6315:
6262:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6236:Modern Paganism
6212:
6084:
6072:Joseph Bosworth
6041:Harley Glossary
5993:
5988:
5758:to God's rights
5708:(having a 1200
5652:
5650:Charter of Cnut
5448:
5446:
5409:yldan. Þæt ƿæs
5383:over whale-road
5312:eorðmyndum þāh,
5211:of many maegths
5176:eaþena þrēatum,
5111:(nation/people)
4969:
4913:
4904:
4898:
4887:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4807:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4734:
4702:
4683:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4615:
4581:
4514:
4400:
4396:
4345:
4317:
4300:
4233:
4208:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4143:
4103:
4086:
4066:
4062:
4054:
4046:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
3996:
3965:
3961:
3953:
3929:
3903:
3882:
3878:
3854:
3850:
3834:
3813:
3809:
3777:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3678:
3655:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3525:
3500:
3496:
3468:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3384:
3376:
3372:
3360:
3356:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3278:
3249:
3245:
3210:section above.
3195:
3191:
3183:
3179:
3150:
3149:is replaced by
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3075:
3067:
3060:
3056:
3038:
3020:
3009:
3002:
2985:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2931:(also known as
2921:Irish Christian
2882:
2874:Main articles:
2870:
2740:
2449:
2444:
2438:
2366:height-harmonic
2359:nasal consonant
2343:
2337:
2324:in West Saxon.
2264:
2255:
2250:
1679:
1651:is as follows.
1641:
1635:
1552:
1544:
1526:Norman Conquest
1476:auxiliary verb
1445:
1422:
1406:
1376:in EWS, but to
1329:Alfredian Saxon
1276:
1266:
1253:
1245:(before 1450),
1218:
1192:
1174:
1066:was spoken and
981:Norman invasion
971:
957:
955:
952:Old High German
935:
933:
924:
922:
913:
911:
902:
900:
891:
875:
869:
834:Germanic tribes
819:
736:Celtic language
708:Germanic tribes
691:in England and
677:Norman Conquest
632:
610:
581:
580:
556:
548:
547:
546:
507:
497:
496:
477:
467:
466:
439:
432:
424:
423:
399:
346:Without proper
330:
316:
309:
300:
293:
283:
282:
275:
251:
246:
211:
197:
190:
141:
138:Language family
136:
74:
41:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
10565:
10555:
10554:
10549:
10544:
10539:
10534:
10529:
10512:
10511:
10509:
10508:
10501:
10491:
10488:
10487:
10484:
10483:
10480:
10479:
10477:
10476:
10471:
10466:
10461:
10456:
10451:
10445:
10443:
10439:
10438:
10436:
10435:
10430:
10425:
10420:
10415:
10410:
10405:
10400:
10395:
10390:
10385:
10380:
10375:
10369:
10367:
10363:
10362:
10360:
10359:
10354:
10349:
10344:
10342:Proto-Germanic
10338:
10336:
10332:
10331:
10329:
10328:
10321:
10314:
10306:
10305:
10304:
10303:
10298:
10293:
10283:
10278:
10272:
10270:
10260:
10259:
10247:
10246:
10243:
10242:
10239:
10238:
10236:
10235:
10228:
10221:
10217:Crimean Gothic
10206:
10204:
10196:
10195:
10192:
10191:
10189:
10188:
10187:
10186:
10181:
10172:
10169:
10168:
10166:
10165:
10164:
10163:
10153:
10152:
10151:
10144:
10137:
10132:
10127:
10122:
10121:
10120:
10115:
10105:
10104:
10103:
10093:
10091:Insular Danish
10088:
10078:
10077:
10076:
10074:Rinkebysvenska
10071:
10060:
10058:
10054:
10053:
10051:
10050:
10043:
10036:
10035:
10034:
10027:
10015:
10010:
10009:
10008:
10001:
9994:
9988:
9982:
9977:
9972:
9967:
9962:
9957:
9952:
9941:
9939:
9935:
9934:
9932:
9931:
9930:
9929:
9922:
9920:Old East Norse
9917:
9915:Old West Norse
9905:
9897:
9895:
9888:
9878:
9877:
9861:
9860:
9857:
9856:
9853:
9852:
9849:
9848:
9846:
9845:
9838:
9837:
9836:
9826:
9821:
9820:
9819:
9818:
9817:
9812:
9807:
9802:
9797:
9795:South Tyrolean
9787:
9786:
9785:
9775:
9765:
9764:
9763:
9758:
9757:
9756:
9746:
9745:
9744:
9737:High Alemannic
9734:
9733:
9732:
9727:
9710:
9708:
9702:
9701:
9698:
9697:
9695:
9694:
9689:
9684:
9679:
9674:
9669:
9664:
9659:
9653:
9651:
9645:
9644:
9642:
9641:
9636:
9635:
9634:
9624:
9623:
9622:
9621:
9620:
9615:
9605:
9595:
9594:
9593:
9592:
9591:
9590:
9589:
9579:
9574:
9564:
9563:
9562:
9557:
9541:
9539:
9530:
9528:Central German
9524:
9523:
9521:
9520:
9519:
9518:
9513:
9506:
9501:
9496:
9486:
9481:
9480:
9479:
9469:
9467:Barossa German
9464:
9459:
9454:
9449:
9443:
9441:
9429:
9428:
9426:
9425:
9420:
9415:
9409:
9407:
9401:
9400:
9398:
9397:
9396:
9395:
9381:
9374:
9366:
9364:
9357:
9351:
9350:
9347:
9346:
9344:
9343:
9338:
9332:
9330:
9326:
9325:
9323:
9322:
9316:
9314:
9308:
9307:
9305:
9304:
9287:
9282:
9277:
9271:
9270:
9265:
9260:
9255:
9250:
9249:
9248:
9246:French Flemish
9238:
9237:
9236:
9225:
9223:
9219:
9218:
9216:
9215:
9205:
9199:
9197:
9191:
9190:
9188:
9187:
9182:
9177:
9171:
9169:
9162:
9160:Low Franconian
9156:
9155:
9152:
9151:
9149:
9148:
9147:
9146:
9136:
9131:
9126:
9121:
9115:
9113:
9107:
9106:
9104:
9103:
9098:
9093:
9092:
9091:
9081:
9080:
9079:
9074:
9069:
9068:
9067:
9062:
9054:
9049:
9044:
9039:
9028:
9026:
9020:
9019:
9017:
9016:
9009:
9001:
8999:
8992:
8986:
8985:
8982:
8981:
8978:
8977:
8975:
8974:
8973:
8972:
8967:
8966:
8965:
8964:
8963:
8961:Westereendersk
8955:
8944:
8939:
8933:
8931:
8925:
8924:
8922:
8921:
8920:
8919:
8914:
8907:
8902:
8901:
8900:
8895:
8892:
8884:
8879:
8878:
8877:
8866:
8865:
8864:
8859:
8854:
8853:
8852:
8847:
8839:
8828:
8826:
8820:
8819:
8817:
8816:
8815:
8814:
8807:
8800:
8788:
8787:
8786:
8777:
8775:
8769:
8768:
8766:
8765:
8762:Middle Frisian
8758:
8750:
8748:
8741:
8735:
8734:
8732:
8731:
8730:
8729:
8722:
8710:
8709:
8708:
8701:
8694:
8682:
8681:
8680:
8679:
8678:
8668:Modern English
8664:
8661:Middle English
8657:
8650:
8639:
8637:
8628:
8618:
8617:
8605:
8604:
8598:
8595:
8594:
8587:
8586:
8579:
8572:
8564:
8555:
8554:
8551:
8550:
8547:
8546:
8544:
8543:
8536:
8535:
8534:
8529:
8517:
8509:
8504:
8497:
8489:
8481:
8476:
8470:
8468:
8462:
8461:
8459:
8458:
8453:
8448:
8443:
8438:
8433:
8428:
8420:
8412:
8404:
8402:
8392:
8391:
8379:
8378:
8376:
8375:
8373:Modern English
8370:
8365:
8363:Middle English
8360:
8355:
8354:
8353:
8348:
8343:
8338:
8328:
8323:
8318:
8316:Proto-Germanic
8313:
8307:
8304:
8303:
8296:
8295:
8288:
8281:
8273:
8267:
8266:
8254:
8244:
8230:
8229:
8225:
8224:
8219:
8209:
8199:
8190:
8189:
8184:
8183:External links
8181:
8178:
8177:
8174:World Wide Web
8164:
8154:
8147:
8140:
8130:
8129:
8125:
8124:
8117:
8110:
8103:
8096:
8095:
8094:
8091:
8081:
8074:
8067:
8059:
8058:
8054:
8053:
8046:
8039:
8031:
8030:
8026:
8025:
8018:
8011:
8000:
7993:
7975:(2): 315–339.
7964:
7954:(3): 379–400.
7943:
7932:
7925:
7918:
7906:10.2307/411354
7900:(4): 522–538.
7889:
7883:
7860:
7848:10.2307/410597
7842:(4): 575–597.
7831:
7824:
7817:
7807:
7800:
7793:
7785:
7784:
7780:
7779:
7768:
7761:
7754:
7745:
7727:
7717:
7710:
7700:
7692:
7691:
7687:
7686:
7679:
7672:
7666:
7645:
7644:
7640:
7639:
7632:
7629:978-0199207848
7614:
7607:
7601:
7588:
7582:
7574:Harcourt Brace
7565:
7552:
7546:
7529:
7520:
7510:
7503:
7496:
7491:978-0866985147
7490:
7477:
7462:Euler, Wolfram
7459:
7452:
7439:
7429:
7422:
7415:
7409:
7391:
7390:
7386:
7385:
7375:, ed. (1955).
7368:
7367:
7363:
7362:
7360:
7357:
7354:
7353:
7327:
7314:
7301:
7288:
7276:
7267:
7252:
7243:
7236:
7222:. p. 45.
7206:
7177:
7168:
7159:
7150:
7141:
7132:
7123:
7114:
7101:
7088:
7081:
7055:
7046:
7031:
7010:
7007:. p. 230.
6995:
6986:
6977:
6963:
6954:
6935:
6920:
6902:
6887:
6861:
6839:
6825:
6805:
6787:
6774:
6760:
6719:
6701:
6683:
6670:
6638:
6626:
6617:
6604:
6597:
6572:
6559:
6545:
6525:
6506:
6497:
6484:
6471:
6458:
6445:
6432:
6419:
6394:
6350:
6343:
6317:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6310:
6309:
6304:
6299:
6294:
6289:
6284:
6279:
6274:
6268:
6267:
6251:
6248:
6211:
6208:
6180:
6179:
6158:
6144:
6143:
6142:
6135:
6104:
6091:Cameron, Angus
6083:
6080:
6064:William Somner
6049:Middle English
6035:, such as the
5992:
5989:
5987:
5984:
5957:
5956:
5913:I, meself, mid
5881:
5873:
5872:
5833:¶ Now, ne went
5831:
5822:
5821:
5778:
5768:
5767:
5762:and to rights
5744:
5736:
5735:
5689:
5680:
5679:
5676:
5656:Cnut the Great
5651:
5648:
5645:
5644:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5629:
5626:
5625:
5622:
5619:
5617:
5610:
5607:
5606:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5591:
5588:
5587:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5572:
5569:
5568:
5565:
5562:
5560:
5553:
5550:
5549:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5534:
5531:
5530:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5515:
5512:
5511:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5496:
5493:
5492:
5489:
5487:Modern English
5480:
5475:
5472:
5445:
5442:
5424:
5423:
5416:
5398:
5395:
5394:
5381:
5366:
5362:
5361:
5351:
5333:
5330:
5329:
5315:
5297:
5294:
5293:
5282:
5275:unden, hē þæs
5264:
5261:
5260:
5242:
5224:
5221:
5220:
5209:
5191:
5187:
5186:
5179:
5160:
5157:
5156:
5141:
5138:llen fremedon.
5126:
5123:
5122:
5107:
5093:
5090:
5089:
5088:in yore-days,
5082:
5067:
5063:
5062:
5053:
5050:
4968:
4963:
4909:Main article:
4886:
4883:
4849:
4848:
4829:
4824:
4820:
4819:
4804:
4799:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4787:
4784:
4780:
4779:
4777:
4772:
4768:
4767:
4763:
4762:
4727:
4722:
4719:
4715:
4714:
4699:
4694:
4690:
4689:
4687:
4673:
4670:
4666:
4665:
4630:
4624:
4620:
4619:
4608:
4603:
4599:
4598:
4596:
4591:
4587:
4586:
4575:
4571:
4570:
4549:palatalization
4460:
4454:
4451:
4447:
4446:
4444:
4438:
4434:
4433:
4430:alveolar trill
4414:
4409:
4405:
4404:
4389:
4384:
4380:
4379:
4377:
4372:
4368:
4367:
4362:
4358:
4357:
4342:
4337:
4334:
4330:
4329:
4314:
4309:
4305:
4304:
4297:
4292:
4289:
4285:
4284:
4281:
4275:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4263:
4259:
4258:
4247:
4242:
4238:
4237:
4230:
4225:
4221:
4220:
4205:
4200:
4196:
4195:
4168:
4163:
4160:
4156:
4155:
4140:
4135:
4131:
4130:
4128:
4123:
4120:
4116:
4115:
4100:
4095:
4091:
4090:
4043:
4037:
4034:
4030:
4029:
4010:
4004:
4000:
3999:
3990:
3986:
3985:
3947:
3941:
3938:
3934:
3933:
3926:
3920:
3916:
3915:
3900:
3895:
3891:
3890:
3871:
3866:
3863:
3859:
3858:
3831:
3826:
3822:
3821:
3802:
3797:
3794:
3790:
3789:
3774:
3769:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3757:
3754:
3750:
3749:
3696:
3690:
3687:
3683:
3682:
3671:
3666:
3662:
3661:
3652:
3648:
3647:
3531:
3522:
3519:
3515:
3514:
3509:
3505:
3504:
3441:
3436:
3433:
3429:
3428:
3413:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3397:
3393:
3392:
3353:
3344:
3340:
3339:
3334:
3330:
3329:
3303:
3298:
3295:
3291:
3290:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3265:
3242:
3237:
3234:
3230:
3229:
3226:
3220:
3217:
3198:in the modern
3170:silent letters
2925:Insular script
2919:introduced by
2917:Latin alphabet
2915:script of the
2894:Latin alphabet
2890:runic alphabet
2869:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2841:
2834:interrogatives
2802:
2795:
2770:
2746:is similar to
2739:
2736:
2685:English plural
2668:who/whom/whose
2573:("this"), and
2565:demonstratives
2559:("that"), and
2523:and sometimes
2448:
2445:
2440:Main article:
2437:
2434:
2426:
2425:
2414:
2411:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2383:
2372:
2369:
2362:
2339:Main article:
2336:
2333:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2297:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2261:
2252:
2210:
2209:
2202:
2197:
2195:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2077:
2076:
2065:
2054:
2047:
2032:
2025:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1948:
1941:
1939:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1905:
1893:
1884:
1877:
1863:
1849:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1763:
1761:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1713:
1711:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1637:Main article:
1634:
1631:
1566:Middle English
1555:century. Many
1530:Middle English
1514:Latin alphabet
1405:
1402:
1342:, and most of
1284:Modern English
1265:
1262:
1260:(after 1700).
1239:Modern English
1231:Middle English
1227:
1226:
1212:
1186:
1139:Pope Gregory I
989:Modern English
963:Crimean Gothic
956:
934:
923:
912:
908:Old East Norse
901:
897:Old West Norse
890:
868:
865:
845:Proto-Germanic
818:
815:
768:Modern English
744:Roman conquest
689:Middle English
685:type of French
612:
611:
609:
608:
601:
594:
586:
583:
582:
579:
578:
573:
571:Modern English
568:
563:
561:Middle English
557:
554:
553:
550:
549:
545:
544:
539:
534:
529:
527:Proto-Germanic
523:
522:
516:
515:
509:
508:
503:
502:
499:
498:
495:
494:
489:
484:
478:
473:
472:
469:
468:
465:
464:
459:
454:
449:
446:Latin alphabet
442:Runic alphabet
433:
430:
429:
426:
425:
422:
421:
416:
411:
406:
400:
397:
396:
393:
392:
386:
385:
377:
376:
364:
363:
350:, you may see
336:
335:
328:
320:
319:
314:
306:
305:
298:
290:
289:
280:
272:
271:
270:Language codes
267:
266:
252:
248:Writing system
245:
242:
241:
240:
239:
234:
229:
224:
217:
213:
212:
210:
209:
207:Proto-Germanic
200:
198:
195:
192:
191:
189:
188:
187:
186:
185:
184:
183:
182:
181:
180:
179:
178:
144:
142:
135:
132:
131:
124:Middle English
120:
116:
115:
110:
106:
105:
92:
88:
87:
80:
76:
75:
66:ofer hron rade
56:
48:
47:
33:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10564:
10553:
10550:
10548:
10545:
10543:
10540:
10538:
10535:
10533:
10530:
10528:
10525:
10524:
10522:
10506:
10502:
10500:
10496:
10493:
10492:
10489:
10475:
10472:
10470:
10467:
10465:
10462:
10460:
10457:
10455:
10452:
10450:
10449:Germanic verb
10447:
10446:
10444:
10440:
10434:
10431:
10429:
10426:
10424:
10421:
10419:
10416:
10414:
10411:
10409:
10406:
10404:
10401:
10399:
10396:
10394:
10391:
10389:
10388:Sievers's law
10386:
10384:
10381:
10379:
10376:
10374:
10371:
10370:
10368:
10364:
10358:
10355:
10353:
10350:
10348:
10345:
10343:
10340:
10339:
10337:
10335:Reconstructed
10333:
10327:
10326:
10322:
10320:
10319:
10315:
10313:
10312:
10308:
10307:
10302:
10299:
10297:
10294:
10292:
10289:
10288:
10287:
10284:
10282:
10279:
10277:
10274:
10273:
10271:
10269:
10265:
10261:
10257:
10252:
10248:
10234:
10233:
10229:
10227:
10226:
10222:
10219:
10218:
10213:
10212:
10208:
10207:
10205:
10203:
10202:
10197:
10185:
10182:
10180:
10177:
10176:
10174:
10173:
10170:
10162:
10159:
10158:
10157:
10154:
10150:
10149:
10148:Middle Danish
10145:
10143:
10142:
10138:
10136:
10133:
10131:
10128:
10126:
10123:
10119:
10116:
10114:
10111:
10110:
10109:
10106:
10102:
10099:
10098:
10097:
10094:
10092:
10089:
10087:
10084:
10083:
10082:
10079:
10075:
10072:
10070:
10067:
10066:
10065:
10062:
10061:
10059:
10055:
10049:
10048:
10044:
10042:
10041:
10037:
10033:
10032:
10028:
10026:
10025:
10024:Old Icelandic
10021:
10020:
10019:
10016:
10014:
10011:
10007:
10006:
10002:
10000:
9999:
9998:Old Norwegian
9995:
9992:
9989:
9986:
9983:
9981:
9978:
9976:
9973:
9971:
9968:
9966:
9963:
9961:
9958:
9956:
9953:
9951:
9948:
9947:
9946:
9943:
9942:
9940:
9936:
9928:
9927:
9923:
9921:
9918:
9916:
9913:
9912:
9911:
9910:
9906:
9904:
9903:
9899:
9898:
9896:
9892:
9889:
9887:
9883:
9879:
9875:
9871:
9866:
9862:
9844:
9843:
9839:
9835:
9832:
9831:
9830:
9827:
9825:
9822:
9816:
9815:Gottscheerish
9813:
9811:
9808:
9806:
9803:
9801:
9798:
9796:
9793:
9792:
9791:
9788:
9784:
9781:
9780:
9779:
9776:
9774:
9771:
9770:
9769:
9766:
9762:
9759:
9755:
9754:Walser German
9752:
9751:
9750:
9747:
9743:
9740:
9739:
9738:
9735:
9731:
9728:
9726:
9723:
9722:
9721:
9720:Low Alemannic
9718:
9717:
9715:
9712:
9711:
9709:
9707:
9703:
9693:
9690:
9688:
9685:
9683:
9682:High Prussian
9680:
9678:
9675:
9673:
9670:
9668:
9667:Erzgebirgisch
9665:
9663:
9660:
9658:
9655:
9654:
9652:
9650:
9646:
9640:
9637:
9633:
9630:
9629:
9628:
9625:
9619:
9616:
9614:
9611:
9610:
9609:
9606:
9604:
9601:
9600:
9599:
9596:
9588:
9585:
9584:
9583:
9580:
9578:
9575:
9573:
9572:Luxembourgish
9570:
9569:
9568:
9565:
9561:
9558:
9556:
9553:
9552:
9551:
9548:
9547:
9546:
9543:
9542:
9540:
9538:
9534:
9531:
9529:
9525:
9517:
9514:
9512:
9511:
9510:Klezmer-loshn
9507:
9505:
9504:Scots Yiddish
9502:
9500:
9497:
9495:
9492:
9491:
9490:
9487:
9485:
9482:
9478:
9475:
9474:
9473:
9470:
9468:
9465:
9463:
9460:
9458:
9455:
9453:
9450:
9448:
9445:
9444:
9442:
9440:
9435:
9430:
9424:
9421:
9419:
9416:
9414:
9411:
9410:
9408:
9406:
9402:
9394:
9393:
9389:
9388:
9387:
9386:
9382:
9380:
9379:
9375:
9373:
9372:
9368:
9367:
9365:
9361:
9358:
9356:
9352:
9342:
9341:Meuse-Rhenish
9339:
9337:
9334:
9333:
9331:
9327:
9321:
9318:
9317:
9315:
9313:
9309:
9303:
9299:
9295:
9291:
9288:
9286:
9283:
9281:
9278:
9276:
9273:
9272:
9269:
9268:Kleverlandish
9266:
9264:
9261:
9259:
9256:
9254:
9251:
9247:
9244:
9243:
9242:
9239:
9235:
9232:
9231:
9230:
9229:Central Dutch
9227:
9226:
9224:
9220:
9213:
9209:
9206:
9204:
9201:
9200:
9198:
9196:
9192:
9186:
9183:
9181:
9178:
9176:
9173:
9172:
9170:
9166:
9163:
9161:
9157:
9145:
9142:
9141:
9140:
9137:
9135:
9132:
9130:
9127:
9125:
9122:
9120:
9117:
9116:
9114:
9112:
9108:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9094:
9090:
9087:
9086:
9085:
9082:
9078:
9075:
9073:
9070:
9066:
9063:
9061:
9058:
9057:
9055:
9053:
9050:
9048:
9045:
9043:
9040:
9038:
9037:Stellingwarfs
9035:
9034:
9033:
9030:
9029:
9027:
9025:
9021:
9015:
9014:
9010:
9008:
9007:
9003:
9002:
9000:
8996:
8993:
8991:
8987:
8971:
8968:
8962:
8959:
8958:
8957:Wood Frisian
8956:
8953:
8952:
8951:
8948:
8947:
8945:
8943:
8940:
8938:
8935:
8934:
8932:
8930:
8926:
8918:
8915:
8913:
8912:
8908:
8906:
8903:
8899:
8896:
8893:
8890:
8889:
8888:
8885:
8883:
8880:
8875:
8874:
8873:
8870:
8869:
8867:
8863:
8860:
8858:
8855:
8851:
8848:
8846:
8843:
8842:
8840:
8838:
8837:
8833:
8832:
8830:
8829:
8827:
8825:
8824:North Frisian
8821:
8813:
8812:
8808:
8806:
8805:
8801:
8799:
8798:
8794:
8793:
8792:
8789:
8785:
8782:
8781:
8779:
8778:
8776:
8774:
8770:
8764:
8763:
8759:
8757:
8756:
8752:
8751:
8749:
8745:
8742:
8740:
8736:
8728:
8727:
8723:
8721:
8720:
8716:
8715:
8714:
8711:
8707:
8706:
8702:
8700:
8699:
8695:
8693:
8692:
8688:
8687:
8686:
8683:
8677:
8676:
8672:
8671:
8670:
8669:
8665:
8663:
8662:
8658:
8656:
8655:
8651:
8649:
8646:
8645:
8644:
8641:
8640:
8638:
8636:
8632:
8629:
8627:
8626:Anglo-Frisian
8623:
8619:
8615:
8610:
8606:
8602:
8596:
8592:
8585:
8580:
8578:
8573:
8571:
8566:
8565:
8562:
8542:
8541:
8537:
8533:
8530:
8528:
8525:
8524:
8523:
8522:
8518:
8516:
8514:
8510:
8508:
8505:
8503:
8502:
8498:
8496:
8495:-vocalization
8494:
8490:
8488:
8486:
8482:
8480:
8477:
8475:
8472:
8471:
8469:
8467:
8463:
8457:
8454:
8452:
8449:
8447:
8444:
8442:
8439:
8437:
8434:
8432:
8429:
8427:
8421:
8419:
8413:
8411:
8410:
8406:
8405:
8403:
8401:
8397:
8393:
8389:
8384:
8380:
8374:
8371:
8369:
8366:
8364:
8361:
8359:
8356:
8352:
8349:
8347:
8344:
8342:
8339:
8337:
8334:
8333:
8332:
8329:
8327:
8324:
8322:
8319:
8317:
8314:
8312:
8309:
8308:
8305:
8301:
8294:
8289:
8287:
8282:
8280:
8275:
8274:
8271:
8264:
8260:
8259:
8255:
8252:
8248:
8245:
8243:
8239:
8235:
8232:
8231:
8227:
8226:
8223:
8220:
8217:
8213:
8210:
8207:
8203:
8200:
8198:
8197:
8192:
8191:
8187:
8186:
8175:
8171:
8170:
8165:
8162:
8158:
8155:
8152:
8148:
8145:
8141:
8138:
8137:
8132:
8131:
8127:
8126:
8122:
8118:
8115:
8111:
8108:
8104:
8101:
8097:
8092:
8089:
8088:
8086:
8082:
8079:
8075:
8072:
8068:
8065:
8061:
8060:
8056:
8055:
8051:
8047:
8044:
8040:
8037:
8033:
8032:
8028:
8027:
8023:
8019:
8016:
8012:
8009:
8005:
8004:F van Coetsem
8001:
7998:
7994:
7990:
7986:
7982:
7978:
7974:
7970:
7965:
7961:
7957:
7953:
7949:
7944:
7941:
7938:. Stuttgart:
7937:
7933:
7930:
7926:
7923:
7919:
7915:
7911:
7907:
7903:
7899:
7895:
7890:
7886:
7884:9781444339338
7880:
7876:
7872:
7868:
7867:
7861:
7857:
7853:
7849:
7845:
7841:
7837:
7832:
7829:
7825:
7822:
7818:
7815:
7811:
7808:
7805:
7801:
7798:
7794:
7791:
7787:
7786:
7782:
7781:
7777:
7769:
7766:
7762:
7759:
7755:
7752:
7751:
7746:
7744:
7743:0-19-811251-3
7740:
7736:
7732:
7728:
7725:
7721:
7718:
7715:
7711:
7708:
7704:
7701:
7698:
7694:
7693:
7689:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7677:
7673:
7669:
7667:0-8047-2221-8
7663:
7659:
7655:
7651:
7647:
7646:
7642:
7641:
7637:
7633:
7630:
7626:
7622:
7618:
7615:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7602:0-631-22636-2
7598:
7594:
7589:
7585:
7583:0-15-501645-8
7579:
7575:
7571:
7566:
7562:
7558:
7553:
7549:
7547:0-521-43087-9
7543:
7539:
7536:. Cambridge:
7535:
7530:
7527:
7526:
7521:
7518:
7514:
7511:
7508:
7504:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7487:
7483:
7478:
7475:
7471:
7467:
7463:
7460:
7455:
7453:1-889758-69-8
7449:
7445:
7440:
7437:
7433:
7430:
7427:
7423:
7420:
7416:
7412:
7410:0-631-23454-3
7406:
7402:
7398:
7393:
7392:
7388:
7387:
7382:
7378:
7374:
7370:
7369:
7365:
7364:
7342:
7338:
7331:
7324:
7318:
7311:
7305:
7298:
7292:
7285:
7280:
7271:
7263:
7256:
7247:
7239:
7237:9783110820263
7233:
7229:
7225:
7221:
7217:
7210:
7201:
7196:
7192:
7188:
7181:
7172:
7163:
7154:
7145:
7136:
7127:
7118:
7111:
7105:
7098:
7092:
7084:
7082:0-521-26438-3
7078:
7074:
7069:
7068:
7059:
7050:
7042:
7035:
7027:
7025:
7017:
7015:
7006:
6999:
6990:
6981:
6972:
6970:
6968:
6958:
6950:
6946:
6939:
6931:
6924:
6916:
6909:
6907:
6898:
6891:
6876:
6872:
6865:
6857:
6850:
6848:
6846:
6844:
6828:
6822:
6818:
6817:
6809:
6798:
6791:
6784:
6778:
6771:
6764:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6737:
6736:ICAME Journal
6730:
6723:
6712:
6705:
6694:
6687:
6680:
6674:
6655:
6648:
6642:
6635:
6630:
6621:
6614:
6608:
6600:
6598:0-19-811943-7
6594:
6591:. p. 4.
6590:
6586:
6582:
6576:
6569:
6566:A. Campbell,
6563:
6548:
6546:9788437083216
6542:
6538:
6537:
6529:
6522:
6517:
6510:
6501:
6494:
6488:
6481:
6475:
6468:
6462:
6455:
6449:
6442:
6436:
6429:
6423:
6408:
6404:
6398:
6390:
6383:
6381:
6379:
6377:
6375:
6373:
6371:
6369:
6367:
6365:
6363:
6361:
6359:
6357:
6355:
6346:
6344:0-521-53033-4
6340:
6336:
6328:
6322:
6318:
6308:
6305:
6303:
6300:
6298:
6295:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6278:
6275:
6273:
6270:
6269:
6265:
6254:
6247:
6245:
6241:
6237:
6232:
6230:
6226:
6222:
6218:
6210:Modern legacy
6207:
6205:
6204:
6199:
6198:
6193:
6192:
6187:
6186:
6177:
6176:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6162:Christian Kay
6159:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6145:
6140:
6136:
6133:
6129:
6128:
6126:
6122:
6118:
6117:
6112:
6108:
6105:
6102:
6098:
6097:
6092:
6089:
6088:
6087:
6079:
6077:
6073:
6069:
6065:
6060:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6038:
6034:
6030:
6026:
6022:
6021:Épinal-Erfurt
6018:
6014:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5991:Early history
5982:
5978:
5975:
5971:
5968:
5963:
5954:
5950:
5946:
5945:(forestalled)
5942:
5938:
5937:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5920:
5916:
5912:
5908:
5904:
5900:
5896:
5895:
5890:
5886:
5882:
5879:
5875:
5874:
5870:
5866:
5862:
5858:
5857:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5837:I not my shot
5836:
5832:
5829:
5824:
5823:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5810:(bring about)
5807:
5803:
5800:, and unright
5799:
5795:
5791:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5776:
5770:
5769:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5742:
5738:
5737:
5733:
5729:
5725:
5722:
5721:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5706:
5705:
5700:
5699:
5694:
5690:
5687:
5682:
5681:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5664:
5661:
5657:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5630:
5628:
5627:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5611:
5609:
5608:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5592:
5590:
5589:
5585:
5582:
5580:
5577:
5573:
5571:
5570:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5554:
5552:
5551:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5535:
5533:
5532:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5516:
5514:
5513:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5497:
5495:
5494:
5490:
5488:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5473:
5470:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5463:Lord's Prayer
5440:
5436:
5433:
5429:
5421:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5399:
5397:
5396:
5393:hear should,
5392:
5390:
5389:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5373:
5367:
5364:
5363:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5334:
5332:
5331:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5298:
5296:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5265:
5263:
5262:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:rlas. Syððan
5234:
5230:
5225:
5223:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5201:
5197:
5192:
5189:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5161:
5159:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5139:
5137:
5133:
5127:
5125:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5105:
5104:rym ġefrūnon,
5103:
5100:ēod-cyninga,
5099:
5094:
5092:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5074:
5068:
5065:
5064:
5061:
5058:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5048:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5033:
5031:
5024:
5022:
5015:
5013:
5006:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4987:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4975:
4967:
4962:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4951:Cædmon's Hymn
4948:
4947:Franks Casket
4944:
4943:
4938:
4934:
4933:
4926:
4921:
4919:
4912:
4902:
4896:
4891:
4882:
4856:
4845:
4839:
4830:
4825:
4821:
4805:
4800:
4797:
4796:
4793:
4788:
4785:
4781:
4778:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4764:
4740:
4717:
4716:
4700:
4695:
4692:
4691:
4688:
4674:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4625:
4621:
4609:
4604:
4600:
4597:
4592:
4588:
4576:
4573:
4572:
4569:
4558:
4552:
4550:
4542:
4533:
4504:
4490:
4481:
4466:
4455:
4452:
4448:
4445:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4426:alveolar flap
4423:
4415:
4410:
4406:
4390:
4385:
4381:
4378:
4373:
4369:
4363:
4360:
4359:
4338:
4335:
4331:
4315:
4310:
4307:
4306:
4298:
4293:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4276:
4272:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4243:
4239:
4231:
4226:
4222:
4206:
4201:
4198:
4197:
4169:
4164:
4161:
4157:
4141:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4129:
4124:
4121:
4117:
4101:
4096:
4093:
4092:
4084:
4083:
4078:
4077:
4069:to spell the
4044:
4038:
4035:
4031:
4011:
4005:
4001:
3991:
3988:
3987:
3983:
3975:
3959:
3952:
3942:
3939:
3935:
3927:
3921:
3917:
3901:
3896:
3893:
3892:
3888:
3872:
3867:
3864:
3860:
3832:
3827:
3824:
3823:
3819:
3803:
3798:
3795:
3791:
3775:
3770:
3767:
3766:
3763:
3758:
3755:
3751:
3711:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3691:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3672:
3667:
3663:
3653:
3650:
3649:
3646:
3549:
3536:
3523:
3520:
3516:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3494:
3486:
3478:
3471:it is always
3450:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3425:
3419:
3414:
3407:
3406:
3403:
3398:
3394:
3388:
3382:
3371:. The symbol
3354:
3345:
3342:
3341:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3308:
3305:Formerly the
3299:
3296:
3292:
3276:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3255:
3243:
3238:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3225:transcription
3224:
3221:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3201:
3190:) unlike the
3188:/knixt~kniçt/
3176:
3172:—in the word
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3154:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3085:
3081:
3073:
3064:
3054:
3050:
3045:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3026:
3019:
3018:Tironian note
3015:
3008:
3001:
2997:
2994:, now called
2992:
2983:
2978:
2971:
2936:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2909:elder futhark
2906:
2902:
2895:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2861:
2855:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2820:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2782:
2778:
2776:
2771:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2706:
2703:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2683:. The modern
2682:
2678:
2674:
2671:) and in the
2670:
2669:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2651:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2636:passive voice
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2577:
2571:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2517:
2515:
2509:texts (e.g.,
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2453:
2443:
2433:
2431:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2363:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2347:sound changes
2342:
2335:Sound changes
2332:
2330:
2325:
2307:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2292:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2277:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2262:
2259:
2253:
2248:
2247:
2241:
2231:
2224:
2219:
2217:
2203:
2198:
2196:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2185:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2158:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2134:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2116:
2113:
2108:
2102:
2096:
2086:
2085:most speakers
2082:
2073:/xw,xl,xn,xr/
2070:
2066:
2055:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2033:
2026:
2023:
2011:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2003:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1979:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1931:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1885:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1840:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1813:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1794:
1790:
1784:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1768:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1719:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1658:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1640:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1594:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1550:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1497:
1496:lingua franca
1492:
1487:
1485:
1484:Brittonicisms
1481:
1480:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1428:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1401:
1399:
1394:
1392:
1387:
1381:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1277: 800 CE
1270:
1261:
1259:
1256:to 1700) and
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1213:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1187:
1184:
1180:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1148:
1146:
1145:
1144:Pastoral Care
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1093:Franks Casket
1090:
1086:
1085:
1084:Cædmon's Hymn
1080:
1076:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
992:
990:
986:
982:
978:
969:
968:East Germanic
965:
964:
953:
949:
945:
941:
932:
931:
921:
920:
910:
909:
899:
898:
887:
879:
874:
864:
862:
857:
856:
851:
850:
846:
841:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
814:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
779:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
728:Roman Britain
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
700:Anglo-Frisian
696:
695:in Scotland.
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
665:Great Britain
662:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
638:
629:
623:
618:
607:
602:
600:
595:
593:
588:
587:
585:
584:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
558:
552:
551:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
524:
521:
518:
517:
514:
511:
510:
506:
501:
500:
493:
492:Cædmon's Hymn
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
479:
476:
471:
470:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
447:
443:
438:
435:
434:
428:
427:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
401:
395:
394:
391:
388:
387:
383:
379:
378:
374:
370:
369:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
343:
337:
333:
329:
327:
326:
321:
315:
312:
307:
303:
299:
296:
291:
286:
281:
278:
273:
268:
264:
260:
256:
253:
249:
243:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
223:
220:
219:
218:
214:
208:
205:
204:
203:
199:
193:
177:
174:
173:
172:
169:
168:
167:
166:Anglo-Frisian
164:
163:
162:
159:
158:
157:
156:West Germanic
154:
153:
152:
149:
148:
147:
146:Indo-European
143:
139:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
114:
111:
107:
104:
100:
96:
93:
89:
85:
81:
79:Pronunciation
77:
72:
67:
62:
61:
54:
49:
45:
39:
34:
29:
26:
22:
10494:
10378:Verner's law
10323:
10318:Gotho-Nordic
10316:
10309:
10230:
10223:
10215:
10209:
10199:
10184:Fårö Gutnish
10146:
10139:
10045:
10038:
10029:
10022:
10003:
9996:
9924:
9919:
9914:
9907:
9900:
9840:
9742:Swiss German
9706:Upper German
9639:Amana German
9613:Volga German
9582:Hunsrückisch
9508:
9462:Unserdeutsch
9457:Berlinerisch
9390:
9383:
9376:
9369:
9329:Cover groups
9285:Mohawk Dutch
9280:Jersey Dutch
9258:East Flemish
9241:West Flemish
9185:Middle Dutch
9139:Low Prussian
9011:
9004:
8970:Terschelling
8954:Clay Frisian
8929:West Frisian
8917:Wiedingharde
8909:
8897:
8857:Heligolandic
8834:
8809:
8802:
8795:
8790:
8773:East Frisian
8760:
8753:
8726:Middle Scots
8724:
8717:
8703:
8696:
8689:
8684:
8673:
8666:
8659:
8653:
8652:
8539:
8520:
8512:
8500:
8492:
8484:
8408:
8346:Northumbrian
8330:
8257:
8195:
8188:Dictionaries
8167:
8160:
8150:
8143:
8134:
8120:
8113:
8106:
8099:
8084:
8077:
8070:
8063:
8049:
8042:
8035:
8021:
8014:
8007:
7996:
7972:
7968:
7951:
7947:
7935:
7928:
7921:
7897:
7893:
7865:
7839:
7835:
7827:
7820:
7813:
7803:
7796:
7789:
7775:
7764:
7757:
7748:
7734:
7730:
7723:
7713:
7706:
7696:
7682:
7675:
7653:
7635:
7620:
7610:
7592:
7569:
7556:
7533:
7523:
7516:
7515:(1909–1949)
7506:
7499:
7481:
7465:
7443:
7435:
7432:Campbell, A.
7425:
7418:
7396:
7376:
7359:Bibliography
7344:. Retrieved
7340:
7330:
7322:
7317:
7309:
7304:
7296:
7291:
7283:
7279:
7270:
7261:
7255:
7246:
7219:
7209:
7190:
7186:
7180:
7171:
7162:
7153:
7144:
7135:
7126:
7117:
7109:
7104:
7096:
7091:
7066:
7058:
7049:
7040:
7034:
7028:. Continuum.
7023:
7004:
6998:
6989:
6980:
6957:
6948:
6938:
6930:Our Language
6929:
6923:
6914:
6896:
6890:
6878:. Retrieved
6874:
6864:
6855:
6830:. Retrieved
6815:
6808:
6790:
6782:
6777:
6769:
6763:
6752:the original
6739:
6735:
6722:
6704:
6686:
6678:
6673:
6661:. Retrieved
6654:the original
6641:
6629:
6620:
6607:
6584:
6575:
6567:
6562:
6550:. Retrieved
6535:
6528:
6519:
6515:
6509:
6500:
6492:
6487:
6479:
6474:
6466:
6461:
6453:
6448:
6440:
6435:
6427:
6422:
6410:. Retrieved
6406:
6397:
6388:
6334:
6326:
6321:
6233:
6225:Ransom Riggs
6213:
6201:
6195:
6189:
6183:
6181:
6173:
6165:
6150:
6138:
6131:
6120:
6114:
6094:
6085:
6075:
6067:
6061:
6033:dictionaries
5999:lies in the
5997:lexicography
5994:
5986:Dictionaries
5979:
5976:
5972:
5969:
5965:
5960:
5952:
5948:
5944:
5941:(previously)
5940:
5935:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5906:
5902:
5898:
5893:
5892:
5888:
5884:
5868:
5864:
5860:
5855:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5817:
5813:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5797:
5793:
5790:(everywhere)
5789:
5781:
5763:
5759:
5756:(uncheating)
5755:
5751:
5747:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5718:
5707:
5703:
5702:
5697:
5696:
5692:
5653:
5491:Translation
5460:
5437:
5434:
5431:
5427:
5419:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5386:
5384:
5378:ȳran scolde,
5375:
5371:
5358:
5355:(until that)
5354:
5345:
5344:ġhƿylc þāra
5341:
5337:
5326:
5322:
5321:, worthmint
5318:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5289:
5285:
5279:rōfre ġebād,
5276:
5272:
5268:
5257:
5253:
5249:
5248:earls. Sith
5245:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5216:
5212:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5182:
5173:
5169:
5165:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5135:
5131:
5118:
5114:
5110:
5101:
5097:
5085:
5076:
5072:
5038:
5029:
5020:
5011:
5007:
5002:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4988:
4972:
4970:
4965:
4940:
4930:
4928:
4923:
4917:
4914:
4852:
4610:Represented
4585:(elsewhere)
4564:or possibly
4553:
4513:occurs when
4507:/ˈɑːs.ki.ɑn/
4484:/ˈfiʃ.ʃe.re/
4472:
4081:
4075:
4065:rather than
3974:front vowels
3951:insular form
3580:
3485:front vowels
3455:, sometimes
3199:
3155:
3100:acute accent
3065:
3027:
2981:
2937:
2932:
2903:, using the
2898:
2871:
2844:
2829:
2809:
2805:
2791:
2774:
2764:main clauses
2742:Old English
2741:
2731:
2727:
2714:strong verbs
2707:
2692:
2688:
2680:
2676:
2667:
2662:
2658:
2652:
2638:, and other
2632:future tense
2589:
2518:
2513:
2499:instrumental
2479:instrumental
2450:
2427:
2421:
2417:
2394:
2390:
2344:
2326:
2315:
2220:
2213:
2078:
1999:
1642:
1627:prepositions
1623:conjunctions
1618:
1614:
1607:comparatives
1596:
1591:
1571:
1534:
1494:
1488:
1478:
1474:periphrastic
1446:
1395:
1382:
1360:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1315:
1304:Northumbrian
1297:
1281:
1258:Modern Scots
1247:Middle Scots
1228:
1165:
1149:
1142:
1141:'s treatise
1120:
1082:
1072:
993:
991:vocabulary.
974:
961:
929:
928:
917:
906:
895:
842:
837:
825:
821:
820:
807:runic system
799:inflectional
780:
760:Northumbrian
697:
681:Anglo-Norman
648:, spoken in
641:
616:
615:
519:
414:Northumbrian
389:
339:
323:
232:Northumbrian
175:
113:Anglo-Saxons
58:
25:
10537:Old English
10393:Kluge's law
10373:Grimm's law
10156:Dalecarlian
10135:Perkerdansk
10108:East Danish
9926:Old Gutnish
9902:Proto-Norse
9842:Langobardic
9834:Vogtlandian
9662:Upper Saxon
9516:Lachoudisch
9477:Lotegorisch
9355:High German
9101:Westphalian
9096:Eastphalian
9060:Achterhooks
8937:Hindeloopen
8872:Bökingharde
8841:Föhr–Amrum
8755:Old Frisian
8719:Early Scots
8654:Old English
8331:Old English
7346:23 February
6552:19 December
6327:Anglo-Saxon
6277:Exeter Book
6017:interlinear
6001:Anglo-Saxon
5923:(travelled)
5911:(travelled)
5899:(come upon)
5752:(civilised)
5746:And I kithe
5693:(people's)'
5348:mbsittendra
5286:(destitute)
5075:ār-Dena in
5057:constructed
4814:from short
4709:from short
4560:was either
4352:from short
4324:from short
4215:from short
4186:instead of
4150:from short
4110:from short
3956:(see also:
3910:from short
3841:from short
3784:from short
3324:from short
3285:from short
3078:instead of
3070:instead of
3030:. A common
3025:conjunction
2913:half-uncial
2868:Orthography
2843:Similarly,
2788:finite verb
2760:verb-second
2644:Adpositions
2624:participles
2612:subjunctive
2555:("the"), a
2551:serve as a
2549:inflections
2538:forms. The
2536:dual-number
2525:participles
2265:(bimoraic)
2244:Diphthongs
1919:Approximant
1655:Consonants
1569:influence.
1557:place names
1466:progressive
1429:, Hampshire
1421:in the 10th
1254: 1450
1243:Early Scots
940:Old Frisian
930:Old English
919:Old Gutnish
787:Old Frisian
693:Early Scots
661:Middle Ages
642:Anglo-Saxon
617:Old English
437:Orthography
390:Old English
354:instead of
196:Early forms
176:Old English
128:Early Scots
31:Old English
10521:Categories
10225:Burgundian
10141:Old Danish
10130:Gøtudanskt
10113:Bornholmsk
9975:Vestlandsk
9955:Kebabnorsk
9692:Halcnovian
9657:Thuringian
9320:Limburgish
9290:Stadsfries
9263:Brabantian
8990:Low German
8836:Eiderstedt
8691:Fingallian
8466:Consonants
8441:Diphthongs
8351:West Saxon
8029:Morphology
6832:29 January
6587:. Oxford:
6313:References
6292:I-mutation
6113:. (1898).
5943:forefangen
5903:(equalled)
5887:man kithed
5792:God's love
5413:ōd cyning!
5391:for "sea")
5304:ēox under
5239:rest ƿearð
5147:did ellen
5145:(noblemen)
5079:eār-dagum,
4885:Literature
4652:and thorn
4545:/ˈfis.kɑs/
4494:/ˈwyːʃ.ʃɑn
4257:position.
3379:. Compare
3312:was used;
2825:þā X, þā Y
2752:word order
2718:weak verbs
2673:possessive
2620:infinitive
2616:imperative
2608:indicative
2594:for three
2585:determiner
2467:accusative
2463:nominative
2447:Morphology
2387:i-mutation
2258:monomoraic
2024:(doubled).
1522:Old French
1325:West Saxon
1312:West Saxon
1219: 900
1193: 650
1175: 450
1160:Winchester
1111:Winchester
1109:statue in
1068:Danish law
1000:Ingvaeonic
803:word order
764:West Saxon
704:Ingvaeonic
633:pronounced
520:Influences
475:Literature
419:West Saxon
237:West Saxon
10505:varieties
10497:indicate
10311:Northwest
10256:Philology
10161:Elfdalian
10096:Jutlandic
10018:Icelandic
9993:(written)
9987:(written)
9965:Trøndersk
9945:Norwegian
9909:Old Norse
9730:Coloniero
9714:Alemannic
9687:Wymysorys
9555:Colognian
9550:Ripuarian
9472:Rotwelsch
9302:Midslands
9253:Zeelandic
9234:Hollandic
9208:Afrikaans
9180:Old Dutch
9006:Old Saxon
8905:Karrharde
8887:Goesharde
8868:Mainland
8601:philology
8507:Rhoticity
8487:-dropping
7989:144915239
7783:Phonology
7631:. Oxford.
7193:(2): 94.
6880:4 January
6412:11 August
6282:Go (verb)
6078:of 1838.
5905:: and tho
5847:(turmoil)
5843:(endured)
5798:(promote)
5766:worldly.
5675:Original
5340:ðþæt him
5290:(comfort)
5271:ēasceaft
5217:(deprive)
5153:(promote)
5134:þelingas
5071:Hƿæt! ƿē
5052:Original
5023:eār-dagum
4937:epic poem
4855:geminated
4737:, called
4299:See also
4251:velarised
4249:Probably
4042:, rarely
3928:See also
3601:and even
3449:diacritic
3381:e caudata
3254:allophone
3208:Phonology
3080:insular S
3072:insular G
2980:, modern
2781:inverting
2659:I/me/mine
2657:(such as
2592:conjugate
2457:for five
2355:nasalised
2131:unrounded
2119:unrounded
2022:geminated
2020:and when
2010:allophone
1833:Fricative
1800:Affricate
1633:Phonology
1582:Old Norse
1537:Old Norse
1457:loanwords
1451:which it
1367:diphthong
1115:Hampshire
1070:applied.
1064:Old Norse
1034:all over
948:Old Dutch
944:Old Saxon
817:Etymology
791:Old Saxon
772:Old Norse
542:Brittonic
457:Phonology
325:Glottolog
311:ISO 639-6
295:ISO 639-3
277:ISO 639-2
109:Ethnicity
10232:Vandalic
10175:Gutnish
9980:Vikværsk
9960:Sognamål
9950:Bergensk
9800:Cimbrian
9768:Bavarian
9725:Alsatian
9672:Lusatian
9608:Palatine
9298:Amelands
9175:Frankish
9065:Sallaans
9047:Gronings
8898:Southern
8891:Northern
8882:Halligen
8831:Insular
8648:dialects
8532:stopping
8527:fronting
8479:Flapping
8474:Clusters
8128:Lexicons
7894:Language
7836:Language
7774:Again".
7722:(1957).
7705:(1959).
7652:(1992).
7464:(2013).
7434:(1959).
7200:40914943
6748:13441465
6583:(1959).
6250:See also
6149:(1969).
6055:and the
6043:and the
6013:marginal
5814:(wished)
5802:(outlaw)
5794:(praise)
5730:and lewd
5726:, hooded
5713:weregild
5710:shilling
5667:pilcrows
5633:Sōðlīċe.
5474:Original
5374:ronrāde
5353:oth that
5308:olcnum,
5258:(became)
5183:(troops)
5109:of thede
5060:cognates
5032:þelingas
5003:what-ho!
4979:Hrothgar
4500:, as in
4477:, as in
4428:, or an
4180:/e(ː)o̯/
4176:/e(ː)o̯/
4172:/i(ː)o̯/
3712:form of
3633:such as
3389:⟩
3385:⟨
3166:phonemes
3014:digraphs
2972:⟩
2968:⟨
2933:Caroline
2816:such as
2777:-support
2628:subjects
2563:. Other
2547:and its
2521:Pronouns
2503:locative
2495:pronouns
2481:; three
2471:genitive
2406:Loss of
2322:/e(ː)o̯/
2318:/i(ː)o̯/
2251:element
2230:i-umlaut
2002:phonemes
1680:alveolar
1673:Alveolar
1647:surface
1619:together
1599:pronouns
1425:century
1419:porticus
1380:in LWS.
1282:Just as
1264:Dialects
1205:Cynewulf
1036:Cornwall
1012:Scotland
861:fishhook
724:replaced
654:Scotland
398:Dialects
382:a series
380:Part of
360:Help:IPA
332:olde1238
257:, later
216:Dialects
151:Germanic
99:Scotland
10495:Italics
10118:Scanian
10064:Swedish
10013:Faroese
9991:Nynorsk
9970:Valdris
9805:Mòcheno
9761:Swabian
9627:Hessian
9587:Hunsrik
9499:Western
9494:Eastern
9489:Yiddish
9439:creoles
9336:Bergish
9052:Drèents
9042:Tweants
8894:Central
8876:Mooring
8739:Frisian
8698:Kildare
8643:English
8341:Mercian
8336:Kentish
8261:at the
8249:at the
8240:at the
8228:Lessons
8214:at the
8204:at the
7960:4177642
7720:Ker, NR
7389:General
7366:Sources
6663:20 June
6272:Anglish
6005:glosses
5939:, afore
5936:support
5921:me fore
5867:my shot
5856:support
5845:unfrith
5806:(peace)
5780:¶ I nam
5704:greater
5658:to his
5388:kenning
5292:abode,
5284:fewship
5256:worthed
5254:(first)
5202:ǣġþum,
5198:onegum
5115:(glory)
5014:ār-Dena
4974:Beowulf
4966:Beowulf
4932:Beowulf
4895:Beowulf
4835:; e.g.
4632:Called
4480:fisċere
4459:(rare)
4082:swerian
3710:insular
3698:Called
3656:(after
3526:(after
3483:before
3477:history
3424:scēafas
3418:scēabas
3307:digraph
3256:before
3162:regular
3108:palatal
3053:Macrons
2905:futhorc
2836:and as
2784:subject
2687:ending
2675:ending
2663:she/her
2640:aspects
2596:persons
2581:inflect
2514:on rodi
2511:ᚩᚾ ᚱᚩᛞᛁ
2493:. Only
2487:numbers
2483:genders
2455:decline
2436:Grammar
2136:rounded
2125:rounded
2036:/f,θ,s/
1695:Glottal
1685:Palatal
1586:Vikings
1541:Danelaw
1363:History
1346:, were
1316:Anglian
1308:Kentish
1300:Mercian
1209:Aldhelm
1123:Danelaw
1048:Cumbria
1044:Cumbric
1028:Pictish
867:History
838:Englisċ
826:English
822:Englisċ
756:Mercian
752:Kentish
656:in the
650:England
628:Ænglisc
622:Englisċ
505:History
482:Beowulf
452:Grammar
409:Mercian
404:Kentish
356:Unicode
227:Mercian
222:Kentish
95:England
71:kenning
60:Beowulf
44:Ænglisċ
38:Englisċ
10211:Gothic
10081:Danish
9985:Bokmål
9484:Yenish
9294:Bildts
9077:Veluws
9072:Urkers
8911:Strand
8635:Anglic
8400:Vowels
8057:Syntax
7987:
7958:
7914:411354
7912:
7881:
7856:410597
7854:
7741:
7664:
7627:
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6823:
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6543:
6341:
6200:, and
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6082:Modern
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6029:Corpus
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5933:God's
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5919:(with)
5915:(with)
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5775:ƿolde.
5764:(laws)
5760:(laws)
5720:lesser
5701:ship,
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5640:Amen.
5405:omban
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4959:Cædmon
4939:; the
4658:Alfred
4541:fiscas
4503:āscian
4489:wȳsċan
4213:/iːo̯/
4203:/iːo̯/
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4138:/iːy̯/
4076:herian
3908:/eːo̯/
3898:/eːo̯/
3877:after
3849:after
3839:/æːɑ̯/
3829:/æːɑ̯/
3808:after
3581:After
3548:frocga
3204:/naɪt/
3200:knight
3133:, but
3084:long S
3034:was a
2984:) and
2744:syntax
2738:Syntax
2732:worked
2648:object
2614:, and
2600:tenses
2590:Verbs
2529:person
2491:dative
2475:dative
2270:Close
2238:/e(ː)/
2234:/o(ː)/
2226:/ø(ː)/
2040:vowels
2008:is an
1668:Dental
1663:Labial
1649:phones
1613:(like
1603:modals
1580:, and
1553:
1545:
1506:Saxons
1502:Angles
1462:syntax
1441:, and
1423:
1344:Mercia
1320:Thames
1310:, and
1197:Cædmon
1050:, and
1024:Gaelic
960:
958:
936:
927:
925:
916:
914:
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903:
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892:
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830:Angles
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738:; and
716:Saxons
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10325:South
10276:North
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9212:Kaaps
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8850:Amrum
8791:Weser
8713:Scots
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7910:JSTOR
7852:JSTOR
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6800:(PDF)
6755:(PDF)
6744:S2CID
6732:(PDF)
6714:(PDF)
6696:(PDF)
6657:(PDF)
6650:(PDF)
6009:Latin
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5816:sell'
5732:(lay)
5485:into
5439:king!
5418:yeme
5370:ofer
5325:theed
5151:freme
5117:frain
4983:Scyld
4935:, an
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4682:(see
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4217:/io̯/
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3912:/eo̯/
3885:(see
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3816:(see
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3677:(see
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2901:runes
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2422:sechs
2395:mouse
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2300:Open
2254:Short
2249:First
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2107:Front
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1702:Nasal
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4566:/ʃː/
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4498:/sk/
4475:/ʃː/
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4312:/oː/
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4098:/iː/
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3351:/æː/
3337:/æː/
3322:/æː/
3283:/ɑː/
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3182:and
3141:and
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